MAGNETIC

MATERIALS
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 INTRODUCTION
• The phenomenon of magnetism is the one by which a material exerts either
attractive or repulsive force on another. The fundamental source of
magnetism is the rotation of electrically charged particles. Thus magnetic
behavior of a material can be drawn from the structure of atoms.
• The electrons in atoms rotate around the nucleus in circular orbits. This
orbital motion and its own spin cause magnetic moments on the atoms,
which contribute to the magnetic behavior of materials.
• Thus every material can respond to a magnetic field. However, the
manner in which a material responds depends much upon its atomic
structure, and determines whether the material will have strong or weak
magnetic properties.

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• Iron, some steels, and the naturally occurring mineral
lodestone are well known examples of materials that exhibit
magnetic properties.

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• Magnetic Dipoles
Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic materials, like the electric
dipoles. A magnetic dipole is a small magnet composed of north and south
poles instead of positive and negative charges.

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• Magnetic Field Strength
The magnetic field strength is the externally applied magnetic field denoted
by H. The magnetic field generated by means of a cylindrical coil (or
solenoid) consisting of N closely spaced turns, having a length l and carrying
a current i is given by.

The units of H are ampere-turns per meter, or just

amperes per meter.
• Intensity of Magnetisation (I)
It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume of the magnetized
substance

• Magnetic Susceptibility
(χ m)

It is the ratio of the magnetic moment per unit volume (I) to the magnetic
field strength (H) of the magnetizing field.

It is positive for a paramagnetic material and negative for a

diamagnetics.

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• Relative Permeability (µr )
It is the ratio of the magnetic permeability (µ) of the substance to
thepermeability of the free space (µ0).

• Magnetic Flux Density

The magnetic induction, or magnetic flux density, denoted by B,
represents the magnitude of the internal field strength within a substance
that is subjected to an H field. The units for B are tesla or weber per
square meter. Both B and H are magnetic field vectors. The relation
between magnetic field strength and flux H,density is given by
= Where
is the permeability of a materialBwhich is a measure of the degree to
which the material can be magnetized, or the ease with which a magnetic
field (B) can be induced in the presence of an external field H. The
magneticflux density due to magnetization in material can be written as
below
B=

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Modern and Computational Physics
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 Diamagnetism
On the application of external magnetic field.
1. Atomic dipoles allign with magnetic field
2. These occurs induced dipoles in any
substance on applying external magnetic
field. These induced dipoles opposes the
external field(Lenz’s Law)(this induction is
very small)
Diamagnetic Substance:
There are no atomic dipoles hence 1 is useless
and only 2 occurs and hence they are weakly
repelled in external magnetic field.
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Properties of diamagnetic substances
• There are no atomic dipoles(net magnetic moment of each
atom is zero)
• They are weakly repelled in external magnetic field.
• Magnetic susceptibility X –ve and small(-10-3 to -10-9
)(Exception superconductor X=-1)
• Relative permeability µr = 1+X (µr <1)
• In non-uniform magnetic field diamagnetic substances
move from strong to weak region.
• Magnetic field lines become less dense inside diamagnetic
substance.
• For example nitrogen(STP), water, sodium chloride,
copper.
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 Paramagnetism
• The net magnetic moment of all electrons in
an atom do not add up to zero. Atomic
dipoles exist.
• On applying external magnetic field, the
atomic dipoles align with the direction of
applied external magnetic field.
• They are weakly attracted in external
magnetic field.

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 Properties of paramagnetic substances
• There are atomic dipoles(net magnetic moment of each
atom is not zero)
• They are weakly attracted in external magnetic field.
• Magnetic susceptibility X +ve and small (10-3 to 10-6
)(Exception superconductor X=-1)
• Relative permeability = 1+X(µr slightly>1)
• In non-uniform external magnetic field move from weak to
strong region. e.g. Al, Ca, Na and O2(STP)
• Magnetic field lines become more dense inside
paramagnetic substance.
• Magnetisation is inversely proportional to absolute
temperature(K) [I = CB0/T] Curie’s Law XH= C µO H/ T
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Properties of paramagnetic substances
LIMITATION: On lowering the T, a stage comes
when 100% atomic dipoles are aligned perfectly
with external magnetic field. This is called
Saturation. After this Curie’s law is invalid. X would
not increase on decreasing T.

X = C µO / T(K)
C- curie’s constant
This law is valid before saturation when
100% alignment is not done.
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 Ferromagnetism
• Atomic dipoles exist just like Paramag. Sub.
• Atomic dipoles interact with each other in
such a way that they spontaneously align in
same direction in small volumes (called
domains whose size 1 mm and atoms in each
domain 1011).
• On applying external magnetic field Domains
growth.
• Strongly attracted in external magnetic field.
• For example: Fe, Co, Ni
 Properties
• Atomic dipoles exist and are aligned in same
direction in small volumes( called domains)
• They are strongly attracted in external magnetic
field.
• Magnetic susceptibility X +ve and large (1000)
• µr Relative permeability = 1+X(µr 1000) very large
• In non-uniform external magnetic field they
spontaneously move from weak to strong region.
• Magnetic field lines become very dense inside
ferromagnetic substance.

