NAME:

IKPEA KEHINDE AHKERE

MAT NO:
EDU1803690

PROJECT TOPIC:

THE IMPACT OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION ON PUPIL’S ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN OREDO LOCAL
GOVERNMENT, EDO STATE
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

In recent times, the nation has witnessed a significant decline in academic achievement among
Students at all levels of education. Experts from different perspectives have linked this concerning
trend to various factors, such as ineffective teaching methods and insufficient educational resources.
Interestingly, these experts tend to assign blame to either the Pupils or the teachers, overlooking the
underlying causes.

However, upon closer examination, it becomes evident that this trend is closely associated with
parental involvement in children’s academic performance. Parent involvement in a child's early
education is consistently found to be positively associated with a child's academic performance
(Hara & Burke, 1998; Hill & Craft, 2003; Marcon, 1999; Stevenson & Baker, 1987)

In particular, children whose parents are more engaged in their education exhibit greater academic
achievement compared to children whose parents are less involved. This impact of parental
involvement on academic success has been recognized not only by researchers but also by
policymakers who have incorporated strategies to enhance parent involvement into broader
educational policies. Additionally, studies have shown that a child's academic success remains
relatively consistent beyond early elementary school, reinforcing the significance of early academic
achievements (Entwisle & Hayduk, 1988; Pedersen, Faucher, & Eaton, 1978).

Furthermore, numerous prominent individuals from both academic and non-academic backgrounds
have voiced their grievances and placed blame on the teachers and Pupils. Unfortunately, they fail
to recognize the significant impact of parental involvement in early childhood education in children’s
academic performance, which appears to be a fundamental factor contributing to poor academic
performance.

It is worth noting that a child spends more time at home with their parents than they do in school,
making the home environment a crucial influence on their education. This aligns with the popular
saying from Sir Thomas Browne(1642)"charity begins at home.”

This background study investigates the influence of parental involvement in early childhood
education on children's academic performance, with a specific focus on the Oredo LGA. The study
aims to provide an understanding of the existing research on this topic, identify key factors
contributing to parental involvement, and explore the potential impact of such involvement on
children's educational outcomes. By analyzing relevant literature, this study aims to establish a
foundation for further research and inform educational policies and practices that promote parental
engagement for improved academic achievement.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The prevailing notion that poor Pupil performance in our school is solely attributed to poor impact of
parental involvement in early childhood education in children’s academic performance is
increasingly gaining acceptance. However, this assumption is fundamentally flawed and warrants
thorough investigation. We cannot afford to overlook the profound impact that a child's parental
involvement and contribution has on their academic performance.

The present study aims to investigate the impact of parental involvement in early childhood
education on children's academic performance in the Oredo LGA. The research seeks to address
the following issues and challenges that necessitate a comprehensive examination:

1. Insufficient Understanding of Parental Involvement: There exists a gap in understanding the depth
and breadth of parental involvement in early childhood education and its subsequent impact on
children's academic performance in the Oredo LGA. Limited research has been conducted
specifically focusing on this context, calling for a comprehensive investigation.

2. Academic Underachievement: Despite efforts to improve educational outcomes, there is a

persistent issue of academic underachievement among children in Oredo. This problem not only
affects the individual child but also has far-reaching consequences for the broader community, as it
may impede socioeconomic progress and hinder the overall development of the region.

3. Inadequate Parental Engagement Strategies: The effectiveness and implementation of parental

involvement strategies in early childhood education within the Oredo LGA remain questionable. It is
crucial to identify the existing gaps and challenges faced in engaging parents effectively, in order to
develop tailored interventions that promote meaningful and sustained parental involvement.

4. Socioeconomic Disparities: Socioeconomic factors play a significant role in shaping parental

involvement and, subsequently, children's academic performance. Understanding the influence of
socioeconomic disparities on parental engagement and exploring strategies to mitigate their impact
is essential to ensure equitable access to quality education and to address achievement gaps in the
Oredo LGA.

5. Limited Awareness of Parental Impact: Parents may not fully comprehend the critical role they
play in their child's educational journey. By examining the perceptions and attitudes of parents
towards their involvement in early childhood education, this study aims to raise awareness and
foster a stronger partnership between parents, teachers, and educational institutions.

6. Lack of Tailored Interventions: The Oredo LGA requires evidence-based interventions specifically
tailored to address the unique challenges and opportunities in promoting parental involvement. This
research aims to identify effective strategies and recommend actionable recommendations for
educational policymakers, school administrators, and other stakeholders to foster an environment
that encourages and supports parental engagement.
By exploring these multifaceted aspects, this study seeks to contribute to the existing body of
knowledge, inform educational policies and practices, and ultimately enhance children's academic
performance through effective parental involvement in early childhood education in the Oredo LGA.

PURPOSE OF STUDY

The underachievement of a child academically not only has adverse effects on the child but also has
a detrimental impact on the reputation of the parent, teacher, and the entire nation in the long term.
Considering the gravity of this issue, it becomes imperative to address it promptly. The objective of
this study is to confront this problem head-on and aspire to make a substantial difference in
resolving the situation. The project also aims to enlighten relevant stakeholders about the
significance of parental involvement in early childhood education and its influence on children's
academic performance, not just in the Oredo LGA but across Nigeria as a whole.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In a bid to gather useful information and make adequate inquiries into the study, the following
research questions were raised. They are;

1. What is the significance of parental involvement in relation to their child's academic performance
In early childhood education in oredo?
2. To what extent does the educational level attained by parents influence the academic
achievements of their children?
3. Is there a discernible correlation between the living conditions at home and the academic
performance of children ?
4. How does the structure of the family, including factors such as monogamy, polygamy, and family
size, affect children academic achievements?
5. To what extent do the attitudes and guidance provided by parents impact the academic
performance of children ?

Understanding the comprehensive answers to these inquiries is vital for developing a thorough
comprehension of the multifaceted factors influencing children’s performance in early childhood
education in oredo . It will enable us to formulate effective strategies and interventions that account
for the intricate interplay between parental background and academic outcomes.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this study extends to three distinct categories of individuals:

curriculum/educational planners, teachers, and most importantly parents/guardians. Each group will
benefit from the findings and implications in the following ways:

1. Curriculum/Educational Planners: For curriculum and educational planners, this research holds
immense importance as it will aid in the development of comprehensive plans that accommodate
children from diverse home environments(parenting styles). By gaining insights into the impact of
parental involvement on children's academic performance in early childhood education, planners can
design curriculum frameworks and educational policies that address the specific needs and
challenges arising from varying parental backgrounds. This study will provide valuable guidance to
ensure equitable and inclusive education for all Pupils in the Oredo LGA.

2. Teachers: Teachers play a pivotal role in the academic journey of Pupils, and this study will
provide them with a nuanced understanding that Pupils are not solely responsible for their poor
performance. By uncovering the influences of parental impacts and involvement , teachers can gain
a deeper appreciation for the challenges and advantages that Pupils bring to the classroom. Armed
with this knowledge, teachers can adopt effective strategies and implement targeted interventions to
address the issues, creating an environment that fosters academic growth and achievement. This
study will empower teachers to bridge the gap between home and school, allowing for collaborative
efforts to maximize Pupil potential.

3. Parents/Guardians:
Above all, this study serves as a significant challenge and inspiration for parents and guardians. By
highlighting the relationship between their involvement and children's academic success, this
research aims to motivate parents to improve their academic contribution and actively engage in
their child's educational journey. The findings will encourage parents to recognize their crucial role in
supporting their child's learning, fostering a conducive atmosphere for academic excellence. The
study aims to empower parents to take ownership of their child's education and provide the
necessary support and guidance to propel their child to greater heights.

