Business Economics

B.
Com 1st Year Subject- Business Economics
SYLLABUS
Class – B.Com. I Year

Subject – Business Economics
UNIT – I Historical background of economics in India with

special reference to Kautilys, Definition of
Economics, Concept of Micro and Macro Economics,
Method of Economic study, Economics Law and
their nature, Significance of Economics Basic
problems of Economics
UNIT – II Elasticity of Demand, Concept and measurement of
Elasticity of Demand, Price, Income and cross
elasticity, Average Revenue, Marginal Revenue and
Elasticity of Demand, Determination of Elasticity of
Demand, Importance of Elasticity of Denmed Q
UNIT – III Factors of Production- Land, Labour, Division of
labour, Efficiency of Labour, Capital, Organisation and
Enterprises, The scale of production, Theories of
Population
UNIT – IV Production function and Law of returns, Return of
scale, Equal product curve analysis, Market and their
classification, Theory of cost and concept of revenue.
UNIT – V Price determination under perfect competition and
Equilibrium of the firmy Monopoly-price and output
determination and monopoly control, Price
determination under monopolly, Imperfect and
monopolistic competition price determination
UNIT – V I Re-concept, Recordian and modern theories of Rent,
Quasi Rent, Wages concept, nominal andreal wages,
theories of wage determination, Profit Nature, concept
and Theories of profit
Keywords/Tags:micro economics, macro economics,
Production, perfect competition, Reat
45, Anurag Nagar, Behind Press Complex, Indore (M.P.) Ph.: 4262100, www.rccmindore.com
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B.Com 1st Year Subject- Business Economics
Unit 1
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ECONOMICS IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO KAUTILYA
Introduction to Kautilya and his Arthashastra Kautilya was a learned, ethical, wise,
experienced, secular, progressive, independent and original thinker. He believed that
poverty was death while living. His Arthashastra is a manual on promoting
Yogakshema—peaceful enjoyment of prosperity—for all the people. It is shown that
his approach is more suitable to our economy than the currently adopted western
approach. He understood the economic system as an organic whole with
interdependent parts. He undertook an in-depth and detailed analysis of each part at
the micro level without losing sight of the macro goal of engineering shared
prosperity. He believed in the power of persuasion, moral and material incentives and
not in coercion or force to elicit effort. He designed material incentives in such a way
that no crowding-out occurred, that is without weakening the moral incentives. He
advanced a holistic yet logical and comprehensive approach to bring shared
prosperity. In fact, a stakeholders-model in which the businessmen, workers and
consumers share prosperity, is discernible in his Arthashastra. He relied both on the
invisible hand (the market) and the direct hand (principles, policies and procedures) to
enrich the people. Kautilya was deeply influenced by the Mahabharata (3102 BCE)
and it appears as if it had happened in not too distant a past. Secondly, Rao (1973)
points out that the measurements used in the Arthashastra are very similar to those
prevalent during the Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization (2600 BCE-1800 BCE).1
According to the new research, Chandragupta Maurya ruled around 1534 BCE and not
during the 4th century BCE. The preponderance of emerging evidence indicates that
Kautilya wrote his Arthashastra—science of wealth and welfare—several centuries
earlier than the fourth century BCE which has been advanced by the Western
Indologists. They had taken upon themselves the selfless and tortuous task of dating,
without any margin of error, all the historical events, such as the Aryan Invasion
Theory and providing authentic interpretations of our ancient texts. They really need
their well-deserved retirement from this demanding responsibility and leave it to the
native amateurs. . Kautilya was far-sighted, foresighted, ethical but not very religious,
believed in designing an efficient organizational structure but was not a bureaucrat.
Kautilya: The True Founder of Economics The following table lists some of the
concepts innovated and used by Kautilya. It also provides the time-periods of their re-
emergence.
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Table :- Concepts Developed and Used by Kautilya

S. Re-emerged during the period Originated and applied by Kautilya
No. Concepts
1 1700-1850 Gains from trade, diversification, Division of labor, Inter-
temporal choice, labor theory of property, Law of
diminishing returns, moral hazard, regulation of monopoly,
sources of economic growth, Duipit Curve, principles of
taxation
2 1850-1900 Distinction short-run and long run, Efficiency Wages,
externality, , Demand-Supply Apparatus, Opportunity cost,
Producer Surplus
3 1900-1970 Principal-agent problem, Liquidity, Mean-Variance
approach, non-cooperative game
4 1970- Present Asymmetric information, piece-wise Linear income Tax,
Loss-aversion, information economics, Self-protection, self-
insurance, Time Inconsistency, Systemic risk
On the other hand, Adam Smith did not innovate a single concept in economics.
Barber (1967, p17) observes, “Little of the content of The Wealth of Nations can be
regarded as original to Smith himself. Most of the book‟s arguments had in one form
or another been in circulation for some time.”
Kautilya as a One-Man Planning Commission and More
Kautilya's Arthashastra is comprehensive, coherent, concise and consistent. It consists

of three fully developed but inter-dependent parts.
(a) Principles and policies related to economic growth, taxation, international trade,
efficient, clean and caring governance, moral and material incentives to elicit effort
and preventive and remedial measures to deal with famines.
(b) Administration of justice, minimization of legal errors, formulation of ethical and

