Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 003

Just Transition in a
Renewable Energy Riche

Environment
Potential Role
of Green Hydrogen
Knowledge Product
& Cases Studies
September 2022
Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 1

2 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment
© 2022
African Development Bank Group
All rights reserved – Published 2022
Disclaimer
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those of the Management of the African Development Bank (the “Bank”) and the African
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary 7
1. Introduction 9
1.1 Hydrogen Global Status 9
1.2 Hydrogen Applications in Various Sectors 10
1.3 Potential of Green Hydrogen 13
1.4 Barriers and Opportunities of Green Hydrogen Production 15
2. Green hydrogen supply chain 18

2.1 Feedstock 19
2.1.1 Water treatment - Desalination 19
2.1.2 Renewable energy 19
2.2 Hydrogen production – Water electrolysis 20
2.3 Hydrogen logistics 21
2.3.1 Conditioning 21
2.3.2 Storage 23
2.3.3 Transport 24
2.3.4 Indicative comparison of different transport options 26
3. Hydrogen Supply Cost 27

3.1 Optimised Hydrogen Production 27
3.2 Calculation of Hydrogen Supply Cost 28
4. Case study 1 – Egypt as a Hydrogen Exporter 30

4.1 Availability of Renewable Energy Resources in Egypt 30
4.2 Further Processing Steps 31
4.3 Results - Hydrogen Production in Egypt and Supply to Central Europe 33
4.3.1 Renewable Energies 33
4.3.2 Hydrogen Production and Storage 34
4.3.3 Energy Flow and Efficiencies 34
4.3.4 Hydrogen Supply Cost 36

5. Case study 2 – Kenya as an Ammonia Exporter 37
5.1 Availability of Renewable Energy Resources in Kenya 37
5.3 Results - Production of Green Ammonia in Kenya and the Supply to Japan 39
5.3.3 Production of Green Ammonia 41
5.3.4 Energy Flow and Efficiencies 41
5.3.5 Ammonia Supply Cost 42
6. Case study 3 – Ghana as a PtL exporter 44

6.1 Availability of Renewable Energy Resources in Ghana 44
6.3 Results - Production of Green PtL Fuels in Ghana and their Supply to
North America 46
6.3.3 Production of PtL Fuel 47
6.3.4 Energy Flow & Efficiencies 48
6.3.5 Fuel Supply Cost 49
7. Conclusion 52
Annex A: Parameters used in the modelling 55
Annex B: Just Transition dimensions 58
7.1 Defining the Just Transition 58
7.2 High Level principles 58
7.2.1 Procedural Justice 58
7.2.2 Distributive Justice 59
7.2.3 Restorative Justice 59
7.3 Aligning the Just Transition Process with Country Specifics 59
7.4 Moving from State and Government to project level 60
References 62

List of Tables
Table 1: Overview of potential hydrogen applications in different sectors [IEA, 2021:
Global Hydrogen Review 2021]
Table 2: Hydrogen production via water electrolysis
Table 3: Comparison of different transport options for hydrogen
Table 4: Parameter of the renewable energy generation for the supply of 100 MW
electrolysis a
electrolysis a
electrolyser a
Table 7: Summary and comparison of the most important aspects of all three case
studies
Table 8: Water supply by reverse osmosis desalination and pipeline transport a [52-59]
Table 9: Hydrogen production via water electrolysis a [10, 13-17, 19, 60- 62]
Table 10: Compression and liquefaction of hydrogen a [63-66]
Table 11: Ammonia production a [67-70]
Table 12: PtL fuel production a [71-75]
Table 13: Storage of compressed gaseous H2 (CGH2), LH2, NH3 and PtL fuel a
[10,63, 64, 68, 76-83]
Table 14: Transportation of LH2, NH3 and PtL fuel by ship a [10, 40, 81, 84-86]
Table 15: Transportation of compressed gaseous H2 (CGH2) via pipeline a [10, 88]
Table 16: Checklist of key areas driving Just Transition in Green Hydrogen and its
derivatives

List of Figures
Figure 1: Shares on global hydrogen consumption and production
Figure 2: Forecasted development of global green hydrogen demand
Figure 3: Overview of activities worldwide towards national hydrogen strategies,
status 06/2021 [9]
Figure 4: Green hydrogen supply chain
Figure 5: Expected development of system CAPEX for PEMEL and AEL [10, 12-22]
Figure 6: Expected development of system efficiencies (based on LHV) for PEMEL
and AEL [10, 12-22]
Figure 7: Dependence of different energy densities on different hydrogen storage
options
Figure 8: Hydrogen transport options
Figure 9: Overview of the analysed supply chain and the model for optimised hydrogen
supply
Figure 10: Solar and wind map of Egypt [31, 32]
Figure 11: Locations of the Benban solar park and the Zafarana wind park at the Gulf
of Suez [36]
Figure 12: Hydrogen supply chain in Egypt
Figure 13: European hydrogen backbone [45]
Figure 14: Optimized system configuration for hydrogen production at the selected site
in Egypt
Figure 15: Annual energy flows of the optimized system configuration for Egypt
Figure 16: Composition of hydrogen supply costs for the selected location in Egypt
Figure 17: Wind map of Kenya [32]
Figure 18: Solar map of Kenya [31]
Figure 19: Geothermal resource map of Kenya [48]
Figure 20: Selected Location for the hydrogen production in Kenya [36]
Figure 21: Ammonia supply chain in Kenya
in Kenya
Figure 23: Annual energy flows of the optimized system configuration for Kenya
Figure 24: Composition of hydrogen supply costs for the selected location in Kenya
Figure 25: Wind and solar map of Ghana [31, 32]
Figure 26: Selected PtL production site in Ghana [36]
Figure 27: PtL supply chain in Ghana
in Ghana
Figure 29: Annual energy flows of the optimized system configuration for Ghana
Figure 30: Composition of hydrogen supply costs for the selected location in Ghana
Figure 31: Overview of the considered production locations and their export regions

List of Abbreviations
and Acronyms
AEL Alkaline water electrolysis
AFLH Annual full load hours
AfDB African Development Bank
CAPEX Capital expenditure
CGH2 Compressed gaseous hydrogen
CH3OH Methanol
CIF Climate Investment Funds

CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CPI Corruption Perceptions Index
EU European Union
GH2 Gaseous hydrogen
H2 Hydrogen
IEA International Energy Agency

kWh Kilowatt Hour
kWp Kilowatt Peak
LH2 Liquid hydrogen
LNH3 Liquid ammonia
LOHC Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier
N2 Nitrogen
NDC Nationally Determined Contributions
NH3 Ammonia
OPEX Operational expenditure
PEMEL Polymer electrolyte membrane eletrolysis
PPP Public Private Partnership
PtL Power-to-Liquid
PtX Power-to-X
PV Photovoltaic
RWGS Reverse water gas shift reaction
SOEL Solid oxide eletrolysis
TOL Toluol as a promising LOHC

Executive Summary
The study at hand aims at proposing an preliminary are elaborated in the annex. The cost estimates
framework that encourages the deployment based on the extensive desk research and
of green hydrogen in three preselected African references as mentioned in the annex. It should
countries. The three countries were selected be noted that especially the costing information
in consulta-tion with the African Development carries some level of uncertainty as none of the
Bank (AfDB) after screening 29 African member proposed plants are realised nor under planning.
countries under the Climate Investment Fund
(CIF). Several criteria were considered covering An optimization model has been utilized to
the following aspects: determine the hydrogen production costs and the
optimal configuration of a respective plant. The
• Geographical spread; Northern, Eastern, objective of the model is to minimize the location-
Western, Central and Southern Africa specific hydrogen production cost using water
electrolysis powered with available renewable
• Availability of different renewable energy resources in each country; photovoltaics, onshore
resources wind power, geothermal energy or hydropower
by determining the optimal system configuration.
• Technical aspects for green hydrogen e.g. water The assumptions used in the model regarding the
availability and salt cavern locations techno-economic parameters of the components
• Existence of renewable energy power systems refer to the year 2030.
and infrastructure
As a result, the Consultant developed case
studies represent different pathways and options
Several filtration processes have been conducted
of green hydrogen production. Each case study
using a dedicated list of selection criteria.
illustrates: i) the renewable energy resources of
As a re-sult, Egypt, Kenya and Ghana were
that can be allocated to hydrogen production.
finally selected. The analysis in each country
ii) the supply and production of green hydrogen
establishes an adequate knowledge product to
and the renewable energy required. iii) technical
contribute to longterm strategies to achieve low
evaluation hydrogen production and its derivates
carbon and climate resilient development. It
and other PtX products, iv) basic design of
considers specific characteristics of renewable
possible plants. v) processing steps, storage
energy resources and generation mix, barriers
potential, energy flow and ef-ficiencies and the
and opportunities of green hydrogen production,
overall supply costs.
presence of a relatively well-developed fossil
energy system (e.g. already existing natural gas
grid) and possible influence on green hydrogen 1. Egypt as a Hydrogen
production and transport, possible technology Exporter
pathways for production of green hy-drogen and
it’s derivate: Power-to-X (PtX) or Power to Liquids
The case study of Egypt proposed Hydrogen (H2)
(PtL) products and finally hydrogen production
as a product. The installed renewable capacities
costs and their future trends.
of solar and wind power plants produce 695
GWh annually. From this amount of electricity,
The successful combination of production,
transport, storage and utilisation of green approximate-ly 12,175 t of green H2 (equivalent to
hydrogen is es-sential for a secure, sustainable 406 GWh) can be generated. Since energy losses
and economical energy supply in the future. occurs along the H2 supply chain (e.g. during
The three cases studies have been accordingly electrolysis) and part of the electricity produced
preceeded by a generalized model of green is not used (excess energy), the amount of energy
hydrogen supply chain that will be commonly stored in the H2 is inevitably less than the amount
applied on the three countries. The technology of electricity pro-duced. t . With a 100 MW PEM
costs in the hydrogen supply chain electrolyzer electrolyser, the resultant specific production

capacity is of a specific production capacity of The H2 storage capacity is 17 t and is thus
2.0 t/h and 6050 annual full load hours (AFLH). significantly less than 50 % of the maximum daily
output of the electrolyser. The reasons for the
The selected site for H2 production is located low installed storage capacity are presumably
south-east of Cairo on the Gulf of Suez. This the high specif-ic costs of H2 storage in pressure
location has a high potential for both wind and gas tanks and the availability of continuous grid
solar power. The close proximity to the coast electricity.
of the Red Sea is an elementary advantage
with regard to the necessary water supply for The NH3 production cost equals to 2.23 €/
electrolysis. Furthermore, there is already a well- kg.H2 which is equivalent to 0.07 €/kWh.H2. The
developed infrastructure and an existing (natural estimated supply cost equals to 0.12 €/kWh.H2.
gas) pipeline system. Due to the availability of
salt caverns, the H2 can be stored very cost- 3. Ghana as a PtL Fuels
effectively. An electricity storage facili-ty is not
required. The selected H2 storage capacity Producer
amounts 1390 t.
Ghana has a relatively even potential for solar
The H2 production cost equals to 2.7 €/kg.H2 energy nationwide. Electricity from hydropower
which is equivalent to 0.08 €/kWh.H2. The is an-other option for the use of renewable energy
estimated supply cost equals to 0.1 €/kWh.H2. sources and can be purchased from the public
electricity grid. An area east of Accra was chosen
as a potential site for PtL fuel production. This
2. Kenya as an Ammonia location already offers good infrastructure and
Exporter easy access to the electricity grid. Furthermore,
the proximity to the coast offers short national
In Kenya, Ammonia (NH3) is proposed as a final transport distances for future export.
product. Beside solar and wind energy potential,
Kenya has a high potential for the use of PtL (Power-to-Liquid) fuel is proposed as a
geothermal energy in green hydrogen (ammonia) product for this case study. With a 100 MW AEL
production. Electricity from geothermal energy electro-lyser of a specific production capacity of
can already be purchased from the public grid. 2.0 t_(H_2 )/h and 3200 annual full load hours
The selected loca-tions for using wind energy (AFLH). The raw materials for the production
are in the region around Lake Turkana. A wind of PtL fuels are H2 and CO2. Around 341 GWh
farm already exists on the south coast in the are generated annually by the installed PV plant
Loiyangalani District. An area close to the Lake and 33 GWh of electricity from hydropower is
Turkana wind farm was chosen as the best annually purchased from the public grid. From
possible location for green hydrogen production. the 6,500 t of H2 provided, about 13,100 t of PtL
fuel (~157 GWh) can be produced annually.
With a 100 MW AEL electrolyser, ammonia can
be produced with a specific production capacity The H2 storage capacity is 13 t and is thus
of 2.0 t/h and 7600 annual full load hours significantly less than 50 % of the maximum daily
(AFLH). The cryogenic nitrogen (N2) purification output of the electrolyser. The reasons for the
process is chosen for the extraction of pure N2 low installed storage capacity are presumably
from ambient air and the Haber-Bosch process the high specif-ic costs of H2 storage in pressure
for the production of NH3. According to this gas tanks and the availability of continuous grid
setting, the total production potential equals electricity.
to 86,800 t of green NH3 that can be produced
annually from the 15,300 t of H2 provided. The The PtL production cost equals to 2.95 €/kg.H2
total energy demand for the supply of 86,800 t of which is equivalent to 0.09 €/kWh.H2. The
green NH3 (~451 GWh) is 966 GWh. Around 937 estimated supply cost equals to 0.16 €/kWh.H2.
GWh of this amount is generated from PV, wind
and geothermal energy.

1. Introduction
The overarching objective of this assignment is of green hydrogen supply chain (chapter 2),
to raise the awareness of Green Hydrogen within which is common along all case studies. This
the AfDB network to investigate and analyse covers its main stages; feedstock, electrolysis
various options to contribute to longterm and logistics. The optimization model will then
strategies to achieve low carbon and climate be proposed to estimate the optimum hydrogen
resilient development. In this context, the report production as well as calculate its supply cost.
at hand brings a greater clarity of the potential Finally, the case studies are presented for each
of green hydrogen in Africa. It also develops the country explaining renewable energy resources,
knowledge to support AfDB in its role of the Just hydrogen production and its derivates, proposed
Transition Initiative to establish the framework of electrolysis plants, processing steps, storage
green hydrogen deployment and contribution to potential, energy flow and efficiencies and the
long-term strategies to achieve low carbon and overall supply costs.
climate resilient development.
The following sections provides a brief overview
Three African countries of rich renewable on hydrogen global status, potential applications
energy resources have been selected under in various sectors, potential production of
this assignment: Egypt, Kenya and Ghana. The green hydrogen and common barriers and
selection process has been based on various opportunities of green hydrogen production.
criteria to ensure the diversity of the selected
countries in terms of their geoghrapicsal spread,
renewable energy resources, hydrogen technical
1.1 Hydrogen Global Status
aspects as well as existence of renewable energy
power systems and infrastructure. Hydrogen is used almost exclusively as a
material. In 2020, the hydrogen amount used
The three countries show high potential for worldwide was around 90 million tonnes. The
the production of green hydrogen. The report annual demand has increased by 50% in the last
will accordingly describe the case study for twenty years [1]. As shown in the left pie chart
each country to present a green hydrogen of Figure 1, the majority of the global hydrogen
energy system. all the necessary background demand comes from crude oil refining and the
information’s on various possibilities for the chemical industry. Annually, crude oil refineries
production, storage and transport of green consume almost 40 million tonnes of hydrogen
hydrogen are explained. An optimisation model as feedstock and reactants or as an energy
is utilised to determine the hydrogen production source. Around 45 million tonnes of hydrogen are
costs and the optimal configuration of a used every year in the chemical industry, where
corresponding plant. Furthermore, a scenario hydrogen is mainly deployed to produce am-
for the export of hydrogen based green energy monia and methanol. While ammonia is a central
is evaluated. For each country, a particularly feedstock for the production of fertilisers,
promising export scenario is selected on the basis methanol is further processed into a variety of
of the country specific conditions and the supply downstream products. For example, methanol
costs are calculated. The three case studies are is used as a raw material for the production of
as follows: many types of glue or resins. Hydrogen use in the
production and processing of metals contributes
1. Egypt as a Hydrogen Exporter 5% to the global hydrogen demand.
2. Kenya as an Ammonia Exporter
3. Ghana as a PtL Fuels Producer Hydrogen in its molecular form rarely occurs in
nature and is chiefly found in chemical bonds.
The following chapters pave the way towards Therefore, production processes are necessary
the case studies through a general explanation to yield pure hydrogen. Both different primary

materials and different processes are used to Hydrogen can be used in a variety of applications.
generate hydrogen. The hydrogen used today Basically, a distinction can be made between its
is almost exclu-sively produced from fossil raw energetic application and its use as a material.
materials, apart from a few exceptional cases. As In material use, the chemical properties of the
highlighted in the right pie chart of Figure 1, most hydrogen molecule are exploited in the form of
of the globally produced hydrogen originates reactions with other chemical elements. Thus,
from natural gas (about 48 %). Hydrogen hydrogen can be used to form new chemical
production from coal amounts to 18 %, and 30 compounds together with other elements or to
% of dedicated hydrogen produc-tion is from oil. change the composition and properties of existing
The remaining 4 % is produced from electricity compounds. On the other hand, hydrogen can
via water electrolysis [1, 2]. be used to generate energy. Here, the chemical
energy bound in the hydrogen is converted into
electricity and/or heat.
Figure 1: Shares on global hydrogen consumption and production