Ultimately, this research seeks to foster collaboration and cooperation among all stakeholders
involved in shaping the educational experiences and outcomes of children’s early childhood
education in the Oredo LGA.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study investigated the impact of parental involvement in early childhood education in children’s
academic performance in Oredo Local Government Area.The study encompasses various aspects
related to parental involvement, academic performance, and the unique context of early childhood
education in Oredo Local Government. The delimitation of the study is all the Early Childhood
Education schools in Oredo LGA, Edo State, Nigeria.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

PARENT: A parent is an individual who has the legal and biological or adoptive responsibility for the
care, nurturing, and upbringing of a child.

EDUCATION: Education is the process of facilitating learning or the acquisition of knowledge, skills,
values, beliefs and habits.
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: Academic performance refers to the level of achievement and
success exhibited by a Pupil in their educational pursuits, including grades, test scores, and overall
educational outcomes.

CURRICULUM/EDUCATIONAL PLANNERS: Curriculum/education planners are professionals who

are responsible for designing and developing educational programs, courses, and learning materials.
They analyze educational needs, set goals and objectives, and create frameworks that outline what
Pupils should learn and how it should be taught. Their role involves aligning curriculum with
educational standards, considering Pupil needs, and incorporating effective teaching strategies and
assessment methods.

References:

Hara, S. R., & Burke, J. P. (1998). Parent involvement: The key to improved Pupil achievement.
School Community Journal, 8(2), 9-19.

Hill, N. E., & Craft, S. A. (2003). Parent-school involvement and school performance: Mediated
pathways among socioeconomically comparable African American and Euro-American families.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 74-83.

Marcon, R. A. (1999). Positive relationships between parent school involvement and public school
inner-city preschoolers’ development and academic performance. School Psychology Review, 28(3),
395-412.

Stevenson, D. L., & Baker, D. P. (1987). The family-school relation and the child's school
performance. Child Development, 58(5), 1348-1357.

Entwisle, D. R., & Hayduk, L. A. (1988). Lasting effects of elementary school. Sociology of
Education, 61(3), 147-159.

Pedersen, D. E., Faucher, C., & Eaton, W. W. (1978). Stability of scholastic aptitude test scores and
grade point average in high school. Journal of Educational Measurement, 15(2), 119-123.

Sir Thomas Browne. (1642). Religio Medici. Retrieved from

https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4142/4142-h/4142-h.htm
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provides an overview of empirical research conducted on The impact of parental
involvement in early childhood education in children’s academic performance. The literature review
will be organized into the following subheadings:

-Theoretical Framework
-Definition, Conceptualization and Dimensions of Parental Involvement
-Effects and Academic Outcomes Associated with Parental Involvement
-Socioeconomic Factors and it’s effects on Academic Performance
-Parent -Teacher Collaboration
-Effective Strategies for Promoting Parental Involvement in early childhood education in pupils
performance
-Challenges and Barriers to Parental Involvement in early childhood education
-Impact of Parental Involvement in Curriculum implementation and policies in early childhood
education
-Summary of Reviewed Literatures

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework is based on several key theories and concepts that have been extensively
researched and documented in the field of education. The following theoretical perspectives provide
the foundation for understanding and analyzing the relationship between parental involvement and
academic performance:

1. Social Capital Theory (Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1988): Social capital theory suggests that
individuals' social connections, networks, and resources have an impact on their educational
outcomes. In the context of parental involvement, this theory posits that parents who possess higher
levels of social capital, such as strong social networks and access to educational resources, are
more likely to engage in activities that promote their children's academic success.

2. Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979): Ecological systems theory emphasizes the
importance of understanding the complex interactions between individuals and their environments. It
highlights the role of various systems, including the microsystem (immediate family and home
environment), mesosystem (interactions between family and school), and macrosystem (cultural
values and societal influences), in shaping children's development and academic performance.
Parental involvement can be seen as an influential factor within this ecological framework.
3. Socialization Theory (Bandura, 1977): Socialization theory suggests that children acquire
knowledge, skills, and behaviors through interactions with their parents and other social agents.
Parental involvement in early childhood education provides opportunities for socialization processes
that contribute to the development of academic skills, motivation, and self-regulation, ultimately
impacting children's academic performance.

4. Family Systems Theory (Bowen, 1978): Family systems theory posits that families operate as
interconnected systems, and changes in one family member or subsystem can have cascading
effects on the entire family system. Parental involvement in early childhood education can be seen
as a family-level process that influences the dynamics, communication patterns, and educational
aspirations within the family system, thereby impacting children's academic performance.

5. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985): Self-determination theory focuses on the
importance of intrinsic motivation, autonomy, and relatedness in driving human behavior and
achievement. Parental involvement that supports children's autonomy, competence, and relatedness
in the educational context is likely to foster intrinsic motivation, engagement, and ultimately enhance
children's academic performance.

Drawing upon these theoretical perspectives, the proposed study seeks to explore the impact of
parental involvement in early childhood education on children's academic performance in Oredo
LGA state. By examining the factors and mechanisms through which parental involvement
influences academic outcomes, the study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge and
inform educational policies and practices that promote effective parental engagement for improved
academic achievement in Oredo LGA and similar settings.

DEFINITION, CONCEPTUALIZATION AND DIMENSIONS OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

There is a growing acknowledgment among developmental, educational, and sociological theories

that both schools and homes play crucial roles in the socialization and education of children. While
historical theorists have recognized inherent conflicts and lack of complementarity between these
institutions (Parsons, 1959; Waller, 1932), most contemporary theories emphasize the need for
connections between families and schools (Epstein, 1990). Parental involvement in their children's
schooling has become a focal point within the framework of home-school connections, with
significant attention from educational reform initiatives (National Commission on Excellence in
Education, 1983).

In research, the interest in parent involvement emerged from sociological theories highlighting the
importance of family background factors, such as parental education, in predicting school
achievement (Coleman et al., 1966; Heyns, 1978). Researchers then delved into exploring the
processes through which these background factors exert their effects. Processes such as exposure
to school-related materials (Spaeth, 1976) and family encouragement toward achievement
(Marjoribanks, 1972) were identified.

These earlier views depicted home and school as separate entities, with parents playing a passive
role in their child's education (Stevenson & Baker, 1987). However, the notion of parent involvement
introduced a more active perspective, and recent research has emphasized it as a key mediator
between background factors and academic achievement. For instance, Stevenson and Baker (1987)
found that parent education's impact on school performance was largely mediated by the level of
parental involvement. Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive effects of parental
involvement in children's schooling across diverse populations and age groups (Epstein, 1983;
Fehrmann, Keith, & Reimers, 1987; Reynolds, 1989).

While evidence highlights the significance of parent involvement, less attention has been given to
understanding the processes through which it influences children's development. Two important
questions arise: First, which aspects of parent involvement actively affect children? Although some
theorists have focused on specific dimensions of parent involvement (Baker & Stevenson, 1986;
Epstein, 1990; Lareau, 1987), most studies have employed global measures to establish parent
involvement as a mediator rather than assess its specific effects. Second, through what
psychological processes does involvement impact children's academic performance? Examining
such processes offers several advantages, including providing concrete recommendations for
interventions and broadening the boundaries of parent involvement beyond traditional notions like
helping with homework. This can lead to the development of new ideas about involvement and
expand our understanding of school-family relations.

Parent involvement, as described in the child development literature, refers to the extent to which a
parent is committed to their role as a parent and fostering optimal child development (Maccoby &
Martin, 1983). It typically involves the amount of effort invested in child-oriented activities compared
to other pursuits (Pulkkinen, 1982). Studies have demonstrated positive outcomes of involvement in
relation to academic performance (1981).

In the educational context, parent involvement has often centered around specific activities, such as
attending school events (Becker & Epstein, 1982; Stevenson & Baker, 1987), assisting with
homework, or maintaining regular communication with schools (Iverson, Brownlee, & Walberg,
1981).