efficient laws, labour theory of property, regulation of monopolies and monopsonies,
protection of privacy, laws against sexual harassment and child labour.
(c) All aspects of national security: energetic, enthusiastic, well trained and equipped
soldiers, most qualified and loyal advisers, strong public support, setting-up an
intelligence and analysis wing, negotiating a favourable treaty, military tactics and
strategy, and diet of soldiers to enhance their endurance.
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Kautilya’s Ethics-based Economics:
Ancient sages realized that genuine trust was an ethics-intensive concept since non-
violence, truthfulness, honesty and benevolence were the foundation for trust.
Kautilya accepted that insight wholeheartedly. That is, trust flourished only in an
ethical environment. How to make sure that children grow-up to be ethical adults?
Kautilya suggested teaching ethical values at an early age. Kautilya believed that
dharmic (ethical) conduct paved the way to bliss and also to prosperity. That is,
according to Kautilya, a society based on contracts alone is less productive and more
anxiety prone than the one based on conscience and compassion. If the social
environment is predominantly ethical, there is less of a need to take defensive
measures to protect against opportunism. He emphasized ethical anchoring of the
children for replacing the „culture of suspicion‟ with a harmonious and trusting one.
Kautilya’s Insights
(a)An ounce of ethics was better than a ton of laws. Ethical anchoring could be more
effective in preventing systemic risk than a heap of rules and regulations.
(b) Principles were only as good as the people who practiced them, and policies were
only as good as the people who formulate and implement them.
(c) Material incentives should complement and not substitute moral incentives so that
there is no crowding- out.
(d) Education should include ethical education also. Secular values, such as non-
violence, honesty, truthfulness, compassion and tolerance do not violate the separation
between religion and state.
(e) Market failure is bad, government failure is worse but moral failure is the worst
since moral failure is true cause for other failures.
(f) Ethics and foresightedness could improve governance and bring sustainable
prosperity for the whole of humanity.
(g) Sound organizational design could complement the ethics-based approach by

enhancing specialization and reducing the scope for conflict of interest situations.
(h) Wisdom is the most valuable asset and knowledge-management is a subset of

management by wisdom.
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Definition of Economics
The term “Economics” was originally derived from the two Greek word “Oikos” which means household
and “Nomos” which means management. Thus, it refers to managing of a household using the limited
funds.
Many economists like Stigler, Samuelson, Macifie, Oscar Lange, Sciovosky, have given definition of
economics –
1. “Economics is fundamentally a study of scarcity and the problems which scarcity gives rise to.”
-Stonier and Hagur
2. “Economic is a science concerned with the administration of scarce resources.” -Scitovosky
Nature of Economics
Nature of Economics
Science Art
Positiv Normativ
e e
Economics as a Science
1) In simple words, a science is commonly defined as a systematic body of knowledge about a
particular branch of the universe.
2) In the opinion of Poincare who says – “A science is built upon facts as a house is built of stones.”
3) Applying this is to our subject, we find economics is built upon facts, examined and
systematized by economists. Further, economics like other science deduce conclusion or
generalizations after observing, collecting and examining facts. Thus, it deals with (i)
observation of facts. (ii) Measurement (iii) Explanation (iv) Verification. In short, it formulates
economic laws about human behaviour. In this way economics has developed into a science of
making and possessing laws for itself.
4) Science economics satisfies all the tests of a science, economics is regarded as a full-fledged,
science. In short, it is no way less than other sciences.
The economics as a science can be divided into two parts i.e. (a) Positive Science and (b)
Normative Science.
I. Economics as a Positive Science – A positive science establishes a relation between cause and
effect. It tells us that if we do a certain thing, same result will follow.
II. Economics as A Normative Science – Marshall, Pigou and historical school puts the arguments
that economics is normative science i.e. it states: What should be done.
Therefore a positive science describes what is and a normative science describes what should
be done & what should not be done.
From the above noted discussion, we can say that economics is both positive and normative science as
at present, it deals with ‘what is’ and ‘what ought to be’. Therefore, it not only focuses why certain
things happen, it also conveys whether it is the right thing to happen.
Economics as an art
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Art is completely different from science.

1) In the words of Cossa – “A science teaches us to know; an art teaches up to do. In other words,
science explains and expounds; art directs, art imposes precepts or proposes rules.”In other
words, science is theoretical but an art is political.
2) What is an Art? As J.M. Keynes has put it: “An art is a system of rules for the attainment of a
given end”. The object of an art is the formulation of precepts applicable to policy. This implies
that art is practical. Applying this definition of art, we can say economics is an art. Its several
branches like consumption, production and public finance provide practical guidance to solve
economic problems. Again for example the theory of consumption guides the consumer to
obtain maximum satisfaction with his given income (means). In this sense, economics can be
considered as an art in the wider sense of the term art i.e. in the sense of practical science. It
means creation or practical application of knowledge. It is for this reason; we treat economics
as an art.
In a nutshell, we can conclude the discussion that economics is both science and art.
Practical uses of Economics

The main points of practical uses are discussed below –
1. Useful to the Consumer
2. Useful to the Producer
3. Helpful to Business Community
4. Solution to Economic Problems
5. Helpful to Workers
6. Helpful in Price Determination
7. Significant for Economics Development
8. Useful for Economic Planning
9. Useful for Social Workers
10. Helpful to Social Welfare Activities
11. Helpful in international Trade.
In short economics is useful for all.
Economics
Micro Macro
Definitions of Micro Economics