Left: Share of the most important applications in today's global hydrogen consumption [1]
Right: Share of primary energy sources used for today's global hydrogen production [2]
battery electric vehicles is preferably suitable

1.2 Hydrogen Applications
for short distances, fuel cell mobility or mobility
in Various Sectors using synthetic fuels will tend to be used for
heavier vehicles and longer ranges.
As international climate protection goals are to
be achieved, fossil energy sources will have to Nowadays in the industrial sector, fossil raw
be al-most completely replaced by greenhouse materials are not only used as energy sources,
gas-neutral energy sources within the next few but also as basic materials in many processes.
decades. In addition to the use of biomass and Examples of this are the production of plastics,
the direct use of renewable electricity, green which is largely based on crude oil, or the
hydrogen will most likely play a central role in production of fertilisers, which requires natural
the substitution of fossil energy carriers. The gas. Green hydrogen plays a crucial role in the
following table shows areas of application in transformation of the industrial sector towards
which green hydrogen can replace fossil fuels in climate neutrality.
the future. The various applications are classified
into the three sectors: The provision of electricity and heat is responsible
for a large proportion of the total CO2 emissions.
• Mobility The chemical energy stored in hydrogen can be
• Industry converted into heat and electricity using direct
• Electricity and Heat combustion or fuel cell technology. If green
hydrogen is used, heat and electricity are climate
Hydrogen-powered vehicles can be used in neutral.
almost all areas of the transport sector. While

APPLICATION OF STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT POTENTIALS
HYDROGEN
•The use of H2 will require new aircraft systems

•Production of PtL-fuels as •Direct combustion of H2 (short and medium-haul flights)
•Airbus is currently researching various H2 aircraft
AVIATION aviation fuel •H2 fuel cell (FC) aircraft
concepts
•H2 as aviation fuel •Increased use of SAF for longer-haul flights
•PtL production not yet used on a large scale
•Announcement that the first 100% ammonia-fuelled

marine engines will be available as early as 2023 and •H2-based fuels for large oceangoing vessels (ammonia
•Ammonia as fuel that ammonia retrofit packages for existing ships will be as a fuel for combustion engines)
SHIPPING •H2 as fuel offered from 2025 •H2-powered FC ships: Passenger ship, ferries, roll-on/
•Since the early 2000s, coastal and short-range vessels roll-of vessels, tugs
with H2 FC power have been demonstrated
•H2 and FC technologies are already being used for rail

transport in some countries
•In areas where the direct electrification of lines is
RAIL •PtL fuel •Worldwide, interest in H2 trains is growing
difficult or too expensive, the use of Rail applications
TRANSPORT •H2-powered FC train •Various stages of development and deployment for
MOBILITY with FC offer a high potential for decarbonisation
passenger trains, H2 trams, line-haul and switching
SECTOR locomotives
•H2-powered passenger cars have been under •A significant increase in FC cars is to be expected
development for several decades •More major car manufacturers are developing
•H2-powered FC electric
•Although some car manufacturers, especially from Asia, prototypes
vehicles - cars
are offering FC passenger cars as series models, their •Expansion of H2 filling stations must increase
number on the roads has been small up to now. significantly at the same time
•H2 driven trucks have so far only been produced as

ROAD prototypes for use in pilot projects.
TRANSPORT •H2-powered FC electric
•Various concepts are currently being developed for •Higher ranges can currently be achieved with FC
vehicles – Trucks
storing H2 on board of the truck vehicles than with battery-electric alternatives
•The Hyundai Xcient Fuel Cell is the only H2 powered
truck that is already in use in larger numbers
•H2-powered FC electric •Several manufacturers (e.g. Van Hool, Solaris) offering •A significantly increase can be assumed in the coming
vehicles - busses series-production vehicles years
•The combination of H2-based direct reduction and

•The direct reduction of iron ore with the help of H2,
electric arc furnance makes it possible to produce steel
though, has not yet been realised on an industrial scale.
INDUSTRY STEEL •Direct reduced iron (DRI) exclusively based on renewable energies. However,
Various steel manufacturers have announced pilot
SECTOR MAKING process for steel production the electricity demand of this production route (for the
projects and expect to be able to produce climate-
production of the green H2 and the operation of the
neutral steel using H2 by 2030 at the latest
electric arc furnace) is enormously high
•Removing impurities •Large use of grey H2 but no large-scale use of green H2 •Replacement of grey H2 with green H2
(desulphurisation process) •Conversion of the production process to e-fuels based
•Conversion of long-chain on green H2
REFINERY hydro-carbons (heavy
oils) into short-chain
hydrocar-bons (light oils)
(hydrocracking process)
•Ammonia production (e.g. •Methanol and ammonia are nowadays produced almost •Replacement of grey H2 with green H2
for fertilisers) exclusively from grey H2 based on natural gas •Green methanol production may lead to an increased
•Methanol production (e.g. demand for methanol in the future to replace many oil
CHEMICAL for glue or resins) and gas based feedstocks. Ethylene and propylene are,
INDUSTRY for example, starting materials for the production of a
large number of plastics. The use of green methanol can
completely eliminate crude oil and natural gas in the
chemical industry sector
•Green H2 to provide •No large-scale use of green H2 •H2 can be combusted directly in appropriate burners or
process heat, especially at a heating boilers
GENERATION high-temperature level •Under certain circumstances, the use of high-
OF PROCESS temperature FC (SOFC) is also possible, which at least
HEAT enable the provision of heat at a temperature level of up
to 700 °C
•H2 gas turbines and •Gas turbines currently used in combined cycle power •When H2 is converted back into electricity, part of
FC power plants can be plants are partly able to operate with H2 contents of the energy is necessarily released in the form of heat,
used for the large-scale maximum 30 % in the natural gas. Turbines that can run regardless of whether turbines or fuel cells are used.
reconversion of H2 into on pure H2 are not yet available in the MW power range. This waste heat can be extracted via a water circuit and
ENERGY electricity Companies such as Siemens Energy and Kawasaki are used as process heat, for heating of residential buildings
ELECTRICITY STORAGE working on the development of such H2 turbines. For the (district heating) or to heat drinking water. This principle
AND HEAT use of FC power plants for the large-scale reconversion is called combined heat and power (CHP)
of H2, the existing systems must be scaled up
•The application of green H2 •FC heating systems are already offered by various •H2 can be mixed with natural gas and burned in gas
is an option to replace fossil suppliers and are mostly based on PEM fuel cells condensing boilers connected to the pipeline network.
natural gas and to reduce Provided the necessary adaptation of the infrastructure
HEAT greenhouse gas emissions in (e.g. pipelines and heating systems), a gradual increase
SUPPLY FOR the building sector in the proportion of H2 in natural gas is conceivable
BUILDINGS •H2 can also take place in stationary, decentralised FC
heating systems for domestic energy supply
Table 1: Overview of potential hydrogen applications in different sectors [IEA, 2021: Global Hydrogen Review 2021]
coupling, green hydrogen can also be increasingly
1.3 Potential of Green used as a greenhouse gas neutral energy carrier
Hydrogen in the future, for example, in the mobility sector.
In the course of global efforts to mitigate climate For the cross-sector, medium-term development
change and the accompanying advancing of the hydrogen market, various ramp-up
defossili-sation (i.e., the substitution of fossil scenarios were created within the scope of
raw materials), the importance of hydrogen this study. Figure 2 shows that the demand for
produced in a green-house gas-neutral way is green hydrogen is likely to be subject to dynamic
likely to increase in the future. Thereby, green growth in the coming decades. In a progressive
hydrogen - i.e., hydrogen pro-duced from scenario, the demand for green hydrogen could
renewable electricity by means of electrolysis - almost reach the volume of today's hydrogen
offers the best prerequisites for a timely scaling consumption as early as 2030. Even in a
of production while at the same time minimising conservative scenario, by 2045 at the latest, the
greenhouse gas emissions. demand for green hydrogen will ex-ceed the
current consumption of fossil-based hydrogen.
On the one hand, green hydrogen can substitute Green hydrogen is becoming a relevant en-ergy
grey hydrogen in existing applications. On the carrier in the global energy mix, which will find its
other hand, in the course of increased sector way into many sectors.
Figure 2: Forecasted development of global green hydrogen demand

Values are based on an evaluation of [3-8]
The shares of individual sectors respectively fossil raw materials. Furthermore, future climate
applications in the future consumption of green neutral electricity systems, which primarily use
hydrogen are currently difficult to forecast. Still, it fluctuating renewable energies such as wind
is considered almost certain that large quantities and photovoltaics, will, in all likelihood, rely on
of hydrogen will be needed in the chemical green hydrogen as a long-term storage medium.
industry and steel making to enable climate In contrast, there are sectors, for example,
neutral production. In these fields of application, mobility and heating, where it is not yet possible
hydrogen based solutions represent the only to predict the extent of future hydrogen use.
viable option for the complete substitution of Hydrogen based solutions can be used in these

areas but, in many cases, compete with direct The published hydrogen strategies show that the
electric solutions (e.g., fuel cell electric vehicles countries have different priorities in developing the
vs. battery electric vehicles). hydrogen economy. Countries such as Germany,
Japan and the Netherlands, for example, are
Against the background of the foreseeable market focusing on importing green hydrogen in order to
development, many countries have developed use it to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their
strategies and plans in recent years to initiate economies. On the other side, countries such
the rampup of a hydrogen economy. Figure 3 as Chile, Australia and Morocco are focusing
provides an overview of the countries’ activities primarily on the opportunities that can arise from
regarding the development of national hydrogen the export of green hydrogen [9]. In the African
strategies. By June 2021, 12 countries and the context, Egypt and Morocco have published
European Union (EU) had published national their hydrogen strategies. In addition, potential
hydrogen strategies. In another 19 countries, national strategies are currently being prepared
corresponding strategies were being developed. several other countries.
Figure 3:Overview of activities worldwide towards national hydrogen strategies, status 06/2021 [9]

A detailed overview of possible applications for
1.4 Barriers and hydrogen and their potential can be found in
Opportunities of Green Table 1.
Hydrogen Production
In addition to the opportunities that green
hydrogen offers on the user side with regard
In order to achieve climate neutrality as prescribed
to the substitution of fossil energy sources and
in the Paris Agreement, the energy supply of all
the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions,
sectors must almost completely be switched
economic opportunities can also arise from the
over to renewable energy sources. To achieve
production of green hydrogen. Thus, countries
this goal renewable, greenhouse gas neutral
can reduce their dependence on fossil energy
gaseous and/or liquid energy carriers are needed
imports with the help of green hydrogen.
in addition to green electricity. This applies in
particular to industries and applications in which
Furthermore, new opportunities for exporting
battery electric solutions can only be used to
energy are opening up for renewable energy rich
a limited extent or not at all due to technical
coun-tries. It is currently assumed that densely
limitations. Green hydrogen can be used in
populated industrialised countries with a high
almost all sectors and thus offers the possibility
energy demand (e.g. Japan, the EU states or
of making renewable electricity available for
China) will still be dependent on energy imports
use cases in which the implementation of direct
in a future without fossil fuels. Therefore, it is
electric solutions is questionable or impossible.
highly likely that a global market for renewable
Ex-amples are:
energy will emerge within the next decades. In
such a market, industrialized countries with a
• Use as a fuel for heavy duty vehicles, such as
high demand for energy would import energy
trucks, busses, or trains,
from regions that have a promising availability
• Use as a fuel in smaller marine applications, of renewable energies such as wind and solar
such as ferries or river boats, and thus relatively lowcost green energy. Since
gaseous and liquid energy carriers (i.e. energy
• Use as a coal substitute for the reduction of iron rich molecules) can be transported over longer
ore in steel production, distances much more easily, with less loss and
• Use as an energy carrier for the supply of heat, more flexibly than electrical energy (i.e. as
especially high temperature heat for certain electrons), from today’s perspective there is
indus-trial applications, much to sug-gest that this potentially developing
global renewable energy market will likely be
• Use as an energy storage medium for stabilising based on green hydrogen and/or its derivatives.
power grids with highly fluctuating supply of Countries that have particularly good conditions
electricity from renewable energies. for the production of such renewable secondary
energy carriers due to their geographical location
Beyond that, there are some applications in which (i.e. high regenerative energy supply) and largely
green hydrogen derivatives are likely to be used unused land potential have the opportunity to
in the future. This means that the hydrogen is not act as exporters of green energy on the world
used directly, but is first processed into another market in the future.
ener-gy carrier or raw material:
The development of an (exportoriented)
• Green ammonia as a feedstock for a greenhouse hydrogen economy can contribute to economic
gas-neutral fertiliser industry, development and growing prosperity in African
countries. Thus, local value creation can be
• Green methanol as a feedstock for the chemical
supported sustainably through the development
industry,
of green hydrogen production and export
• Green Power to Liquid (PtL) fuels for aviation capacities as well as the associated services.
and shipping, Investments in capacities for renewable electricity
generation and hydrogen production, but also
• Liquid hydrogen as fuel for aircraft. transport or storage infrastructure strengthen

the exporting countries and thus improve their Additional costs in the supply of green hydrogen
global competitiveness. In African countries that In the vast majority of applications, the use of
currently export fossil fuels, new, climate neutral green hydrogen is currently still associated with
sources of income can emerge and gradually considerable additional costs compared to the
replace less sustainable business models. use of fossil fuels. This applies in particular to
the com-parison with grey hydrogen produced
In addition to the opportunities arising from from natural gas. The production cost for grey
the export of hydrogen, investments in green hydrogen, which is currently mainly used in
hydrogen can also help to increase the stability industrial processes, is usually less than 2 €/
and security of the national energy supply. For kg. Even under favourable conditions, the
instance, many African countries currently production costs of green hydrogen are currently
lack a reliable electricity supply. Investment at least two to three times higher. To close
in green hydrogen can help overcome the lack this gap, firstly the production costs for green
of reliable electricity supply by accelerating hydrogen must be significantly reduced. The
the deployment of renewable energies. Thus, most important cost drivers for green hydrogen
investments in green hydrogen inevitably lead are usually the electricity supply costs and the
to improvements in national, regional, and local in-vestment costs for the electrolyser. While the
condi-tions for renewable electricity generation. costs of generating electricity from renewable
These conditions include, for example, the energies (in particular wind and PV) are already
necessary know how and infrastructure in the low today and are expected to decrease further
respective African country. Finally, successfully in the future, further efforts must be made to
implemented green hydrogen projects ensure reduce the manufacturing costs of electrolysers.
that the development of a reliable national
energy supply based on renewable energies can Lack of financial value of the “green” properties
subsequently be realized much more easily. of hydrogen
So far, there is no internationally approved,
In some regions of Africa, not only a secure universally valid system for certifying the green
energy supply but also a reliable supply of clean properties of hydrogen. As a result, there are
water is not guaranteed at all times. If planned currently no decisive financial incentives for
and implemented in the right way, investments potential end users to use green instead of
in green hydrogen can also improve the water grey hydrogen. In order to be able to establish
supply in these regions. Thus, the freshwater effective financial incentives for the use of green
required for green hydrogen production should hydrogen in the long term, it is essential as a
always be supplied via seawater desalination, first step to develop and apply criteria for the
especially in arid regions. This is particularly certification of green hydrogen. Initially, this can
true since seawater desalination accounts for be done on an intergovernmental level, but in the
only a negligible share of total hydrogen supply long term, internationally approved regulations
costs (see Chapter 4.3). To improve the water should be strived for.
supply of the local population, the desalination
plant, for example, can be planned slightly Supply of fresh water for electrolysis
larger than necessary in the planning of plants Electrolysis currently requires treated freshwater,
for the production of green hydrogen. This which, depending on the production site, may
excess capacity can then be used to supply the be an insufficiently available resource in African
population with clean freshwater. countries. Such water shortages, which are
intensified by the climate crisis, can lead to
The described opportunities arising from the distribution conflicts in water supply, especially in
production and use of green hydrogen and its arid areas. When planning hydrogen production
deriva-tives are contrasted by a number of projects, it must be ensured that the provision of
challenges in terms of setting up the required the required water does not worsen the general
value chains. Some of the key challenges are supply at the respective location. As described
described below. above, integration of seawater desalination into
the hydrogen production system is one way

