Biology Notes PDF 1 Beq2wo

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Chapter 1
Reproduction
formation of life from preexisting life
sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
(Amphimixis) (Apomixis)
Formation of life formation of life from

from preexisting preexisting life without
life by formation formation and Fusion
and fusion of of gametes is called
gamete is called as ….
as …
A) Fragmentation
Filamentous algae reproduce by Fragmentation
ie filament gets broken into small fragments and
each fragment develops into new individual.
B) Budding
The division of unequal and small cell called as buds
are produce that remain attached initially on parent
body
C) Spores formation
It is defined as different types of motile and non-
motile spore are produce by algae and Fungi
1) Vegetative propagation
Artificial method
A) Cutting
1) The small pieces of plant pants like roots, stem

or leaves, which are able to develop into new plant
placed in moist soil.
2) A cutting is a must have primary meristem.

3) cheap method of propagation.
B) Grafting
1) It is the technique to joining together the pants

of two different plants such a way that they unite
and continue their growth as one plant.
2) stock on scion is graft
3) cambium play important

role in it grafting is
possible in monocots.
Sexual Reproduction
1)Angiosperms are commonly called flowering plants.

because they produce a prominent, highly Specialized
organ called flower, for sexual reproduction,
2) formation of fruits and seeds are the further

Stages of sexual reproduction
Flower structures
1) Flower is a site of sexual reproduction. Typical
Flower has four main part
a) calyx
b) corolla
c) Androecium
d) gynoecium.
2) Anther of stamen and ovule of carpel produce
microspore.
3) Stamens and carpel are the male and female

reproductive organs.
4) pollination and fertilization is done then the

Formation of fruits and seeds takes place and
from seed new plant is produced.
Structure of Anther
1)An immature stage of anther is represented by

group of parenchymatous tissue surrounded by
single layered epidermis.
2)Anther is generally dithecous having two lobes &

tetrasporangiate each monothecous anther contain
two pollen sacs (dithecous ) four sacs are present
therefore (tetrasporangiat)
T.s. of Anther
The archesporial cell divides into an inner sporogenous

cell and outer primary parietal cell sporogenous cell
forms sporogenous tissue it capable of giving rice to
a microspore tetrad
parietal cell undergoes divisions to form anther wall
layers The wall of mature anther consists of four
layers
Epidermis
is the outermost protective layer made up of

tubular cells flattened cells
Endothecium
is sub-epidermal layer up of radialy elongated

cells with fibrous thickenings
Middle layer
made up of thin layer cell
Tapetum
is the inner most nutritive layer of anther wall

it immediately encloses the sporogenous tissue
Microsporogenesis
Each microspore mother cell divides meiotic to form

tetrad of haploid microspore (pollen grain)
Structure of microspores
Pollen grain is non-motile ,haploid(n) Unicellular body

having single nucleus
It is surrounded by two layered wall called sporoderm
1)The inner wall layer is intine It is consists of

cellulose pectin
2)The outer layer exine is thick and made up of

complex non-biodegradable substance sporopollenin
It resist to chemical some places exine thin show thin

area called germ- pores
Development of male gametophyte
1)Pollen grain undergoes first mitotic division to
produce bigger naked Vegatative cell and small
thin walled generative cells
2) The vegetative cell is rich food and having irregular

shaped nucleus generative cell floats in the cytoplasm
of generative cell
3)The second mitotic division is concerned with

generative cell only And give rise two non-motile
male gamete
4)The mitotic division of generative cell takes place in

pollen grain or in pollen tube
Polination
The process of transfer of pollen grain from anther
to stigma is called as polination is called as polination
Polination is of two types
1) Autogamy (Self Polination )
The process of transfer of pollen grain from anther

to Stigma of same flawer is called as self polination
2) Geitonogamy
The process of transfer of pollen grain of anther of

one Flower to Stigma of another flower having same
plant is called as Geitonogamy
3) Xenogamy (Cross Polination)

The process of transfer of pollen grain of anther
of one Flower to Stigma of another flower having
Different plant is called as Geitonogamy
Abiotic polination Agencies
For cross polination flower depend on different

Agents called polination agencies like wind,insect
Animal,water etc
1) Anemophily
Polination through the wind is called as Anemophily

And the plant is called as Anemophilous plant
1) They are never coloured
2) Large quantity of pollen grain is required
3) Stigma are comparatively small

2) Hydrophily
Polination through the water is called as Hydrophily

And the plant is called as hydrophilous plant
Adaptation in Entomophilous plant

- Sepal and petals are water proof
- Waxy and sticky stigma
- Nectar & fragrance are lacking
- Flower is small inconspicuous
- Eg Vallisneria ,
- Zostera
2) Hydrophily
Epihydrophily Hypohydrophily
Polination occurs above the Polination occurs Below the

surface of water is called water surface is called
as Epihydrophily as Hypohydrophily
Biotic polination Agencies
Animal,water etc
1) Entomophily
Polination through the insect is called as Entomophily

And the plant is called as Entamophilous plant
- Large, showy Bright color

- Produce Sweet odor
- Stigma is rough
- Pollen grain are spiny
- Special adaptation Lever mechanism or
Turn-pipe mechanism – Salvia
- Eg Rose ,Jasmine ,Cestrum
Biotic polination Agencies
Animal,water etc
2) Ornithophily
Polination through the Bird is called as Ornithophily

And the plant is called as Ornithophiles plant
- Large, showy Bright color

- They secrete profuse dilute nectar
- Pollen grain are spiny & sticky
- Flower without fragrance
- Eg Bombax callistemon ( Bottle brush )

Butea
3) Chiropterophily
Polination through the Bats is called as Chiropterophily

And the plant is called as Chiropterophilous plant
Adaptation in Chiropterophilous plant
- Flower are dull in color

- They secrete abundant nectar
- Produce Edible pollen grains
- Eg Androcephalous ( kadam tree )

Adansonia (Baobab tree )
Kigalia (Sausage tree)
structure of Anatropous ovule
1) Each ovule develops inside the ovary and is attached

to the placenta by a small stalk called funiculus
2) The place of attachment of funiculus with the main

body of ovule is called hilum
3) In angiosperms the most common. type of ovule is

anatropous in which micropyle is directed downward
4) The ovule is consists of central parenchymatous

tissue
5) The nucellus which is surrounded usually by two

protective covering called integument
6) A narrow opening
at the apex of the
ovule is called
Micropyle
Megasporogenesis
Development of female gametophyte
1) Megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to from

linear tetrad of haploid cells
2) Upper thin megaspores abort lowest one remain

functional.
3) Generally one megaspore toward centre is functional

megaspore it is intact first cell of female gametophyte
4) It undergoes three successive free nuclear mitotic

division thus total eight nuclei are formed four of
which located at each pole
5) one nucleus from each migrates toward the centre

and are called as polar nuclei
6) Three nuclei toward macropylar end it consists of

large central egg cell and two supporting haploid
synergied cells
7) Antipodal cells are group of three cell present at

chalazal end
8) The two haploid polar nuclei of large central cell
fuse to form diploid secondary nucleus or definitive
nucleus
The seven cell eight nuclei structure called embryo

sac
Out breeding devices (contoivonies)
many plants have mechanisms that discourage or

prevent self pollination
To promote cross pollination, and increase genetic

diversity
Thus plants have developed many devices to encourage

cross pollination the examples of out breading devices
are as follows
Unisexuality
In this case the plant bears either male female

flowers it is also called as monoecius If flower are
unisexual self-pollination is not possible
Dichogamy
when anther and stigma mature at different times in a

bisexual flowers as to prevent self pollination
1) Protandry 2) Protogyny
e.g. sunflower e.g. Gloriosa
Prepotency
pollen grains of other flowers germinate rapidly over
the stigma than the same flower
e.g. Apple.
Heterostyly (heteromorphy)
There are two or three types of flower in which

stigma and anther are placed at different
It is mechanical device to prevent self pollination in a

bisexual flower
In plants natural physical barrier is present between

two sex organ s avoid contact of pollen grain and
stigma
Self sterility (self incompatibility)
This is genetic mechanism due to which the

germination of pollen on stigma of same flower is
inhibited
Pollen Pistil Interaction

1) It is the interaction of pollen grains with
sporophytic tissue (stigma.)
2) It begins with pollination and ends with

fertilization
3) All the events from the deposition of pollen grain

on stigma to the entry of pollen tube in the Ovule
(synergid) ore referred as pollen- pistil Interaction.
4) Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of right
type of pollen grain, after wrong type also land on
stigma
5) The pistil has the ability to recognize the species

thus wrong type of pollen is discarded to the pollen
-pistil is determined by special proteins.
6) This process involves recognition followed by

promotion or inhibition of pollen.
7) It also plays important role in sexual reproduction

& seed formation
8) Due to pollen pistil interaction, intense competition

develops even in the compatible pollen grain
Double fertilization
1) The fusion of one male gamete with egg and anther
of male gamete with Secondary nucleus it is called as
Double fertilization
2) Double Fertilization, discovered by Nawaschin in

the Liliaceous plants like Lilium and fritillaria
3) After a pollen grain has reached the surface of

the stigma it germinates and forms a pollen tube,
which penetrates the stigma style, ovary chamber
and the enters ovule.
4) It usually enters through micropyle. It termed as

porogamy. But in some case It found to enter through
chalaza known chalazogamy
5) In some plants piercing the integuments, called

mesogamy.
6) As non motile male gametes are carried through

hollow pollen tube it is known as siphonogamy.
syngamy & triple Fusion are two events of sexual

reproduction in angiospermic Flowering plants
1st fertilization( Syngamy)
male gamete + egg cell forms = Zygote
2nd fertilization (Triple fusion)

gamete male + secondary nucleus Forms = Endosperm
Significance of Double fertilization
1) It is an feature of angiosperms. It ensures that

the parent plant invests a seed with food store,
only if the egg is fertilized.
2) The diploid zygote develops into an embryo which

consequently develops into a new plant.
3) The triple/triploid PEN develops into nutritive

endosperm tissue, It restores the diploid condition
by fusion of haploid mole gamete with haploid
female gamete i.e.. through syngamy.
Development of Endosperm
1) The triploid primary nucleus repeatedly divides

, mitotically to form nutritive tissue called endosperm.
2) The formation of triploid endosperm nucleus

triggers cell division which leads to the formation of
endosperm
3) There are three types of endosperm on the basis

of mode of development. These are
1) Nuclear type.
2) cellular type.
3) Helobial type.
1) Nuclear type
It is most common type found in 161 angiospermic

families. Here, the primary endosperm nucleus
repeatedly divides mitotically without wall formation
to produce large number of free nuclei.
e.g.. sunflower, wheat coconut,
2)cellular type
In some plants division of triploid primary endospermic

nucleus is immediately followed by wall formation so
that the endosperm is cellular right from the
beginning.
It is mostly observed in 72 families of dicots as in

members eg. Balsam, petunia. Adoxa etc.
3) Helobial Type.
It occurs in the order Helobial of monocotyledons. In

this case first division of the primary endosperm
nucleus is followed by a transverse wall, which divides
the cells an equally. smaller cell (chalazal cell) larger
cell (micropylar)
eg. Asphodelus
Development of embryo
The process of development of an embryo is called
embryogenesis
The embryo is developed at the micropylar end of

embryo sac.
After fertilization the embryonic development begins.