We propose a conceptualization of parent involvement in children's schooling that integrates

developmental and educational constructs and encompasses both a general definition and specific
dimensions. In our framework, parent involvement is defined as the allocation of resources by
parents to their children within a particular domain. This definition acknowledges that parents may
choose, or be compelled, to devote their time and energy differentially to various domains (e.g.,
school, social activities, athletics) based on their values, time commitments, and resource
availability.
EFFECTS AND ACADEMIC OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

Parent involvement continues to be the focus of much academic research, policy formation, and
public debate. Parent involvement is a major cornerstone of President Obama’s “Race to the Top”
educational initiative. Parent involvement was the cornerstone of former President Bush’s No Child
Left Behind initiative, was the cornerstone of former President Clinton’s 1996 Elementary and
Secondary Act, was the cornerstone of former President Reagan’s Goals 2000: Educate America
Act, is being touted as a key element of school reform, and is actively promoted in national programs
and initiatives (e.g. Head Start). Much of this attention can be attributed to there being something
inherently appealing in the notion that increased parent involvement will help remedy the continued
problem of poor academic performance, especially compared to other industrialized nations. In many
ways, it is an attempt to help ‘fix’ a faltering education system without fundamentally restructuring
schools, redistributing Pupils, raising standards for teachers, or investing more resources (e.g.
physical).
Construed most broadly, parent involvement is any action taken by a parent that can theoretically be
expected to improve Pupil performance or behavior. In other words, parent involvement consists of
those actions that help a child meet or exceed the norms or expectations of the Pupil role and
encompasses parent-child, parent-teacher, and to some degree parent-parent relations. Given the
breadth of the topic, it is not surprising that research findings have been largely inconsistent.

While much research supports the claim that parent involvement leads to improved academic
achievement (e.g. Boger et al. 1986; Burcu and Sungur 2009; Coleman 1991; Epstein 1991;
Henderson 1991; Ho Sui-Chi &Willms 1996; Lareau 1989; Lee and Bowen 2006; Patel 2006;
Reynolds 1992), other research indicates that parent involvement is associated with lower levels of
achievement (e.g. Brookover et al. 1979; Desimone 1999; Domina 2005) or has no effect on
achievement (e.g. Brookover et al. 1979; Domina 2005; El Nokali, Bachman and Votruba-Drzal
2010; Epstein 1988, 1991; Fan 2001). Additionally, parent involvement’s effect on academic
achievement has been found to vary by the minority and/or social status of the Pupil (e.g. Hill et al.
2004; Lareau 1989; Lee and Bowen 2006), by gender (Keith et al. 1998; Muller 1998), and by
immigrant status (Kao 2004). Finally, many studies find positive, negative, and/or no associations
between parent involvement and academic achievement within the same study (e.g. Crosnoe 2001;
Domina 2005; Ho Sui-Chu & Willms 1996; McNeal 1999; Muller 1995; Reynolds 1992). Surprisingly,
the contradictory findings are remarkably consistent and cut across grade level, measure of
academic achievement, and time (spanning the middle 1970s to the late 2000s).

Parents are one of the most significant factors in the development of the children. This is due to the
authority and skill they have to shape and develop their children into motivated, inspired and lenient
people with their explicit involvement in the process of learning activities. Contrarily, parents without
involvement in their children’s education process are merely considered to demotivate and
demoralize their children through negligence. This, in turn, has a negative effect on their
achievements.

In particular, Parent Involvement facilitates children‟s development of pre-literacy skills such as

phonological awareness and letter name knowledge (Powell et al., 2010). These skills have been
shown to be essential for later school success. Moreover, the transition to preschool marks the
beginning of an important relationship between home and school (Powell et al., 2010).
A child‟s first experiences in school are often parents‟ first experiences as critical stakeholders in
their child‟s formal schooling. Parent Involvement during preschool may also allow parents to
develop skills in working collaboratively with school personnel. Parent Involvement may be
particularly important for children from low-income families. The preschool years are therefore an
optimal time to establish Parent Involvement and to familiarize parents of children at-risk for
academic difficulties with the skills children need to acquire prior to entering elementary school.

According to Abdul-Adil and Farmer (2006) parental involvement comprised parental attitudes,
actions, style, events that happen inside or outside the school environment to support children's
academic or behavioral success in their presently enrolled school
Parents' active involvement in their children's education has a positive and noteworthy impact on
children’s lives, including their development, behaviour, motivation and academic performance.
According to research by Kohl, Lengua and McMahon (2000) children of parents who are involved in
their academic work regularly attend school, act better, do better academically from kindergarten
through high school, go farther in school and go to better schools. Parent involvement send clear
messages to their children; demonstrating their interest in their activities and strengthening the idea
that school is important.

Financial solvency and positive ambition of parents seem to have a principal role in their children’s
education. Many educational researchers express great concern on the impact of the parent’s
involvement on a child’s educational achievement. This work attempts to highlight the impact
parental association has on children’s academic outcomes. The findings of this study may help for
future improvement and develop methods to encourage and boost parental involvement both at
home and at school.

Several research studies have found that participation of parents in children education is significantly
and positively correlated with Pupils' academic accomplishment (Olaniyi & Mageshni 2008, Altschul,
2011). A study by Rosie Thornton (2015) concluded that Pupils whose parents are intently involved
in their children’s academic activities have better academic results than parents who are not
dynamically involved in the academic activities of their children. Parents who are actively involved
their child’s education are more likely to encourage the child’s social, emotional, and academic
growth (Green et al. 2007) . According to Kohl, Lengua and McMahon (2000) , children attend
school regularly, act better, perform well academically from kindergarten through high school, go
farther in school when parents more are involved in their school work. Similarly, Barnard (2004) ,
found that academic performance of Pupils profoundly depends upon the parental involvement in
their academic activities to attain a higher level of quality in academic success. Since parents are the
first teachers of their children, they need to take a leading role in their children’s education. Parent
involvement in a child’s education is a key issue ensuring Pupils’ success, growth and development
in life. Students will take education more seriously, do well academically, display better behaviour in
school and assume greater responsibility for his or her actions when they found their parents are
actively involved.

According to Xu, Benson, Mudrey-Camino and Steineret (2010) , parental involvement in

assignment can be a means to keep parents well-informed of the child’s strengths and weaknesses
in several subject areas, mainly reading. A study by Cai (2003) illustrated that participation parents is
a statistically weighty forecaster of their child’s level of achievement in Maths and also promoted
positive behaviour and emotional development. Domitrovich, and Welsh (2004) showed that parents’
involvement in their children's reading activities at home had a significant influence, not only on their
reading ability, language comprehension and expressive language skills, but also on their interest in
reading. Children who worked with their parents at home on Maths assignment achieved better
Maths grades (Bartel, 2010) . It demonstrated that when parents are involved in a child’s schooling
by assisting them with homework, communicating with teachers and attending all events at school, it
helps the child to do very well in the all the subjects the school.

With respect to the interconnection between the socio-economic status of parents and their level of
involvement; it was found that parental education level, status of employment and income may affect
the level of parental involvement (Vellymalay, 2012 ; Smith, 2006). Vellymalay, (2012) stated that
socio-economic status is positively correlated with higher levels of parental involvement and,
subsequently, higher levels of academic attainment. Domina (2005) says that parents with higher
socio-economic background tends to be more effectively involved than the parents with lower socio-
economic background. According to Lee and Browen (2006) , parents with low educational levels
could be not much motivated to get involved since they do feel less confident to communicate with
school staff. Similarly, Davis-Kean (2005) stated that level of parental education is a vital predictor of
children’s academic and behavioral upshots.

In the same study found that married parents are more likely to be involved in their children’s
education. This study showed that parents demographic variables (education level, employment,
married status and income) have a great effect on parental involvement which directly influences
academic performance.
In contrast, some study found that parents’ level of education, marital status and income level have
no significant correlation with their children’s academic achievement (Hayes 2012). Also, according
to Shaver and Walls (1998) , level of income of parent is not a donating issue to level of involvement
in their children’s education.

Summary

Numerous studies and educational scholars have highlighted the positive effects of parental
involvement on children's academic outcomes, particularly in the context of early childhood
education. These effects have been observed across various aspects of academic performance,
demonstrating the significance of parental involvement in promoting children's educational success.