to counteract water shortages. However, care Qualified staff
must be taken to develop suitable concepts for
the environmentally friendly use/disposal of the The construction and operation of hydrogen
residues resulting from seawater desalination production plants and the generation of the
(brine). required electricity require the availability of
qualified staff. Especially against the background
Infrastructure for transport and storage of of the desired strengthening of local value chains
hydrogen through export-oriented hydrogen projects (see
above), at least part of the required labour force
Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy should come from the respective production
density. For this reason, transport and storage countries. Therefore, hydrogen projects should
pose a particular challenge. In principle, various always be accompanied by campaigns to build
technological options are available for the safe up local know how especially if these projects
and economical transport of hydrogen. However, are localised in developing or emerging countries.
suitable transport infrastructure, such as roads,
railways or pipe-lines, must be available to Lack of acceptance in the absence of benefits for
enable the establishment of a hydrogen supply the local population
chain. In less developed countries in particular, it
can be assumed that a large proportion of these Investments in the development of renewable
transport routes will have to be newly constructed. energy and hydrogen production capacities are
If the hydrogen or hydrogen derivative is to be not necessarily accompanied by benefits for the
exported by ship, a suitable port infrastructure local population. If there are only few benefits for
must also be available or newly constructed. If the the local population, acceptance in the production
respective region already has a well developed countries can decline and the sustainable
infrastructure for the storage and transportation implementation of corresponding projects can
of fossil fuels, such as oil or natural gas, it may be endangered. Especially in countries where a
be possible to use interfaces when establishing secure and affordable energy supply is lacking,
hydrogen supply chains. This is especially true if exportoriented hydrogen projects can promote
the hydrogen produced is further processed into energy poverty. To counteract this, the planning
derivatives that have similar properties to fossil of hydrogen production projects should always
fuels. Examples are methanol or liquid organic include the use of parts of the newly built
hydrogen carriers (LOHC). Further explanations capacities to generate renewable electricity for
of the various options for transporting and the energy supply of the local population. Efforts
storing hydrogen can be found in section 2.3. should also be made to ensure that investments
in decentralised energy supply structures are not
pushed back by large scale hydrogen projects.

2. Green hydrogen
supply chain
The knowledge product of this assignment is The successful combination of production,
developing various scenarios for the deployment transport, storage and utilisation of green
of green hydrogen in Egypt, Kenya and Ghana, hydrogen is a fundamental basis for a secure,
to contribute to long-term stratigies to achieve sustainable and economical energy supply in
low carbon and climate resilient development. the future. As shown in Figure 4, Electricity from
Before explaining each case study in details, this renewable energy sources is, along with water,
chapter explains the technologies required for the central raw material for the production of
the hydrogen supply chain, including their costs, green hydrogen. The electricity generated from
their technological key figures and their future the renewable energies is fed into the general
market trends. As some of the technologies are electricity grid (use of public power grid or direct
not currently produced on an industrial scale connections are possible) and can thus be used
(both in terms of size and number), the techno for hydrogen production. A distinction is made
economic parameters listed in this chapter as between three different processes for hydrogen
well as in the annex always refer to the year production: Water electrolysis, methane steam
2030. These information are key to understand reforming and methane pyrolysis. Natural gas is
the discussions in the following chapters. required for both methane steam reforming and
methane pyrolysis.
Figure 4: Green hydrogen supply chain
In addition to the significant greenhouse gas and utilization, usually a specific conditioning
emissions from the natural gas supply chain, the is necessary. The reason for this is the low
pro-duction of hydrogen with steam methane volumetric energy content of gaseous hydrogen.
reforming produces further carbon dioxide
emissions. For these reasons, only water In the following sections, both the different
electrolysis for the production of hydrogen technology options for electrolytic hydrogen
is considered in the case studies elaborated production and the hydrogen transport options
in this report. If the hydrogen needs to be are presented accordingly.
transported between the locations of production

2.1 Feedstock Wind Energy
Wind is a renewable, clean energy resource
Electrolysers use electricity to split water into and therefore one of the best solutions to
hydrogen and oxygen. To ensure green hydrogen deliver relatively cheap electricity. Wind energy
production, the required electricity must be is deemed to be one of the most promising
renewable energy sources due to its worldwide
generated from renewable energies.
availability as well as its level of technological
development. Wind tur-bines can be used to
2.1.1 Water treatment - generate green electricity in all climate zones.
Desalination Often, a distinction is only made between
wind energy use on land (onshore) and at sea
In order to prevent fresh water resources, which (offshore). The average wind speed of a site plays
are limited, especially in arid areas, from being a key role in the search for suitable areas for the
strained by hydrogen production plants, the construction of wind energy plants. The higher
treated water required for electrolytic hydrogen the average wind speed of a site, the higher the
production should be provided by means of sea utilisation of the wind turbine and the lower the
or brackish water desalination. Such plants are specific electricity generation costs.
state of the art and available on the market. They
are also available for relatively small capacities Solar Energy
and only require electrical energy. Reverse Solar energy will play a major role for the
osmosis processes are of particular relevance production of green hydrogen in the future.
here. Especially in ar-id regions, which have high
solar irradiation and low cloud formation, the
2.1.2 Renewable energy potential for utilising solar energy is high. The
use of solar energy by means of photovoltaic
For climate-neutral hydrogen production, the systems is characterized by particu-larly
electricity needed for electrolysis must be low electricity production costs and a high
generated from renewable energy sources. degree of decentralized operation. However,
Renewable energy is energy that is inexhaustibly it should be noted that solar energy cannot be
available or is renewed relatively quickly. For produced continuously due to dark periods. For
green hydrogen production, the renewable energy a permanent supply of electricity, temporary
potentials of geothermal energy, hydropower, storage resources must be used.
solar energy and wind energy are taken into
account in these case studies. Hydropower
Hydropower, as opposed to wind and solar
In order to exploit the full potential of green power, can be used to generate electricity from
hydrogen production, different renewable energy renewable energy sources on a continuous basis.
sources are considered in each of the three Due to the high annual hours of use, the hydrogen
countries. The yield of these energy sources and production plants can be operated at a high
thus the costs and land use efficiencies depends utilisation rate. However, the use of hydropower is
strongly on the geographical location. Exemplary highly dependent on the geographical availability
indicators could be: Sunshine hours per year, of suitable rivers. In addition, the ecological
average wind velocities as well as the availability consequences resulting from the necessary
of rivers that can be used for electricity damming of rivers must always be taken into
generation. Considering the geographical spread account when further exploiting hydropower.
is therefore essential, as dif-ferent regions in
Africa have differ-ent characteristics regarding Geothermal Energy
the availability of renewable energies. The initial Geothermal energy refers to the thermal energy
focus in this context is on the technical feasibility. stored in the earth’s crust. Comparable to
hydropower, geothermal energy can only be

used to generate electricity at certain locations Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis
but enables a con-stant supply of renewable Proton exchange membrane electrolysis (PEMEL)
electricity and thus a high utilisation of hydrogen is a relatively new process. The first PEMEL
generation plants. plants were developed about 25 years ago. In
the electrolysis cells, the anode and cathode
2.2 Hydrogen production – are firmly connected to the proton exchange
membrane (PEM), which assumes the function
Water electrolysis of both the separator and the electrolyte. The
PEMEL is a low temperature electrolyser with
There are three main types of electrolysis: alkaline operating temperatures in the range of 50 to 80
water electrolysis (AEL), polymer electrolyte °C and a maximum output pressure of hydrogen
mem-brane electrolysis (PEMEL) and solid oxide between 30 and 80 bar [10, 11]. Due to its low
electrolysis (SOEL). Regardless of the particular ramp up times and good characteristics in partial
process, the principle of water electrolysis is load operation, the PEMEL is predes-tined for
identical. Water is split into hydrogen and oxygen operation in combination with volatile renewable
in a molar ratio of 2 to 1 by supplying electrical energy sources.
energy:
High-temperature electrolysis
H2O→H2+0,5 O2 High temperature solid oxide cell electrolysis
(SOEL) is based on the integration of high
temperature heat. Instead of liquid water,
Alkaline water electrolysis overheated water vapour is introduced into the
Alkaline electrolysis (AEL) is the oldest and electrolytic cell, which reduces the need for
currently most widely used water electrolysis electrical energy. SOEL electrolysers have so far
process. In AEL, the two half-cells are filled only been offered by a few manufacturers and in
with a aqueous potassium hydroxide solution, significantly smaller size classes than the AEL and
which serves as an electrolyte. Typical operating PEMEL. The SOEL technology is not yet mature
temperatures are between 60 and 80 °C with and still in research stage [11]. Hence, the SOEL
a pressure in a range of up to 30 bar [10]. The is not considered further in this case study.
technology is known, already established and
relatively cheap. Large AEL plants have already Due to the differences in structure, functioning
been commercially realized with capacities of up and technological maturity, the electrolysis
to 6 MWel, equivalent to 3 t/d [11]. technologies have specific characteristics in
terms of their application. Table 2 provides
an overview of these differences of hydrogen
production via AEL and PEMEL.
ALKALINE ELECTROLYSER PEM ELECTROLYSER

•Established technology •High voltage efficiency
•No noble metal in catalysts •Operates well at partial load
SPECIFIC •Relatively low investment costs •Suitable for operation in combination with
ADVANTAGES •High availability and long lifetime fluctuating renewable energies
•Suitable for high pressure operation
•Dynamic operation •High demand of noble metals

•Cleaning of hydrogen efforts additional •Low durability
DISADVANTAGES
effort •High investment cost
Table 2: Hydrogen production via water electrolysis

Both the AEL and the PEMEL are expected to see significant technological improvements in the coming
years due to the anticipated ramp up of the global market for green hydrogen. In order to quantify
and illustrate these developments, a meta study was conducted. The key findings of this meta-study
in terms of system costs and efficiencies are shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6. A strong cost reduction
and a slight increase in efficiency can be therefore expected.
Figure 5: Expected development of system CAPEX for PEMEL and AEL [10, 12-22]
Figure 6: Expected development of system efficiencies (based on LHV) for PEMEL and AEL [10, 12-22]
A detailed breakdown of the techno-economic

2.3.1 Conditioning
parameters of the electrolytic technologies can
be found in the appendix (Table 9). These values
For an economic hydrogen storage and
are used in chapters 5,6 and 7 for the quantitative
transport, hydrogen must be conditioned due
assessment of the respective supply chains.
to its very low volumetric energy density. The
energy content of hydrogen can be increased in
2.3 Hydrogen logistics a variety of ways. In addition to the compression
or liquefaction of the hydrogen, there are various
Storage and transport are essential to enable a chemical conversion options, such as methanol
constant supply of green hydrogen. Especially or ammonia. An alternative option is the use of
against the background of a global hydrogen LOHC (Liquid Organic Hy-drogen Carrier). Figure
market, transport is of particular importance. 7 demonstrates the energy densities on different
The following sections present the various hydrogen storage options
possibilities for storing and transporting
hydrogen.

more than 2 000 kWh/m3. Since hydrogen only
changes into the liquid phase at about 253 °C,
the liquefaction process is technically complex
and energy intensive. Liquefaction plants are
correspondingly capital intensive. In order to
keep the costs arising from liquefaction as low
as possible, the corresponding plant should be
utilised as much as possible. Hydrogen liquefiers
have been built for decades and have reached a
high degree of technological maturity.
Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers – LOHCs

Hydrogen can react with other elements or
certain compounds to form new chemical
compounds. LOHC storage systems are based
on the chemical bonding of hydrogen to a liquid
carrier medium, the LOHC. The hydrogen is
Figure 7: Dependence of different energy bound to the LOHC in a so called exothermic
densities on different hydrogen storage options hydrogenation reaction, i.e., heat is released
during that reaction. By binding the hydrogen
to the LOHC, not only the volumetric energy
GH2 – Gaseous hydrogen
density can be strongly increased, but also the
CGH2 – Compressed gaseous hydrogen
handling can be decisively improved. LOHC
LH2 – Liquid hydrogen
are comparable to crude oil in many properties
LNH3 – Liquid ammonia
and can be stored and transported as a liquid
TOL – Toluol as a promising LOHC
in conventional vessels, even in a hydrogen-
CH3OH – Methanol saturated state.
Compression If the hydrogen is to be used after storage

The easiest way to increase the volumetric or transport, it must be dissolved. For this
energy density of hydrogen is compression. dehydrogenation reaction to proceed and the
Depending on the application, different types of hydrogen to be released, the LOHC must be
compressors, e.g. mechanical compressors and heated. The efficiency of hydrogen storage and/
turbo compressors, are used. The compression of or transportation systems using LOHCs depends
hydrogen is well established. Compressors of high on whether the heat re-quired for the hydrogen
performance with through puts of 200 kg/h and release has to be generated separately for
pressure levels up to 1000 bar are already on the this purpose. By using surplus heat from other
market [23]. The possibility of arranging several industrial processes, so-called waste heat, the
compressors in series provides a high degree of overall efficiency can be significantly improved.
flexibility [24]. The overall efficiency depends
on the type of compressor. The mechanical and Ammonia
electrical efficiency of reciprocating and ionic Ammonia is formed by the reaction of nitrogen
compressors is approximately 95% [25] and the (N2) and hydrogen and is one of the most widely
efficiency of mechanical compressors is 65 to produced chemicals in the world. It is mainly used
88% [26]. in the production of fertilizers and is therefore a
sub-stance that is crucial for feeding the world’s
Liquefaction population. Nowadays, the Haber-Bosch process
Due to the very low volumetric energy density of is usually used for the production of ammonia. In
gaseous hydrogen, it can hardly be transported this process, in addition to N2 extracted from the
in vessels over long distances at reasonable cost, air, grey hydrogen is commonly used as a starting
even if it is compressed. Therefore, liquefaction substance. However, hydrogen from renewable
is necessary; this increases the volumetric energy sources can also be used to produce
energy density of hydrogen many times over to green, climate neutral ammonia.