The zygote divides to form two-celled proembryo
The larger cell toward the micropylar end is called

basal or suspensor initial smaller cell is called as
terminal or embryonal initial called basal cell
The suspensor initial cell divides transversely In one

plane to produce filamentous suspensor of 6-10 cells
The first cell of the suspensor toward the micropylar

end becomes swollen and func as haustorium
The lowermost cell of suspensor is known as hypophysis
The suspensor helps in pushing the embryo endosperm
The lowermost cell of helps in pushing the embryo in

endosperm
The embryonal Initial undergoes three successive

mitotic divisions to form octant
The lower tier of four cells of octant give rise to
hypocotyl and radical whereas four cells of upper
tier form the Plumule and one or two cotyledens
The cell in the upper tier of octant divide in several
planes so as to become heart shaped
further enlargement of hypocotyl and cotyledons

result in curvature of embryo and it appears horse-
shoe shaped
The embryo development is similar to both dicots &

monocots
Development of Monocot Embryo

Development of Dicot Embryo
seed and fruit development
The goal of reproduction in organism including plants
is to produce offspring's for the next generation
plants can produce offspring is by forming seeds
The flower must be pollinated in order to form seed.
The integuments of the fertilized ovule persist and

get transformed into the seed coat of mature seed,
seed sometimes consists of two distinct covering a

typical outer seed coat the testa and inner thin
membranous tegna
Seed
1) Endospermis (albuminous)
In some seeds the food reserves in the endosperm

are partially used up in development of an embryo
Endosperm is present In seed hence …..
E.g. coconut ,maize
2) Non-endospermic (exalbuminous)
In some seeds embryo absorbs foods reserve form

the endosperm completely during its ‘developmental
stage The Endosperm is disappear in mature seed
hence Ex.pea
significance of seed and fruit
formation
fruits provide nourishment to the developing seeds
fruits protect seeds in immature conditions
seeds serve as importing propagating organs of plant
seeds and fruits developed devices for their dispersal

and this help in the distribution of the species.
Dormancy
structural or physiological Adaptation mechanism for
survival is called dormancy.
Apomixis
It is a phenomenon of formation of embryo through
asexual method of reproduction without formation
of gemmates is called apomixis
when gametophyte organ or cell produce embryo like

structure without fertilization is called Apagamy
when diploid sporophyte cell produce diploid

gametophyte without undergoing meiosis is called
apospory
A)Recurrent
An archesporal cell or some other part of nucellus

form embryo is called….
B) Non-recurrent
egg by parthenogenesis or some other haploid cell

form embryo is called…
C)Adventive embryony
Somatic nucellus or integuments along with normal

zygotic embryo forms embryo
Parthenocarpy
The term coined by Noll (1902) it is the condition in
which fruit is developed without the process of
Fertilization
it occurs in papaya , banana pineapple in these, plant

auxin (iAA) indole-3 Acetic Acids which is responsible
for enlargement of ovary into fruit
The fruit resembles the normally produced fruit but

it is seedless
Polyembryony
it is the development of more than one embryo inside
the seed that condition is described as polyembryony
Leeuwenhoek (1719) in the seed of citrus genus
1) cleavage polyembryony
an embryo develop directly from diploid cell of

nucellus and integuments
2) Adventive polyembryony
Zygote proembryo sometimes divides (cleaves) into

many parts each parts develop into an embryo
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Chapter 2
Reproduction
It is defined as the biological process in which
formation of life from pre-existing life.
Reproduction is animal is of two types
1) Asexual reproduction
It is most common method in lower organism
Life is formed Without formation & fusion of
gamete
It which only one parent involved parent are also
referred as clone Meiosis is not involved
2) sexual reproduction
It is also called as amphimixis life is formed
With formation & fusion of gamate
It show two phases in his life
A) juvenile phase ( physical growth)

b) reproductive growth
Asexual Reproduction in animals
1) Budding
It is simple method of a sexual Reproduction It seen

in veriety of animals like coelenterates. (hydra)
A small outgrowth is produce toward the basal end of

body
It develops as a bud which grows and forms tentacles

and get transformed into a new Individual
This process is called as budding
2) Gemule formation
Gemule is on internal bud formed by the sponges.
The archaeocytes capable of developing into a new

organism
These are get coated by a thick resistant layer of

secretion by Amoebocytes
The gemule is formed to overcome unfavourable

condition on return to favorable condition gemule
hatch and develop into new organism
Human Reproduction
Human reproduce by sexual method

In the sexual reproduction involves various steps
1) Gamatogenesis
2) Insemination
3) Internal fertilization (fusion of male & female
gamate)
4) Zygote formation
5) Embryogenesis
6) gestation (time period of baby to developed)
7) parturition (when baby comes out from mother body
Gametes produced by primary sex organ

1) testis ( male gamate)
2) ovary (female gamate)
secondary sexual characters
In males
beard,enlarged larynx(Adam’s apple)
In females
breast, broder pelvis ,high pitched voice
Male Reproductive system
It consist of the primary male organ called testes

accessory ducts & gland
Testes are paired, mesodermal in origin formed in

lower abdominal cavity
They are located in a pouch called scrotum
Testis are develops in the abdominal cavity and later

they descend into the scrotal sac through a passage
called inguinal canal
Each testis 2-3cm broad & 3cm thick

Histology of testis
Testis is internally covered by a Collagenous

connective tissue layer called tunica albuginea
Outer to it is a incomplete peritoneal covering called

tunica veginalis inner to it tunica vasculosa
tunica albuginea divide each testis into about 200-300

testicular lobules with 1-4 highly coiled seminiferous
tubules
Seminiferous tubules is internally lined cuboidal

germinal epithelial cells (spermatogonia and few
sortoli cell Or sustentacular cell)
The germinal epithelial cells (spermatogonia)
Spermogegonia undergoes gamatogenesis & produce
spermatozoa
Inner most spermatogonial cell

(2n)
Primary spermatocytes
(2n)
secondary Secondary
spermotocyte Spermatocyte
(n) (n)
spermatid spermatid
sertoli cells provide nutrition to the developing sperm

Interstitial cell & Leyding’s cells Secrete male hormone
androgen or testosterone
Accessory ducts
The accessory ducts include rete testis vasa efferentia
epididymis,vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and urethra
seminiferous tubules
rate testis vasaeffentia
epididymis (mature sperm)
Vasa deferens
Urethra
Glands
1) Seminal vesicles
present on posterior side of urinary bladder
It secrete an alkaline seminal Fluid which contain
A)prostaglandins
Reverse peristalsis in vagina and uterus aiding faster
movement of sperm toward egg
B)fructose
Provide energy to sperm
C)fibrinogen
Coagulate the sperm
About 60% of total volume
of semen.
2) Prostate gland
large made up of 20-30 lobes
It surrounds the urethra and release white and
slightly acidic prostatic fluid into the urethra
About 20% of total volume of semen
3) Cowpers gland / Bulbourethral gland

It is small, pea shaped glands secrete an alkaline
viscous mucous like fluid which act as a lubricant
during copulation.
Female Reproductive system
it consist of a pair of ovary along with the pair of
oviducts
+ uterus
+ Cervix
+ vagina
External genitalia located in pelvis

region
These part of system along with Pair of

mammary gland
Integrated structurally &

Functionally to the support of
1) Ovulation
2) Fertilization
3) Pregnancy
4) birth
5) child care
1) ovaries are produce Ovum

female gammate
2) Tests are produce Sperm

male gammate
ovary
2 to 4 cm in length
connected to the pelvis wall & uterus by ligaments
ovary are the primary female sex organ
The oviduct (fallopian tubes) uterus and vagina

constitute the female Accessory ducts.
Each oviduct about 10-12 cm long extends from the

periphery of each ovary to uterus
The part closer to the ovary is the funnel-shaped

infundibulum which help in collection of ovum after
ovulation
wider part of infundibulum is called Ampulla it is the

fertilization site
uterus three wall
External (thin) Middle thick Inner

membranous smooth muscle Glandular
layer
(Perimetrium) (Myometrium) (Endometrium}
Structure and development of the ovary
Each ovary is a compact structures differentiate into

a central part called medulla and the outer part called
Cortex
The cortex is covered externally by a layer of

germinal epithelium
The outer cortex is more compact and granular it

shows large number of tiny masses of cells called
ovarian follicles
These are collectively formed from the immature ova

originating from cells of the dorsal endodermal of the
yolk sac
The cells during embryonic development divide

mitotically. now these are called as oogonia
The process of oogenesis starts much be for the birth

of the female baby by the end of 12 weeks the ovary
is fully formed, It has more than 2 millions primordial
follicle in it
The cells of germinal Each cord at it’s end
epithelium give rise to group has a round mass of
oogonia projecting into the oogonial cell called
Cortes in the form of egg egg nests
tubes of pfluger
from which the primo-

rdial follicles developed
each primordial follicle has

at his center a large primary
oocyte (2n)
The primary oocyte
Starts meiotic
division but gets
arrested at meiosis
the 2 millions
primordial follicle about I millions remain
present in fetal Ovary of birth and only
40,000 remain at
puberty
The large destruction of the primordial follicle during
growth is called atresia
During each menstrual cycle only one of the follicle

starts growing to form Grafian follicle
In each cycle alternately one of two ovaries produce

the grafian follicle
1st menstrual cycle also called menarche at the age of

13 years
last menstrual cycle or stopping of the menstrual cycle

is called menopause at the age 45 to 55
menarche menopause
(13)
(45-55)
Time period In between

called Reproductive age
(32 years)
In this time period female will be produce maximum of
about 416 eggs
structure of Grafian follicle
Grafian follicle is a mature ovarian follicle
Secondary oocyte is surrounded by a non- Cellular layer

of zona pellucida secreted by the viteline membrane
The outermost protective fibrous covering is called

theca externa Inner to it cellular theca interna
It produce the hormone estrogen
Inner to the theca interna the follicular cells form the

membrane granulosa
2) oviduct / fallopian tube / uterine tube
These are a pair of muscular ducts lying horizontally

over the peritoneal cavity
10-12 cm in length
1) infundibulum 2) ampulla 3) isthmus
The proximal funnel It is the middle The distal

like part within long part of narrow distal
opening called ostium oviduct part of duct
finger like projection It is also called opening into
called Fimbriae as fertilization the uterus.
. site
3) Uterus
it is commonly called as womb.
it is hollow muscular pear shaped organ located
above the urinary bladder.
it is about 7.5 cm long 5 cm broad and 2.5 cm thick
1) fundus 2) cervix 3) Body
it is upper dome it is the narrow it is broads of

shaped part about 2.5cm in uterus which
implantation of length It is gradually tapers
embryo occurs extends into downward
in the fundus the vagina
it has two
opening
an internal as
toward body
an external
toward vagina
4. Vagina :
It is a tubular, female copulatory organ, 7 to 9 cm in
length. It lies between the cervix and the vestibule.
The vaginal wall has an inner mucosal lining,
There are no glands but the cervical secretion of

mucus is received in the vagina.
The opening of the vagina into the vestibule is

called vaginal orifice. This opening is covered
partially by a fold of mucus membrane called hymen.
The vagina acts as a passage for menstrual flow as

well as birth canal during parturition.
5. External genitalia :
The external genital organs of female include parts

external to the vagina and are collectively called ‘vulva’
(covering or wrapping), or pudendum.
They include the following parts :
a. Vestibule - It is a median vertical depression of

vulva enclosing the urethral and vaginal opening.
b Labia minora - These are another pair of thin folds

inner to the labia majora
c. Clitoris - A small conical and sensitive projection

lying at the anterior end of labia minora. It has a
pair of erectile tissue –
The corpora cavernosa and is homologous to the penis.
d. Labia majora - These are a pair a fleshy folds of

skin forming the boundary of vulva. They are
homologous to the scrotum.
e. Mons pubis - It is a fleshy elevation above the labia

majora. The Mons pubis and outer part of labia majora
show pubic hair.
6. Accessary glands / Vestibular
glands /
Bartholin’s glands : It is a pair of glands homologous

to the Bulbourethral or Cowper’s glands of the male.
They open into the vestibule and release a

lubricating fluid.
Menstrual cycle (ovarian cycle)
Menstrual cycle is the characteristic feature of
primates including human
It involves a series of cyclic change in the ovary and

female reproductive tract
The cycles are repeated with a pediodicity of

approximately 28 days
The cycle is the divided into four phases.
A) Menstrual phase
The begining of each cycle is taken as the first day
where menses or loss of blood (45 to 100 ml)
It lasts for approximately five days (average - 3-7

days)
Endometrium of uterus breaks down under the

effect of Prostaglanding released due to decreased
levels of estrogen
Due to this blood tissue fluid, mucus endometrial

lining and the fertilized oocyte is discharged
through vagina
menstrual phase occurs when an ovulated egg does
not get fertilized and release out it is thus called
“funeral of unfertilized egg”
B) Proliferative phase\ follicular phase\
post menstrual phase
This phase is duration between the end of

menstruation and ovulation
It extends from 1o th to 13 th day of menstrual
A few (6 to 12) secondary follicles proceed to

develop but one of them Is develop into graphian
follicle
The outer secondary follicles degenarate this

process of degenerations called atresia
C) Ovulatary phase
it is the shortest phase of menstrual cycle
It involves rupturing of the mature grafian follicle

and release of ovum (secondary oocyte) into a pelvis
Cavity
usually on 14 th day of menstrual Cycle

D) Secretory phase / luteal phase
Duration of this phase is between the ovulation of the

next menses beginning
it is longest phase
it lasts for 15th to 28th day 14 days
After release of Secondary oocyte remaining tissue of

grafian follicle transforms onto corpus luteum begins to
secrete
progesterone & estrogen
Biostudy with Nikhil

mammary gland
A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all

Female mammals
mammary gland are paired structure called (breasts)
The glandular tissue of each breasts is divided into

15-20 mammary lobes
contain a clusters of cell called

alveoli cells secrete milk
Endometrium undergoes cyclic changes during menstrual

cycle myometrium exhibits strong contraction during
delivery of the baby
Gametogenesis
The gametogenesis is the process of formation of
gametes in sexually reproducing animals
1)spermatogenesis
2) oogenesis
1) Spermatogenesis
The process of formation of the male gamete sperm

from the germinal epithelium of testis called...
At the puberty hypothalamus begins secretion of

gonadotropin releasing Hormone (GnRF)
It initiates the significant increase IN secretion of

follicle Stimulating Hormone (ESH)
spermatogenesis involves three phases.