Research conducted by Epstein (1990) emphasizes that parental involvement plays a crucial role in
enhancing children's academic achievement. Studies have consistently shown that when parents
actively engage in their child's education, Pupils demonstrate higher levels of academic motivation,
increased school attendance, improved grades, and a greater likelihood of completing higher levels
of education (Hill & Tyson, 2009; Jeynes, 2005; Nord et al., 2009). For example, in a longitudinal
study, Jeynes (2005) found that parental involvement positively influenced children's academic
achievement across various ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Furthermore, active parental involvement has been linked to improved cognitive development and
enhanced cognitive skills among young learners (Flouri, 2006; Sénéchal & LeFevre, 2002). Parents
who engage in activities such as reading to their children, engaging in educational conversations,
and providing stimulating learning materials create an environment that fosters language
development, early literacy skills, and overall cognitive growth (Desimone, 1999; Sénéchal &
LeFevre, 2002).

In addition to cognitive benefits, parental involvement also contributes to the development of social
and emotional competencies in children. Research suggests that children whose parents are actively
involved in their education exhibit greater social skills, improved self-esteem, and enhanced
behavior regulation (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Hill & Tyson, 2009). Parental involvement provides a
supportive and nurturing environment that promotes positive social interactions, emotional well-
being, and overall school adjustment (Hill & Tyson, 2009; Reynolds, 1992).

Moreover, the positive effects of parental involvement extend beyond academic outcomes. Research
has shown that children with actively involved parents have higher aspirations for future education
and career success (Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005; Hill & Tyson, 2009). By engaging in discussions
about educational and career goals, parents can influence their children's aspirations, motivation,
and long-term educational attainment (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005).

In conclusion, the impact of parental involvement in early childhood education on children's

academic performance is significant and well-documented. Through their active engagement,
parents provide support, motivation, and resources that contribute to improved academic outcomes,
enhanced cognitive development, social-emotional growth, and increased aspirations for future
educational success. Scholars and researchers have consistently emphasized the importance of
parental involvement in shaping children's educational trajectories and highlighting the positive
effects it has on their overall academic performance.

SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Education plays a crucial role in the economic development and income generation of any nation. It
possesses the ability to enhance productivity in various ways, such as enabling workers to complete
tasks more efficiently, facilitating the transfer of knowledge about new information, products, and
technologies, and strengthening a country's capacity to generate new knowledge, products, and
technologies. Recognizing a potential correlation between academic performance and quality of life,
this study aimed to assess children's academic performance and examine the association between
socioeconomic factors and their academic achievements.

Education is a fundamental process in human life, as it helps alleviate poverty (Brown & James,
2020), promotes social equality within society (Nada & Zoran, 2019), provides equal opportunities
(Aiyar & Ebeke, 2020), and influences an individual's overall health (Katoch, 2022). Adequate
education enhances individuals' understanding of the world, making them less susceptible to
external influences (OECD, 2012). Furthermore, education has a positive impact on national income,
wages, and economic growth. School performance determines the nature of occupations, salary
levels, and individuals' social status. Education increases productivity by enabling workers to
perform tasks more efficiently, facilitating the transfer of knowledge about new information, products,
and technologies, and fostering creativity by enhancing a country's ability to generate new
knowledge, products, and technologies (Grant, 2017). In addition to improving self-awareness,
education enhances individuals' quality of life, boosts productivity and creativity, inspires
entrepreneurship and technological advancements, and contributes to economic and social progress
as well as income distribution (Ozturk, 2001; Gobena, 2018).

Another study conducted in Nigeria (Ogunshola, 2012) investigated the effects of parental
socioeconomic status on Pupils' academic performance, using a sample of 180 school-going
children. The study analyzed four factors: parental socioeconomic background, parental educational
background, parental educational qualifications, and Pupils' health statuses. The findings indicated
that parental socioeconomic statuses and parental educational background did not significantly
impact Pupils' academic performance. However, parental qualifications and Pupils' health statuses
were found to significantly influence academic achievements. Additionally, the study highlighted the
importance of the Pupils' home environment in their academic success. School attendance was also
identified as a crucial factor linked to children's academic performance (Anna et al., 2016; Sekiwu et
al., 2020; Luca Stanca, 2006).

Educational attainment or academic performance is influenced by various socioeconomic factors,

including parental background (Ribeiro et al., 2019), parental socioeconomic status (Poon, 2020;
Rodríguez-Hernández et al., 2020), and parental involvement (Otani, 2019). For instance, a study
conducted in Dhaka, Bangladesh, demonstrated a significant association between parental
educational background, receipt of scholarships, household income level, and academic
achievement in school. Similarly, a study in Japan revealed that family backgrounds strongly
affected Pupils' academic achievements. An analysis conducted in Cambodia identified several
variables positively related to academic performance, including English ability, class attendance,
study effort, academic self-efficacy, and family socioeconomic status. Another study conducted in
India showed a significant correlation between children's nutritional status and academic
performance, which is crucial for human and economic development (Katoch & Sharma, 2017).

Numerous studies have indicated that large family size negatively impacts children's academic
performance. For example, a study in Pakistan (Suleman et al., 2012) examined 360 elementary-
level children and found that children from nuclear families demonstrated better academic
performance than those from joint families. However, the present study did not reveal a significant
difference between family types and children's academic performance.

Economic status of the household is an important factor in the determination of the academic
performance of the children. For example, a study by (Osonwa et al., 2013)entitled ``Economic
status of parents, a determinant of academic performance in Ibadan, Nigeria'' revealed that there is
a significant relationship between the economic status and academic achievement of Pupils. Those
from lower income households scored significantly lower grades than the children from higher
income households. Results indicated in the present study that the academic performance of
children whose families belong to Anthodia and Below Poverty Line (BPL) households were lower
than the children whose families belong to Above Poverty Line (APL). These results were found
statistically significant (2=35.3447, df=6, P < 0.01). The findings were consistent with that of the
findings of (Osonwa et al., 2013),(Rodríguez-Hernández et al., 2020), (Olufunke & Oluwadamilola,
2014). and (Suleman et al., 2012).
It was found that a high proportion (71.67%) of the children belong to general category (GEN),
Schedule Caste (SCs) category accounts for 20.00%, Schedule Tribe (STs) 5.00% and Other
Backward Classes (OBCs) 3.33% only. It is evident from the Table 1.3 that the excellent academic
performance of children from General Category (GEN), Scheduled Caste (SCs), Scheduled Tribes
(STs) and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) was 44.57%, 25.00%, 11.11% and 33.33% respectively.
This clearly showed that the academic performance of the children of SCs and STs was lower than
that of children from General Category (GEN) which was found statistically significant in the present
study (2 = 42:971; df = 9; P < 0:01). No significant difference was found between the orphaned
children and their academic performance in the present study. This means, if opportunities are to be
provided to these children, then they can also perform in a better way as the non-orphaned children
performed.

Teacher shortages have become an increasing problem. It is real, large and growing (Emma García & Elaine
Weiss, 2019). Research has found that a teacher can focus more on the needs of each Pupil when there are
fewer Pupils in a class. Students following the activity board properly and staying attentive is also easier with a
low Pupil-teacher ratio. A study conducted in Turkey (Koc&Celik, 2015) found a negative correlation between
Pupil teacher ratio and academic achievement. The study suggested that the academic performance of the
Pupils can be improved by decreasing the Pupil-teacher ratio. Data from the present study revealed that the
Pupils from the schools having 3-5 teachers (35.21%) and ≥ 6 (47.86%) teachers indicated higher excellent
academic performance as compared to the Pupils enrolled in schools having ≤ 2 teachers (31.54).