In addition to its direct use as a basic chemical, process here is the reverse water gas shift re-
ammonia can also be applied as a hydrogen action (RWGS). The best known and most widely
carrier in a similar manner to LOHCs. Ammonia used approach for the production of liquid fuels
already becomes liquid at temperatures of -33°C from this synthesis gas is the subsequent Fischer
and, in this state, has a significantly higher storage Tropsch synthesis. The product is a synthetically
density than liquid hydrogen. Nonetheless, both produced fuel that can significantly reduce CO2
the Haber Bosch process and the redissolution of emissions, provided that the production process
hydrogen, which is necessary if the ammonia is is designed sustainably.
not used directly, are energy intensive processes.
In relation to the energy content of the hydrogen 2.3.2 Storage
stored in the ammonia, the losses can be over 30
%. Large storage facilities will be an essential
component of a future hydrogen infrastructure.
Methanol Thus, the energy demand can also be reliably
In terms of the underlying principle, the storage covered at the beginning of the heating season
of hydrogen in the form of methanol (CH3OH) or during periods of weather related reduced
is comparable to the storage in ammonia. generation of renewable energies.
Methanol is an alcohol, which can be produced
by combining hy-drogen with a carbon rich Pressure tank
gas. Today, methanol is of major importance Like natural gas, hydrogen can be stored in
as feedstock for the chemical industry. While pressure tanks. Pipe storage, as a large volume
methanol production is currently mostly based tank, reach pressures up to 100 bar, while
on the use of fossil natural gas (which includes spherical tanks have a pressure range up to 200
both hydrogen and carbon), in the future green bar [27]. Gener-ally, Pressure tanks are mature,
hydrogen can be the feedstock for methanol and losses are not stated in the literature [28].
production. In addition, the production of
climate neutral methanol also requires green Salt cavern
carbon dioxide (CO2), which can, for example, Many salt caverns are already used for the
come from biomass or be captured directly from storage of crude oil and natural gas and will also
the air. play an important role in the future for large scale
storage of hydrogen. An average cavern with a
Methanol has a wide range of applications in diameter of 60 m, a height of 300 m and a filling
industry. For example, it is used to produce fuels pressure of 175 bar has a capacity of 100 million
or processed into plastics. In addition, similar Nm3. This corresponds to an energy quantity of
to ammonia, the use of methanol as a hydrogen 300 GWh for hydrogen storage [29]. Depending
carrier is also being discussed. It must be taken on the depth and geological parameters, storage
into account that additional energy is required pressures between 50 to 200 bar are common
for methanol production and the hydrogen [30]. In addition to the large storage potential in
redissolution. The extraction of the required terms of quantity, salt caverns offer a safe and
green CO2 also means addi-tional effort. loss free hydrogen storage.
Power-to-Liquid fuel Cryotanks

Power-to-Liquid (PtL) refers to the production Liquid hydrogen can be stored and transported
of liquid fuels from electricity, water and CO2. in special vessels. Such cryotanks represent the
The use of additional renewable energy sources state of the art. Due to the very low temperatures
is crucial for a greenhouse gas reduction of the liquid hydrogen, these cryotanks must be
contribution. The PtL process is not yet used very well insulated. Nevertheless, the entry of
on a large scale, but it potentially enables fuel heat into the tank system can never be completely
supply from regeneratively generated electricity prevented, which inevitably leads to the
for those sectors that cannot operate without evaporation of parts of the liquefied hydrogen.
liquid fuel. For this purpose, a synthesis gas The resulting pressure increase in the tank can
is first produced from H2 and CO2. A typical only be absorbed by the cryotank to a certain

extent. For this reason, parts of the gaseous hydrogen by ship is technically possible for longer
hydrogen must be drained off after a certain time distances when pipelines cannot be considered.
(socalled boil off losses). Alternatively, the tank Because of its low energy density relative to
can be coupled with an appropriate cooling unit volume, gaseous hydrogen is best converted into
that compensates for the heat input. However, a liquid with a higher energy density before being
this requires an additional external energy source. loaded onto a ship.
The storage and transportation of ammonia, Transportation via pipelines

methanol and LOHCs are widely known from the Due to the relatively low conditioning effort
logistics of the chemical industry and represents (no energy intensive liquefaction or bonding to
the state of the art. Accordingly, the existing carrier medium), hydrogen transport by pipeline
infrastructure for fossil, crude oil based fuels can is a particularly attractive option. Already today,
be used. pipelines are used to transport (grey) hydrogen
between industrial sites. Hydrogen pipelines
2.3.3 Transport usually run at operating pressures between 10
and 100 bar. Since the operating pressure must
Depending on the aggregate state of the be maintained to ensure gas transport, the
hydrogen, the geographical conditions and the compression of the hydrogen plays a central role.
transport distance, two typical transport options Besides the construction of new pipelines, the
will be considered in the following case studies. conversion of existing natural gas pipelines can
Only large scale export is relevant for the case also be considered for pipeline-based hydrogen
studies, according to which transport by trailer transport. With such a rededication, it must be
plays a subordinate role. ensured that the hydrogen cannot permeate
the wall of the pipeline. In the long term,
Transportation via ships permeation would lead to the destruction of the
There are already a number of possibilities for pipeline (hydrogen embrittlement). One possible
transporting hydrogen derivatives via ship. For approach to prevent damage to converted
exam-ple, tankers that are currently used to pipelines is to apply internal pipe coatings made
transport fossil oil can also be used to transport of hydrogen-impermeable plastic.
LOHCs or PtL fuels by ship. Liquid ammonia
and methanol are currently transported in large Figure 8 summarises the different transport
quantities with corresponding tankers, too. options for hydrogen, and its derivatives, and
Existing infrastructures and technologies could Table 3 compares them with regard to the most
also be used here if these energy carriers become important characteristics. A detailed breakdown
established as a storage and transport medium of the tech-no-economic parameters of the
for green hydrogen. Pure hydrogen is currently different options for conditioning, storage and
not transported by ship on a large scale. The transportation can be found in the appendix
transport of gaseous hydrogen via ship is not a (Table 10 - Table 15). These values are used
promising option due to the limited transport in chapters 4,5 and 6 for the quan-titative
volumes and is therefore not expected to play assessment of the respective supply chains.
a major role in the future. The transportation of

Figure 8: Hydrogen transport options
COMPRESSED LIQUID LOHC METHANOL AMMONIA PTL FUELS

GASEOUS HYDROGEN (CH3OH) (NH3)(LIQUID)
HYDROGEN
•Different •Ambient •Ambient •Ambient •-33 °C and •Ambient
pressure levels, pressure conditions conditions ambient pressure conditions
Storage usually 700 bar •-253 °C •or:
conditions maximum •9 bar and
•Ambient ambient
temperature temperature
Volumetric 0.8 MWh/m3 2.4 MWh/m3 1.8 MWh/m3 3.3 MWh/m3 4.0 MWh/m3 10 MWh/m3
energy density (at 350 bar)
Energy 0.04 kWh/ 0.20-0.25 0.35-0.40 0.15-0.17 0.05-0.07 kWh/ 0.08-0.10

demand kWhH2 kWh/kWhLH2 kWh/kWhH2 kWh/ kWhNH3 ** kWh/kWhPtL
conditioning* (at 350 bar) kWhCH3OH ** **
Pipeline 0.2-0.4 % per No losses No losses No losses No losses

Energy
transport: day
loss during
1.5-2 % per
transport
1000 km
•Low energy •High energy •High energy •High energy •High energy •High energy
demand for density density at density at density at density at
conditioning •High purity of ambient ambient moderate ambient
•High purity hydrogen conditions conditions conditions conditions
of H2 •Low •Easy •Easy handling •Use of “pure” •Use in
reconditioning handling in existing NH3 in existing existing
Advantages effort in existing infrastructure and new markets mobility
infrastructure •Use of “pure” possible markets
CH3OH in •Handling •Easy
existing in existing handling
markets infrastructure in existing
possible possible infrastructure
•Low •High energy •Very high •Supply of •Toxic substance •Supply of

volumetric input for energy green CO2 •Very high energy green CO2
energy density liquefaction demand for necessary demand for necessary
•Missing global •Boil off losses redissolution •Very high redissolution •H2
infrastructure •Missing of H2 energy (if used as H2 redissolution
Disadvantages •Pipelines global •High demand for carrier) not feasible
needed for infrastructure investment redissolution •Low purity of
transregional cost for (if used as H2 redissoluted H2
transportation carrier carrier)
material
* excludes provision of H2/CO2/N2

** excludes redissolution of H2
Table 3: Comparison of different transport options for hydrogen

Figure 9 provides an overview of the costs
2.3.4 Indicative comparison of
of hydrogen transport using various options.
different transport options The transport distance is taken as 4000 km.
It becomes clear that hydrogen transport by
If the costs of the various hydrogen transport pipeline has sig-nificantly lower costs than the
options are to be compared, the entire supply other options. However, it must be taken into
chain must always be taken into account, account that gaseous hydrogen is assumed to be
especially conditioning. For example, when supplied at the point of consumption. If liquid
considering the transport of hydrogen using hydrogen or a derivative is demanded instead
LOHCs, the additional cost of bonding the of gaseous hydrogen, the supply costs can differ
hydrogen to the carrier medi-um and the cost of significantly.
redissolving the hydrogen must always be taken
into account.
Figure 9: Indicative comparison of different options for the transport of hydrogen

3. Hydrogen Supply
Cost
This chapter explains the model adopted In the annex, all techno-economic parameters
to estimate the hydrogen supply cost in the which were used are summarised. In order
three case studies. The Consultant utilized an to calculate the hourly capacity factor of the
optimisation model, developed at Hamburg photovoltaic systems, the site specific hourly
Univeristy of Technology, to determine the solar irradiation, tem-perature, albedo and
hydrogen production costs and the optimal wind speed are required. To calculate the hourly
configuration of a respective plant. The objective capacity factor of the wind power plants, location
of the model is to minimize the location specific specific parameters, namely the wind speed and
hydrogen production cost using water elec- the roughness index, are needed. The location
trolysis powered with available renewable specific weather data required are taken from the
resources in each country; photovoltaics, onshore ERA5 data set. The ERA5 data set is a reanalysis
wind power, geothermal energy or hydropower for the global climate and weather with a regular
by determining the optimal system configuration. latitude-longitude grid of 0.25 degrees. The
Hydrogen production cost serve as a target that capacity factors of the photovoltaic systems and
must be minimized covering the costs of: the wind power plants are basis for optimising
the electrolytic hydrogen production.
• Renewable power supply
• Storage for electricity A linear optimization approach is chosen to
• Water electrolysis identify the location specific optimal combination
• Hydrogen compression of renewable power supply (photovoltaics
• Hydrogen storage and wind power plus geothermal energy or
hydropower, if available), battery, electrolyser,
3.1 Optimised Hydrogen compressor and hydrogen storage. The costs of
all selected components are summed up in an
Production objective function. The components available
for selection depend on the used technologies
The hydrogen supply system consists of, on the shown in Figure 9 within the model boundaries.
one hand, the production of hydrogen in the
selected countries (Egypt, Kenya and Ghana) Specific constraints are implemented to ensure
and, on the other hand, the transport of the that the given physical restrictions are met. For
produced hydrogen or respective derivatives to example, the energy and mass flows must be
promising sales markets. The overall system is balanced for every hour. Thus, the energy flow
shown Figure 10. is described as the balance of the electricity
supply (output of installed renewable electricity
Beside the techno-economic parameters of the generation technologies and the battery) and
individual components (CAPEX, OPEX, lifetime, electricity demand (demand of the electrolyser,
efficiencies), the optimisation of hydrogen demand of the compressor and battery feed).
production is mainly based on location-specific The linear optimization takes place via the
weather data. Python library PuLP.

2. Financing Trends
Figure 10: Overview of the analysed supply chain and the model for optimised hydrogen supply
3.2 Calculation of Hydrogen produce the respective derivative. The operating

costs contain the costs for providing the electrical
Supply Cost and thermal energy required for the conversion
process. Furthermore, for the production of
Within the framework of the case studies, one methanol and PtL fuels, green CO2 must be
scenario for the export of hydrogen-based green provided in addition to hydrogen. If ammonia is
energy will be assessed for each of the African used as an energy carrier, N2 must be supplied.
countries under consideration. The different Therefore, the CO2 resp. N2 supply costs must
export scenarios are mainly defined by the also be taken into account when calculating the
transport distance and the transported energy conversion cost.
carrier. One possible energy carrier for transport
is the hydrogen itself. Other transport options The transport costs c_(fuel,transport) depend on
are derivatives such as ammonia, methanol the chosen transport technology. Pipelines are a
or PtL fuels. For every country, a particularly cost-effective option for transporting gaseous
promising export scenario is selected based on hydrogen over long distances. However, the use of
the country-specific conditions. pipelines is limited by technical limitations (e.g.,
no oceans can be crossed). The transportation
The fuel supply cost c(fuel,supply) include hydrogen cost via a pipeline consists of two parts. First,
production cost c(H2,production) as well as fuel the sum of the capital and operating cost for the
transportation cost c(fuel,transport). If the hydrogen is pipeline must be considered. In addition, the cost
exported in the form of a derivative, the costs for for intermediate compression to maintain the
the conversion c_conversion are also taken into pressure level is included. If methanol, ammonia
account. or PtL fuel is exported, transport by ship is a
suitable option. In this case, the investment costs
c(fuel,supply)=c(H2,production)+cconversion+ c(fuel,transport) (1) for the required ships are taken into account, as
well as the operating costs, which, in addition to
The conversion costs c_conversion include maintenance costs, include crew and fuel costs,
the capital and operating costs for the plant to amongst others.

Further constraints and assumptions for • As a major constraint for the
the calculation of the hydrogen production optimisation, the coverage of an hourly
cost and fuel supply cost: constant hydrogen demand is defined in
the model. In concrete terms, this means
• The assumptions used in the model that the amount of hydrogen supplied by
regarding the techno economic parameters the modelled production plant is the same
of the components refer to the year 2030. every hour of the year. The coverage of a
All applied parameters refer to large scale baseload hydrogen demand is possible.
plants. Possible scaling effects (reduction The volatility in electricity generation
of specific costs when building larger resulting from the fluctuating supply of
plants) are not taken into account. renewable energies is thus absorbed
by the storage systems (battery and/or
• Taxes, incentives, and country specific
hydrogen storage).
cost differences, e.g., in the interest rate,
are not considered. • A possible commercialization of the
by-products of electrolytic hydrogen
• For the model based cost optimised
production is not considered in the model.
hydrogen supply, the installed electrical
While commercial use of the oxygen
power of the electrolyser is assumed to
produced is conceivable for example,
be 100 MW. The size of the electrolyser
in the health sector or for wastewater
serves as an anchor for the design of the
treatment a reasonable use of the waste
entire hydrogen supply plant. All other
heat seems rather less realistic due to the
components, such as renewable energy
low temperature level (usually a maximum
plants and hydrogen storage facilities, are
of 60 °C is possible). This is especially
dimensioned according to the optimisation
true for Africa, where the demand for low
approach described.
temperature heat is low due to climatic
• All model components are considered conditions.
static. Process specific dynamics, such
•Neither transportation cost nor
as start up processes or partial load
transmission losses for transporting
behaviour, are not considered. It is
the electricity from the power supply
assumed that load fluctuations can be
technology to the electrolyser site are
absorbed by the modular design of the
considered in the calculation of the
components. This applies particularly to
levelized cost of electricity at the hydrogen
electrolysis, where the individual stacks
production site
can be ramped up and down as required
for load control. • The local/regional transport of all educts
(hydrogen, CO2, N2, derivates) at the point
• 2019 is chosen as the reference year
of production, for example, from the CO2
for the weather data used as the basis
point source to the PtL production plant,
for calculating the hourly capacity factor
is not taken into account for the cost
of the photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy
calculation.
plants.