1) Multiplication phase.
The primordial germ cell (2n)

of seminiferous tubules undergo
repeated mitotic division to
produce spermatogonia
2) Growth phase
Some Spermatogonia Stop

dividing and grow in size to
develop Spermatocytes due
to accumulation of food
3) Maturation phase
It involves (meiosis) to
Formation of two haploid
cell
secondary spermatocyte
undergoes (meiosis II)
to form four haploid
spermatid transfer into
function spermatozoa by
Spermiogenesis
2) Oogenesis
It is the process of formation of the haploid female
gamete egg from germinal epithelium
I) multiplication phase
The primary germ cells (2n)
of ovary undergoes repeated
Mitotic division to form
oogonia (2n)
2) Growth phase
some of the oogonia stop
division and begin to increase
in size and form the primary
oocytes (2n)
3) Maturation
The diploid primary oocytes
undergoes (meiosis I )to form
2 haploid daughter cells
Hut due to unequal division
of cytoplasm one is large cell
body called secondary oocyte
another small cell called as
1st polar body
last phase usually complete in
the fallopian tube at the time
of fertilization two unequal
cell are formed large ovum (n)
2nd polar body
structure of sperm
sperm is the male gamete it is a motile, microscopic
elongated cell . It divided into three parts
1) Head
The sperm head is oval in shape contain haploid

nucleus
There is cap like structure called acrosome contain
hydrolytic enzyme like zona lysine & corona
penetrating enzymes
2) Neck
It is a very short region having two centriole

i.e. proximal centriole & distal centriole
3) Middle piece
It has an axial filament

surrounded by 10-74 spiral
turns of mitochondria
It provide energy to sperm
It is long slender and
tapering part
The part surrounded by

plasma membrane is main
piece & End piece without
plasma membrane
Fertilization / syngamy
The process which involves fusion of the male
haploid gamete & female haploid gamete result in
formation of diploid Zygote is called fertilization
mechanism of fertilization
A) Movements of sperm toward egg
It evolves capacitation reaching the vagina 50 % are

demotilized ,broken, destroyed remaining sperm
undergoes capacitation This process required 5-6
hours
Acrosome membrane become thin enters the sperms

their tails begin to show rapid whiplash movement
result of capacitation sperm become more active
B) Entry of sperm into the egg
out of 200-400 million sperms only few hundred manage

to reach them but only single sperm fertilized the ovum
The sperm after reaching the ovum release lysing and

break down the layers of egg /ovum & fertilized ovum
The sperm head touches the zona pellucida its acrosome

Covering rupture to releasing lytic enzyme This caused
egg reaction and cone of reception is formed on the egg
membrane The sperm head comes in contact with the
cone
C) Activation of ovum
The ovum before fertilization was at(meta phase I)

stage with contact of sperm head of Viteline
membrane of egg gets activated to resume and
complete it’s (meiosis-II ) with this it gives out
second polar body and true ovum
fusion of egg and sperm the coverings of male &

female degenerate allowing the chromosomal paring
this result in the formation of synkaryon by the
process called Syngamy
Significance of fertilization
secondary oocyte completes the process of

oogenesis & it transformed into a mature ovum
diploid chromosome number is restored in the

zygote by the process Syngamy
The ovum lacks the centrioles necessary for

further divisions are received from sperm by the
fertilization
fertilization involves fusion of male& female

gamete from the two parents it result in variations
which are significant to evolution
sex of offspring is determined

Placenta
It is flattened discoidal organ in the uterus of a
pregnant woman
The placenta is a temporary structural & functional

connection between foetal & maternal circulation
The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen of

nutrient and also removal of carbon dioxide &
Excretory product produced by Fotus.
The placenta attached to wall of the uterus and baby’s

umbilical cord
placenta is the only organ which is formed of two

different individuals mother & foetus
The placenta part contributed by the foetus is called

foetal placenta and The part which is rich in blood
supply and shared by mother it is the part of uterine
wall termed ad mother placenta

Pregnancy
it is the condition of carrying one or more embryos in
the uterus called pregnancy
The average period of pregnancy inhuman lasts for 266

days from fertilization or 280 days from LMC
first second third trimester-
trimester- trimester-
from 27th
from from 13th to week till the
fertilization to 26th Weeks parturition
‘12th weeks-
it is about 30 The foetus
The embryo cm.- development about 3-4 kg in
receive of brain begins weight The
nutrients in the sonography at mother
first 2-4 weeks 18-20 weeks abdominal organ
directly from show baby's become
the growth and compressed &
endometrium- position displace- At the
end of third
It is the main The baby trimester the
period of reaches half of
organogenesis- size of a foetus become
The embryo is newborn Head fully developed
now called has hairs ready for
foetus eyebrows Parturition
eyelashes
It is about 3cm
long
Parturition
Human are viviparous (as they give birth young ones)
parturition is the process of giving birth to baby called

parturition
The physical activities involved in parturition like

uterine and abdominal contraction dilation of cervix and
passage of baby is called labor
The fully developed foetus gives signals for the uterine

contraction by secreting Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(Act from pituitary gland
This triggers release of oxytocin from mother’s

pituitary gland which acts on uterine muscles of mother
and(uterine contraction)

It involves following three steps
1) Dilation stage 2)Expulsion 3) After birth

stage
uterine After birth
contraction begin The uterine delivery of the
from top forcing &abdominal baby the placenta
the baby toward contraction separate from
cervix baby is s become the uterus-
pushed down in stronger- It expelled out as
the uterus its normal After birth
head comes to lie delivery
against Cervix the foetus This process
passes out happens within 1o
thorough to 45 Minutes
cervix & After birth
vagina- delivery of the
baby
It takes
20 to 60 the placenta
min separates from
the uterus
A) Cleavage
B) Blastulation
C) Implantation
D) Gastrulation
Embryonic development
I) Cleavage After fertilization the Zygote cell
undergoes series of mitotic cell division so that an
unicellular Zygote is transformed into the complex
multicellular body this transformation is known
cleavage
The cells formed by the cleavage are called

blastomeres
Process of cleavage In human
cleavage is holoblastic i e. whole Zygote gets divided.
The first cleavage in the zygote is meridional and

occurs about 30 hours after fertilization
It divides (into longitudinally into two blastomeres one

slightly larger than other.
The 2nd cleavage is also longitudinal but at the right

angle to first occurs after 20 hours
the third cleavage is horizontal After third cleavage

embryo is in 8-cell stage
By the end of 4th day after fertilization embryo is

solid ball of 16-32 cells and looking like mulberry
This stage is called as morulla Till the formation of
morula the zona pellucida Is retained around the
embryo and thus their ¡s no change in size from
Zygote to morula
Morula reaches isthmus & gain entry into the uterus.
Gastrulation
It is the process of formation of gastrula from the
blastocyst stage there are two important events that
take
A) Differentiation of blastomeres
This process result in the formation of three germinal

layers
1) Ectoderm
2) Mesoderm
3) Endoderm
B) Morphogenetic movements
These are different types of movements to reach

their definite place
Gastrulation begins in the embryoblast cells on about

8th day after fertilization
Blastulation
is the process of formation of the hollow & multicellular
blastocyst till the end of 7th day after fertilization
The outer layer celled seen in the morula now form the
layer called trophoblast cells from the trophoblast
begin to absorb the glycogen uterine milk trophoblast
cell help in absorbing nutrition for’ the developing’
embryo
The trophoblast cells in contact with the embryonic

knob are called cells of Rubber
The side with inner mass of cells is called the

embryonal end side opposite to it is abembryonal
end, at 7th day blastocyst is fully formed
Primitive endoderm start dividing and grows downward

toward the blastocoel cavity layer is called endoderm
It grows within the blastocoel and forms a sac called

yolk sac
After formation of endoderm the second layer to be

differentiated is the ectoderm
Actual gastration occurs after fertilization about 15

days The further process after gastrulation is called
organogenesis
Fat of germinal layers
Infertility
- In fertility is defined as the inability to conceive

naturally after one year of regular unprotected
intercourse
- The causes of infertility could be Congenital

disease, immunological psychological
- The common physical cause in female are polycystic

ovary syndrome, hormonal imbalance
- In male it is less sperm count and small size of

penis
- At 1978 infertile couple had two options

Adopt or be childless today in fertile couples have
many
options such as a
- 1) fertility drugs
- 2) test tube babies
- 3) Artificial insemination
- 4) surrogate motherhood
- above certain techniques commonly known as

Assisted Reproductive Technologies(ART)
Birth control
The birth control measures which deliberately prevent
fertilization are referred to as contraceptives. The
contraceptive methods help to prevent unwanted
pregnancies. Contraceptive methods are of two main
types i.e. temporary and permanent.
A) Temporary methods
1.Natural method/ Safe period / Rhythm method
In the natural method, the principle of avoiding

chances of fertilization is used. A week before and
a week after menstrual bleeding is considered the
safe period for sexual intercourse.
This idea is based on the fact that ovulation occurs on

the 14th day of menstrual cycle. Its drawback
lies in having a high rate of failure.
2.Coitus Interruptus or withdrawal :
In this method, the male partner withdraws his penis

from the vagina just before ejaculation, so as to avoid
insemination. pre-ejaculation fluid may contain sperms
and this can cause fertilization.
3.Lactational amenorrhea (absence of
menstruation) :
This method is based on the fact that ovulation does

not occur during the period of intense lactation during
parturition. Therefore, as long as the mother breast
feeds the child fully, chances of conception are almost
negligible.
However, this method also has high chances of failure.
4.Chemical means (spermicides):
In this method, chemicals like foam, tablets, jellies,

and creams are used by the female partner. Before
sexual intercourse, if these chemicals are
introduced into the vagina,
they adhere to the mucous membrane, immobilize

and kill the sperms. It may cause allergic reaction.
This method also has chances of failure.
5.Mechanical means / Barrier methods:
In this method, with the help of barriers the ovum

and sperm are prevented from physically meeting.
These mechanical barriers are of three types.
i) Condom:
It is a thin rubber sheath that is used to cover the

penis of the male during copulation. It prevents the
entry of ejaculated semen into the female
reproductive tract.
It is a simple and effective method and has no side

effects..
ii) Diaphragm, cervical caps and vaults:
These devices used by the female are made up of

rubber. They prevent conception by blocking the
entry of sperms through the cervix. The device is
inserted into the female reproductive tract
. iii) Intra-uterine devices (IUDs) :
These clinical devices are plastic or metal objects.