The results of the present study are supported by the findings of studies in Turkey , (Koc&Celik,
2015) who asserted that higher Pupil-teacher ratios were determined to be associated with lower
academic achievement levels in cities with a large number of Pupils per teacher, as well as in
Nigeria(Ajani&Akinleye, 2014), where it was revealed that there is a significant relationship between
the number of teachers in school (teacher- Pupil ratio) and the academic achievements of Pupils

Further research on the study regarding Socioeconomic Factors and its effects on Academic
Performance are as stated below:

1-Social and Cultural Factors Affecting Performance

According to Chambers andSchreiber (2004), factors such as, sex, race/ethnicity, of the learner has
got effects on academic achievement. For example, girls have been found to exert more effort at
school, leading to better school performance. Additionally, studies show that girls perform better in
reading than males (Eitle, 2005), but males are found to outperform females in mathematics and
science (Eitle, 2005).
Hardy (2006) studies concluded that it is not the economic status of an individual that only
determines his/her academic success but also pointed to other social cultural factors such as
poverty, educational background, occupational and income level of parents and harmful cultural
practices. Hardy emphasized that poverty has a strong association with low academic achievement
of pupils. The low poverty level increases the number of dropouts, grade failure, and school
disengagement. The longer a child is embedded in poverty stricken conditions, the more detrimental
his/her environment is for the progress of academic enhancement.
2-Effect of School Type on Academic Achievement

A child’s educational outcome and academic success is greatly influenced by the type of school that
they attend. School factors include school structure, school composition, and school climate. The
school one attends is the institutional environment that sets the parameters of a pupils’ learning
experience. Depending on the environment a school can either open or close the doors that lead to
academic achievement (Crosnoe, Johnson, & Elder, 2004b).
Crosnoe, Johnson, and Elder (2004b) suggested that school sector (public or private) and class size
are two important structural components of schools. Private schools tend to have both better funding
and smaller class sizes than public schools (Crosnoe et al, 2004b). The additional funding of private
schools leads to better academic performance and more access to resources such as computers,
which have been shown to enhance academic achievement (Crosnoe et al, 2004b; Eamon, 2005).
Smaller class sizes create more intimate settings and therefore can increase teacher-Pupil bonding
which has also been shown to have a positive effect on Pupil success (Crosnoe et al, 2004b). The
relative social class of a Pupil body also affects academic achievement (Eamon, 2005). Pupils from
low socio-economic backgrounds who attend poorly funded schools do not perform as well as pupils
from higher social classes (Eamon, 2005).
School composition or the general makeup of a school is another important factor regarding
academic achievement (Bali & Alvarez, 2004). The racial make-up of a schools’ Pupil body has been
shown to influence test scores and pupils’ attachment to their school (Crosnoe et al 2004, Bali &
Alvarez, 2004). Student test scores and school attachment increase when a pupils’ own race
matches the most common race of their schools’ Pupil body (Crosnoe et al, 2004, Bali & Alvarez,
2004). Crosnoe et al defines school climate as “the general atmosphere of a school” (2004). School
climate is closely related to the interpersonal relations between pupils and teachers. Trust between
pupils and teachers increases if a school encourages teamwork. Research shows that pupils who
trust their teachers are more motivated and as a result perform better in school (Crosnoe et al, 2004;
Eamon 2005).
School policies and programs often dictate school climate. Therefore, pupils benefit more from
school policies if the administrators and teachers, who help create the policies, are representative of
minorities (Bali & Alvarez 2004). Pupils can focus more clearly when a school is able to create an
environment where pupils feel safe. If a school is able to accomplish a feeling of safety pupils can
have success despite their family or neighborhood backgrounds (Crosnoe et al, 2004).

3- Effect of Parents Income and Occupation on Pupil’s Academic Achievements

Sirin (2005) stated there are many variables to consider when determining a Pupil’s socio-economic
status effect on academic achievement. He pointed out that Parental income has a strong effect on
Pupil performance due to the economic resources allowed for more academic components to be
implemented. Resources available at home are an important indicator for the relationship between
socio-economic status and academic achievement. Sirin (2005) further researched pupils’ grade
level and the relationship of income status and academic achievement. He suggested that a
relationship exists between the income status and academic achievement across various levels of
schooling with exceptions to the high school level pupils.
The relationship between grade levels showed significant correlations between income status and
academic achievement. It started in the elementary levels and continued through the middle school
years. The study showed that there was a statistical gap between pupils from low and high socio-
economic pupils throughout the grade level and tended to widen as the grade levels increased. Sirin
also stated that academic achievement is a process, and when valuable skills are not obtained in
early grade levels, the gap of academic achievement increases throughout the educational process.
The reason for the high school level showing a low statistical gap was due to the fact that many of
those pupils performing at a low level were more likely to drop out of school in later years, thus not
allowing for inclusion in the research samples.
Weinreb (2001) found that children from low income families are more likely to be preoccupied with
environmental stressors within their neighborhood such as feelings on insecurity about their safety,
housing status, and violence within their community to the detriment of their academic achievement.
Majoribanks (1996) asserts that pupils from low income families have been found to score about ten
percent lower on the National Assessment of Educational Programs than higher SES pupils.
Majoribanks has also shown that children from single-parent households do not perform as well in
school as children from two-parent households. There are several different explanations for this
achievement gap. Single-parent households have less income and there is a lack of support for the
single-parent which increases stress and conflicts.
Secker (2004) stated that, when groups of pupils with similar backgrounds are compared, the
pupils from a high socio-economic status outperform those from a low socioeconomic status (SES)
on academic achievement. High SES is related to better social support, fewer discipline problems in
the district, and higher social expectations. Brownell and Roos (2005) indicated that educators have
known for years that pupils from high income families academically perform better than those from
low income families. Although many pupils from high socio-economic backgrounds do not perform
well, and many from low socio-economic background perform very well, the overall trend is evident.
It is not the case that pupils from low socio-economic status do poorly, but the higher the economic
status of the Pupil, the more likely the educational success. The results of the authors’ study reveal
that the socio-economic status as compared to the academic achievement is far more evident than
previous documentation has shown. Pupils from low income families are much more likely to drop
out of school or are retained in a particular grade. The answers to the problem of educating such
pupils are challenging and demanding.
Yu and Taylor (1997) studies indicated that pupils from wealthier families outperform pupils from
poor families on academic achievement tests. The pupils’ from low income families’ achievement is
higher when they attend schools and classrooms where the majority of the population is
economically advantaged. The authors further concluded that schools with a high percent of low
income pupils had a negative effect on all pupils’ academic achievement. It was also stated that
pupils from poor social economic background performed better when attending schools that have a
low poverty percent.
Kahlenberg (2001) study found that pupils from a high poverty backgrounds tend to skip classes,
have more behavioral problems, have less motivation for academic success, and even possibly feel
that performing successfully on their academics is embarrassing. Kahlenberg believed that having
the majority of the school population comprised of middle class pupils would improve the quality of
teachers and expectations of pupils, and would ensure educational quality in public schools.
Kahlenberg indicated that all pupils are entitled to a quality education. He concludes that the
success of such a goal is dependent on schools consisting of a population in which the majority is
comprised of middle class pupils. The author stated there should be much importance placed on the
economic diversity of children in public schools.

Haveman (2007) said that Parents occupation is an important variable which determines the
economic status of the family. Higher occupational levels of the parents indicate better economic
conditions and this results in material support for the education of their children. Georgewill (1987)
conducted a study to find out the effect of parental occupation on their children's academic
achievement. The sample consisted of 500 parents in Port Harcourt city. The results revealed that
civil servants' children perform better followed by children of business parents. But the poorest
performance came from farmer's children.

Gill and Sidhu (1988) carried out a study on intelligence of academic achievement in the children
belonging to different socio-economic groups in rural Punjab. The sample consisted of 80 pupils
studying in 9th class. On the basis of information collected from the pupils, the subjects were divided
into three socio-economic groups i.e., servicemen, agriculturists and laborers. The total marks
obtained in 6th standard verbal intelligence scores and non-verbal intelligence scores were taken.
The results showed that highest marks were obtained in the service group, followed by agriculturists
and then labourers. Verbal intelligence scores were highest in agriculturists followed by servicemen
and labour class. Hence, the results showed that the occupation of parents influenced the school
performance of children.