4. Case study 1
Egypt as a Hydrogen
Exporter
The first case study aims to investigate Egypt’s 4.1 Availability of Renewable
potential in terms of green hydrogen production
and export. The approach to this case study
Energy Resources in Egypt
follows the following steps. First, the components
A preliminary assessment of renewable energy
of a suit-able supply chain are identified based
resources is estimated, which can be used for
on the regional conditions in Egypt. This initially
green hydrogen production in Egypt. For this
involves identifying a suitable location for setting
purpose, the results of the country selection
up a production plant. Second, a suitable sales
process are used. With a mean wind power
market is identified for possible export of the
density for the 10% windiest area of 663 W/m2
hydrogen produced. Accordingly, a range of
and a specific photo voltaic power output of 5.35
possible transport options is identified, from
kWh/kWp per day, Egypt has a high potential for
which an alternative is selected that is conceivable
wind energy as well as for solar energy [31, 32].
and advantageous for connecting Egypt with the
Therefore, both renewable energy sources are
selected export market. Finally, the cost model
taken into account in the site identification for
approach (as presented in Chapter 2) is applied
the green hydrogen production in Egypt. Figure
to examine the identified supply chain through
11 clearly shows that the potential for the use of
proposing a possible design of an exemplary
solar energy is very high throughout the whole
demonstration plant, then estimating the energy
country, whereas the wind energy poten-tial is
supply costs and the overall efficiency expected
very unevenly distributed. By far, the highest
for a realization in 2030.
potential for use of (onshore) wind power is on
the shores of the Gulf of Suez.
Figure 11: Solar and wind map of Egypt [31, 32]

In 2019, the total amount of energy generated and wind power is very high there. Furthermore,
from renewable sources was approximately the selected site is in close proximity to the coast
18,300 GWh per year, and the share of renewable of the Red Sea. This is an elementary advantage
electricity in total power generation was around with regard to the necessary water supply for
9.4 % [33]. While most of the renewable electrolysis. Additionally, the well developed
electricity was generated by hydropower, the infrastructure be-tween the Red Sea coast and
first projects utilising wind and solar energy to the Nile and the existing natural gas pipeline
produce electricity have recently been realised system are beneficial elements for a good
in Egypt. hydrogen production site.
A wind park on the shores of the Gulf of Suez

and the Benban solar park are two examples for
4.2 Further Processing Steps
existing, recently built renewable energy plants. To elaborate exporting of hydrogen, a complete
The 250 MW wind park, located 30 km northwest supply chain is outlined, including suitable
of the town of Ras Ghareb, generates over 1,000 transport options for exporting the hydrogen
GWh of green electricity annually [34]. produced at the selected site in Egypt. If
pure hydrogen is required by the customer,
The Benban Solar Park currently consists of 41 the transport of pure hydrogen is generally
PV plants stretching over 37 km. The park is preferable compared to the transport as a
located in the southeast of the country, about chemically bound variant, as conversion losses
50 km north of Aswan. The solar park has been can thus be avoided. Due to Egypt’s geographic
connected to the Egyptian electricity grid since location, the proximity to the promising European
2019 and currently produces 930 GWh per sales market is given. Due to the limited potential
year [35]. The two locations of the discussed for renewable energy sources, there are some
renewable energy plants are shown in Figure 12. import-dependent countries in Europe where
probably not enough hydrogen can be produced
In order to take the potential of hybrid green domestically. Presumably, a relevant hydrogen
hydrogen plants (electrolysis powered by onshore demand will arise in Central Europe in the near
wind and solar PV energy) into account, this case future.
study examines a location near the existing wind
farm at Ras Ghareb, as the potential for both solar In the supply chain examined in this case study,
the gaseous hydrogen will be transported to
Europe via pipelines. Several studies confirm
that for large quantities and medium distances
of up to 5000 km, the most cost effective option
for hydrogen transport is via pipelines [37-44].
With regard to other possible transport options,

it is questionable whether Egypt has a high
potential for biomass as a CO2 source due to
its arid climate. The CO2 required for hydrogen
transport via methanol or the further processing
into PtL fuels can also be drawn directly from the
environment, but this is very cost intensive. The
export as liquid hydrogen, ammonia or bound to a
LOHC by ship is conceivable but has significantly
higher energy losses than transport by pipeline.
Figure 13 shows the considered hydrogen supply
chain for Egypt.
Figure 12: Locations of the Benban solar park and the

Zafarana wind park at the Gulf of Suez [36]

Figure 13: Hydrogen supply chain in Egypt
A major advantage for hydrogen exports to Africa. In the current planning, the connection of
Europe is the large hydrogen pipeline network Egypt to the net-work has not yet been taken into
through Europe, which is already being planned account. However, as the country selection has
with the "European Hydrogen Backbone" project shown, Egypt has a very high potential for green
as shown in Figure 14. The “Hydrogen Backbone” hydrogen production, so a connection might
will enable hydrogen transport within Europe and be attractive for Europe if the corresponding
realises the import of hydrogen from Northern production capacities are built up in Egypt [45].
Figure 14: European hydrogen backbone [45]

4.3 Results - Hydrogen To achieve the minimum hydrogen supply costs,
the available renewable energies, onshore wind
Production in Egypt and and PV power, are oversized. This means that the
Supply to Central Europe total installed capacity of PV and wind exceeds
the installed electrolyser capacity. The factor of
The modelled results for hydrogen production in oversizing in the optimised plant configuration at
Egypt and the supply of the produced hydrogen the con-sidered location is about 2.
to Central Europe are explained as follows with
regard to the dimensioning of the individual The optimal ratio of installed wind and solar
supply chain components. For this purpose, the energy is almost 1 to 1, with a slight preponderance
plant design optimised for minimum hydrogen of onshore wind power. One consequence of
supply costs is presented first. Subsequently, the oversizing is the occurrence of excess energy,
energy input along the supply chain, the resulting which describes the situation where, when the
efficiency and the composition of the hydrogen production of renewable electricity is particularly
supply costs are discussed. All values shown high, part of the generated power cannot be used
refer to the techno-economic parameters of the and can therefore be curtailed.
supply chain components forecasted for 2030.
In the plant configuration modelled here, the
total output of renewable energies is over 100
4.3.1 Renewable Energies
MW when only the installed wind turbines (106
MW) are running at full load. If the PV modules
Table 4 shows the most important key figures
(91 MW) also generate energy during such
for renewable electricity generation for the cost
very windy weather phases, the total output
optimised, continuous supply of compressed
can quickly reach over 100 MW. Since the
hydrogen at the site under consideration. An
electrolyser can only take 100 MW, part of the
electrolyser with an installed capacity of 100 MW
power cannot be used and is regulated down (=
is used as design parameter for dimensioning the
excess energy). In the modelled case, 85 MWh of
renewable energy plants. The electricity required
the generated electricity annually is not used and
for hydrogen transport via pipeline is not part of
arises as excess energy. The costs arising from
the optimisation and is accordingly not supplied
the generation of excess energy are contrasted
via the power generation plants shown in Table4.
by cost savings resulting from the high utilisation
INSTALLED AFLH [H/A] SHARE OF SUPPLIED ELECTRICITY

CAPACITY [MW] ELECTRICITY [GWHGWHDEMAND] COST [€/MWH]
ONSHORE WIND POWER 106 4580 70 % 25
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER 91 2310 30 % 18
Table 4: Parameter of the renewable energy generation for the supply of 100 MW electrolysisa
a
All data refer to the year 2030.
of the electrolyser. High utilisation of the projects show that LCOE between 2 and 3 €/
electrolyser lowers the hydrogen production MWh are realistic and can already be achieved
costs, as the specific CAPEX costs (€ per kg of today at preferred sites. Due to the higher
hydrogen produced) decrease with increasing number of full load hours compared to PV
utilisation. energy, the share of onshore wind energy of total
electricity provided (70 %) is higher than its share
The low modelled levelised cost of electricity of installed generation capacity (54 %). Due to
(LCOE) of 25 €/MWh for onshore wind energy the availability of salt caverns at the considered
and 18 €/MWh PV solar energy indicate a good location, the hydrogen can be stored very cost
site selection for hydrogen production. Current effectively, so that the model does not choose
electricity storage facilities at this location.

The optimised plant configuration shown in
4.3.2 Hydrogen Production and
Figure 14 leads to around 6050 annual full
Storage load hours (AFLH) for the electrolyser. The
compression corresponds to the maximum
As already explained, an electrolyser with 100 specific output respectively to the power of the
MW is specified for hydrogen production. The 100 electrolyser with 2 t H2/h. In terms of the use of a
MW electrolyser serves as a dimensioning factor hydrogen storage facility to ensure a continuous
for optimising all other supply chain components. hydrogen supply (cf. Section 3.2), the selected
Due to the high fluctuation in the electricity site profits from the availabil-ity of salt caverns,
supply from wind and solar energy exclusively, which enable significantly cheaper storage
the optimisation of hydrogen production at the than pressure tanks. Accordingly, the hydrogen
location under consideration is based on a PEM storage capacity selected in the cost optimal
electrolyser. As described in Section 2.2, PEM plant configuration is relatively high at 1390 t.
electrolysers are better suited for direct coupling An explanation of the resulting production and
with fluctuating renewable energies than alkaline supply costs shown in Figure 15 is provided in
electrolysers due to their higher flexibility. At full
Chapter 4.3.4.
capacity, an electrical load of 100 MW roughly
corresponds to a specific production capacity of
2.0 t H2/h.
Figure 15: Optimized system configuration for hydrogen production at the selected site in Egypt
desalinate the water re-quired for electrolysis.

4.3.3 Energy Flow and Therefore, desalination is negligible as an energy
Efficiencies consumer and is not listed in Figure 15.
Figure 16 shows the annual energy flows of the The largest energy losses occur during
optimized system configuration (see Figure 14). electrolysis (~200 GWh). These energy losses are
Based on the weather year 2019, around 695 determined by the electrolysis efficiency and are
GWh are generated annually by the installed generated mainly as waste heat. Therefore, the
PV and wind energy systems. Approximately 12 electrolysis’s ef-ficiency is the decisive parameter
% (85 GWh) of the electricity generated cannot for the overall efficiency of hydrogen supply in
be used by the system and is curtailed as excess the outlined scenario. While the use of waste
energy. The majority of the energy supplied to heat (see Table 4) from electrolysis is conceivable
the system is used for electrolysis. The energy in areas with low ambient temperatures (e.g., in
demand for compression plays a subordinate Europe or North America), this appears to be less
role in the overall pic-ture, at around 5 GWh per feasible in countries with a low heat demand,
year. Only about 0.5 GWh per year is needed to such as Egypt.

Compression does not change the amount of It is assumed that no hydrogen losses occur
energy stored in the hydrogen. Therefore, the during compression, storage and pipeline
energy used for compression can be considered transport. Therefore, the amount of hydrogen
a loss. During the transport of the gaseous produced in Egypt can be provided in Central
hydrogen from Egypt to Central Europe, Europe. Based on the weather year 2019, around
the pipeline’s operating pressure must be 12,175 tonnes of hydrogen can be produced at
maintained. Due to the very long transportation the site under consid-eration with a 100 MW
distance (assumption for calculation: 4,500 km), electrolyser embedded in the outlined plant
the energy input for intermediate com-pression configuration. Taking into account the excess
is relatively high in the considered case. The energy, the overall efficiency is nearly 56 %. If the
energy required for intermediate compression excess energy is excluded, the overall efficiency
occurs along the transport route and is therefore of hydrogen supply rises to around 63%.
not part of the optimised system. Instead of the
electricity generated by the wind and PV plants
installed at the site in Egypt, grid electricity is
used for intermediate compression.
Figure 16: Annual energy flows of the optimized system configuration for Egypt

It becomes clear that the costs of generating
4.3.4 Hydrogen Supply Cost
renewable electricity play a central role. At
around 1.3 €/kg, the costs for the construction
Under the selected assumptions, hydrogen
and operation of PV and onshore wind energy
production costs of 2.7 €/kg can be expected
plants account for almost half of the hydrogen
at the examined location in Egypt in 2030. For
production costs (without transportation).
a possible transport of the produced hydrogen
However, electrolysis also represents a
by pipeline to Central Europe (transportation
substantial share, accounting for around one
distance of 4,500 km assumed), an additional
third of hydrogen production costs. The costs
cost of about 0.9 €/kg arises. Thus, the resulting
for desalination and supply of water play a
hydrogen supply costs are 3.7 €/kg. This
minor role at 0.03 €/kgH2. Also, the costs for the
corresponds to 0.11 €/kWh.
construc-tion and operation of the compressor
are comparatively low.
Figure 17 shows the composition of hydrogen
supply costs. Listed are the production costs
One reason for this is that the pressure
resulting from the supply of renewable electricity
difference between the hydrogen supplied by the
(91 MW PV, 106 MW wind onshore), the costs for
electrolyser (50 bar) and the salt cavern storage
the construction and operation of the electrolyser
(100 bar) is only 50 bar. If the hydrogen is required
(100 MW), the compressor (2 tH2/d) and the
at a higher pressure level, for example, for use
hydrogen storage (1390 t) as well as the water
in the mobility sector, the costs for compression
supply costs. For the hydrogen supply in Central
increase.
Europe, transporta-tion costs have to be added.
Storage costs contribute around 0.5 €/kgH2 to
The transportation costs include the costs for
the overall supply cost. In this regard, it should
the construction and operation of the pipeline
be noted that the availability of salt caverns
and the costs for the supply of the grid electricity
significantly reduces storage costs. The specific
required for the intermediate compression of the
expenses for hydrogen storage in pressure tanks
hydrogen. New construction or redevelopment
are several times higher than storage in salt
of roads or ports etc. were not considered in this
caverns.
case study.
Figure 17: Composition of hydrogen supply costs for the selected location in Egypt

5. Case study 2
Kenya as an Ammonia
Exporter
The second case study aims to investigate Kenya’s potential in terms of green energy production
and export. In a first step, the components of a suitable supply chain are identified based on the
regional conditions in Kenya. This initially involves identifying a suitable location for setting up a
hydrogen production plant as well as potentially available renewable energy sources. Secondly, a
suitable sales market for a potential export of the produced hydrogen or its derivatives is identified,
and a corresponding conceivable and advantageous transport option from Kenya is selected. Finally,
both the design of the individual components and the identified supply chain will be investigated. For
this pur-pose, the approach explained in Chapter 3 is applied in Section 5.3 and a possible design of
an ex-emplary demonstration plant is presented.
Figure 18 clearly illustrates that the region

5.1 Availability of Renewable around Lake Turkana has a very high wind energy
Energy Resources in Kenya potential. Here, the average power density for
the 10 % windiest area in this region is about 1900
Referring to the results of the country selection W/m2. With a size of 365 wind turbines, the Lake
process, Kenya shows an increased potential for Turkana Wind Park is located in the Loiyangalani
wind, solar and geothermal energy. Therefore, District. The indi-vidual wind turbines have a
all three renewable energy sources are taken capacity of 850 kW. The wind farm is connected
into ac-count in the site identification for green to the Kenyan national grid via a 435 km long
hydrogen production in Kenya. transmission line [46].
Figure 19: Solar map of Kenya [31]
Figure 18: Wind map of Kenya [32]

Figure 19 shows that solar energy is nationwide • KenGen: Kenya Electricity Generating Company
available and furthermore there is increased • ODCL: Oserian Development Company Limited
irradiation especially around Lake Turkana and • AGL: Akiira Geothermal Limited
the Rift Valley. Currently, the installed capacity
of PV power plants is more than 100 MW. The Due to the availability of the generated electricity
largest solar park, the Garissa Solar Power Plant, from geothermal energy via the national grid
has an installed capacity of 55 MW. Further solar for hy-drogen production, an area close to the
plants are already being planned for the future Lake Turkana wind farm was chosen as the best
[47]. possible location for this case study. In this area,
the wind and solar potentials are very high. The
selected loca-tion is shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21: Selected Location for the hydrogen

production in Kenya [36]
Figure 20: Geothermal resource map of Kenya [48]

5.2 Further Processing Steps
Additionally, Kenya has an increased potential
for geothermal energy. The geothermal resources As already explained in the previous section, the
come from Africa’s Great Rift Valley with an renewable energy for green hydrogen production
estimated potential of between 7 000 MW to 10 in this case study will be obtained from wind
000 MW spread over 14 prospective sites. Figure power, solar power and geothermal energy.
20 shows the geothermal resource map of Kenya This chapter shows one example of a potential
[48]. complete supply chain, including one suitable
transport option. Due to Kenya's geographical
Many geothermal plants are already permanently location, the Asian region, e.g., Japan, is a
installed and others are being planned. These potential sales market.
five stakeholders, among others, are involved in
the exploration of Kenya’s geothermal resources Japan is one of the populous industrialized
[48]: countries with high energy demand. In order
to steadily reduce the fossil energy demand,
• GDC: Geothermal Development Company imports from regions that have a high potential
• AGIL: African Geothermal International Limited for production of cheap green energy are
necessary.