A doctor or trained nurse places the IUDs into the
uterus. These devices include Lippes loop, copper
releasing IUDs ( Cu-T, Cu7, multiload 375) and
hormone releasing IUDs (LNG-20, progestasert).
6. Physiological (Oral) Devices :
Physiological devices are used in the form of tablets

and hence are popularly called pills. It is an oral
contraceptive, used by the female. The pill contains
progesterone and estrogen.
They inhibit ovulation, hence no eggs are released

from the ovary of the female using this pill and thus
conception cannot occur.
The pill “Saheli” is an oral contraceptive for females

which is nonsteroidal. Saheli is to be taken once in a
week. These pills are sponsored by the Government.
7. Other contraceptives :
The birth control implant is a contraceptive used by

the female. It is a tiny, thin rod about the size of a
matchstick.
It is implanted under the skin of the upper arm.

They contain progesterone and estrogen. Their mode
of action is similar to that of pills. They prevent
pregnancy for 3-4 years.
B) Permanent Method
The permanent birth control method in men is called
vasectomy and in women it is called tubectomy.
These are surgical methods, also called sterilization.

In vasectomy a small part of the vas deferens is tied
and cut where as in tubectomy, a small part of the
fallopian tube is tied and cut. This blocks, g
1) IVE (In vitro fertilization)
It is a process of fertilization where an egg is

combined with sperm outside the body in test tube
Early embryo (with up to 8 blastomeres) could be

Then transferred into the follopian tube for further
development
2) ZIH (Zygote Intra fallopian Transfer)
It is an infertility treatment used when there is

blockage in the follopian tube which prevents the
fertilization of egg by the sperm
similar to In Vitro Fertilization (IVE)
3) Gamete intra fallopian transfer( GIFT)
Transfer of an ovum collected from donor into the

fallopian tube of another female Who can provide
suitable environment for fertilization and development
of baby
4) Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection(ICSI)
in vitro fertilization procedure in which cell is injected

directly into cytoplasm of an ovum in laboratory
Here naturally penetrate the ovum
5) Artificial insemination
In some infertility cases the male partner Is unable to
inseminate the female due to low sperm count
This technique the sperms are collected from the male

and artificially introduced into the cervix of female
6) Intra Uterine Insemination (lUI)
In this technique the process is somewhat like that

artificial insemination, only difference is that the
sperm are introduced into the uterine cavity instead
of cervix
7) sperm bank / semen bank
A sperm bank is a place which collect and store the

Sperm is provided by\ healthy males called sperm
donors sperms stores by cryopreservation method
(low tem)
(8) Adoption
Adoption is a legal process by which couple or single

parent gets le gal rights
An Adoptive parent should be fit and financially able

to take care of the adopted child
The child must be at least 21 years old but there is no

legal upper age limit for adoption
weightage 4 Marks
Chapter 3
Heredity
Variation
Father of genetics
Gregor johann mendel (1822-1884)
Mendel postulated the principles of heredity

which then became the fundamental laws of
heredity, as proposed by Correns (1900).
He visualized that the traits as such are not

inherited physically but by ‘something’ present
inside the gametic cell. To this ‘something’, he
coined term ‘factors’ that are responsible for
expression of a particular trait/ character.
He proposed that factors are particulate in

nature. The Mendelian factors are now termed
as ‘genes’.
These factors occur in pairs in the parents

and segregate from each other during gamete
formation without blending/ mixing
96
Why mendel select garden pea for his experiment ?
• His experiments were carefully planned and

involved large samples.
• He carefully recorded the number of plants

of each type and expressed his results in
terms of ratios.
• In the pea plant, contrasting characters can

be easily recognized.
• The seven different characters in pea plant

were controlled by a single factor each. The
factors are located on separate chromosomes
and these factors are transmitted from
generation to generation.
• He introduced the concepts of dominance and

recessiveness. Before learning about Mendel’s
experiments let us get acquainted with genetic
terms and symbols.
1) Monohybrid cross
98
2) Dihybrid cross
99
Biostudy with Nikhil 100
Mendels Laws of Inheritance
1) Law of dominance
In monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, the phenotypic

characters are controlled by discrete units, called
factors.
In a dissimilar pair of factors, one member of the

pair dominates (i.e. dominant) over the other (i.e.
recessive).
Statement of Law of Dominance :
“When two homozygous individuals with one or more

sets of contrasting characters are crossed, the
alleles (characters) that appear in F1 are dominant
and those which do not appear in F1 are recessive”.
102
2) Law of Segregation of gametes (purity of gamete)
This law is based on the fact that the alleles do not

show any blending/ mixing and both the alleles are
recovered as such in the F generation, though one
of these 2 is not seen at the F1 stage.
The gametes which are formed are always pure for

a particular character A gamete may carry either
dominant or recessive factor but not both. That’s
why it is also called as law of purity of gametes.
Statement of Law of Segregation :
The law states that “When hybrid (F1 ) forms

gametes, the alleles segregate from each other &
enter in different gametes”.
The gametes formed are pure in that they carry

only one allele each (either dominant allele or
recessive allele). Hence, this law is also described
as “Law of purity of gametes”.
3) Law of Independent Assortment
This law is based on dihybrid cross. It is basic

principle of genetics developed by a Mendel. It
describes how different genes or alleles present on
separate chromosomes independently separate from
each other, during formation of gametes. These
alleles are then randomly united in fertilization.
It can be concluded that the two characters under

consideration are assorted independently giving rise
to different combinations.
Statement of Law of Independent

Assortment:
The law states that “When hybrid possessing two (or

more) pairs of contrasting factors (alleles) forms
gametes, the factors in each pair segregate
independently of the other pair”.
104
i. Intragenic interactions
Occur between the alleles of same gene e.g.

incomplete dominance and co-dominance. It
also occurs between the multiple allele series
of a gene.
ii. Intergenic (non-allelic) interactions
Occur between the alleles of different-genes

present on the same or different-chromosomes.
e.g. pleiotropy, polygenes, epistasis, supplementary
and complementary genes, etc.
105
Back cross & Test cross
Back cross
The F1 individuals obtained in a cross are usually
selfed to get the F2 progeny. They can also be
crossed with one of the two parents from which they
were derived (either recessive or dominant).
Test cross
The cross of F hybrid with the 1 homozygous

recessive parent is known as a test cross. It is used
to test whether an individual is homozygous (pure) or
heterozygous(hybrid).
1) Incomplete dominance
In the incomplete dominance, both the alleles

(genes) of an allelomorphic pair express
themselves partially. One allele (gene) cannot
suppress the expression of the other allele
(gene) completely.
In such case, there is an intermediate

expression in the F1 hybrid. Eg-Mirabilis jalapa.
2) Co- dominance
In co-dominance, both the alleles (genes) of an
allelomorphic pair express themselves equally in
F1 hybrids. Such alleles which are able 1 to
express themselves equally independently in
hybrids, are called co-dominant alleles.
Thus in co-dominance both alleles are expressed.
108
3) Multiple Allels
More than two alternative forms (alleles) of a

gene in a population occupying the same locus
on a chromosome or its homologue, are known
as multiple alleles.
Multiple alleles arise by mutations of the wild

type of gene. A gene can mutate several times
producing a series of alternative expression.
1) Pleiotropy
When a single gene controls two (or more) different
non-related traits, it is called pleiotropic gene and the
phenomenon is called pleiotropy or pleiotropism.
The ratio is 1:2 instead of 3:1 because of the death of

recessive homozygote. The disease, sickle-cell
anaemia, is caused by a gene Hbs .
Normal or healthy gene HbA is dominant. The carriers

(heterozygotes HbA/Hbs )
Show signs of mild anaemia as their RBCs become

sickle-shaped i.e. half- moon- shaped only under
abnormally low O2 concentration.
The homozygotes with recessive gene Hbs however,

die of total anaemia. Thus, the gene for sickle- cell
anaemia is lethal in homozygous condition and
produces sickle cell trait in heterozygous carrier.
110
The Chromosomal Theory
111
Number
Size
Shape
Structure
Structure of X &Y Chromosome
Linkage
Genes present on chromosome having tendency to

inherit together in next generation is known as
linkage
Linkage group present in human is 23

Linkage group can be broken by crossing over
Complete Linkage Incomplete Linkage

Morgan's Experiment showing Linkage & Recombination
•Morgan’s Experiments showing linkage
and crossing over :
Morgan used Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)

for his experiments because, Drosophila can easily
be cultured in laboratory.
It’s life span is short, about two weeks. More over,

it has high rate of reproduction. Morgan carried
out several dihybrid cross experiments in fruit fly
to study genes that are sex-linked.
The crosses were similar to dihybrid crosses, as

carried out by Mendel in Pea. For example,
Morgan and his group crossed yellow-bodied, white

eyed female to the wild type with brown-bodied,
red eyed males and intercrossed their F1 progeny.
He observed that the two genes did not segregate

independently of each other and F2 ratio deviated
very significantly from 9:3:3:1 ratio
He also found that, when genes are grouped on the
same chromosome, some genes are strongly linked.
They show very few recombinations (1.3 %).
When genes are loosely linked i.e. present far away

from each other on chromosome, they show more
(higher) recombinations (37.2 %).
For example, the genes for yellow body and white

eye were strongly linked and showed only 13 percent
recombination (in cross-I). White bodied and
miniature wings showed 37.2 percent recombination
(in cross-II).
Cross I shows crossing over between genes y and w.

Cross II shows crossing over between genes white
(w) and miniature wing (m). Here dominant wild type
alleles are represented with (+) sign.
Sex-Linked
Complete Sex Linkage Incomplete Sex Linkage
122
Sex-Linked Inheritance
Genes located on non-homologous region of sex

chromosome but do not involved in sex determi-
nation Are called sex-linked genes
X-Linked Inheritance Y-Linked Inheritance

Haemophilia
124
1) Colour Blindness
125
Sex Determination
In Human beings
Mechanism of sex determination
126
128
Sex determination in honey bees
In honey bees, chromosomal mechanism of sex

determination is haplo-diploid type.
In this type, sex of individual is determined by the

number of set of chromosomes received. Females
are diploid (2n=32) and males are haploid (n=16).
Female produces haploid eggs (n=16) by meiosis &

male produces haplaid sperms (n=16) by mitosis.
If the egg is fertilized by sperm, the zygote

develops into a diploid female (2n=32) (queen and
worker) and unfertilised egg develops into haploid
male (n=16) (Drone) by way of parthenogenesis.
Sex determination in birds
130
Autosomal Inheritance
131
A) Widows Peak
B) Phenylketonuria
Genetic Disorders
Mendelian Disorders Chromosomal Disorders

134
weightage 4 Marks
Chapter 4
Experiment on DNA as Genetic Material
Griffith experiment
Hershey-Chase experiment
Avery, Macleod & McCarthy Experiment
Chemical components of DNA
Structure of DNA
1) DNA molecule as a double helix
2) Structure of each stand
3) Complementary base pairing
4) Purine pyrimidine ratio

5) Polarity of strand
6) Major and minor grooves
7) Dimensions
SEMI –CONSERVATION REPLICATION OF DNA
1) Activation of nucleotide
2) Origin or initiation point
3) Unwinding of DNA strands

Synthesis of new strands
leading and logging strands
formation of daughter DNA molecular

PACKACING OF DNA IN EUKARYOTES
PACKAGING OF DNA IN PROKAEYOTES
PROTEIN SYSTHESIS
Proteins are very important biomolecules. They serve
as structural components, enzymes and hormones.
The cell needs to synthesize new protein molecules.

The process of protein synthesis includes
transcription and translation.
The process of copying of genetic information from

one (template) strand of DNA into a single stranded
RNA transcript, is termed as transcription.
During this process, synthesis of complementary

strand of RNA takes place (Except that the Adenine
nitrogen base pairs with the Uracil base instead of
Thymine).
Central Dogma :
Double stranded DNA molecule gives rise to
mRNA which acts as a messenger to programme
the synthesis of a polypeptide chain (protein).
This type of unidirectional flow of information

from DNA to RNA to protein/ proteins is
referred as central dogma of molecular biology.
It was postulated by F.H.C. Crick in 1958.