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 Properties
• On removing external magnetic field
1. magnetisation persist and becomes hard ferromagnetic
material.
2. Permanent magnet: example Al, Ni, Co, and alloy of Al, Ni,
Co and Cu
3. Magnetisation disappear: soft ferromagnetic material, for
example: soft iron
• On increasing T(TC )Ferromagnetic property decreases.
At some point, Ferromagnetic material starts behaving like
paramagnetic materials (Phase transition) This is called
Curie’s Temperature.
(TC of Fe= 1043K) and after this (TC ) material becomes
paramagnetic .Now on increasing T
X= C/(T-TC ) where T>TC

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• Classification of Magnetism
Magnetic materials can be classified mainly into three categories namely
diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic.

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 Paramagnetic Diamagnetic Materials Ferromagnetic
Materials Materials
These materials have Very These materials have Very These materials have
small but positive small but negative positive and large
magnetic susceptibility susceptibility magnetic susceptibility
(~10-6 ) (~ 10 -6 ) (~106 )
The relative permeability µr is slightly less than unity The µr for a ferromagnetic
is slightly more than unity (µ r ˂1)(-ve) material is of the order of
(µ r ˃1) few thousands
The magnetic susceptibility The magnetic susceptibility The magnetic susceptibility
depends strongly on of diamagnetic materials is decreases with increase in
temperature and varies almost independent of temperature
inversely with temperature temperature
When a bar of a
When a bar of these When a bar of these
paramagnetic material is materials is suspended materials is suspended
suspended between the between the poles of a between the poles of a
poles of a magnet, it stays
magnet, it stays magnet, it behaves like a
parallel to the lines of force.
perpendicular to the paramagnetic material
magnetic field
If these materials are If these materials are These materials behave
placed in a non-uniform placed in a non-uniform like Paramagnetic
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field, they are attracted field, they are attracted
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substances, if placed in a
• CLASSICAL THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

• Ferromagnetic materials show spontaneous magnetization due to

internal field arising as a result of mutual interactions between magnetic
domains. When placed in external magnetic field they acquire very large
and permanent magnetization in the direction of applied field.
• Each atom of ferromagnetic material has a permanent magnetic
• moment like a
In general, the paramagnetic
specimen substances. substance contains a number
of a ferromagnetic
of small regions called domains.
• These domains are typically very small (about 50 μm) or less and contain
a large number of atoms, nearly 1017 to 1022, and have the dimensions of
about 10-6 cm3 to
10-2 cm3.
• Each domain consists of magnetic moments that are aligned, giving rise
to a permanent net magnetic moment per domain.
• Each of these domains is separated from the rest by domain boundaries
called Bloch walls which are about 100 nm thick.
• Domains exist even in the absence of external field. In a material that
has never been exposed to a magnetic field, the individual domains have
a random orientation. This type of arrangement represents the lowest
free energy. Modern and Computational Physics
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• When the bulk material is unmagnetized (no external magnetic field is
applied), the net magnetization of these domains is zero, because adjacent
domains are orientated randomly in any direction, effectively canceling
each other’s out figure (a).
• When a magnetic field is applied on the material, domains that are nearly
lined up with the field (favourable domains) grow at the expense of
unaligned domains figure (b).
• The Bloch walls move, the external field provides the force required for this
movement and this process continues until only the most favorably
oriented domains remains.
• When the domain growth is completed, a further increase in the magnetic
field causes the domains to rotate and align parallel to the applied field
figure (c).
• At this instant material reaches saturation magnetization and no further
increase in magnetizationwill take place on increasing the strength of the
external field.
• Under these conditions the permeability of these materials becomes quite
small. The variation of magnetization with applied magnetic field H is
shown is figure below.
Materials with ferro-magnetism (e.g. Fe, Co, Ni, Gd) possess magnetic
susceptibilities ~ 106. Above the Curie temperature, ferro-magnetic materials
behave as para-magnetic materials and their susceptibility is given by the
Curie-Weiss law, defined as

Where C is the Curie constant, T being temperature and Tc is called Curie

temperature.
• Antiferromagnetism: In anti ferromagnetic materials the magnetic
moments of neighboring electrons point in opposite direction. Therefore,
it has zero net magnetic moment. In these materials the alignment of
magnetic movement of the atoms are combinations of both parallel and
anti parallel.
• Ferrimagnetism: In ferrimagnetic materials, the opposing moments are
unequal and a spontaneous magnetization remains.

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Variation of Susceptibility with
temperature
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• Magnetic Hysteresis
The magnetization behaviour of the ferromagnetic materials is described
by the B-H curve (hysteresis loop) as shown in figure.

(i) Retentivity - It is the ability of a material' to retain a certain amount of

residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after
achieving saturation.
(ii) Coercive force (field) - The amount of reverse magnetic field which
mustbe applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux inside the
material to return tozero.
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(iii) Permeability - A property of a material that describes the ease
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• Energy Loss Due to Hysteresis
During the process of magnetization and demagnetization, a loss of energy
is always involved in aligning the domains (motion of domain walls and
rotation of dipoles) in the direction of the applied magnetic field. When
the direction of an external magnetic field is reversed, the absorbed
energy is not completely recovered and rest energy in sample is lost in the
form of heat. This loss of energy is called hysteresis loss.
• Calculation of Hysteresis Loss
It can be proved that the energy lost per unit volume of the substance in a
complete cycle ofmagnetization is equal to the area of the hysteresis loop.
We consider a unit volume of the ferromagnetic substance, which has N
magnetic domains. Let M be the magnetic moment of each magnetic
domain which makes an angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field H.
So, the total magnetic moment per unit volume in the direction of
magnetizing field

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TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

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Time for Assignment Questions (5 min)

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