In principle, transporting pure hydrogen is always and temperature). The transport of ammonia
preferable to transporting it as a chemically is already established on the world market,
bound variant, as this avoids conversion losses. as ammonia is a raw material for fertilisers. In
Due to the long distance and the resulting lack addition, ammonia can be used as a fuel in the
of pipeline infrastructure, transport via ship mobility sector or split again (so called ammonia
is considered for the following calculations. cracking) to generate hydrogen. Especially in
However, boil off losses during the transport of Japan, the development of a transnational
liquid hydrogen by ship increase significantly with market for green ammonia is currently being
increasing transport distances. driven forward. Therefore, this case study
examines the export of green ammonia from
Liquid ammonia is a promising hydrogen carrier, Kania to Japan. Figure 22 shows the ammonia
as it can be transported with high energy supply chain under consideration.
densities at moderate conditions (pressure
Figure 22: Ammonia supply chain in Kenya
5.3 Results - Production of 5.3.1 Renewable Energies

Green Ammonia in Kenya Table 5 shows the most important key figures
and the Supply to Japan for renewable electricity generation for the
continuous supply of compressed hydrogen at the
In this chapter, the modelled results for a cost site under consideration. The figures listed result
optimised production of green ammonia in Kenya from the model-based optimisation and describe
and its supply to Japan are presented with regard the system configuration that enables hydrogen
to the dimensioning of the individual supply supply at minimum cost. An electrolyser with an
chain components. The central component of a installed capacity of 100 MW is used as a design
plant for the production of green ammonia is the parameter for dimensioning the renewable
electrolytic hy-drogen production. Therefore, energy plants. The supply of the required N2, the
the design of a plant optimised for minimum ammonia synthesis via Haber-Bosch process and
hydrogen supply costs is presented first. In the the transport of the green ammonia from Kenya
following sections, the energy input along the to Japan are not part of the optimised hydrogen
overall ammonia supply chain, the resulting supply. Accordingly, the supply of the energy
efficiency and the composition of the ammonia required for these process steps is not covered
supply costs are discussed. All values shown by the capacities shown in Table 5.
refer to the techno economic parameters of the
supply chain components forecasted for 2030.
Furthermore, the optimisation is based on the
weather data for the year 2019.

INSTALLED AFLH SHARE OF SUPPLIED ELECTRICITY
CAPACITY [H/A] ELECTRICITY [GWH/ COS[€/MWH]
[MW] GWHDEMAND]
ONSHORE WIND POWER 106 5066 59 22
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER 107 2151 25 19
GEOTHERMAL POWER VIA GRID Max. 100 8760 15 70
Table 5: Parameter of the renewable energy generation for the supply of 100 MW electrolysis a
a
In the case under consideration, electricity min-imum hydrogen supply cost is almost 1 to 1.
from onshore wind energy, photovoltaics and In total, just over 100 MW each of onshore wind
geothermal energy is available for the production energy and PV are installed. The oversizing factor
and compression of hydrogen. While the key (installed renewable energy capacities against
figures for elec-tricity supply from wind and installed electrolyser capacity) is slightly over
solar energy are derived from site-specific two. Due to the significantly higher utilisation,
weather data, it is assumed that electricity onshore wind en-ergy (59 %) contributes a much
from geothermal power can be purchased higher share to the total electricity supply than
from the public electricity grid. Respectively, a PV (25 %). The remain-ing 15 % of the electricity
continuous supply of electricity from geothermal used for electrolysis and hydrogen compression
energy at 70 €/MWh (includes typical electricity is purchased from the grid for 70 €/MWh and
generation costs for geothermal energy and grid originates from geothermal energy. Batteries
usage fees) is included in the model as a further for storing electrical energy are not part of the
electricity supply option. Although the supply of system for cost-optimised hydrogen supply.
electricity from geothermal energy is significantly
more expensive than PV or wind energy, the 5.3.2 Hydrogen Production and
advantages are considerable. A permanent base Storage
load and thus security of supply is guaranteed.
Furthermore, with an efficiency of almost 100 %, Since electricity from geothermal energy is
the tech-nology for using geothermal energy is available for hydrogen production at all times, an
highly efficient and only requires a small amount alkaline electrolyser was selected for optimising
of land. the hydrogen supply. As described in Chapter
2.2, alkaline electrolysers have slightly less
With 22 €/MWh for onshore wind energy and 19 operational flexibility (which is less important
€/MWh for PV, the location under consideration if continous electricity supply is available) than
has excellent conditions for generating cheap PEM electrolysers, but are expected to be the
renewable electricity. Especially for wind energy, most affordable electrolysis technology in 2030.
with over 5,000 annual full load hours, a degree At full capacity, an electrical load of 100 MW
of utilisation is achieved that is unusually high for roughly corresponds to a specific production
onshore loca-tions. The validity of the key figures capacity of 2.0 t H2/h.
determined for wind energy use is confirmed by
the real data of the Lake Turkana wind farm, The optimised plant configuration shown in
located near the analysed location. The operator Figure 23 leads to an extraordinarily high
states an utilisation rate of 70 % for the park, load factor of the electrolyser of around 7,600
which has been in operation since 2018. That annual full load hours. The amount of hydrogen
would correspond to even more than 6,000 produced annually is around 15,300 t. The
annual full load hours [46]. installed compression capacity corresponds to
the maximum specific output re-spectively to the
Under the selected constraints, the optimal ratio power of the electrolyser with 2.0 t H2/h.
of installed wind and solar energy to achieve the

The hydrogen storage capacity selected by 5.3.4 Energy Flow and
the model is only 17 t and is thus significantly
less than 50 % of the maximum daily output of
Efficiencies
the electrolyser. Reasons for the low installed
Figure 24 shows the expected annual energy
storage capacity in the cost optimal plant design
flows of the optimised system configuration (see
especially compared to the results of the case
Figure 22). Based on the weather year 2019,
study for Egypt are most likely the high specific
around 768 GWh are generated annually by the
costs of hydrogen storage in pressure gas tanks
installed PV and wind energy systems. Close to
and the availability of continuous grid electricity.
18 % (137 GWh) of the electricity generated by
the PV and wind energy plants cannot be used
5.3.3 Production of Green and is curtailed as excess energy. In addition
Ammonia to electricity from wind and PV, 134 GWh
from geothermal energy are purchased via the
For ammonia production, N2 is needed in addition grid to supply the electrolyser and hydrogen
to hydrogen. Various technologies are available compressor. Taking into account the electricity
for the extraction of pure N2 from ambient air, consumed by hydrogen compression (5 GWh),
of which cryogenic N2 purification is the most the amount of energy fed into the electrolyser in
commonly used process. For the production of the reference year amounts to 759 GWh. Only
ammonia in the Haber-Bosch process, an almost about 0.6 GWh per year are needed to desalinate
loss-free pro-cess is assumed. Accordingly, 0.82 the water required for electrolysis. Therefore,
kg of N2 and 0.18 kg of hydrogen are needed water supply is negligible as an energy consumer
to produce one kg of ammonia. For the supply and is not listed in Figure 23.
chain examined in this case study, this translates
into a total of around 86,800 t of green ammonia In addition to hydrogen supply, N2 supply,
that can be produced annually from the 15,300 ammonia synthesis, and ammonia transport
t of hydrogen provided. Approximately 71,200 by ship also require energy. The total annual
t of N2 are required. Based on literature values, energy demand for the supply of the required
it is assumed that the large scale supply of N2 quantity (71,200 t) is almost 8 GWh. For the
N2 (includes separation from the air plus Haber-Bosch synthesis, 27 GWh are needed. It
compression) is possible at 30 €/t and has an is assumed that grid electricity from geothermal
energy demand of 110 kWh/t. energy, is used to supply both of these processes.
An additional 29 GWh of fuel energy are needed
per year to transport the ammonia produced to
Japan by ship.
Figure 23: Optimized system configuration for hydrogen production at the selected site in Kenya

Taking all process steps into account, the total energy demand for the supply of 86 800 t of green
ammonia (~451 GWh) is 966 GWh. This corresponds to an energy efficiency of close to 47 %. If the
excess energy is neglected, the overall efficiency rises to around 54 %.
Figure 24: Annual energy flows of the optimized system configuration for Kenya
The analysis of the energy flows shows that the transport of the ammonia by ship to Japan
electrolytic hydrogen production essentially (transport distance of 12,700 km assumed)
deter-mines the total energy demand of the are slightly below 0.1 €/kg. Thus, the resulting
ammonia supply. Thus, over 90 % of the total ammonia supply costs in Japan are approximately
energy used is used for electrolysis. At the same 0.6 €/kg. This corresponds to 0.12 €/kWh.
time, the majority of the energy losses that
occur along the supply chain can be attributed The ammonia supply costs consist of different
to electrolysis (258 GWh). These energy losses components. Central is the site-specific cost for
are essentially determined by the electrolysis the supply of the required green hydrogen, which
efficiency and are largely generated as waste is determined with the help of the optimisation
heat. Further notable energy losses re-sult from model described in section 5.3 “Results -
ammonia synthesis. While it is difficult to use Production of Green Ammonia in Kenya and the
the waste heat from the electrolyser (<80 °C), Supply to Japan”. The hydrogen supply costs
the waste heat from the Haber-Bosch synthesis include the costs for the supply of renewable
is easier to exploit for subsequent use due to its electricity (106 MW onshore wind, 107 MW PV
higher temperature level (>300 °C). Although the and geothermal power via grid), the construction
distance between the production site and the and operation of the electrolyser (100 MW) as well
supply location is high in the outlined scenario as the hydrogen compressor and storage tank.
with over 12,000 km, the energy input for Additionally, there are the costs for the provision
transportation has only a small influence on the of the N2, the construction and operation of the
overall energy balance. fuel synthesis unit and the transportation of the
green ammonia to Japan. The transport costs
5.3.5 Ammonia Supply Cost include the depreciation costs for the acquisition
of the corresponding tanker and the operating
Under the selected assumptions, green ammonia costs, including fuel costs. New construction or
production costs in the range of 0.52 €/kg can redevelopment of roads or ports etc. were not
be achieved at the examined location in Kenya considered in this case study.
in 2030. The additional costs caused by the

Figure 25 shows that hydrogen supply costs are overall costs. Also, the costs for storage and
the largest cost component. Overall, their share compression are low. The relatively low costs
of the ammonia supply costs in the examined case for hydrogen storage (especially in comparison
is around 65%. It is noticeable that, in contrast to Case Study 1, Figure 16) can be explained,
to the case studies for Ghana and Egypt, the among other things, by the fact that the storage
specific costs for the generation of the required capacities installed as part of the cost optimised
electricity (0.28 €/kgNH3) are significantly higher hydrogen supply are low at 17 t of hydrogen (see
than the costs for the construction and operation Figure 22). The costs arising from the Haber
of the electrolyser (0.09 €/kgNH3). The reason for Bosch synthesis and the transportation costs are
this is the extraordinarily high load factor of the each in the range of 0.1 €/kg. Compared to the
electrolyser. On the one hand, this leads to very transport of PtL fuel examined in the case study
low specific investment costs for the electrolyser. for Ghana, it is noticeable that the transport of
On the other hand, a high utilisation of the ammonia has a significantly higher share of the
electrolyser goes hand in hand with a relatively total supply costs. This is mainly due to the fact
large amount of excess ener-gy, which in turn that the energy density of (liquid) ammonia (3.2
leads to rising costs for the electricity supply. kWh/l) is much lower compared to PtL fuel (10
kWh/l). Accordingly, ammonia transport requires
The supply of N2, as well as the water required a larger volume.
for electrolysis, plays a subordinate role in the
Figure 25: Composition of hydrogen supply costs for the selected location in Kenya

6. Case study 3
Ghana as a PtL exporter
The third case study aims to investigate the Atlas map (Figure 26) clearly shows no increased
potential of Ghana for the production and export potential for wind power in Ghana. Only north of
of green energy. In a first step, the components the capital Accra is a narrow area extending to the
of a suitable supply chain are identified based north of Kumasui with an increased power density
on the regional conditions in Ghana. This between approximately 300 W/m2 and 800 W/
initially involves identifying a suitable location m2 at a high of 100 m. In the Ningo Prampram
for setting up a hydrogen production plant as district, around 60 km east of Accra, an onshore
well as potentially available renewable energy wind farm with a total capacity of 225 MW is
resources. Secondly, a suitable sales market for being planned for 2023. The development of the
a potential export of the produced hydrogen or Ayitepa wind farm has already been completed
its derivatives is identified, and a corresponding and is currently in the financing phase. With a size
conceivable and advantageous transport option of up to 75 wind turbines, approx. 600 GWh 700
from Ghana is selected. Finally, both the design GWh of energy are to be produced annually. The
of the individual components and the identified site was chosen as it offers good and consistent
supply chain will be investigated. For this wind conditions due to its openness and
purpose, the approach explained in Chapter 3 is relative flatness. Furthermore, the existing good
applied in Section 6.3, and a possible design of infrastructure, low environmental requirements
an exemplary demonstration plant is presented. and easy grid access are advantageous for the
construction of a wind farm [49, 50].
6.1 Availability of Renewable
The Solar Atlas map shows that Ghana has
Energy Resources in Ghana a relatively even potential for solar energy
nationwide. In the north of the country as well as
This chapter is about a preliminary assessment on the coast in the greater Accra area, there is a
of renewable energy resources that can be used slight increase in solar resources.
for hydrogen production in Ghana. The Wind
Figure 26: Wind and solar map of Ghana [31, 32]

The existing electricity generation in Ghana is 6.2 Further Processing Steps
dominated by two power plants. The Kpong and
Akosombo hydropower plants supply about 70% As already explained in the previous chapter, the
of the national electricity. According to current renewable energy for green hydrogen production
data, the Akosombo power plant (912 MW) is in this case study will be obtained from solar
the largest hydroelectric dam built in Ghana and power, wind power and hydropower. This chapter
supplies up to 58% of Ghana's electricity. With shows one example of a potential complete
an average flow of 1160 m3/s, the annual design supply chain, including a suitable transport
energy of the 160 MW Kpong hydro electric option. Due to Gha-na's geographical location,
power plant is about 1000 GWh. Both power North America is a potential sales market for
plants are located on the Volta River below Lake green energy. PtL fuels are a promising option for
Volta, 80 km from the city of Accra. The lower the export of green energy.
reaches of Akosombo form the up per reaches
of Kpong [51]. PtL fuels are important in the transport sector
for achieving the goals of the Paris Climate
Agreement. In principle, CO2 emissions in the
transport sector must be drastically reduced.
At the same time, however, the global transport
of goods and people must continue to be
guaranteed. Heavy transport, air traffic and
shipping cannot operate without the high energy
density of liquid fuels. With the PtL concept,
climate-neutral liquid fuels can be produced with
electric current from renewable energy sources
(power). In addition to renewable electricity,
green CO2 is needed.
The CO2 will be extracted directly (so-called direct

air capture) or indirectly (via biomass) from the
at-mosphere. This means that the CO2 emitted
during the use of e-fuels is previously taken from
the air, which closes the CO2 cycle and thus makes
the fuel CO2 neutral. An essential prerequisite for
green PtL production is the availability of green
hydrogen. The green hydrogen produced in this
case study will therefore serve as a feedstock for
Figure 27: Selected PtL production site in Ghana [36] PtL production.
An area east of Accra was chosen as a potential site As the North American region is an established
for hydrogen production in this case study. This market in global trade and CO2-neutral
location already offers good infrastructure and transport is be-coming increasingly important,
easy access to the electricity grid. Furthermore, this case study examines the shipping of PtL fuels
the proximity to the coast offers short national produced in Ghana to North America. Figure 28
transport distances for future export. shows the supply chain under consideration.
Figure 28: PtL supply chain in Ghana