DNA-----------m RNA-----------Protrin
A) TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPTION UNIT
1) The promotor
The promotor is located towards 5’ end of structural

gene i.e. upstream. It is a DNA sequence that provides
binding site for enzyme RNA polymerase
2) Structural genes
The sequence of bases in this strand, is same as in

RNA (where Thymine is replaced by Uracil).
It is the actual coding strand. The information on

this strand of DNA is copied on mRNA. This is called
sense strand.
3) The terminator
The terminator is located at 3’ end of coding

strand i.e. downstream. It defines the end of the
transcription process.
1) TRANSCRIPTION AND THE GENE
PROCESSING OF RNA
2) Translation
MECHANISM OF TRANSLATION
1) Initiation of polypeptide chain

2) Elongation of polypeptide chain
1) Codon recognition
2) Amino acid on the first initiator
3) Translocation
3) Termination and release of polypeptide
Protein Synthesis
Characteristics of genetic code
1) GENETIC CODE IS TRIPIET CODE
2) GENETIC CODE HAS DISTINCT POLARITY

3) GENETIC CODE IS NON- OVERLAPPING
4) GENETIC CODE IS COMMALESS
5) GENETIC CODE HAS DEGENERACY
6) GENETIC CODE IS NON-AMPBIGUOUS
7) GENETIC CODE IS UNIVERSAL

8) INITIATION CODON AND TREMINATION CODON
9) CODON AND ANTICODON

GENOMICS AND ITS APPLICATION
Lactose operon concept
1. Regulator gene (repressor gene)
2. Promoter gene
3. Operator gene
4. Structural genes
5. Inducer - It is not a component of operon.
1. Regulator gene :
This gene controls the operator gene in cooperation

with an inducer present in the cytoplasm. Regulator
gene precedes the promoter gene.
It may not be present immidiately adjacent to

operator gene. Regulator gene produces a protein
called repressor protein. Repressor binds with
operator gene and represses (stops) its action.
It is called regulator protein.
2 Promoter gene :
This gene precedes the operator gene. It is

present adjacent to operator gene. The promoter
gene marks the site at which the RNA Polymerase
enzyme binds.
When the operator gene is turned on, the enzyme

moves over the operator gene and transcription of
structural genes starts.
3. Operator gene :
It precedes the structural genes. This controls the

functioning of structural genes.
It lies adjacent to the Structural genes. When operator

gene is turned on by an inducer, the Structural genes
produce m-RNA. Operator gene is turned off by a product
of repressor gene.
4. Structural gene :
When lactose is added to the E.coli culture, the structural

genes catalyze (produce) m-RNA which in turn produces
polypeptides, on the ribosomes.
The polypeptides formed, act as enzymes to catalyze

lactose in the cell. There are 3 structural genes in the
sequence lac-z(1), lac-y(2) and lac-a(3).
Enzymes produced are B-galactosidase, B-galactoside

permease and transacetylase respectively
Role of lactose :
A few molecules of lactose enter into the cell by an
enzyme permease A small amount of this enzyme is
present even when operon is switched off.
A few molecules of lactose, act as inducer and bind to

repressor. This repressor – inducer complex fails to
join with the operator gene, which is then turned on.
Structural genes produce all enzymes. Thus, lactose

acts as an inducer of its own break down. When the
inducer level falls, the operator is blocked again by
repressor. So structural genes are repressed/
inactivated again. This is negative feedback.
GENOMICS AND HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
GENOMICS
GENOMES
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

BIOTECNOLOGICAL APPLICATION FOR HUMAN HEALTH
INSULIN
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND GENOMICS
DNA F INGERPRINTING
1) DNA ISOLATION
2) DNA AMPLIFICATION
3)DNA FRAGMENTATION
4) ELECTOPHORESIS
5) SOUTHERN BLOTTING
6) HYBRIDIZATION
7) PHOTOGRAPHY
weightage 4 Marks
Chapter 5
Origin and Evolution of life
Chemical evolution life
1) Origin of earth and primitive atmosphere

2) Formation of ammonia ,water and methane
3) Formation of simple organic molecules

4) Formation of complex organic molecules
4) Formation of complex organic molecules
5) Formation of nucleic acids

Urey and millers experiment
RNA World Hypothesis
Organic Evolution
Darwinism
Darwinism is based on five main postulates
1) Overproduction
2) Struggle for existence
3) Organic variation
4) Natural selection
5) Origin of new species
Evidences of darwinism
(i) Evolution of long-necked Giraffe to pluck and eat

more leaves from tall trees and woody climbers. This
adaptation became fixed in the life for survival. The
Giraffe borne tall could survive in famine heat areas.
This adaptation was transmitted to their offspring.
(ii) Black colour peppered moths evolved gradually as

new species.
(iii) DDT resistance in mosquitoes : intensive DDT

spraying destroyed all types of mosquitoes. However
some mosquitoes developed resistance to DDT and
survived the onslaught of DDT spray.
Such resistant mosquitoes survived and reproduce

giving rise to more resistant offspring.
Drawbacks and Objections to Darwnism
a) He considered minute fluctuating variation as

principal factors which are not heritable and not
part of evolution. i.e. he was unable to distinguish
between the envirnomental and hereditary
variations.
b) He also did not distinguish somatic and germinal

variation and considered all variations are heritable.
c) He did not explain the ‘arrival of the fittest’.
d) He also did not explain the cause, origin and

inheritance of variations and of vestigial organs,
nor he could explain the extinction of speciese.
e) According to natural selection new species are

formed by gradual accumulation of useful variations.
If it is so, then there should be intermediate
forms. But in most cases intermediate form were
not recognised. Moreover, Darwinism also could not
explain existence or occurrence of neutral flowers
and the sterility of hybrids
Mutation theory
This theory was proposed by Hugo de Vries (1901),
after the rediscovery of Mendel’s work (1900).
He proposed this theory based on his observations

on seven generations of the plant evening primrose
(Oenothera Lamarckiana).
These sudden variations were called mutations or

discontinuous variations.
The main features of mutation theory are :
• Mutations are large, sudden, random and discontinuous

variations in a population.
•These changes are inheritable & may not be directional.
•Mutations provide the raw material for organic

evolution. ‘
• Mutation may be useful or harmful. Useful mutations

are selected by nature.
• Accumulation of these mutations over a period of time

leads to the origin and establishment of new species.
• Harmful mutation may persist or get eliminated by

nature.
Objections to Mutation Theory :
i. The large and discontinuous variations observed by
Hugo de Vries were actually due to chromosomal
aberrations whereas gene mutations usually bring
about minor changes.
ii. Rate of mutation is very low as compared to the

requirement of evolution.
iii. Chromosomal aberrations have little significance in

evolution as they are quite unstable.
Modern synthetic theory of evolution
Genetic variation
The change in gene & gene frequencies is known as
Variation its include following 5 points :
Chromosomal aberrations :
The changes in chromosome number (gains and losses) and the

changes in the morphological structure of chromosome/s
A) Deletion : Loss of genes from chromosome
B) Duplication : Genes are repeated or doubled in number on

chromosome.
C) Inversion : A particular segment of chromosome is broken

and gets reattached to the same chromosome in an inverted
position due to 1800 twist.
D)Translocation : Transfer (transposition) of a part of

chromosome or a set of genes to a non-homologous
chromosome is called translocation.
Natural selection
Isolation
Isolation is the separation of population of a particular
species into a smaller unit which prevent interbreeding
between them
Geographical Isolation Reproductive Isolation

Mechanism of organic evolution
One has to give the importance to the population while

considering the mechanism of evolution.
Mutations - These are permanent heritable changes in

the genetic material of an organism Gene mutations
will alter the genetic make up and the gene pool.
Gene recombination - These are variation produce due

to coming together of alleles during sexual reproduction.
Gene recombinations occur due to random union of
gametes, anaphasic separation of chromosomes &
crossing over.
Gene flow - It is the transfer of gene during

interbreeding of populations that are genetically
different. Its brings about changes in the allele
frequency.
Genetic drift - Any alteration in allele frequency of

a natural population by chance, is called genetic drift.
Concept of genetic drift was first given by Sewall

Wright, hence, called Sewall Wright effect.
Genetic drifts are random or directionless.

The effect of genetic drift is more significant in
small population than in large population.
Due to genetic drift, some alleles of a population are

lost or reduced by chance and some others may be
increased. Sometimes, a few individuals become
isolated from the large population and they produce a
small new population in new geographical area.
The original members that drifted and established

the new population become ‘founders’ & the effect is
called founder effect.
The bottle neck effect is a type of genetic drift is

seen when much of a population is killed due to a
natural disaster (sunami, floods, tornedo, disease
epidemic, etc.) and only a few individuals are left to
begin a new population.
Natural selection –
It is a process by which better adapted individuals

with useful variations are selected by nature & leave
greater or more number of progenies (Differential
reproduction)
Natural selection
It is a process by which better adapted individual
with useful variation are selected by nature
Hardy-weinbergs principle
Adaptive Radiation
Another example of adaptive radiation is Australian

Marsupials. In Australia, there are many marsupial
mammals who evolved from common ancestor
Evidences of organic evolution
A) Palaeontology
The study of ancient life with help of fossils is called
palaeontology. Fossils are the dead remains of plants and
animals that lived in past in various geological layers.
X The study of fossils provides the most convincing &

direct evidence of evolution.
x Fossils are formed in sedimentary rocks, amber

(yellowish fossils resin), ice, peat bogs etc.
x During fossilization the primitive forms of organisms

occupy the older, lower layers and the advanced forms
occupy the upper, more recent layers of the earth
A) Palaeontology
The study of ancient life with help of fossils is called
palaeontology. Fossils are the dead remains of plants &
animals that lived in past in various geological layers.
Types of fossisls
Significance of Palaeontology
1. It is useful in reconstruction of phylogeny.
2. It helps in studying various forms and

structures of extinct animals.
3. It provides record of missing link between

two groups of organisms.
4. It helps in the study of habits of extinct

organisms.
5. Palaeontology provides the following types of

evidences. Connecting link (missing )
B) Connecting link or missing link
C) Morphology
Morphology deals with study of external structure
while anatomy deals with the study of Internal
structure
D) Vestigial organ
D) Molecular Evidences :
1. Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life

in all organisms.
2. Similarities in proteins and genetic material

performing a similar function among diverse
organisms gives evidence of a common ancestry.
3. Basic metabolic activities also occur in a similar

manner in all organisms.
4. ATP is the energy source in all living organisms.

Speciation
The process of formation of new species from
pre-existing species is called as speciation
Interspecies Hybridization
Mule
Male-Donky x Female-Horse
Hinny
Female-Donky x Male-Horse
Zoological time scale
Human Evolution :
It has been traced that the human evolution appeared to
have evolved from a tree dwelling shrew like animal.
This process began in Palaeocene epoch. During this period,

dwindling forests forced arboreal mammals to adapt to life
on land. This descent must have been the driving force.
In the following chart it can be seen that we are most

closely related to gibbons, chimpanzees and gorillas.
The major evolutionary trends in transition from ape to man

are considered further.
Special characteristics have been acquired by man in the

course of evolution.
Major changes that took place in evolution of man include

increase in size and complexity of brain and enhanced
intelligence, increase in cranial capacity, bipedal locomotion,
opposable thumb, erect posture, shortening of forelimbs
and lengthening of hind limbs, development of chin,
broadening of pelvic girdle, development of lumbar
curvature, social and cultural development (articulated
speech, art, development of tools, etc)
Cranial capacity of human begins increased over a
period of time and large size of frontal lobe helped in
development of high forehead.
Increase in intelligence necessitated physical development

so that body and brain could be used effectively and
productively.
Freedom of forelimbs from locomotory function and

opposable thumb led to better utilization of hands for
holding objects effectively and development of motor skills
etc.
Bipedal locomotion, upright posture coupled with
stereoscopic vision helped man to move around safely on
land.
Evolutionary history of man was traced with the help of

fossil remains found over a period of time
Human evolution chart
weightage 5 Marks
Chapter 6
Properties of Water
Structure of root hair
Water Available to root absorption
Absorption of Water by Roots from soil
Factors affecting on water absorption
Path of water across the root
Mechanism of absorption of water
Translocation of water
1) Root pressure theory (vital theory)
2) Capillarity theory (physical force theory)
3) Cohesion-tension theory (Transpiration pull theory)