Different economists have defined micro economics as under –
According to A.P. Lerner – “Micro economics consists of looking at the economy through a
microscope, as it were, to see how the millions of cells in the body of the individuals, or households as
consumers, and the individuals or firms as producers-play their parts in the working of the whole
economic organism.”
According to K.E. Boulding – ‘Micro economics is the study of particular firms, particular households,
individual prices, wages, incomes, individual industries and particular commodities.”
According to Shapiro – “Micro economics deals with small parts of the economy.
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Importance/Usefulness of Microeconomics
1. Determination of demand pattern: It determines the pattern of demand in the economy, i.e., the
amounts of the demand for the different goods and services in the economy, because the total demand
for a good or service is the sum total of the demands of all the individuals. Thus, by determining the
demand patterns of every individual or family, microeconomics determines the demand pattern in the
country as a whole.
2. Determination of the pattern of supply: In a similar way, the pattern of supply in the country as a
whole can be obtained from the amounts of goods and services produced by the firms in the economy.
Microeconomics, therefore, determines the pattern of supply as well.
3. Pricing: Probably the most important economic question is the one of price determination. The
prices of the various goods and services determine the pattern of resource allocation in the economy.
The prices, in turn, are determined by the interaction of the forces of demand and supply of the goods
and services. By determining demand and supply,
Microeconomics helps us in understanding the process of price determination and, hence, the process
of determination of resource allocation in a society.
4. Policies for improvement of resource allocation: As is well-known, economic development
stresses the need for improving the pattern of resource allocation in the country. Development polices,
therefore, can be formulated only if we understand how the pattern of resource allocation is
determined. For instance, if we want to analyze how a tax or a subsidy will affect the use of the scarce
resources in the economy, we have to know how these will affect their prices. By explaining prices and,
hence, the pattern of resource allocation, microeconomics helps us to formulate appropriate
development policies for an underdeveloped economy.
5. Solution to the problems of micro-units: Since the study of microeconomics starts with the
individual consumers and producers, policies for the correction of any wrong decisions at the micro-
level are also facilitated by microeconomics. For example, if a firm has to know exactly what it should
do in order to run efficiently, it has to know the optimal quantities of outputs produced and of inputs
purchased. Only then can any deviation from these optimal levels be corrected. In this sense,
microeconomics helps the formulation of policies at the micro-level.
Limitations of Microeconomics
However, microeconomics has its limitations as well:

1. Monetary and fiscal policies: Although total demand and total supply in the economy is the sum of
individual demands and individual supplies respectively, the total economic picture of the country
cannot always be understood in this simplistic way. There are many factors affecting the total economic
system, which are outside the scope of Microeconomics. For example, the role of monetary and fiscal
policies in the determination of the economic variables cannot be analyzed completely without going
beyond microeconomics.
2. Income determination: Microeconomics also does not tell us anything about how the income of a
country (i.e., national income) is determined.
3. Business cycles: A related point is that, it does not analyze the causes of fluctuations in national
income. The ups-and-downs of national income over time are known as business cycles.
Microeconomics does not help us in understanding as to why these cycles occur and what the remedies
are.
4. Unemployment: One of the main economic problems faced by an economy like India is the problem
of unemployment. This, again, is one of the areas on which microeconomics does not shed much light.
Because, if we are to find a solution to the unemployment problem, we must first understand the causes
of this problem. For that, in turn, we must understand how the total employment level in the economy
is determined. This is difficult to understand from within the confines of microeconomics.
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Methods of Economic Analysis
An economic theory derives laws or generalizations through two methods:

(1) Deductive Method of Economic Analysis
The deductive method is also named as analytical, abstract or prior method. The deductive method
consists in deriving conclusions from general truths, takes few general principles and applies them
draw conclusions. (GENERAL TO PARTICULAR)
For instance, if we accept the general proposition that man is entirely motivated by self-interest. Then
Ram (a man) is also entirely motivated by self interest.
The classical and neo-classical school of economists notably, Ricardo, Senior, Cairnes, J.S. Mill,
Malthus, Marshall, Pigou, applied the deductive method in their economic investigations.
Steps of Deductive Method:
The main steps involved in deductive logic are as under:
(i) Perception of the problem to be inquired into: In the process of deriving economic
generalizations, the analyst must have a clear and precise idea of the problem to be inquired into.
(ii) Defining of terms: The next step in this direction is to define clearly the technical terms used
analysis. Further, assumptions made for a theory should also be precise.
(iii) Deducing hypothesis from the assumptions: The third step in deriving generalizations is
deducing hypothesis from the assumptions taken.
(iv) Testing of hypothesis: Before establishing laws or generalizations, hypothesis should be verified
through direct observations of events in the rear world and through statistical methods. (Their inverse
relationship between price and quantity demanded of a good is a well established generalization).
Merits of Deductive Method:

The main merits of deductive method are as under:
(i) This method is near to reality. It is less time consuming and less expensive.
(ii) The use of mathematical techniques in deducing theories of economics brings exactness and clarity
in economic analysis.
(iii) There being limited scope of experimentation, the method helps in deriving economic theories.
(iv) The method is simple because it is analytical.
Demerits of Deductive Method:
(i) The deductive method is simple and precise only if the underlying assumptions are valid.
More often the assumptions turn out to be based on half truths or have no relation to reality. The
conclusions drawn from such assumptions will, therefore, be misleading.
(ii) In deductive method, the premises from which inferences are drawn may not hold good at all times,
and places. As such deductive reasoning is not applicable universally.
(iii) The deductive method is highly abstract. It requires a great deal of care to avoid bad logic or
faulty economic reasoning.
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(2) Inductive Method of Economic Analysis:
Inductive method which is also called empirical method was adopted by the “Historical School of
Economists". It involves the process of reasoning from particular facts to general principle.
(PARTICULAR TO GENERAL)
This method derives economic generalizations on the basis of (i) Experimentations (ii) Observations
and (iii) Statistical methods.
In this method, data is collected about a certain economic phenomenon. These are systematically
arranged and the general conclusions are drawn from them.
For example, we observe 200 persons in the market. We find that nearly 195 persons buy from the
cheapest shops, Out of the 5 which remains, 4 persons buy local products even at higher rate just to
patronize their own products, while the fifth is a fool. From this observation, we can easily draw
conclusions that people like to buy from a cheaper shop unless they are guided by patriotism or they
are devoid of commonsense.
Steps of Inductive Method:

The main steps involved in the application of inductive method are:
(i) Observation.
(ii) Formation of hypothesis.
(iii) Generalization.
(iv) Verification.
Merits of Inductive Method:

(i) It is based on facts as such the method is realistic.
(ii) In order to test the economic principles, method makes statistical techniques. The inductive
method is, therefore, more reliable.
(iii) Inductive method is dynamic. The changing economic phenomenon are analyzed and on the basis
of collected data, conclusions and solutions are drawn from them.
(iv) Inductive method also helps in future investigations.
Demerits of Inductive Method:

The main weaknesses of this method are as under:
(i) If conclusions are drawn from insufficient data, the generalizations obtained may be faulty.
(ii) The collection of data itself is not an easy task. The sources and methods employed in the collection
of data differ from investigator to investigator. The results, therefore, may differ even with the same
problem.
(iii) The inductive method is time-consuming and expensive.
Conclusion:
The above analysis reveals that both the methods have weaknesses. We cannot rely exclusively on any
one of them. Modern economists are of the view that both these methods are complimentary. They
partners and not rivals. Alfred Marshall has rightly remarked:
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“Inductive and Deductive methods are both needed for scientific thought, as the right and left foot are
both needed for walking”. We can apply any of them or both as the situation demands.
Macro Economics
The term macro in English has its origin in the Greek term “macros” which means large. In the
context of ‘Macroeconomics’ means economics of the large like economy as a whole. Macro
economics deals primarily with the analysis of the relationship between broad economic
aggregates like national income, level of total employment, aggregate consumption, total
investment, general price level, balance of payment, the quantity of money etc.
Macroeconomics is also known as the theory of income & employment as it is concerned with
the problems of on employment, economic fluctuation, inflation or deflation international
trade and economic growth.
Definitions of Macro Economics

1) According to culberton’s-“Macro Economics is the theory of income, employment, price
and money.”
2) Accordingly to K.E. Boulding –“Macro economics deals not with individuals quantities as
such but with aggregate income, but with national income, not with individuals price but
with price levels, not with individuals output but with national output.”
3) According to Edward Shapiro – “Macro economics attempts to answer the truly ‘big’
question of economic life – full employment or unemployment, capacity or under capacity
production.”
Nature of Macro Economics
1) Macro economics studies the concept of national income and its different elements and
the method of measurement.
2) It studies problems relating to employment and unemployment. It studies different
factors determining the level of employment.
3) Determination of general price level is also studied under macro economics. Problems
relating to inflation and deflation are an important component of macro economics.
4) Change in demand and supply of money have an important impact on the level of
employment. Macroeconomics studies function of money & theories relating to it.
5) Problems relating to economic growth is another important component of macro
economics like plans for overall increase in national income, output, employment are
framed so the economic development of economy as a whole.
6) It also studies issues relating to international trade, export, import exchange rate and
balance of payments are the principal issue in this context.
Importance of Macro Economics

1) Macro economics is helpful for getting us an idea of the functioning of an economic
system. It is very essential for a proper and adequate knowledge of behavior pattern of
the aggregative variable, as the description of a large and complex economic system.
2) It says about the study of national income and social accounts. It is the study of national
income which enables us to know that three fourth of the world is living in object
poverty without proper national difficult to formulate proper economic policies.
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3) Macroeconomic approaches are of almost importance to analyze and understand the

effect of inflation and deflation different sections of society are affected differently as a
result of charges in the value of money.
4) Economic fluctuation is a characteristics features of the capitalist form of economy. The
economic booms and depression in the level of income and employment follow one
another in cyclical fashion.
5) The study of macro economics is essential for the proper understanding of Micro
economics. No micro economics law could be framed without a prior study of the
aggregate.
Limitations of Macroeconomics
Following are the main limitations of macro economics:-
1.Excessive Thinking:-Macro economics suffers from the limitations that it always excessively
thinks in the terms of aggregates and presumes circumstances to be normal and homogeneous
but aggregates may result into heterogeneous character. As Prof. Boulding points:
(a) Six apples+Seven apples=Thirteen apples which constitutes a meaningful aggregate.
(b) Six apples+Seven oranges=Thirteen fruits, which constitutes a fairly meaningful
aggregates.
(c) Six apples+Seven shoes constitutes a meaningless aggregates.
2.Difference in individual items:-Sometimes while aggregating the variables, the basic
characteristics of the data or the variables is left untouched because there are important
differences in the items. Sometimes, the features of individual components may not be true to
the aggregate so macro suffers from the danger of excessive generalization.
3.Unable to influnce society equally:-An aggregative tendency may not influence the entire
sectors of the economy in the same way. For example, a general rise in price as inflation may
not similar effects on different sectors of the economy.
4.Contradictory:-In aggregates, sometime the contradictory individual aspects are neutralized
as in case of the estimation, prices in agriculture fall, of industrial products rise which have
different affects on individual factors but as an aggregate, there may not be any effect at all.
Thus, macro aggregate results may be misleading.
5.Role of less aggregative analysis:-Aggregates itself suffer from certain serious problems
due to statistical techniques. The recently introduced computational procedures and
programming techniques have reduced the role of aggregative analysis.
Microeconomics V/s Macroeconomics
S.No. Points Microeconomics Macroeconomics