In this case study, electricity from onshore wind
6.3 Results - Production of energy, PV and hydropower is available for the
Green PtL Fuels in Ghana pro-duction and compression of hydrogen. While
and their Supply to North the key figures for electricity supply from wind
and solar power are derived from site specific
America weather data, it is assumed that electricity from
hydropower can be purchased from the public
In this chapter, the modelled results for a cost electricity grid. Respectively, a continuous supply
optimised production of green PtL fuels in of electricity from hydropower at 60 €/MWh
Ghana and the supply of the produced fuels (includes typical electricity generation costs for
to North America are presented with regard to hydropower and grid usage fees) is included in
the dimensioning of the individual supply chain the model as a further electricity supply option.
components. The central component of a plant
for the production of PtL fuels is electrolytic Table 6 clearly shows that the conditions for the
hydrogen production. Therefore, the design of a use of wind energy at the chosen location are
plant optimised for minimum hy-drogen supply poor. Thus, the annual full load hours (AFLH)
costs is presented first. The following sections for onshore wind energy are only around 1,700.
discuss the energy input along the overall PtL Accordingly, the calculated levelised cost of
supply chain, the resulting efficiency, and the electricity (LCOE) of wind energy is very high
composition of the PtL supply costs. All values at 66 €/MWh and three times greater than the
shown refer to techno economic parameters LCOE of PV electricity generation. Even the use
of the supply chain components forecasted for of hydropower via the public electricity grid,
2030. Furthermore, the optimisation is based on which is not subject to any weather related
the weather data for 2019. fluctuations in availability, shows lower specific
costs than onshore wind energy.
6.3.1 Renewable Energies
The poor conditions in Ghana for the use of wind
Table 6 shows the most important key figures energy result in onshore wind turbines not being
for renewable electricity generation for the part of the plant configuration that features
continuous supply of compressed hydrogen at minimum hydrogen supply cost. The installed PV
the site under consideration. The figures listed capaci-ty, which generates electricity at 23 €/
result from the model-based optimisation and kWh at the investigated site, is therefore all the
describe the system configuration that enables greater. A total of 193 MW is installed, supplying
hydrogen supply at minimum cost. An electrolyser 91 % of the electricity for the electrolyser and the
with an installed capacity of 100 MW is used as compressor. The remaining 9 % of the electricity
a design parameter for dimensioning renewable used for electrolysis and hydrogen compression
energy plants. The capture and compression of is purchased from the grid for 60 €/MWh and
the required CO2, the fuel synthesis via Fischer originates from hydropower. Batteries for storing
Tropsch process, and the fuel transport are electrical energy are not part of the system for
not part of the optimised hydrogen supply. cost optimised hydrogen supply.
Accordingly, the supply of energy required
for these process steps is not covered by the
capacities shown in Table 6.
INSTALLED AFLH [h/a] SHARE OF SUPPLIED ELECTRICITY

CAPACITY [MW] ELECTRICITY [GWH/GWHDEMAND] COS[€/MWH]
ONSHORE WIND POWER 0 1,702 0% 66
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER 193 1,763 91 % 23
GEOTHERMAL POWER Max. 100 8,760 9% 60

VIA GRID
Table 6: Parameter of the renewable energy generation for the supply of 100 MW electrolyser a
a

The modelled plant design shows that minimum to the results of the case study for Egypt are
hydrogen supply costs, and thus also minimum most likely the high specific costs of hydrogen
PtL fuel supply costs, require oversizing of the storage in pressure gas tanks and the availability
installed renewable energy plants. The oversizing of continuous grid electricity.
factor (installed renewable energy capacities
against installed electrolyser capacity) is in the 6.3.3 Production of PtL Fuel
range of two. The excess energy resulting from
oversizing corresponds to around 14 % (51 GWh) The raw materials for the production of liquid
of the electricity generated annually (for further PtL fuels, which takes place in a three stage
explanations on oversizing and excess energy, process, are hydrogen and CO2. In the reverse
see Case Study for Egypt). water gas shift (RWGS) reaction, CO2 is first
converted to car-bon monoxide. During this
6.3.2 Hydrogen Production and conversion, hydrogen is “consumed”. To produce
Storage one kg of carbon mon-oxide (CO), about 0.07
kg of hydrogen and 1.6 kg of CO2 are needed.
Since electricity from hydropower is theoretically In a second step, the Fischer Tropsch synthesis,
available for hydrogen production at all times, an one kg of the so called syncrude is produced
al-kaline electrolyser was selected for optimising from 0.33 kg of hydrogen and 2.2 kg of CO. The
the hydrogen supply. As described in Chapter syncrude, a mixture of different hydrocarbons, is
2.2, alkaline electrolysers have slightly less finally processed in the refinery into the desired
operational flexibility (which is less important PtL product (e.g. jet fuel). For this study, it is
if continous electricity supply is available) than assumed for simplicity that exactly one kg of
PEM electrolysers, but are expected to be the the desired PtL product can be produced from
most affordable electrolysis technology in 2030. one kg of syncrude. In terms of the modelled
At full capacity, an electrical load of 100 MW mass balance of the PtL fuel supply chain, this
roughly corresponds to a specific production translates into around 13,100 t of PtL fuel can be
capacity of 2.0 t H2/h. produced annually from the 6,500 t of hydrogen
provided. This requires approximately 45,500 t
The optimised plant configuration shown in of CO2. For the operation of the synthesis plant
Figure 29 leads to around 3,200 annual full load consisting of the RWGS reactor, the Fischer
hours (AFLH) for the operation of the electrolyser. Tropsch synthesis and the refinery unit, an
The amount of hydrogen produced annually is operation with 8 000 h/a (full load) is assumed.
thus around 6,500 t. The installed compression Therefore, a continuous CO2 supply must also
capacity corresponds to the maximum specific be ensured in addition to the constant hydrogen
output respectively to the power of the supply, which is guaranteed by the modelled
electrolyser with 2.0 t H2/h. The hydrogen storage plant configuration (see Figure 29). Accordingly, it
capacity selected by the model is only 13 t and is is assumed that the plant for capturing CO2 from
thus significantly less than 50 % of the maximum a biogenic point source (for example, biogas or
daily output of the electrolyser. Reasons for the bioethanol plant) operates at 8000 h/a (full load).
relatively low installed storage capacity in the
cost optimal plant design especially compared

Figure 29: Optimized system configuration for hydrogen production at the selected site in Ghana
(4 GWh) require electricity. A total of around 11

6.3.4 Energy Flow & Efficiencies
GWh of electricity is needed for fuel synthesis,
of which the RWGS accounts the largest share.
Figure 30 shows the expected annual energy
To ensure continuous operation of the synthesis
flows of the optimised system configuration (see
plant and steady CO2 supply, it is assumed
Figure 28). Based on the weather year 2019,
that grid electricity from hydropower, which is
around 341 GWh are generated annually by the
available at all times, is used to supply these
installed PV plant. Close to 15 % (51 GWh) of
processes.
the PV electricity cannot be used and arises as
excess energy. In addition to the electricity from
Taking into account, all the process steps
PV, 33 GWh of electricity from hydropower is
mentioned, the total electricity demand of
annually purchased from the public grid to supply
PtL fuel produc-tion in the scenario under
the electrolyser and the hydrogen compressor.
consideration is 339 GWh. If the excess energy
Taking into account the electricity consumed by
is also considered, this results in a total energy
hydrogen compression (2 GWh), the amount of
supply of 390 GWh, as shown in Figure 30.
energy fed into the electrolyser in the reference
Additionally, 4 GWh of fuel energy is needed
year amounts to 321 GWh. Only about 0.3 GWh
to transport the PtL fuel produced to North
per year are needed to desalinate the water
America. A special feature of the PtL process is
required for electrolysis. Therefore, desalination
the possible internal use of waste heat. As shown
is negligible as an energy consumer and is not
in Figure 30, it is assumed that part of the waste
listed in Figure 30.
heat generated in the Fischer Tropsch synthesis
can be used to cover the heat demand of the
To determine the total energy demand of PtL fuel
CO2 capture unit (29 GWh). If the thermal energy
production, in addition to hydrogen supply, the
required for CO2 capture has to be provided
supply of CO2 and the fuel synthesis itself must
externally, the total energy demand increases
also be taken into account. In the context of CO2
accordingly.
supply, both capture (0.5 GWh) and compression

Figure 30: Annual energy flows of the optimized system configuration for Ghana
The comparison of the different process steps 157 GWh can be produced at the site under
shows that hydrogen supply via electrolysis is consideration with a 100 MW electrolyser
deci-sive for the total energy input of PtL fuel embedded in the outlined plant configuration.
production. Over 90 % of the total energy used Taking into account the excess energy, the overall
is consumed by electrolysis. At the same time, efficiency is approximately 40 %. If the excess
the largest energy losses occur during hydrogen energy is neglected, the overall efficiency of PtL
production (135 GWh). These energy losses fuel supply rises to around 46 %.
are essentially determined by the electrolysis
efficiency and are largely generated as waste heat. 6.3.5 Fuel Supply Cost
The efficiency of the electrolysis is, therefore,
the decisive parameter for the overall efficiency Under the selected assumptions, PtL fuel
of hydrogen supply in the outlined scenario. production costs in the range of 1.87 €/kg can
While the use of waste heat from electrolysis be expected at the examined location in Ghana in
may be conceivable in areas with low ambient 2030. The additional costs caused by transporting
temperatures (e.g., in Europe or North America), the PtL fuel by ship to North America (transport
this appears to be less feasible in countries with distance of 10,200 km assumed) are low and in
a low heat demand, such as Egypt. the range of 0.1 €/kg. Thus, the resulting PtL fuel
supply costs in North America are approximately
Further energy losses occur in particular during 1.97 €/kg. This cor-responds to 0.16 €/kWh.
fuel synthesis (40 GWh). These energy losses
occur mainly in the form of waste heat, too. Figure 31 shows the composition of PtL fuel
Although the distance between the production supply cost. Listed are the costs for the supply
site and the sup-ply location is high in the outlined of re-newable electricity (193 MW PV and
scenario with over 10,000 km, the energy input hydro power via grid), for the construction and
for transportation has only a minimal influence operation of the electrolyser (100 MW) and
on the overall energy balance. the CO2 capture unit, for the compression and
storage of hydrogen and CO2, the water supply
Based on the weather year 2019, around 13,135 costs as well as the costs for the construction
tonnes of PtL fuel with an energy content of and operation of the fuel syn-thesis unit.

Figure 31: Composition of hydrogen supply costs for the selected location in Ghana
For the supply of the PtL fuel in North America, are comparatively low in the analysed scenario.
transportation costs have to be added. In this regard, it should be noted that the costs
The transportation costs include both, the for CO2 capture would be significantly higher if
depreciation costs for the acquisition of the instead of a biogenic point source (e.g., biogas or
corresponding tanker as well as the operating bioethanol plant), capture from the atmosphere
expenses, including fuel costs. New construction (the so-called direct air capture process) had
or redevelopment of roads or ports etc. were not been considered. Other studies have shown that
considered in this case study. the PtL supply costs can increase by up to 20 %
if no biogenic point source is available, mainly
Despite the large number of process steps, due to the high in-vestment costs for direct
electrolysis and the provision of renewable air capture plants. If the heat required for CO2
electricity for hydrogen supply (electrolysis & capture cannot be provided internally via the
hydrogen compression) account for the majority waste heat from Fischer Tropsch synthesis, this
of overall fuel supply costs at around 70 %. also leads to higher fuel supply costs.
This leads to the conclusion that the availability
of low-cost renewable electricity with a high The storage of hydrogen and CO2, the provision
number of annual full load hours is the decisive of treated water for electrolysis and the transport
criterion for selecting a suitable site for low of the produced PtL fuel by ship account for a
cost PtL fuel production. High utilisation of the small share of the total supply costs only, with a
electrolyser enables lower specific electrolysis maxi-mum of 0.1 €/kg fuel each. The relatively
costs (see Egypt case study). low costs for hydrogen storage (especially in
comparison to Case Study 1, Figure 16) can be
Another relevant cost factor is the synthesis plant explained, among other things, by the fact that
for producing the liquid fuel from hydrogen and the storage capacities installed as part of the
CO2, which contributes around 0.25 €/kg PtL fuel cost-optimised hydrogen supply are low at 13 t
to the total costs. At 0.12 €/kg PtL fuel, the costs of hydrogen (see Figure 29).
for providing the CO2 required for fuel synthesis

7. Conclusion
In the context of this project, three case studies were conducted to investigate the potential for the
production and export of green energy from three different African countries.Egypt, Kenya and Ghana
were previously identified through a specific country selection process. In each case study, a selected
example of a green hydrogen supply chain was examined. The reference year was 2030. In a first step,
the components of a suitable supply chain were identified on the basis of the regional conditions.
First, a favourable location for the construction of a green hydrogen production plant were defined.
Secondly, a suitable sales market for a possible export of the produced hydrogen or respective
derivate was identified and a correspondingly conceivable and advantageous transport option was
selected.
Finally, both the design of the individual components and the overall supply chain were examined.
Based on a possible design of an exemplary demonstration plant, production efficiencies and supply
costs were calculated. The Figure 32 shows the countries of the individual case studies and their
respective export regions. In the first case study, the production of green hydrogen in Egypt and the
supply to Central Europe was examined. The production of green ammonia in Kenya and the shipping
to Japan was elaborated in the second case study. The third case study explored the production of
green PtL fuels in Ghana and their supply to North America. Table 7 below summarises the main as-
pects of all the case studies.
Figure 32: Overview of the considered production locations and their export regions

EGYPT (2030) KENYA (2030) GHANA (2030)
PRODUCT HYDROGEN (H2) Ammonia (NH3) PtL fuel
The selected site for H2 production is In addition to wind and solar energy, Kenya also has a high Ghana has a relatively even potential for solar energy
located south-east of Cairo on the Gulf potential for the use of geothermal energy. Electricity from nationwide. Electricity from hydro-power is another
of Suez. This location has a high potential geothermal energy can already be purchased from the public option for the use of renewable energy sources and
for both wind and solar power. The close grid. While the potential for using solar energy is relatively can be purchased from the public electricity grid. An
proximity to the coast of the Red Sea is an evenly distributed across the country, the best locations for area east of Accra was chosen as a potential site for
elementary advantage with regard to the using wind energy are in the region around Lake Turkana. A PtL fuel production. This location already offers good
infrastructure and easy access to the electricity grid.
necessary water supply for electrolysis. wind farm already exists on the south coast of Lake Turkana
Furthermore, the proximity to the coast offers short
Furthermore, there is already a well- in the Loiyangalani District. An area close to the Lake
national transport distances for future export.
developed infrastructure and an existing Turkana wind farm was chosen as the best possible location
(natural gas) pipeline system. for green hydrogen production.
PRODUCTION SITE
SHARE OF SUPPLIED • Onshore wind power: 70 % • Onshore wind power: 59 % • Photovoltaic power: 91 %
• Photovoltaic power: 30 % • Photovoltaic power: 25 % • Hydropower via grid: 9 %
ELECTRICITY [GWh/
• Geothermal power via grid:15%
GWhdemand]
100 MW PEM electrolyser with a specific 100 MW AEL electrolyser with a specific production capacity 100 MW AEL electrolyser with a specific production
production capacity of 2.0 t_(H_2 )/h and of 2.0 t_(H_2 )/h and 7600 annual full load hours (AFLH). capacity of 2.0 t_(H_2 )/h and 3200 annual full load
ELECTROLYSER hours (AFLH).
6050 annual full load hours (AFLH).
Based on the weather year 2019, around 695 For NH3 production, N2 is needed in addition to hydrogen. The raw materials for the production of PtL fuels
GWh are generated annually by the installed The cryogenic N2 purification process is chosen for the are H2 and CO2. The synthesis plant consist of the
PV and wind energy systems. Considering extraction of pure N2 from ambient air and the Haber-Bosch RWGS reactor, the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and the
energy losses and excess energy over the process for the production of NH3. For this supply chain, refinery unit. Based on the weather year 2019, around
entire supply chain, around 12,175 t of H2 this translates into a total of around 86,800 t of green NH3 341 GWh are generated annually by the installed PV
PRODUCTION (~406 GWh) can be produced with a 100 that can be produced annually from the 15,300 t of H2 plant and 33 GWh of electricity from hy-dropower
MW PEM electrolyser. provided. Approximately 71,200 t of N2 are required. The is annually purchased from the public grid. From the
6,500 t of H2 provided, about 13,100 t of PtL fuel
total energy demand for the supply of 86 800 t of green NH3
(~157 GWh) can be produced annually. This requires
(~451 GWh) is 966 GWh. Around 937 GWh of this amount is
about 45,500 t of CO2
generated from PV, wind and geothermal energy.
EGYPT (2030) KENYA (2030) GHANA (2030)
PRODUCT HYDROGEN (H2) Ammonia (NH3) PtL fuel
Due to the availability of salt caverns, the The H2 storage capacity is 17 t and is thus significantly less The raw materials for the production of PtL fuels
H2 can be stored very cost-effectively. An than 50 % of the maximum daily output of the electrolyser. are H2 and CO2. The synthesis plant consist of the
electricity storage facility is not required. The reasons for the low installed storage capacity are RWGS reactor, the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and
The selected H2 storage capacity amounts presumably the high specific costs of H2 storage in pressure the refinery unit. Based on the weather year 2019,
1390t. gas tanks and the availability of continuous grid electricity. around 341 GWh are generated annually by the
H2 STORAGE installed PV plant and 33 GWh of electricity from
hydropower is annually purchased from the public
grid. From the 6,500 t of H2 provided, about 13,100
t of PtL fuel (~157 GWh) can be produced annually.
This requires about 45,500 t of CO2.
H2 PRODUCTION
COSTS
SALE MARKET FOR H2 supply to Europe NH3 supply to Japan PtL fuel supply to North America
EXPORT
MEAN OF
TRANSPORT FOR Pipeline Ship Ship
EXPORT
SUPPLY COSTS
• 56 % (excess energy included) • 47 % (excess energy included)