1) Root pressure theory (vital theory)
2) Capillarity theory (physical force theory)
3) Cohesion-tension theory (Transpiration pull theory)
Transpiration pull
The transpiration pull developed in the leaf vessel is

transmitted down to root and thus accounts for the
ascent of sap.
Excess water is lost in the form of vapour through the

stomata found on leaf. This water loss increases D. P. D.
of mesophyll cells.
These cells withdraw water ultimately from xylem in the

leaf. In other words, due to continuous transpiration
a gradient of suction pressure (i.e. D. P. D.) is developed
right from guard cells up to the xylem in the leaf.
This will create a tension (called negative pull or

transpiration pull) in the xylem. Consequently, water
column is pulled out of xylem.
Thus, water is pulled upwards passively against the

gravity leading to the ascent of sap
Transport of food
Transpiration
A) Cuticular transpiration
Cuticle is a layer of waxy substance- cutin, present
on outer surface of epidermal cells of leaves and
stem.
Cuticular transpiration occurs by simple diffusion

and contributes 8-10% of the total transpiration.
Cuticular transpiration occurs throughout the day

and its rate is inversely proportional to thickness
of cuticle.
B) Lenticular transpiration
Lenticels are small raised structures composed of
loosely arranged complementary cells.
Each lenticel is a porous tissue consisting of cells

with large intercellular spaces in the periderm of the
secondarily thickened organs and the bark of woody
stems and roots of dicotyledonous flowering plants.
Lenticels are present in bark of old stem and pericarp

of woody fruits but are absent in leaves.
Lenticular transpiration contributes only about 0.1-1.0%

of total transpiration.
Rate of lenticular transpiration is very slow. It also

occurs throughout the day
C) Stomatal transpiration
Stomata are minute apertures formed of two guard

cells and accessory cells. They are located in the
epidermis of young stem and leaves.
Leaves generally show more number of stomata on

the lower surface. Depending upon distribution of
stomata on leaves,
leaves are categorized into three types namely
Epistomatic- on upper epidermis

(Hydrophytes e.g. Lotus),
Hypostomatic- on lower epidermis

(Xerophytes- e.g. Nerium)
amphistomaticon both surfaces

(Mesophytes- e.g. Grass).
Stomatal transpiration occurs only during daytime.

(Exception: Desert plants). 90 to 93% of total
transpiration occurs through stomata and that too
during day time only.
In Cyperus, both kidney- & dumbbell shaped guard cells are
present.
Guard cells are living, nucleated cells with unevenly thick walls.
Inner wall of guard cells is thick and inelastic, and its lateral
(outer) wall is thin and elastic.
Guard cells contain few chloroplasts which are capable of poor

photosynthesis.
Guard cells have ability to change their size and

form due to which stoma opens (widens) or closes (narrows).
Stoma is an elliptical pore formed due to specific arrangement

of guard cells. It is through the stoma, excess water is lost in
the form of vapour.
Accessory cells : These are specialized epidermal cells

surrounding the guard cells.
Their number is variable and are the reservoirs of

K+ ions. These are also called subsidiary cells
Opening and Closing of Stoma :
Opening and closing of stoma is controlled by turgor of

guard cells. During day time, guard cells become turgid due
to endosmosis.
Thus turgor pressure is exerted on the thin walls of guard

cells. Being elastic and thin, lateral walls are stretched out.
Due to kidney or dumb-bell like shape, inner thick walls are

pulled apart to open (widen) the stoma. During night time,
guard cells become flaccid due
to exosmosis.
Flaccidity closes the stoma almost completely. Endosmosis

and exosmosis occur due to diurnal changes in osmotic
potential of guard cells.
Different theories are proposed to explain diurnal changes

in osmotic potential. According to starch-sugar
interconversion theory (Steward 1964),
During day time, enzyme phosphorylase converts starch to

sugar, thus increasing osmotic potential
of guard cells closing entry of water thereby guard cells are
stretched and stoma widens.
The reverse reaction occurs at night brining about the

closure of stoma.
According to theory of proton transport (Levitt-1974)
stomatal movement occurs due to transport of protons

H+ and K+ ions. During daytime, starch is converted
into malic acid.
Malic acid dissociates to form Malate and protons.

Protons are transported to subsidiary cells and K+ ions
are imported from them.
Potassium malate is formed that increases osmolarity

and causes endosmosis.
Uptake of K+ ions is always accompanied with Cl¯ ions.
At night, uptake of K+ and Cl- ions is prevented by

abscissic acid, changing the permeability of guard cells.
Due to this guard cells become hypotonic and thereby
become flaccid.
Significance of Transpiration
Advantages:
i. It removes excess of water.
ii. It helps in the passive absorption of water and

minerals from soil.
iii. It helps in the ascent of sap.
iv. As stomata are open, gaseous exchange required

for photosynthesis and respiration, is facilitated.
v. It maintains turgor (turgidity) of the cells.
vi. Transpiration helps in reducing the temperature

of leaf and in imparting cooling effect.
Disadvantages:
Excessive transpiration leads to wilting and injury in

the plant. It may also lead to the death of the plant.
Transpiration is ‘A necessary evil’
For stomatal transpiration to occur, stoma must remain

open, during day time.
When stomata are open then only the gaseous exhange

needed for respiration and photosynthesis, will take
place.
If stomatal transpiration stops, it will directly affect

productivity of plant through the loss of photosynthetic
and respiratory activity.
Hence for productivity, stomata must remain open.

Consequently transpiration can not be avoided. Hence,
Curtis (1926) regarded transpiration as ‘a necessary
evil’.
weightage 5 Marks
Chapter 7
Plant growth
Phases of growth
Phases of growth
Conditions for growth
Growth rate & Types of growth
Types of growth
In the above example, two leaves ‘A’ and ‘B’ are of
different sizes but show same absolute increase in
area in a given time.
Both leaves grow and increase their area by 5 cm2

to produce ‘A’ and ‘B’ leaves. ‘A’ leaf of 5 cm2 in size
grows 5 cm2 / day then its RGR would be 100%.
If the leaf is 50 cm2 in size and the growth

rate/day is 5cm2 then its RGR would become 10%.
Growth curve
It is a graphic representation of the total growth

against time. There are three types of curves viz,
Linear, Exponential and Sigmoid.
Arithmetic growth curve is linear while Geometric

growth curve is exponential. Corresponding to three
distinct phases of growth, growth rates differ.
In Lag phase, growth rate is slow. In Exponential

(Log) phase, growth rate is faster and reaches its
maximum.
In Stationary phase, growth rate gradually slows

down. When a graph of rate of growth against time
is plotted for three phases of growth, a ‘s’ shaped
i.e. sigmoid curve is obtained.
Development
It refers to the ordered or progressive changes in

shape, form and degree of complexity.
It includes all the changes occurring in sequence from

the germination of seed upto the senescence or death
during life cycle of plants.
Thus development includes growth, morphogenesis,

maturation and senescence
Plasticity
Growth Hormones
A) Auxins ( to grow )
Physiological effect of auxins

Application of auxins
B) Gibberellins
Application of gibberellins & physiological effect
C) Cytokinin
Application of cytokinin & physiological effect
D) Ethylene
Application of Ethylene & physiological effect

E) Abscissic acid
Application of Abscissic acid & physiological effect
photoperiodism
Photoperiodism
Vernilization (Yarovization )
Mineral Nutrition
Classification of minerals
Minerals salt absorption
Nitrogen Cycle
A) Physical nitrogen fixation
B) Biological nitrogen fixation
Nitrification
Nitrogen assimilation
weightage 7 Marks
Chapter 8
biostudywithnikhil Biostudy with
Respiration : Nikhil
It is a biochemical process of oxidation of organic

compounds in an orderly manner for the liberation
of chemical energy in the form of ATP.
For this, the process of gaseous exchange takes

place between the organism and the environment.
The site of gaseous exchange is called the

respiratory surface.
Organs of Respiratory Exchange :
Respiratory exchange is a simple physical process.

For efficient gaseous exchange, the respiratory
surface should have the following features :
a. It should have a large surface area.
b. It should be thin, highly vascular and

permeable to allow exchange of gases.
c. It should be moist.
Gaseous exchange in plants :
The shape and structure of plants facilitate

gaseous exchange by diffusion. A terrestrial
flowering plant has many air spaces between the
cells of stem, leaf and root.
These air spaces are continuous. Exchange of gases

takes place between the air and the tissue. Oxygen
diffuses into the air space through stomata (the
pores on leaves and young stems), carbon dioxide
and water vapour diffuse out.
In the aerated soil, the oxygen dissolves in the

film of moisture or water around the root tissue
and enters it by diffusion.
Woody flowering plants (trees and shrubs) have an

external impervious bark. Here, gaseous exchange
occurs through small pores in the stem surface,
called lenticels.
Respiration in Animals :
As compared to plants, animals show wide variety

of respiratory surfaces or organs. The
respiratory surfaces differ in various animals.
In animals, depending upon the complexity of

organization and the surrounding medium, certain
parts of the body have become specialized into
different types of respiratory organs.
In the higher animals, these respiratory organs

are also associated with a transport system.
Human Respiratory system:
The respiratory system brings about inspiration,

expiration and exchange of gases in the lungs. These
are then transported by blood from the lungs to the
different tissues and parts of the body.
The respiratory system and be divided into an upper

respiratory system having external nares, nasal
cavities, internal nares, nasopharynx, nose, throat &
associated structures.
The lower respiratory system refers to the larynx,

trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs.
Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea (wind pipe)
Bronchi
Lungs
Alveoli
Diaphragm
Mechanism of Respiration
Breathing
Inspiration
biostudywithnikhil Biostudy with
Expiration Nikhil
External Respiration / Exchange
of gases at the alveolar level :
An alveolus consists of a layer of simple squamous

epithelium resting on a basement membrane. It is
intimately associated with a dense network of
capillaries.
The capillary wall is also made up of simple squamous

epithelium resting on a thin basement membrane.
Both the layers have similar structure and are thin
walled.
Diffusion of gases will take place from an area of

higher partial pressure (pp) to an area of lower
partial pressure
The partial pressure of carbon-dioxide (pCO2 ) of

blood entering the pulmonary capillaries is 45 mmHg
while partial pressure of carbon-dioxide in alveolar
air is 40 mmHg. Due to this difference, carbon
dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the
alveolus. Similarly,
partial pressure of oxygen (pO2 ) of blood in

pulmonary capillaries is 40 mmHg while in alveolar
air it is 104 mmHg. Due to this difference oxygen
diffuses from alveoli to the capillaries.
Cellular Respiration
The two main components of blood involved in

transport of the respiratory gasesCO2 and O2 ,
are the RBCs and the plasma.
i. Transport of oxygen :
Of the total oxygen transported only 3% is

transported in a dissolved state by the plasma.
The remaining 97% is bound to the haemoglobin
(Hb) present in the RBCs.
Haemoglobin acts as the respiratory carrier. It

has a high affinity for O2 and combines with it
to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Theoretically, one molecule of Hb has 4 Fe++,

each of which can pick up a molecule of oxygen
(O2 ).
The relationship between HbO2 saturation
and oxygen tension (ppO2 ) is called oxygen
dissociation curve.
Bohr effect :
It is the shift of oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

due to change in partial pressure of CO2 in blood.
Haldane effect :
Oxyhaemoglobin functions as an acid. It decreases

pH of blood. Due to increase in the number of H+
ions, HCO3 changes into H2 O and CO2 .
In the alveoli where ppO2 is high and ppCO2 is low,

oxygen binds with haemoglobin, but in the tissues,
where ppO2 is lower and ppCO2 is high, haemoglobin

does not hold as much O2 . It releases O2 for
diffusion into the tissue cells.
ii. Transport of CO2 :
Carbon dioxide is readily soluble in water and is

transported by RBCs and plasma in three different
forms.
A) By plasma in solution form (7%) :
Only 7% of CO2 is transported in a dissolved form as

carbonic acid (which can breakdown into CO2 and
H2O
B) By bicarbonate ions (70%) :
Nearly 70% of carbon dioxide released by the tissue

cells diffuses into the plasma and then into the RBCs.
In the RBCs, CO2 combines with water in the presence

of a Zn containing enzyme, carbonic anhydrase to form
carbonic acid. • Carbonic anhydrase enzyme is found in
the RBCs and not in the plasma.
The rate of formation of carbonic acid inside the RBC

is very high as compared to its formation in the plasma.
Carbonic acid being unstable almost immediately

dissociates into HCO3 and H+ in the presence of the
enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) leading to large
accumulation of HCO3 inside the RBCs.
To maintain the ionic balance between the RBCs
and the plasma, Cl diffuses into the RBCs. This
movement of chloride ions is known as chloride
shift or Hamburger’s phenomenon.
These H+ ions might be expected to lower blood

pH but they are buffered by haemoglobin by the
formation of deoxyhaemoglobin (reduced
haemoglobin).
At the level of the lungs in response to the low

partial pressure of carbon dioxide (ppCO2 ) of
the alveolar air hydrogen ion
C) By red blood cells (23%) :
Carbon dioxide binds with the amino group of the

haemoglobin and form a loosely bound compound
carbaminohaemoglobin.
This molecule readily decomposes in region where

the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (ppCO2 ) is
low (alveolar region), releasing the carbon dioxide.
Cellular Respiration
Regulation of Breathing :
Respiration is under dual control : nervous & chemical.