Budhdev (1999) conducted a study on "Academic achievement among children of working and non-
working mother. The study was designed to compare academic achievement among children of
working and non-working mothers, studying in secondary schools of Enugu State sample included
307 boys and 343 girls of working mothers and same number of boys and girls of non-working
mothers. Academic achievement score was collected from the annual worksheet of schools. It is
described that academic achievement of the children of working mother is greater than the children
of non-working mothers.

4-Effect of Family Background on Pupil’s Academic Achievement

Graetz (1995) studies of children’s educational achievements over time have also demonstrated that
social background remains one of the major sources of educational inequality. In other words,
educational success depends very strongly on the socioeconomic status of one’s parents. The effect
of parental SES on children’s educational outcomes may be neutralized, strengthened or mediated
by a range of other contextual, family and individual characteristics. Parents may have a low income
and a low-status occupation, for example, but nevertheless transmit high educational aspirations to
their children. What family members have (material resources, for instance) can often be mediated
by what family members do(for example parental support, family cohesion).

The social and the economic components of socio-economic status, in other words, may have
distinct and separate influences on educational outcomes. While both components are important,
social factors (for instance, parents’ educational attainments) have been found to be more significant
than economic factors, such as a family’s capacity to purchase goods and services, in explaining
different educational outcomes. It is argued that families where the parents are advantaged socially,
educationally and economically, foster a higher level of achievement in their children. They also may
provide higher levels of psychological support for their children through environments that encourage
the development of skills necessary for academic achievement at school.

Fantuzzo (2000) concluded that parents who are educated have a more positive relationship with the
school than those less educated. Those parents that come from an educational background feel
comfortable being involved in the school setting. They do not feel intimidated by communicating with
the teachers of their children. They also tend to put more emphasis on the educational achievement
of their children, and spend more time helping with homework and educational skills at home. This
way, their children register better academic achievement than those from uneducated parents.

Sarigiani (1990) notes that parental educational level is known as a factor positively related to
children's academic achievement. The educational level of parent is a powerful factor influencing
children's academic success. Sarigiani continues to point that it has been established that generally,
the educational level of parents is greatly connected to the educational Attainment of their children.

Okantey (2008) concluded that parents play an immense and significant role in the academic
performance of their children. Educated parents would have increased emphasis on educational
excellence. Educated parents are equipped by virtue of their education to take cognizance of the fact
that parent- Pupil- school- community relationship is important in order to promote educational
attainment and academic achievement of their children and so they make the partnership a priority.
Okantey continues to assert that the educational levels as well as income of parents are
interconnected; this is because educated parents by virtue of their educational background possess
the potential for increased income. Thus, educated parents have the capacity to build bridges out of
poverty and benefit from better quality of life.

Parental education which leads to good income empowers parents to give their children a solid
foundation for school and life success and enables them to build up strong partnerships between
parents and schools in order to sustain achievement standards. It also heightens parents' feelings of
competence and confidence in guiding their children's education (Okantey, 2008).

Douglas (1964) concluded in his research that the attitudes of children given encouragement via
their parents, particularly the educated ones are better. Similarly, Musgrave (1983) established that
parents who visit the school often and wish their children to enjoy diversity and protected education
in general, give an enhancement to their children's educational programme and it is particularly the
educated parents who could confidently visit their children's schools without feeling intimidated or
timid. It is worthy of note, however, that there is an exception to everything, so to all the points raised
previously, there is bound to be an exception in terms of individual learner.

Matanmi (1989) research has shown that academic aspiration of schoolchildren is positively related
to the standing of their parents. This is so because children tend to imitate their parents and so
aspire to be as highly educated as their parents. There is an indication that children of parents with
high level of education are likely to follow the modern ideas while the children from parents with low
level of education are likely to follow old tradition i.e. not to appreciate the value of education.
The study of Ezewu (1981) showed that more pupils from high socio-economic status groups which
usually fall into the well-educated groups aspire for highly rated professions such as medical
profession, etc in Nigeria more than the lower socioeconomic status groups which mostly fall into the
low or non-educated groups. Children are on the other way round at a disadvantage when their
parents have a lower education as well as this could possibly form a cycle of uneducated family
members making every generation of the family not to go much higher than the previous parent
owing to the aspirations shown to them by their parents. Children of more highly educated families
are more ambitious and attain higher levels of education. Further, Ezewu (1987) found that one of
the reasons for poor performance in 1985 by secondary school pupils in Nigeria was "poor learner
characteristics" which he identified in terms of attitudes, enthusiasm, self-concept as well as study
habit.

Krishnan (1977) conducted a study on 180 pupils in central school, Tirupati. The sample was divided
into 3 groups depending upon their parent’s education as high, middle and low groups. The results
showed that parent’s educational status had significant influence on the academic achievement of
the children.

In the same year Saini (1977) conducted a study on academic achievement as a function of
economic status and educational standard of parents. The sample consisted of 196 pupils from 4
colleges of Chandigarh. The findings revealed that the economic status as well as educational
standard of parents had significant effect on the academic achievement of arts and science pupils at
the college level. Similar results were reported by Singhal (1983) he conducted a study to find the
relationship between educational level of parents and academic achievement of their children. The
sample consisted of 276 primary school children from Delhi and Culcutta. The children were
classified in to 3 groups (high, medium and low) on the basis of parent’s education. The educational
status of both the parents was taken depending on whether they finished elementary school, high
school or college education. The results revealed that differences in educational background of
parents contributed to difference in the performance of their children.
Sharma (1984) also conducted a study to examine the effect of parent’s education on academic
achievement of children. The sample consisted of 237 pupils of 9th class and the level of
educational attainment of both the parents was assessed. The result revealed that parental
education was positively correlated with the academic achievement of their sons and daughter.
Similarly Bhatnagar and Sharma (1992) carried out a research to investigate the relationship
between education of parents and academic achievement of pupils in a semirural setting. A total of
85 pupils of Rajasthan city were related. The results revealed that, the children whose parents
attended school performed higher academic performance than the children whose parents not
attended the school indicates parental education was significantly related to the academic
achievement of pupils.

Shittu (2004) concluded that the quality of parents and home background of a child goes a long way
to predict the quality and regularity of the satisfaction and provision of a child's functional survival
and academic needs. Poor parental care with gross deprivation of social and economic needs of a
child, usually yield poor academic performance of the child. On the other hand, where a child suffers
parental and material deprivation and care due to divorce or death, or absconding of one of the
parents, the child's schooling may be affected as the mother alone may not be financially buoyant to
pay school fee, purchase books and uniforms, such child may play truant, thus his performances in
school may be adversely affected. Similarly, Mbaru (2002) posited that good parenting supported by
strong economic home background could enhance strong academic performance of the child. This
further predicts academic performance where the child is properly counseledin the choice of his/her
courses and vocation that matches his mental ability, interest and capability whereas the children to
the care of the illiterate mothers will find themselves roaming about the street labouring to make
ends meet.

Other factors according to Danesy (2004), complimenting environmental and socioeconomic factors
to produce high academic achievements and performance include good teaching, counseling, good
administration, good seating arrangement and good building. Dilapidating buildings, lacking mental
stimulating facilities that are characterized with low or no seating arrangement will also be
destructive. Danesy, however, lamented that the innovative environment do stimulate head start
learning and mental perception, not only that, it is has also been proved that pupils that come from
simulative environment with laboratory equipments or those that are taught with rich instructional
aids, pictures and allowed to demonstrate using their functional peripheral nerves like, eyes, hands
and sense of taste performed better than those trained under theoretical and canopy of abstraction.
Thus, teaching and learning should be done under organized, planned, and fortified environment
with learning instructional aids to stimulate pupils' sense of conception, perception and concentration
to facilitate systematic understanding and acquisition of knowledge in them. In sum, a combination of
a healthy family background living in good environment plus the child being educated in a conducive
environment with a fortified learning or instructional aids or motivational incentives will prompt
academic performance and lack of it will retard academic performance.