• 40 % (excess energy included)
OVERALL EFFICIENCY • 63 % (excess energy is excluded) • 54 % (excess energy is excluded)
• 46 % (excess energy is excluded)
Annex A:
Parameters used
in the modelling
PARAMETER WATER SUPPLY UNIT
H2O desalination cost 2.62 €/m3H2O
H2O desalination electricity demand 3.10 kWhel/m3H2O
H2O transportation cost 0.55 (€/m3H2O)/100 km
H2O transportation electricity demand 0.45 (kWhel/m3H2O)/100 km
Table 8: Water supply by reverse osmosis desalination and pipeline transporta [52-59]
Alkaline PEM
PARAMETER UNIT
electrolyser electrolyser
Technology Readiness TRL 9 8
CAPEX €/kWel 760 860
OPEX %CAPEX/a 2.5 3.5
Depreciation a 25 20
System efficiency b
% 67 67
H2O demand kgH2O/kgH2 13 13
Table 9: Hydrogen production via water electrolysisa [10, 13-17, 19, 60- 62]
a
b
System efficiency based on the LHV (kWhH2.LHV/kWhel,input)
PARAMETER UNIT Compression Liquefaction
Reference scale tH2/d 6 100
CAPEX M€ 0.7 195
OPEX %CAPEX/a 5 4
Depreciation a 15 30
Energy demand kWhel/kgH2 0.31 b

7.4
Table 10: Compression and liquefaction of hydrogena [63-66]

a
b
Calculation for inlet pressure of 50 bar and outlet pressure of 100 bar

PARAMETER UNIT AMMONIA PRODUCTION
Technology Readiness TRL 9
Reference scale tNH3/d 18
CAPEX M€ 109
OPEX %CAPEX/a 4
Depreciation a 20
Electricity demand kWhel/kgNH3 10
H2 demand kgH2/kgNH3 0.18
N2 demand kgN2/kgNH3 0.82
N2 supply, cost €/kgN2 0.03
N2 supply, energy demand kWhel//kgN2 0.11
Table 11: Ammonia productiona [67-70]

a
All data refer to the year 2030
PARAMETER UNIT RWGS FischerTropsch synthesisb
Scale tPtL/d 10 10
CAPEX M€ 0.83 3.5
OPEX %CAPEX/a 4 4
Depreciation a 5 30
Electricity demand kWhel/kgPtL 0.63 0.2
Heat demand kWhth/kgPtL 0.62 -3.8
H2 demand kgH2/kgPtL 0.15 0.33
CO2 demand kgCO2/kgPtL 3.5 /
Table 12: PtL fuel productiona [71-75]

a
b
Includes refinerey

CGH2 CGH2 LH2 NH3 PtL
PARAMETER UNIT
tank cavern tank tank tank
Technology Readiness TRL 9 7 8 9 9
CAPEX €/kgfuel 460 46 33 13 2
OPEX %CAPEX/a 2 2 2.7 2 2
Depreciation a 30 30 30 30 30
Storage pressure kWhel/kgH2 100 100 1 1 1
Fuel loss %/d 0 0 0.1 b

0.03 0
Table 13: Storage of compressed gaseous H2 (CGH2), LH2, NH3 and PtL fuela [10,63, 64, 68, 76-83]
a
b
Based on large scale liquid hydrogen storage, in the case of small scale storage systems (e.g., vehicle tanks), losses can be
significantly higher due to poor surface to volume ratio
PARAMETER UNIT LH2 ship NH3 ship PtL Ship
Technology Readiness TRL 6 9 9
Maximum Payload t/ship 11,000 LH2 53,000 NH3 20,500 PtL
CAPEX M€/ship 387 79 30
OPEX %CAPEX/a 4 4 4
Depreciation a 25 25 25
Fuel demand kWhPtL/km 0b 690 300
Fuel loss %/d 0.25c 0 0
Table 14: Transportation of LH2, NH3 and PtL fuel by ship a [10, 40, 81, 84-86]]
a
b
Boil-off losses assumed as fuel and therefore no additional fuel demand
c
Additional hydrogen losses during loading of 1.3 % per load
PARAMETER UNIT CGH2 PIPELINE
Technology Readiness TRL 8
Scale (Pipeline diameter) mm 1,400
CAPEX M€/kmPipeline 6.58
OPEX %CAPEX/a 5
Depreciation a 40
Electricity demand for intermediate
kWhel/(kgH2 100km) 0.06
compression
H2 loss kgH2/(kgH2 100 km) 0
Operating pressure bar 100
Table 15: Transportation of compressed gaseous H2 (CGH2) via pipeline a [10, 88]
a

Annex B:
Just Transition
dimensions
This Annex sets out the principles and framework This framework advances three principles
underpinning the Just Transition concept, which as underpinning a just transition towards an
is still more a vision or process, rather than an environmentally sustainable economy and
end-point, to facilitate greater representation, society: procedural justice, distributive justice
greater equality, greater equity for communities, and restorative justice. The principles are
but in particularly, marginalized groups, within drawn from literature on the just transition3 and
a transition dynamic. In this case the situation international best practice guidelines 4.
relates to the energy transition underway
encapsulating the emergence of new technologies 7.2.1 Procedural Justice
and energy carriers to achieve wider aspirations
of net zero or carbon neutrality economies in the Here, workers, communities, and small
coming decades. businesses must be empowered and supported
in the transi-tion, with them defining their own
7.1 Defining the Just development and livelihoods.
Transition At a State policies or Government level this

means:
The concept has its antecedence in the context
of a different environment, continent and era. • assisting the Egyptian, Kenyan and Ghanian
Today, it is viewed as a process to achieve communities to understand what the just
more equitable distribution of costs within the transition entails, specifically, and discuss points
wider climate change goals. Work within AFDB of agreement and disagreement openly and
remains underway to agree a definition1. As on transparently.
its website, the Bank defines the “Just Transition
concept as a framework for facilitating equitable • supporting worker and community organisations
access to the benefits and sharing of the costs (unions, civics, advocacy groups, etc.) in the three
of sustainable development such that livelihoods countries to participate actively in just transition
of all people, including the most vulnerable, are policy-making processes ensuring de-cisions are
supported and enhanced as societies make the made in their best interests and allow them to
transition to low carbon and resilient economies. take advantage of opportunities.
A Just Transition affirms Africa’s right to
• collaborating actively with a range of
development and industrialization based on the
stakeholders, through inclusive and participatory
Paris Agreement-negotiated language of equity
decision making structures, allowing each to play
and the principle of common but differentiated
to their respective strengths, fostering a more
responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the
dynamic, competitive, diversified, and equitable
light of different national circumstances”.2
economy.
7.2 High Level principles • supporting the design and implementation

of just transition projects, as proposed by
individuals and communities in affected areas.
1
In December 2021, AFDB did launch a Just Transition Initiative, supported by the Climate Investment Funds, and with consultations with African stakeholders is aiming
to build a consensus around a working definition that can be ef-fectively implemented.
2
https://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/climate-investment-funds-cif/just-transition-initiative
3
Cahill, B. M. Allen. 2020. Just Transition Concepts and Relevance for Climate Action. Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) and
McCauley, D. and Heffron, R. 2018. “Just transition: Integrating cli-mate, energy and environmental justice.” Energy Policy (119)
4
International Labour Organization (ILO). 2015. Guidelines for a just transition towards environmentally sustainable economies and societies for all. Switzerland

7.2.2 Distributive Justice 7.2.3 Restorative Justice
The risks and opportunities resulting from the Restorative Justice relates to historical damages
transition must be distributed fairly, taking against individuals, communities, and the
account of gender, race, and class inequalities. environment that should be addressed, with a
It is essential that impacted workers and particular focus on rectifying or ameliorating
communities do not carry the overall burden of the situations of harmed or disenfranchised
the transition, and the costs of adjustment are communities. It is about redress: healing people
borne by those historically re-sponsible for the and the land, which is an immediate need for
problem. many communities.
At a State or Government level, it encompasses: At a State or Government level this means:
• equipping the Egyptian, Kenyan and Ghanian • acknowledging the health and environmental
citizens with skills, assets, and opportunities impacts to communities in fossil fuel impacted
to participate in industries of the future, with areas, and supporting all citizens rights to a
particular attention on impacted groups, the healthy environment.
poor, women, people with disabilities, and the
youth. • Shifting away from resource intensive sectors
and fossil fuels to improve ecosystems with
• Implementing transformative national community ownership and stewardship, improve
economic and social policies that clearly consider energy security and eliminate energy poverty,
how benefits and burdens will be distributed and create opportunities for rehabilitation of
(this includes clear indication of where jobs are degraded land, water systems, the improvement
gained, where jobs are lost, and the quality and of biodiversity as well as related employment
longevity of future employment). opportunities.
• Increasing provincial and local capacity (both • creating a more decentralised, net zero
resources and skills) to promote local econom-ic emissions economy, which allows for
development. greater economic inclusion, ownership, and
participation, especially for women and the
• ensuring corporate responsibility to support a youth.
green and inclusive economy.
An effective just transition demands an • Remedying past harms by building on, and
understanding of the working people and enhancing, existing mechanisms such as
communities that are: equitable access to environmental resources
• negatively impacted by climate change i.e.,

when their lives and livelihoods are directly 7.3 Aligning the Just
impacted by droughts, floods, and other extreme Transition Process with
weather events or other long-term climate
impacts (e.g. food security risks, water scarcity);
Country Specifics
• negatively impacted by the sectoral shifts Africa is very diverse across the compass points,
in response to climate change i.e., when their not least with different energy and fuel mixes,
means of securing income and work are tied to dif-ferent infrastructure expansion needs,
high-emissions industries that are phased out investment requirements, financing options
over time; available and energy policy priorities as well as
NDC targets and scenarios. The type of issues to
• negatively impacted by the development and be addressed there fore depend on the “country
buildup of green hydrogen (comprising projects context”, for example, taking into account:
investments and operational projects in due
course)

• if any, the size and extent of a coal mining sector among others) and the case studies have, clearly,
and related workforce well-established RE sectors either benefiting
from large hydropower resources (Ghana),
• the type of fuels used in power generation significant wind and solar resources (Egypt) or
whether coal is the predominant source geothermal resources (Kenya), while the energy
• the sources of the Renewable Energy sector carrier is hydrogen. In many African countries, at
whether hydro based or with significant wind and this time, there will be no significant production
solar plants of grey (let alone, green) hydrogen although Egypt
is an exception with well established hydrogen-
• the mix and ownership of the RE sector whether sourced iron, steel, cement and petrochemical
large private companies or PPPs or community sectors.
driven RE projects
The development of Green Hydrogen projects
• the extent to which significant petrochemical
(principally powered by Renewable Energies)
and agri-industrial sectors exist
can be viewed through the “lens” of an African
• the extent to which grey hydrogen is used relevant Just Transition process which will also
in these sectors (eg. refining and producing be, in the frame of the case studies’ conditions,
ammonia and methanol) less about transitioning away from coal but
rather about using it to tackle poverty, inequality,
gender discrimination and unemployment so as
7.4 Moving from State and to improve lives.
Government to project level
The project initiators, owners or operators
Along with international obligations or steers, the have responsibility and interest to ensure that
main drivers behind Just Transition, generally, projects are supported by all key stakeholders,
are States and Governments who establish the the local community and the Just Transition
enabling frameworks and instruments. These process affords them a mechanism to participate
frameworks include policies, legislation, acts, and shape the development, commissioning,
regulations, rules and other standards cutting operation and eventual de commissioning of the
across many sectors and issues including: projects.
• energy, transport, water, agriculture, industry, In and of itself, Renewable Energy technologies
heath, finance and the environment and the supply chain of Green Hydrogen are
neither just nor unjust but their equity and justice
• labour and community rights,
implications must be considered. A part of the
• social protection, and so on. implementation of the Just Transition process
is therefore to consider and to answer in the
As an item of investigation, developing projects, affirmative key questions set out below. These
as such, would need to comply with the myriad are by no means exhaustive. Behind the issues
of Just Transition promoting policies, laws, will be a need for specific actions (eg polcies and
regulations and standards. measures) on the areas addressed by interested
parties, including Governments, civil society
The technologies, in this context, are renewable organisations and project operators.
energy sources (eg hydropower, solar and wind,

EGYPT AS A KENYA AS AN GHANA AS
HYDROGEN AMMONIA A PTL FUELS
EXPORTER EXPORTER PRODUCER
CARBON NEUTRALITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Do the plans and projects synchronize with
12. national-level decarbonization strategies (and
NDCs)?
Have comprehensive decarbonization plans been
1.3
prepared?
Are the environmental impacts of the proposed
1.4 just transition Green Hydrogen projects adequately
assessed?
Has an assessment been prepared of the
1.5 environmental impacts of the industries being
phased out?
SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Will new skills, training or re-training be
undertaken for those impacted, the poor, the youth,
2.1 women, and jobseekers to seize opportunities
offered by the new technologies (RE and Green
Hydrogen)?
Will employment opportunities be secured for
2.2
people losing their jobs?
Are the issues of various vulnerable groups being
2.3
addressed?
Do the Green Hydrogen projects significantly
2.4
address the issues faced by women?
Do the Greem Hydrogen projects address the needs
2.5
of the young?
Has economic redevelopment actually been
2.6
ensured?
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Has an inclusive participatory process been
3.1
ensured (so no one is left behind)?
Have relevant stakeholders with a quieter voice
3.2
been included in the process?
Has local capacity been developed to ensure a
3.3
more inclusive process?
Has a good Green Hydrogen project selection
3.4
process been ensured?
Has good governance over the implementation
3.5
phase been ensured?
Legend: Contextual Importance: three: high, two: medium, one: low

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Just Transition in a

Renewable Energy Riche

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 1

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 3

2. Green hydrogen supply chain 18

3. Hydrogen Supply Cost 27

4. Case study 1 – Egypt as a Hydrogen Exporter 30

1 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

6. Case study 3 – Ghana as a PtL exporter 44

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 2

3 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 4

CIF Climate Investment Funds

IEA International Energy Agency

TOL Toluol as a promising LOHC

5 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

7 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 8

9 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

Figure 1: Shares on global hydrogen consumption and production

battery electric vehicles is preferably suitable

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 10

•The use of H2 will require new aircraft systems

•Announcement that the first 100% ammonia-fuelled

•H2 and FC technologies are already being used for rail

•H2 driven trucks have so far only been produced as

•The combination of H2-based direct reduction and

Figure 2: Forecasted development of global green hydrogen demand

13 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 14

15 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 16

17 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

Figure 4: Green hydrogen supply chain

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 18

19 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

ALKALINE ELECTROLYSER PEM ELECTROLYSER

•Dynamic operation •High demand of noble metals

Table 2: Hydrogen production via water electrolysis

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 20

A detailed breakdown of the techno-economic

21 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers – LOHCs

Compression If the hydrogen is to be used after storage

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 22

Power-to-Liquid fuel Cryotanks

23 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

The storage and transportation of ammonia, Transportation via pipelines

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 24

COMPRESSED LIQUID LOHC METHANOL AMMONIA PTL FUELS

Energy 0.04 kWh/ 0.20-0.25 0.35-0.40 0.15-0.17 0.05-0.07 kWh/ 0.08-0.10

Pipeline 0.2-0.4 % per No losses No losses No losses No losses

•Low •High energy •Very high •Supply of •Toxic substance •Supply of

* excludes provision of H2/CO2/N2

25 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

Figure 9: Indicative comparison of different options for the transport of hydrogen

Potential Role of Green Hydrogen 26

27 Just Transition in a Renewable Energy Rich Environment

3.2 Calculation of Hydrogen produce the respective derivative. The operating