1 Study It studies individual unit It studies aggregate or group of
individual units.
2 Assumption At micro level full At macro level, full employment is not
employment is assumed assumed. Instead equilibrium
which is never found in an employment is assumed which is a
economy. Hence this is an real assumption.
unreal assumption
3 Subject We study demand supply, We study national income, theory of
Matter consumer behavior wage, interest & employment, Theory
production, types of market, of money, theory of international
theory of cost & revenue etc. trade etc.
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4 Applicability It is useful in analysis of an It is useful in analysis of aggregate

individual unit like cost of an units such as aggregate demand,
individual good, demand of a aggregate prices or inflation-
single good, price of a single deflation, aggregate or national
good. income etc.
5 Usefulness It is less useful to Govt. in It is more useful to Govt. in
to Govt. formulating economic formulating economic policies.
policies.
INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN MICRO AND MACRO ECONOMICS
Micro and macro economics are the two sides of the same coin. There is close
interdependence between the two. We cannot analyse the individual behaviour without the
assuming to aggregate and likewise aggregate cannot be effective unless individual variables
are kept under consideration.
Micro economics contributes towards macro economics in a number of ways as:-
1.Study of economic fluctuations:-Business cycles which are universal in every sector, are
influenced by both individuals and aggregate factors. Unless we review both micro and
aggregate variables, we cannot provide an appropriate solution to business cycles. Therefore
to study trade cycles micro and macro economics contribute significantly.
2.Basis of economic laws:-Micro economics acts as a basis macro economics because macro is
an aggregate of individual units. The success and accuracy of aggregates depends on the
individual units. Similarly, macro theories are used by micro economists.
3.Role in international trade:-In international trade both the approaches are used.
Economists have developed their theories on the basis of micro economics presuming full
employment of resources and mobility of factors of production. However, modern economists
looked on the economy as a whole and recognized the role of aggregates. So general
equilibrium is nothing but an extension of equilibrium of micro economics.
4.Balance of payments and interdependence:-Balance of payments problem is also a burning
problem for economy. An individual sector may have favorable balance of payments whereas
other sectors, unfavourable balance of payments. On the other hand, the overall position of an
economy is to be assessed from aggregate position of all sectors.
5.Theory of tariffs:-Many economists have propounded that modern macro approaches of
imposing tariffs with the intention of correcting balance of payments position is virtually based
on the theory of monopoly. So micro economics has influenced the modern macro economics
theory.
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UNIT-III
ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Elasticity of demand is defined as the degree of responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good to a
change in its price, consumers income and prices of related goods. There are three concepts of demand
elasticity – price elasticity, income elasticity and cross elasticity.
E = % change in Quantity demanded/% change in variable
Price elasticity of demand

(PED or Ed) is a measure used in economics to show the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the quantity
demanded of a good or service to a change in its price. More precisely, it gives the percentage change in
quantity demanded in response to a one percent change in price (holding constant all the other
determinants of demand, such as income).
Price elasticity of Demand = Proportionate change in purchases of commodity X

Proportionate change in price of commodity X
Types/Degrees of Price Elasticity of Demand

A) Perfectly Elastic Demand: A perfectly elastic demand refers to the situation when demand is
infinite at the prevailing price. It is a situation where the slightest rise in price causes the
quantity demand of the commodity falls to zero.
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B) Perfectly Inelastic Demand: A perfectly inelastic demand refers to a situation when change in
price causes no change in the quantity demanded. Even a substantial change in price does not
impact quantity demanded.
C) Unitary Elastic Demand: It is a situation when change in quantity demanded in response to

change in own price of the commodity is such that total expenditure of the quantity remains
constant. In short % change in quantity demanded is equal to % change in price.
This type of demand curve is called Rectangular Hyperbola
D) Greater than unitary Elastic Demand: Demand is greater than unitary elastic when change in
quantity demanded in response to change in price of the commodity is such that total
expenditure of the commodity increases when the price decreases, and total expenditure
decreases when price increases. In short % change in quantity demanded is greater than %
change in price.
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E) Less than Unitary Elastic Demand: Demand is less than unitary elastic when change in
quantity demanded in response to change in price of the commodity is such that total
expenditure on the commodity decreases when price falls, and total expenditure increases
when price rises. In short % change in quantity demanded is less than % change in price.
Methods to measure Price Elasticity of demand

There are three methods of measuring price elasticity of demand:
(1) Total Expenditure Method.
(2) Geometrical Method or Point Elasticity Method.
(3) Arc Method.
Total Expenditure (Outlay) Method:
This method is evolved by Dr. Alfred Marshall. According to this method, to measure the elasticity of
demand it is essential to know how much & in what direction the total expenditure has changed as a
result of change in the price of good.
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For Example:
Price Per Unit ($) Quantity Demanded Total Expenditure ($)