Human adults breathe about 12 times/minute while a
new born about 44 times/ minute. Normal breathing is
an involuntary process.
Steady rate of respiration is controlled by neurons

located in the pons and medulla and are known as the
respiratory centres.
It regulates the rate and depth of breathing. It is

divided into three groups : dorsal group of neurons in
the medulla (inspiratory center), ventro lateral group
of neurons in medulla & pneumotaxic center located in
pons (primarily limits inspiration Slow wave sleep and
rapid eye movement sleep).
Apneustic center in the medulla is antagonistic to

the neumotaxic center. It controls non rapid eye
movement, sleep and wakefulness
During inspiration when the lungs expand to a critical
point, the stretch receptors are stimulated & impulses
are sent along the vagus nerves to the expiratory
centre. It then sends out inhibitory impulses to the
inspiratory center.
The inspiratory muscles relax and expiration follows.
As air leaves the lungs during expiration, the lungs are
deflated and the stretch receptors are no longer
stimulated. Thus,
the inspiratory centre is no longer inhibited and a new

respiration begins. events are called the Hering-
Breuer reflex. The Hering-Breuer reflex controls the
depth and rhythm of respiration
Artificial ventilation :
It is also called artificial respiration. It is the

method of inducing breathing in a person when
natural respiration has ceased or is faltering.
If used properly and quickly, it can prevent

death due to drowning, choking, suffocation,
electric shock, etc.
Ventilator :
A ventilator is a machine that supports breathing

and is used during surgery, treatment for serious
lung diseases or other conditions when normal
breathing fails.
It is mainly used in hospitals as part of life support

system. Ventilators do the following,
1. Get oxygen into the lungs.

2. Remove carbon dioxide from the lungs
3. Help the patient breathe.
Biostudy with Biostudy with
Nikhil Nikhil
Transportation in organisms and animals occurs by
diffusion and by active transport between the cells.
This mechanism is suitable where the surface area of

body is large and the distance between parts of the
body in the organism is extremely small.
Cyclosis is the streaming movement of the cytoplasm

shown by almost all living organisms e.g. Paramoecium,
Amoeba, root hair cells of many plants and WBCs in
animals.
It is for transportation within the cell or intracellular

transport.
In sponges and coelenterates the surrounding water

is circulated through the body cavities.
In flat worms there is parenchymal circulation.
In round worms there are no blood vessels and the

body fluid is moved around the viscera by contraction
of body wall and muscles. This is extracellular
transport.
Circulation in Animal
Circulatory System in Human :
The human circulatory system is composed of blood
vascular and lymphatic system. Blood
vascular system :
In human beings it consists of blood, heart and blood
vessels. It is responsible for various functions like
transport, homeostasis and protection.
Blood Composition and Coagulation :
Study of blood is called haematology. An average adult

has about 4 to 6 liters of blood. It is a red coloured
fluid connective tissue derived from embryonic
mesoderm.
It is slightly alkaline (pH 7.4)salty and viscous fluid. It

is heavier than water. It has two main components- the
fluid plasma (55%) and the formed elements i.e.
blood cells (44%). These can be separated by
centrifugation.
Plasma :
It constitutes 55% of the blood. It is a straw-coloured,
slightly alkaline, viscous fluid and consists of following:
Red blood corpuscles / Erythrocytes :
Erythrocytes are the most abundant cells in the human

body. They are circular, biconcave and enucleated (in
camel and llama they are nucleated).
The red colour or RBCs is due to an oxygen carrying

pigment, the haemoglobin, in their cytoplasm.
In males, their average number is about 5.1-5.8

million/mm3 (per μL) and in females about 4.3-5.2
million/mm3 .
The average life span of RBCs is 120 days. The process

of formation of RBCs is called erythropoiesis. RBCs
are produced from haemocytoblasts / reticulocytes.
The erythropoeitic organ of the foetus is the liver &

spleen and in the adult, it is mainly the red bone
marrow.
Vitamin B12, folic acid, iron and heme protein are

required for production of RBCs
The old and worn out RBCs are destroyed in the liver
and spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
Condition with increase in the number of RBCs is called
polycythemia and with decrease in number of RBCs is
called as erythrocytopenia.
The hormone erythropoietin produced by the kidney

cells stimulates the bone marrow for production of
RBCs. Mature erythrocyte is devoid of nucleus,
mitochondria or other membrane bound cell organelles
They also contribute in the process of blood clotting.

The hematocrit is ratio of the volume of RBCs to total
blood volume of blood. It is different for men and
women.
White blood corpuscles / Leucocytes:
Leucocytes are colourless, nucleated and

amoeboid cells larger than RBCs Due to their
amoeboid movement they can move out of the
capillary walls by a process called diapedesis.
A normal adult has on an average, 5000-11000

WBCs per mm3 of blood. Decrease in number of
Types of WBCs :
These are colourless, irregular nucleated cells and

show polymorphism (exist in variable forms). They
can be classified into two main types such as
granulocytes and agranulocytes
A. Granulocytes :
These are WBCs with a granular cytoplasm, also

called Polymorpho nuclear leucocyte (PMN) cells.
They have lobulated nuclei in different shapes.

Granulocytes are formed from myeloid stem cells
and once formed, do not divide.
Granulocytes constitute about 72% of total

WBCs. Granules are actually secretory vesicles
which contain various secretions, enzymes, etc.
Depending upon staining property of the granules,

these granulocytes are classified into three types
as neutrophils, basophils and acidophills.
A.Neutrophils :
Granules are very fine, large in number, evenly

distributed and stained with neutral stains (dyes).
Neutrophils are about 70% of total WBCs. These
cells are spherical and nucleus is several lobed (2- 7).
These are able to perform amoeboid movements and

phagocytosis. They are responsible for destroying
pathogens by the process of phagocytosis. ‘Pus’ is
mixture of dead neutrophils, damaged tissues and
dead microbes.
B. Basophils / Cyanophils :
These cells have very few granules of large size, and

stain with basic stains like methylene blue. Basophils
are non-phagocytic, small, spherical cells and are about
0.5-1% of total WBCs.. Nucleus is twisted.
C. Eosinophils / Acidophills :
Acidophills contain lysosomal granules that are stained

to red colour with acidic stains like eosin. Eosinophils
are about 1 – 3 % of total WBCs.
Nucleus is bilobed. They destroy antigen antibody

complex by phagocytosis. Their number increases in
allergic condition and they show antihistaminic
property.
B. Agranulocytes :
Agranulocytes are about 28% of total WBCs. Cytoplasm

of these leucocytes is without granules. They are
formed from lymphoid stem cells and can divide by
mitosis.
A. Lymphocytes :
Lymphocytes are the smallest of all WBCs and have a

large spherical nucleus. They constitute about 25-30%
of total WBCs. Depending upon function, two types of
lymphocytes are present as B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes.
B-lymphocytes mature in bone marrow & are responsible

for antibody production/humoral immunity.
T-lymphocytes mature in thymus and are responsible for

cell-mediated immunity.
Helper T-cells, killer T-cell, memory T-cells and

suppressor T-cells
B. Monocytes :
Monocytes are the largest of all the WBCs. Its nucleus

is large and bean or kidney shaped. They form 3-5% of
WBCs. Monocytes are actively motile and give rise to
macrophages. They are mainly phagocytic.
Thrombocytes / Platelets:
Thrombocytes are cellular fragments formed from

the large cells called megakaryocytes. These are
produced in bone marrow.
They are very small, oval shaped cell fragments

without nucleus. Normal count of thrombocytes in
human blood is about 2.5 – 4.5 lakh / mm3 of blood.
If number of thrombocytes decreases than normal,

condition is called as thrombocytopenia. This
condition causes internal bleeding (haemorrhage).
Blood Clotting/ Coagulation of blood
Clotting or coagulation is the process of converting

the liquid blood into a solid form.
This process may be initiated by contact of blood

with any foreign surface (intrinsic process) or with
damaged tissue (extrinsic process).
Intrinsic and extrinsic processes involve interaction of

various substances called clotting factors
There are in all twelve clotting factors numbered as I

to XIII (factor VI is not in active use). Interaction of
these factors in a cascade manner leads to formation
of the enzyme thrombin.
Thromboplastin, helps in the formation of enzyme

prothrombinase. This enzyme inactivates heparin and
it also converts inactive prothrombin into its active
thrombin.
Thrombin converts soluble blood protein fibrinogen

into insoluble fibrin.
Fibrin forms a mesh in which platelets and other blood

cells are trapped to form the clot.
Heart :
Heart is the main pumping organ of the circulatory
system. It is reddish brown in colour, hollow,
muscular organ, roughly the size of one’s fist.
Its average weight is about 300gm in males and

250gm in females. It is conical in shape and lies in
mediastinum- i.e. the space between two lungs. It
is broader at upper end
Heart is enclosed in a membranous sac called

pericardium. Pericardium is formed of two main
layers - outer fibrous and inner serous pericardium.
Serous pericardium is soft, moist and elastic. It is

formed of squamous epithelium and is further
divisible into two layers as parietal and visceral
layer.
Parietal and visceral layers of serous pericardium are

separated by a pericardial space. This space is filled
with pericardial fluid (about 50ml)
which acts as a shock absorber and protects the

heart from mechanical injuries. It also keeps the
heart moist and acts as lubricant.
Heart wall :
The heart is mesodermal in origin. Its wall is formed

of three layers, outer epicardium, middle myocardium
and inner endocardium.
Epicardium is thin and formed of a single layer of flat

squamous epithelium resting on basement membrane.
Myocardium is the middle thick layer formed of

cardiac muscles.
Endocardium is a single thin layer formed of squamous

epithelium.
External structure of heart :
The human heart is four chambered. The two superior

chambers are called atria (auricles) and inferior two
are called ventricles.,
Externally the atria are separated from ventricles by a

transverse groove called coronary sulcus or
atrioventricular groove.
The two ventricles are externally separated from each

other by two grooves, the anterior and posterior inter-
ventricular sulci.
The pulmonary trunk bifurcates into right and left

pulmonary arteries. Aorta (systemic aorta) is divisible
into three regions as ascending aorta, systemic arch
/aortic arch and descending aorta.
The Ligamentum arteriosum joins pulmonary trunk and

aortic arch. It is the remnant of an embryonic duct
called ductus arteriosus.
The aortic arch gives out three arteries viz.

brachiocephalic artery, left common carotid and left
subclavian.
The right atrium receives superior and inferior vena

cava along its dorsal surface. Pulmonary veins open
into left atrium along the dorsal surface of heart.
Internal structure of heart:
Atria : These are the thin-walled receiving chambers
of heart. They are separated from each other by inter
-auricular septum.
Interauricular septum has an oval depression called

fossa ovalis. It is a remnant of the embryonic aperture
called foramen ovalis.
Superior vena cava (precaval), inferior vena cava

(postcaval) and coronary sinus open into the right
atrium.
Opening of the postcaval is guarded by a Eustachian

valve while the Thebesian valve guards the opening of
coronary sinus into right atrium.
Both the atria open into the ventricles of their

respective sides by atrioventricular apertures.
These openings are guarded by cuspid valves. The

tricuspid valve is present in the right AV aperture and
bicuspid valve (mitral valve) is present in the left AV
aperture.
All these heart valves help in maintaining a

unidirectional flow of blood.
They also avoid back flow of blood.