PARENT-TEACHER COLLABORATION

There was a positive and significant relationship between parent-teacher communication

(X2=10.087; p=0.039) and academic performance. Parent-teacher communication is therefore a
positive predictor of pupils' academic performance in primary schools. Such communication should
be enhanced to improve the academic performance of pupils in the final examinations.

In Nigeria, Fajoju, Aluede, and Ojugo correlated parental involvement to the academic achievement
of primary school students using an ex-post facto research design. In their study, they established a
significant influence of parents being involved and often communicating with teachers on the pupils'
academic achievements. However, they attribute this influence to only affecting three core subjects:
Mathematics, English Language, and Science. The involvement of parents in their children's
schoolwork through frequent communication with the teachers was highly recommended.
Every school should be mandated to organize general parents' meetings to enable the parents to
meet teachers and discuss problems affecting their children's academic performance. These parents
should be advised on the need to motivate their children to work harder. Cultivating the teacher-
parent relationship is also considered vital to the development of teamwork. Unfortunately, many
teachers are not specifically trained in the skills they need to communicate effectively with parents.
School communication practices are fundamental to involving families in the education process.
Therefore, teacher preparation and professional development programs should actively promote the
development of communication skills for teachers. Teachers strive to establish partnerships with
parents to support student learning. Strong communication is fundamental to this partnership and to
building a sense of community between home and school. In these changing times, teachers must
continue to develop and expand their skills in order to maximize effective communication with
parents. Good communication between parents and teachers has many benefits. When parents and
teachers share information, children learn more, and parents and teachers feel more supported.
Good communication can help create positive feelings between teachers and parents.

According to Nistler and Angela as cited in McNeil and Patin (2003), communication is the major
reason for a lack of parental involvement, especially the lack of clear, straightforward, and helpful
information. Epstein and Sheldon found that most communication that occurs between parents and
school is often from school to parents. Such communication only takes place in situations where
pupils of those parents have behavioral or learning problems or with parents who have shown
interest in helping their children.

According to Quezada, Alexandrowicz, and Molina, the relationships between parents and teachers
take a deep understanding, time, vigilance, and desire by both parties to bring together the families,
schools, and the community as a whole. They all identify needs and, most importantly, the
abundance of both soft and hard resources to support the one unifying mission for all – that involves
support for the pupils' aspirations through successful education.

Parental involvement in the academic performance of their children has observably reaped good
results. An improvement in the class average performance for Adukrom Methodist Primary School
pupils in Ghana was seen to have improved from 68% to 79%, with the majority of teachers
attributing this improvement to parental participation in the children's activities at school. The fact
that parents kept contact with the teachers in school as concerns their children's academics was a
boost to most of the children, putting in more efforts to achieve better results. Mante1, Awereh, and
Opare concluded that teachers' partnership with parents was influential in leading to better pupil's
performance in the classroom.

A study conducted in the USA sought to evaluate the efficacy of teacher communication with parents
and students as a means of increasing student engagement. It estimated the causal effect of teacher
communication by conducting a randomized field experiment in which children were assigned to
receive a daily phone call from home and a text/written message during a mandatory summer school
program. It was found that frequent teacher-parent communication immediately increased student
engagement as measured by homework completion rates, on-task behavior, and class participation.
On average, teacher-parent communication increased the odds ratio; students completed their
homework by 42% and decreased instances in which teachers had to redirect students' attention to
the task at hand by 25%.
Bridgemohan, Wyk, and Staden suggested that improved communication between the school and
the home strengthens social networks, enables access to information and material, allows parents to
appreciate their own essential roles and personal efficacy, and motivates them to continue their own
education. Similarly, it enhances the contact with other parents experiencing comparable problems,
which is beneficial. On the side of teachers, they observed that teachers feel more positive about
teaching the school in which there is effective communication. Schools and teachers know that good
communication with parents is an important part of their job. Teachers therefore need to know about
the children's families, language, and culture in order to help them learn. Parents benefit because
they learn more about what goes on in school and can encourage learning at home. Most
importantly, children benefit through improved communication because contact between families and
school helps children learn and succeed. However, parent-teacher communication can also be
difficult, especially when parents feel uncomfortable in school, can't speak English well, or come
from different cultural backgrounds than teachers. Fortunately, both parents and teachers have
developed ways to make communication easier. Some parents might have had a bad experience in
school when they were children. Other parents might not have felt welcomed by the school or
teacher.

In a recent study, Siebert, Wei, Wong, and Zhou in examining student feedback based on parent-
teacher communication, found that having bi-weekly pupil feedbacks using a special schoolwork
scorecard behavior of the pupils led to an improvement mathematics performance by the pupils and
further communication of the same by teachers to the parents further large mathematics ripped
benefits for the young left-behind children. This is because they worked harder to achieve better
results knowing that the same would be communicated to their parents.

From the foregoing discourse, the authors developed this study to establish the extent to which
parent-teacher communication influences academic performance among pupils. The study was
based on the hypothesis that:
H1: There is a significant relationship between parent-teacher communication and academic
performance of pupils in public primary schools.

Parents and teachers should create partnerships centered on the pupils' learning, a common
understanding of how parents best support their children's education, and how teachers could
regularly communicate with parents about learning goals of their children. The school Principals
should put in place initiatives and development activities for parental involvement through parent-
teacher meetings in which they discuss progress of the pupils and how best to improve where there
is failure. Teachers should ensure they maintain and keep track of the pupils and communicate their
performance to the parents whenever need be. Maintaining teacher-parents' communication is
important for the development of any pupils, and this should be kept key by all teachers. Sending
weekly reports on the progress of the pupils to the parents is one of the strategies that teachers
could engage parents to ensure their participation in the pupils' academic performance.

EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN EARLY

CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN PUPILS PERFORMANCE
The general consensus acknowledges the impact of parent involvement on a child's growth and
development. However, there is ongoing debate among educators, parent groups, and policy
makers regarding the effect of parent involvement on children's academic achievement. An
important factor in these discussions is the definition of parent involvement, as it is crucial to
understand its meaning before drawing conclusions about its impact. Furthermore, it is important to
determine which aspects of parent involvement have the greatest influence and whether this impact
remains consistent across various characteristics of children, such as socioeconomic status, race,
grade level, age, and gender.

Over the past few decades, numerous primary studies have been conducted to investigate different
aspects of parent involvement and its effect on children's learning. The No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) has played a role in highlighting the necessity and significance of parent involvement in a
child's education.

In the digital age, teachers and administrators can employ various strategies to enhance parent
involvement. They can utilize technology and effective methods to ensure that parents actively
engage in their children's education. Here are nine strategies that can help improve parent
involvement:

1. Utilize a School-Parent Communication App

Educational institutions can employ a single tool for proactive and continuous communication with
parents, eliminating the need for multiple communication platforms. A school-parent communication
app provides an ideal solution for sharing crucial information about children's educational activities.
Parents can receive important updates and personalize their communication through the app,
whether it's regarding tuition fees or exam results.

2. Communicate Effectively
Educators, faculty members, and administrators must communicate effectively with parents, whether
through a school-parent communication app or in-person meetings. When parents understand their
role and what they can do to enhance their children's academic performance, they are more likely to
take the necessary steps.

3. Build Trust with Parents

Educational institutions should prioritize regular communication with parents to build trust. There are
numerous ways to achieve this. Teachers and faculty members must establish respectful
relationships and provide essential information. Parent-teacher meetings offer excellent
opportunities for educators to build positive relationships and trust with parents. Additionally, virtual
meetings can be scheduled on weekends or holidays for relaxed conversations.

4. Treat Parents as Partners and Major Stakeholders

Parents are the most significant stakeholders in the education system. Educational institutions must
recognize this and treat parents as partners. Parents deserve respect and access to participate
actively in their children's education. Institutes should ensure that parents do not face any difficulties
in transactions or seeking information. Educators should invite parents to participate more in their
students' education and encourage them to share important information.
Share accountability: Educational institutions must ensure that all educators and faculty members
actively participate in communication initiatives with parents. Clear protocols, tools, and policies
should be provided to facilitate this collaboration. School management and administrators should set
a good example by demonstrating their accountability in turning plans into reality.