20 10 Pens 200.0
10 30 Pens 300.0
Point Method or Geometrical Method:

This method was also suggested by Alfred Marshall. It explains the elasticity of demand at a particular
point of the demand curve if the demand function is linear one (or when demands curve is straight line
sloping down from left to right). The point method is not applicable on curvilinear demand curves. This
method is based on the proposition that each point of the straight line demand curve has different
elasticity of demand. Different elasticity of demand. We have already shown (under the heading slope
and elasticity) that every point on demand curve does not have the same elasticity. This has been
explained by point method, also known as Geometrical Method. The basic formula for this method is :
Ep = Length of Lower segment/Length of Upper segment
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Now we can calculate elasticity of demand at different points R,A,Q, B and P, As per the ratio of the
lower part to upper part.
ep at Q = QP =1
RQ
AP
ep at A = <1
AR
BP
ep at B = >1
RB
RP
ep at R = = ∞
0
0
ep at P = RP
= 0
Therefore, we can say that at the mid-point on a straight line demand curve, elasticity will be unitary, at
higher points (such as A and R) elasticity will be greater than one; at lower points (B and P) the
elasticity will be less than one. At points R and P the elasticities will be infinite and zero respectively.
Point method is very useful in economics. It helps us measuring elasticity with very small changes in
price and quantity demanded. It also tells us that slope and elasticity are two different things.
Arc Method:
As we have seen that point elasticity method can be used to determine the elasticity of demand at
different points when infinitesimal changes in price are taking place. If the price change is somewhat
large or we have to measure elasticity between two different points rather than at a specific point we
use Arc Method. When we have to measure the price elasticity over an arc of the demand curve, such as
between points Q and Q1 on the demand curve in figure the point elasticity method cannot yield true
picture. In measuring arc elasticity we use the average of the two prices and average of two quantities
at these prices in the following manner.
17
Suppose commodity X’s position is like this- At price of Rs. 10 (P1) its, quantity demanded is 100 (Q1)
and at price of Rs. 5 (P2) its quantity demanded is 300 (Q2). The elasticity of demand as per Arc Method
will be
q p1+p2
ed = p × q1+q2
= 200 × 10 + 5
5 100 + 300
= 200 × 15 = 1.5
5 400
Income elasticity of demand

Income elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in demand caused by a percent change in
income. A change in income causes the demand curve to shift reflecting the change in demand. IED is a
measurement of how far the curve shifts horizontally along the X-axis. Income elasticity can be used to
classify goods as normal or inferior. With a normal good demand varies in the same direction as
income. With an inferior good demand and income move in opposite directions
Income Elasticity = Proportionate change in the quantity purchased /Proportionate change in
Income
Degree of Income Elasticity of Demand

1. Positive Income Elasticity of Demand
a. Unitary income elasticity of demand
b. Less than unitary income elasticity of demand
c. More than unitary income elasticity of demand
2. Negative income elasticity of demand
3. Zero income elasticity of demand
1. Positive income Elasticity of Demand

Income elasticity of demand for a good is positive, when with a increase in the income of a
consumer his demand for the goods is increases and vice-versa.
2. Negative Income Elasticity of Demand:

Income Elasticity of Demand is negative when increases in the income of the consumer is
accomplished by fall in demand of good.
It is negative in case of inferior goods which are known as Giften goods.
18
3. Zero Income Elasticity of Demand:

Income Elasticity of demand is zero, when change in the income of consumer evokes no change
in his demands. Demands for necessaries like oil, salt, etc., have zero income elasticity of
demand
CROSS ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Cross price elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in demand for a particular good
caused by a percent change in the price of another good. Goods can be complements, substitutes or
unrelated. A change in the price of a related good causes the demand curve to shift reflecting a change
in demand for the original good. Cross price elasticity is a measurement of how far, and in which
direction, the curve shifts horizontally along the x-axis.
Cross elasticity of Demand for X and Y = Proportionate change in purchases of commodity X

Proportionate change in price of commodity Y
The numerical value of cross elasticity depends on whether the two goods in question are
substitutes, complements or unrelated.
Degree of Cross Elasticity of Demand

1. Positive Cross Elasticity of Demand:
It is positive in case of substitute goods for example, Rise in the price of coffee will lead to increase in
Demand for Tea. The curve slopes upward from left to right
19
2. Negative Cross Elasticity of Demand:

It is negative in case of complementry goods. For example rise in price of bread will bring down the
demand for butter.the curves slopes downward from left to right.
3. Zero Elasticity Of Demand:

Cross elasticity of demand is zero when two goods are not related to each other . for example, Rise in
the price of wheat will have no effect on the demand for shoes.
Types of Cross Elasticity
(i) Substitute Goods. When two goods are substitute of each other, such as coke and Pepsi, an
increase in the price of one good will lead to an increase in demand for the other good. The
numerical value of goods is positive.
For example there are two goods. Coke and Pepsi which are close substitutes. If there is increase in
the price of Pepsi called good y by 10% and it increases the demand for Coke called good X by 5%,
the cross elasticity of demand would be:
Exy = %Δqx / %Δpy = 0.2
Since Exy is positive (E > 0), therefore, Coke and Pepsi are close substitutes.
(ii) Complementary Goods. However, in case of complementary goods such as car and petrol,
cricket bat and ball, a rise in the price of one good say cricket bat by 7% will bring a fall in the
demand for the balls (say by 6%). The cross elasticity of demand which are complementary to each
other is, therefore, 6% / 7% = 0.85 (negative).
(iii) Unrelated Goods. The two goods which a re unrelated to each other, say apples and pens, if
the price of apple rises in the market, it is unlikely to result in a change in quantity demanded of
pens. The elasticity is zero of unrelated goods.
20
PRODUCTION FUNCTION
1) Production is the process of conversion of inputs into outputs.