Ventricles :
The right and left ventricles are separated by an

interventri-cular septum. Wall of the left ventricle
is more muscular and about 3-times thicker than
the right ventricle.
Inner surface of the ventricles shows several ridges

called columnae carnae or trabeculae carnae which
divide the lumen of ventricle into small pockets or
fissures.
The lumen of ventricles also shows inelastic fibers

called chordae tendinae.
The right ventricle opens into the pulmonary aorta

and left ventricle opens into the aorta. These
openings are guarded by three semilunar valves
Pumping action of heart :
The heart acts as the main pumping organ of the

circulatory system. The pumping action is brought
about by a rhythmic contraction and relaxation of
the cardiac muscles or heart muscles.
Contraction of heart muscles is systole andrelaxation

of heart muscles is diastole.
A single systole followed by diastole makes one heart

beat. The heart beats 70 to 72 times per minute. This
is called heart rate.
During each heart beat ventricles pump about 70 ml

of blood this is called stroke volume.
It means heart pumps about 72 (heart rate) x 70

ml(stroke volume) = 5040 ml
5 liters of blood per minute this is called cardiac

output.
Conducting tissue of heart:
The human heart is myogenic i.e. the heart is capable

of generating a cardiac contraction independent of
nervous input.
It also shows auto rhythmicity i.e. it can generate

its own rhythm by specialized muscles. A specialized
cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue is
distributed in the heart.
A part of this nodal tissue is present in the upper

right corner of the right atrium. It is called SA
Node or Sinoatrial node.
Another mass of nodal tissue, the modified muscular

fibers also called autorhythmic fibers (conducting
tissue) control the beating rate of heart. Conducting
(nodal) tissue consists of SA node, AV node, bundle
of His and Purkinje fibers.
Conducting system of the heart :
SA node (sinu-atrial node) is present in the right atrium.

It acts as pacemaker of heart because it has the power
of generating a new wave of contraction and making the
pace of contraction.
SA node passes the contraction to the left ventricle &

also to the AV node. AV node (atrio-ventricular node) is
present in the right atrial wall near the base of
interatrial septum.
It acts as pace setter of heart. Bundle of His/ Tawara

branches start from AV node and pass through inter-
entricular septum. Bundle of His forms two branches,
the right and left bundles, one for each ventricle
Working mechanism of human heart :
Cardiac Cycle :
Human heart alternately contracts and relaxes.

Contraction is called systole and relaxation is
called diastole.
Atria and ventricles contract alternately.

Consecutive systole and diastole constitutes a
single heartbeat or cardiac cycle.
It is completed in 0.8 sec. On an average, 72

beats are completed in one minute in an adult
at rest.
Atrial systole (AS):
Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood and left

atrium receives oxygenated blood. When both the
atria are completely filled with blood, pressure is
exerted on the wall
In normal conditions, atrial systole (AS) is for 0.1

sec. and atrial diastole (AD) is for 0.7 sec.
Ventricular systole (VS):
The impulse which started from SA node now reaches

the AV node and it gets excited. AV node sends
impulses to bundle of His and from bundle of His to
Purkinje fibers.
During ventricular systole the cuspid valves close both

the atrioventricular apertures preventing blood flow
into atria (lubb sound is heard).
In normal conditions, ventricular systole lasts for 0.3

sec. and ventricular diastole (VD) lasts for 0.5 sec.
During ventricular diastole, semilunar valves are closed,

preventing backflow of blood from pulmonary trunk and
systemic aorta into ventricles (dub sound is heard). For
about 0.4 second, both atria and ventricles are in
diastole.
Joint diastole (JD)
When all the chambers of heart are in diastole, this

condition is called joint diastole or complete diastole.
It takes 0.4 sec thus, duration of one cardiac cycle is

0.8 sec.
Blood vessels :
There are three main types of blood vessels in the

human circulatory system viz, arteries, veins and
capillaries.
Arteries :
These blood vessels carry blood from heart to

various parts/organs of the body, there they
branch into arterioles and further into fine
capillaries.
They normally carry oxygenated blood to all parts

of the body (except the pulmonary artery which
carries deoxygenated blood).
In a T. S. of artery, its wall shows three layers.
1) Tunica externa or tunica adventitia

2) Tunica media
3) Tunica interna or intima
Veins :
Veins are thin walled, mostly superficial vessels which
carry blood from the organs towards the heart.
The capillaries around the various organs join to form

the veins. Except for the pulmonary veins or other
veins of the body carry deoxygenated blood towards
the heart.
Portal vein : A portal vein e.g. hepatic portal vein,

differs from the other normal veins in that its starts
as capillaries from one organ and capillarises in some
intermediate organ e.g. liver, before taking the blood
towards the heart.
Capillary :
These are a network of minute blood vessels. They

are thin walled having a single layer of flat squamous
epithelium resting on a single basement membrane.
They are mainly involved in exchange of materials.

Wall of capillaries is formed of single layer of squamous
epithelium and it is stretchable.
Wall of capillaries bear small endothelial pores or

fenestrae through which blood cells (WBCs) can
escape by the process called as diapedesis.
Pulse :
It is a series of pressure waves that travel through
the arteries due to ventricular systole.
It is the strongest in arteries closer to the heart and

gradually becomes weak in arteries away from heart.
It can be felt easily in the superficial arteries like

radial artery in the wrist and carotid artery in the
neck.
Pulse rate is equal to heart rate. Pulse rate higher than

normal (above 100 beats/min) is called tachycardia and
slower pulse rate (below 60 beats/min) than normal is
called bradycardia.
Blood pressure (B.P.):
The pressure exerted by blood on the wall of the blood

vessels is called blood pressure. It is measured by the
sphygmomanometer.
It is usually measured from the arteries. Arterial Blood

Pressure: Pressure exerted by blood on the wall of
artery is arterial blood pressure.
Pressure on arterial wall during ventricular contraction

(systole) is systolic pressure (SP). For a normal healthy
adult the average value is 120 mmHg.
Pressure on arterial wall during relaxation of ventricles

is diastolic pressure (DP). For a normal healthy adult it
is 80 mmHg.
B P = SP / DP = 120/80 mmHg Blood pressure is normal

written as 120/80 mmHg.
Difference between systolic and diastolic pressure is

called pulse pressure. Normally, it is 40 mmHg.
hardening of arteries(arteriosclerosis), deposition of

fats like cholesterol in the arteries (atherosclerosis),
Blood pressure lower than normal i.e. below 90/60
mmHg is called hypotension and blood pressure higher
than normal i.e. above 140/90 mmHg is hypertension
Normal cardiac output is 5 lit/min. Increase in cardiac

output increases systolic pressure.
Decrease in diameter of arterioles and capillaries

under the effect of vasoconstrictors like vasopressin
or ADH cause increase in peripheral resistance and
thereby increase in blood pressure.
Blood loss in accidents decreases blood volume and

thus the blood pressure. Blood pressure is directly
proportional to Viscosity of blood.
Blood pressure increases with age due to increase in

inelasticity of blood vessels. Amount of blood brought
to the heart via the veins per unit time is called the
venous return and it is directly proportional to blood
pressure.
Blood pressure can also be affected by vaso

constriction or vaso dilation.
Female (before menopause) has slightly lower BP than

males of her age. However, the risk of high B. P.
increases in the females after menopause sets in.
Measurement of blood pressure:
Blood pressure is measured with the help of an
instrument called sphygmomanometer.
This instrument consists of inflatable rubber bag cuff

covered by a cotton cloth. It is connected with the
help of tubes to a mercury manometer on one side and
a rubber bulb on the other side.
During measurement, the person is asked to lie in a

sleeping position. The instrument is placed at the level
of heart and the cuff is tightly wrapped around upper
arm.
Then pressure in the cuff is slowly lowered till the

first pulsatile sound is heard. At this moment, pressure
indicated in manometer is systolic pressure.
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) :-
It is also known as atherosclerosis. In this disease,

calcium, fat cholesterol and fibrous tissues get
deposited in blood vessels
supplying blood to the heart muscles, making the lumen

narrow.
Angina Pectoris
It is the pain in the chest resulting from a reduction
in the blood supply to the cardiac muscles because of
atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis.
It is characterized by severe pain and heaviness in the

chest.
The pain may spread to the neck, lower jaw, left arm
and left shoulder. The pain usually results from
exertion,
when there is more demand of oxygen by the heart,

but the supply does not meet the requirement
Heart Transplant
Replacement of severely damaged heart by normal
heart from brain-dead or recently dead donor is
called heart transplant.
Heart transplant is necessary in case of patients

with end-stage heart failure and severe coronary
arterial disease.
Silent Heart Attack
Silent heart attack, also known as silent myocardial

infarction is a type of heart attack that lacks the
general symptoms of classic heart attack like
extreme chest pain, hypertension, shortness of
breath, sweating and dizziness.
Symptoms of silent heart attack are so mild that a

person often confuses it for regular discomfort and
thereby ignores it.
It has been studied that men are more affected by

silent heart attack than women.
Electrocardiogram:
Graphical recording of electrical variations detected at
the surface of body during their propagation through
the wall of heart is electrocardiogram (ECG).
This recording may be in the form of printout or

onscreen display. The instrument used for this
recording is the ECG machine or electrocardiograph.
This instrument detects and amplifies the signals.

Various electrodes are used for recording of signals.
Four electrodes are positioned on limbs; two on arms
and two on legs.
These are limb electrodes. Six electrodes are

positioned on chest. These are chest electrodes. In a
normal record, three different waves are recognized
as P-wave, QRS complex and T-wave.
P-wave is a small upward deflection from baseline of

graph. It represents the atrial depolarization.
The QRS complex starts as a slight downward

deflection from baseline, continues as sharp and large
upright wave and ends as a downward wave. QRS
complex represents the ventricular depolarization.
T-wave is small, wide and upwardly elevated wave. It

represents the ventricular repolarization.

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Biostudyboards Biostudyboards Biostudyboards

Formation of life formation of life from

1) The small pieces of plant pants like roots, stem

2) A cutting is a must have primary meristem.

1) It is the technique to joining together the pants

2) stock on scion is graft

3) cambium play important

1)Angiosperms are commonly called flowering plants.

2) formation of fruits and seeds are the further

3) Stamens and carpel are the male and female

4) pollination and fertilization is done then the

1)An immature stage of anther is represented by

2)Anther is generally dithecous having two lobes &

The archesporial cell divides into an inner sporogenous

is the outermost protective layer made up of

is sub-epidermal layer up of radialy elongated

is the inner most nutritive layer of anther wall

Each microspore mother cell divides meiotic to form

Pollen grain is non-motile ,haploid(n) Unicellular body

It is surrounded by two layered wall called sporoderm

1)The inner wall layer is intine It is consists of

2)The outer layer exine is thick and made up of

It resist to chemical some places exine thin show thin

2) The vegetative cell is rich food and having irregular

3)The second mitotic division is concerned with

4)The mitotic division of generative cell takes place in

Polination is of two types

1) Autogamy (Self Polination )

The process of transfer of pollen grain from anther

The process of transfer of pollen grain of anther of

3) Xenogamy (Cross Polination)

For cross polination flower depend on different

Polination through the wind is called as Anemophily

1) They are never coloured

2) Large quantity of pollen grain is required

3) Stigma are comparatively small

Polination through the water is called as Hydrophily

Adaptation in Entomophilous plant

Polination occurs above the Polination occurs Below the

Polination through the insect is called as Entomophily

Adaptation in Entomophilous plant

- Large, showy Bright color

Polination through the Bird is called as Ornithophily

Adaptation in Entomophilous plant

- Large, showy Bright color

- Eg Bombax callistemon ( Bottle brush )

Polination through the Bats is called as Chiropterophily

Adaptation in Chiropterophilous plant

- Flower are dull in color

- Eg Androcephalous ( kadam tree )

1) Each ovule develops inside the ovary and is attached

2) The place of attachment of funiculus with the main

3) In angiosperms the most common. type of ovule is

4) The ovule is consists of central parenchymatous

5) The nucellus which is surrounded usually by two

Development of female gametophyte

1) Megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to from

2) Upper thin megaspores abort lowest one remain

3) Generally one megaspore toward centre is functional

4) It undergoes three successive free nuclear mitotic