2) It is the creation of utility and addition of value
3) Production function is the relationship between inputs & output of a commodity
4) The mathematical expression of production function is –
Qx = f(x1,x2,x3,…….. xn)
Ox → Output of commodity X.
f = Function of
x1,x2,x3,…….. xn → Inputs
5) The inputs/resources used for production are called factors of production. These are namely land,
labour, capital & entrepreneur.
Attributes of production function

1. It indicates a functional relationship between physical inputs and physical outputs. For example,
if we have two factors, say, labour (L) and capital (K) then the production function
Q = f (L, K)
2. The production function is always in relation to a period of time. It denotes the flow of inputs
resulting in a flow of outputs during a particular period of time. This is due to the fact when the
firm wants to increase the production, it can either employ “some factors” additionally or
increase “all the factors” in accordance with availability of the time period. Later we will study it
as short period and long period.
3. The production function can specify either the maximum quantity of output that can be
produced by a given set of input or the minimum quantity of inputs required for producing
certain level of output.
4. The quantity of inputs is dependent upon the state of technology available and firm’s
managerial ability to use them. In order to simplify things the state of technology is considered
to be given.
5. Production function takes into account the most efficient technology and methodology available
at a time.
6. Production function is purely a technology relationship between input and output. It has
nothing to do with the nominal relationship between input and output. It has nothing to do with
the nominal price of factors; or value of quantity produced by them.
Fixed factors & variable factors:

1) Fixed Factor (FF)
a. Fixed factors refer to those factors of production which cannot be changed during short
run.
b. These are used in a fixed quantity in the short run.
c. These factors can be changed only in the long run.
d. Example-land, plant and machinery, factory building etc.
2) Variable Factor (VF)
a. Variable factor refer to those factors of production which can be changed during short
period.
b. The quantity of variable inputs varies according to the level of output.
c. Example-labour, raw material etc.
Time Element in Production Function

Short Run and Long Run
Short Run: Short refer to a period of time in which a firm cannot change its fixed factors of production
only variable factors can be changed.
21
Long Run: Long run refers to a time period during which a firm can change all the factors of production.
In the long run, all inputs are variable. Therefore the distinction between fixed factors and variable
factors will disappear.
Basic Concepts of Production

1. Total product or Total physical product (TP or TPP)
Total product refers to the total volume of a commodity produced by a firm with given inputs
during a given period.
2. Average product or Average physical product (AP or APP)
Average product is per unit product of a variable input
It is obtained by dividing the total product (TP) by the units of a variable factor.
𝑻𝑷
Symbolically, 𝑨𝑷 = 𝑳
3. Marginal product or Marginal physical product (MP or MPP)
Marginal product is an addition to the total product when an additional unit of variable factor
(labour) is employed.
Law of Variable Proportions

The Law of Variable Proportions (also called as returns to factor or Laws of Returns) is discussed under
the situation of having one factor variable and another factor being used in fixed quantity if there are
only two factors of production. This alters the proportions between factors; therefore, it is called as
Law of Variable Proportions. The law is applicable for short run. Here Qx=f(L).
The law can be explained with the help of below table:
First Stage- Stage of Increasing Returns

 In this stage as the input of variable factor (labour) increases, marginal product (MP) tends to
increase and total product (TP) increases at increasing rate because there is underutilization of
the fixed input
 MP also tends to rise alongwith AP.
Second Stage- Stage of Diminishing Returns
 In this stage, increase in the input of variable factor (Labour) is followed by a decrease in MP
but it remains positive and TP increases at decreasing rate because there is pressure on fixed
input.
Third Stage- Stage of Negative Returns
 In this stage, increase in the units of variable factor (labour) renders MP negative and TP starts
declining because there is too much of variable input in relation to the fixed input.
22
THE LAWS OF RETURNS TO SCALE: PRODUCTION FUNCTION WITH TWO VARIABLE INPUTS
The laws of returns to scale refer to the effects of a change in the scale of factors (inputs) upon output
in the long run when the combinations of factors are changed in the same proportion.
If by increasing two factors, say labour and capital, in the same proportion, output increases in exactly
the same proportion, there are constant returns to scale. If in order to secure equal increases in output,
both factors are increased in larger proportionate units, there are decreasing returns to scale. If in
order to get equal increases in output, both factors are increased in smaller proportionate units, there
are increasing returns to scale.
Increasing Returns to Scale:

Below figure shows the case of increasing returns to scale where to get equal increases in output, lesser
proportionate increases in both factors, labour and capital, are required.
It follows that in the figure:

100 units of output require 3C + 3L
23
So that along the expansion path OR, OA > AB > BC. In this case, the production function is
homogeneous of degree greater than one. The increasing returns to scale are attributed to the existence
of indivisibilities in machines, management, labour, finance, etc. Some items of equipment or some
activities have a minimum size and cannot be divided into smaller units. When a business unit expands,
the returns to scale increase because the indivisible factors are employed to their full capacity.
Increasing returns to scale also result from specialisation and division of labour. When the scale of the
firm expands there is wide scope for specialisation and division of labour. Work can be divided into
small tasks and workers can be concentrated to narrower range of processes. For this, specialized
equipment can be installed.
Thus with specialization efficiency increases and increasing returns to scale follow:
Further, as the firm expands, it enjoys internal economies of production. It may be able to install better
machines, sell its products more easily, borrow money cheaply, procure the services of more efficient
manager and workers, etc. All these economies help in increasing the returns to scale more than
proportionately.
Not only this, a firm also enjoys increasing returns to scale due to external economies. When the
industry itself expands to meet the increased long-run demand for its product, external economies
appear which are shared by all the firms in the industry. When a large number of firms are
concentrated at one place, skilled labour, credit and transport facilities are easily available.
Subsidiary industries crop up to help the main industry. Trade journals, research and training centres
appear which help in increasing the productive efficiency of the firms. Thus these external economies
are also the cause of increasing returns to scale.
Decreasing Returns to Scale:

Below Figure shows the case of decreasing returns where to get equal increases in output, larger
proportionate increases in both labour and capital are required.
It follows that:
So that along the expansion path OR, OG < GH < HK.
In this case, the production function is homogeneous of degree less than one. Returns to scale may start
diminishing due to the following factors. Indivisible factors may become inefficient and less productive.
Business may become unwieldy and produce problems of supervision and coordination.
Large management creates difficulties of control and rigidities. To these internal diseconomies are
added external diseconomies of scale. These arise from higher factor prices or from diminishing
productivities of the factors. As the industry continues to expand the demand for skilled labour, land,
capital, etc. rises.
There being perfect competition, intensive bidding raises wages, rent and interest. Prices of raw
materials also go up. Transport and marketing difficulties emerge. All these factors tend to raise costs
24
and the expansion of the firms leads to diminishing returns to scale so that doubling the scale would
not lead to doubling the output.
Constant Returns to Scale:

Below Figure shows the case of constant returns to scale. Where the distance between the isoquants
100, 200 and 300 along the expansion path OR is the same, i.e., OD = DE = EF. It means that if units of
both factors, labour and capital, are doubled, the output is doubled. To treble the output, units of both
factors are trebled.
It follows that:
100 units of output require
1 (2C + 2L) = 2C + 2L
2 (2C + 2L) = 4C + 4L
3 (2C + 2L) = 6C + 6L
The returns to scale are constant when internal economies enjoyed by a firm are neutralised by
internal diseconomies so that output increases in the same proportion. Another reason is the balancing
of external economies and external diseconomies.
Constant returns to scale also result when factors of production are perfectly divisible, substitutable,
homogeneous and their supplies are perfectly elastic at given prices. That is why, in the case of constant
returns to scale, the production function is homogeneous of degree one.
25

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B.

Com 1st Year Subject- Business Economics

Class – B.Com. I Year

UNIT – I Historical background of economics in India with

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ECONOMICS IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL

Table :- Concepts Developed and Used by Kautilya

Kautilya as a One-Man Planning Commission and More

Kautilya's Arthashastra is comprehensive, coherent, concise and consistent. It consists

(b) Administration of justice, minimization of legal errors, formulation of ethical and

Kautilya’s Ethics-based Economics:

(g) Sound organizational design could complement the ethics-based approach by

(h) Wisdom is the most valuable asset and knowledge-management is a subset of

Art is completely different from science.

Practical uses of Economics

In short economics is useful for all.

Definitions of Micro Economics

However, microeconomics has its limitations as well:

Methods of Economic Analysis

An economic theory derives laws or generalizations through two methods:

Steps of Deductive Method:

The main steps involved in deductive logic are as under:

Merits of Deductive Method:

Demerits of Deductive Method:

(2) Inductive Method of Economic Analysis:

Steps of Inductive Method:

Merits of Inductive Method:

Demerits of Inductive Method:

Definitions of Macro Economics

Importance of Macro Economics

3) Macroeconomic approaches are of almost importance to analyze and understand the

Microeconomics V/s Macroeconomics

S.No. Points Microeconomics Macroeconomics

4 Applicability It is useful in analysis of an It is useful in analysis of aggregate

INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN MICRO AND MACRO ECONOMICS

E = % change in Quantity demanded/% change in variable

Price elasticity of demand

Price elasticity of Demand = Proportionate change in purchases of commodity X

Types/Degrees of Price Elasticity of Demand

C) Unitary Elastic Demand: It is a situation when change in quantity demanded in response to

Methods to measure Price Elasticity of demand

Total Expenditure (Outlay) Method:

Price Per Unit ($) Quantity Demanded Total Expenditure ($)

Point Method or Geometrical Method:

Ep = Length of Lower segment/Length of Upper segment

Income elasticity of demand

Degree of Income Elasticity of Demand

1. Positive income Elasticity of Demand

2. Negative Income Elasticity of Demand:

3. Zero Income Elasticity of Demand:

CROSS ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Cross elasticity of Demand for X and Y = Proportionate change in purchases of commodity X

Degree of Cross Elasticity of Demand

2. Negative Cross Elasticity of Demand:

3. Zero Elasticity Of Demand:

Types of Cross Elasticity

1) Production is the process of conversion of inputs into outputs.

Attributes of production function

Fixed factors & variable factors:

Time Element in Production Function

Basic Concepts of Production