5. Organize Volunteer Programs

Institutes can organize volunteer programs and invite parents to spend time in the classroom. This
provides parents with the opportunity to participate in their children's education within a real
academic environment. It also allows them to observe their children's academic performance
firsthand and gain a better understanding of their daily routine.

6. Conduct Home Visits

Occasional home visits are effective strategies to establish contact with parents and enhance their
involvement. Teachers should visit students' homes at least once per academic year to establish
communication with parents. These visits enable teachers to better understand students' families
and environments, while parents get to know the educators better and learn their opinions and
expectations for their children. Studies have shown that when educators conducted home visits to
engage with parents, student absenteeism declined by 20 percent.

7. Implement Home-Based Activities

These activities resemble homework, with the distinction that teachers have designed them to
require collaboration between parents and children. Ideally, the activities should be lively, engaging,
and brief. Educators should regularly send home activity packs with a deadline, ensuring they
contain all the necessary materials and are not overly challenging or time-consuming.

8. Share Encouraging Updates

In most cases, educational institutions primarily communicate about homework assignments, daily
schedules, attendance and leave reports, grades and marks, behavior updates, and upcoming
events. This type of communication may become repetitive for parents, and some may lose interest
over time. Therefore, it is important to seize the opportunity to share positive news and commend
parents for their involvement and support.

CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS TO PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION
As parents are engaging in a two-way partnership with their child’s teacher, they gain a better
understanding about their role in their child’s education (Baker et al., 2016). Once parents realize
they can make an impact on their child’s learning, they may be more motivated to be involved
(Hoover-Dempsey, 2011). Teachers can encourage parent involvement by inviting them to
participate in different school activities. When children observe their parents participating in school
events, they conclude that their learning is important, which is more likely to motivate them to try
harder in school. This also leads to social/emotional benefits such as increased levels of effort,
focus, and attention (Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems, & Doan Holbein, 2005), along with stronger
relationships, fewer behavior concerns (Baker et al., 2016), and more positive attitudes and school
climate (Hornby & Lafaele, 2011).
Academic attendance also tends to be more regular with stronger parent/teacher partnerships
(Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005), and smoother kindergarten transitions occur (Kang, Horn, &
Palmer, 2017). Galindo and Sheldon (2011) researched the academic benefits of parent
involvement with kindergarteners and found that the children’s math and reading scores increased
when there was a stronger partnership between home and school. As families are attending school
activities, they also strengthen the partnership they have with their child’s teacher. By doing so, they
are bridging the child’s home life with their school life, which supports a more holistic approach (Ada,
2003 as cited in Arndt & McGuire-Schwartz, 2012).

Parents perception of barriers to involvement:

While it is ideal for parents to be involved in school activities, there are also some barriers that
decrease participation. Baker et al., (2016) spoke with parents to gain an understanding of such
barriers that prevent parent involvement at school. Parents identified language and communication
barriers, which included insufficient notice of school events. Parents prefer more notice than they
were given. They also reported that they received contact from the teachers more often when their
child was demonstrating negative behaviors, rather than sharing positive information (Baker et al.,
2016). Parents of children with disabilities stated that they hear more negative feedback from the
teachers than positive (Darch, Miao, & Shippen, 2004 as cited in Al-Dababneh, 2018).

Parents also expressed that it was difficult to be involved due to their work schedules. In another
study, 70% of participants stated that their work schedules or own school schedules were the
number one barrier preventing participation in school activities with their children (L a Paro, Kraft-
Sayre & Pianta, 2003) . If both parents work, there is typically less time for school activities, or
sometimes the job itself does not allow for much time off. On the other hand, parents who are not
working may be trying to cope with financial stress and are unable to afford the resources to get to
the school (Hornby & Lafaele, 2011)

Other barriers described by parents included time conflicts, a lack of resources (Reece, Staudt, &
Ogle, 2013), scheduling conflicts with older siblings (Kang, Horn, & Palmer, 2017), or feeling
nervous about going to the school due to their own personal experiences (Baker et al., 2016).

Educator perception of barriers to involvement:

Educators identified what they believe to be barriers to parent involvement based on their
experiences and observations. In some instances their responses aligned with what parents
identified, but they also made their own determinations. One area of agreement was communication.
Teachers believe it is a barrier because they often struggle to get in contact with some families.
Therefore, resulting in a lack of general communication (Baker et al., 2016).
Teachers also believe that a parent’s own negative experiences in school could be a barrier. Parents
might feel uncomfortable or intimidated by just being at school if they struggled with education when
they were younger (Baker et al., 2016). It is possible to see a difference in the level of involvement
between parents who did not complete high school versus those who attended college. Parents who
did not attend college may also feel less qualified to support their child as they know the teacher has
a degree (Hornby & Lafaele, 2011). Along with their personal feelings about school, parents may
have conflict occurring in their personal lives such as divorce or social anxieties that results in less
involvement (Hornby & Blackwell, 2018). Parent stressors may lead to an overall lack of interest in
school activities (Baker et al., 2016).
A lack of time was identified as another barrier. Teachers feel that they do not have enough time to
fully communicate with and support parents. They expressed a need for more training around
supporting the family more holistically (Hornby & Blackwell, 2018)

Effects of poverty on parent involvement:

Hampden-Thompson and Galindo (2017), determined that families with low socioeconomic status
may be harder for teachers to engage with because they tend to be less involved in school activities.
They take a more hands off approach, even if teachers personally invite them, as they believe that it
is the teacher’s responsibility to teach, and their role is to provide for children at home. Since this
type of relationship is not a partnership, parents may disagree with what the educator is teaching
because they are not on the same page due to the lack in communication (Fan, Li, & Sandoval,
2011).
Working class parents may also feel less comfortable helping their children with homework
depending on their own education (Gordon & Cui, 2014), or they may not be as familiar with schools
or their role in their child’s education (Ingram, Wolfe, & Lieberman, 2007 as cited in Fan, Li, &
Sandoval, 2011). Some families may experience increased barriers due to a lack of resources or
time. This could be because they are working multiple jobs (Hampden-Thompson & Galindo, 2017),
or single parents who are trying to balance work with their family responsibilities, or parents who are
caring for many children (Hornby & Lafaele, 2011).

Conclusion

Kang, Horn, and Palmer (2017), found that quantity was less important than quality in regards to
parent involvement. It did not matter how many school activities parents chose to participate in, but
just that there was some level of involvement, which lead to positive academic results for
kindergarten children. This is important for teachers to consider as it means that they do not need to
stress about whether or not parents participate in every single activity. Instead, encourage parents to
attend one to start and work on strengthening the home-school partnership.

Hornby and Lafaele (2011), found that parents tend to be more involved in education when their
children are younger. As children grow older, they are less likely to want their parents to be part of
their school as they are working towards independence (Hornby & Lafaele, 2011). It is also easier for
parents to be involved when their child is doing well at school. When children are consistently
struggling, parents may feel defeated and leave it up to the teachers to provide the support
(Hampden-Thompson & Galindo, 2017).

Over all, the research presented here promotes parent involvement in school activities.
Unfortunately, as discussed in this paper, there are barriers preventing parents from participating.
One goal of this study is to begin thinking about ways to break down the barriers and provide
support to families. By asking families directly about the barriers they face, we can gather more
accurate information.

IMPACT OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND POLICIES

IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Pupils’ achievement and adjustment are influenced by many people, processes and institutions.
Parents, the broader family, peer groups, neighbourhood influences, schools and other bodies such
as organizations, clubs etc. are all implicated in shaping children’s progress towards their self
fulfillment and citizenship. The children themselves, of course, with their unique abilities,
temperaments and propensities play a central role in forming and reforming their behaviour,
aspirations and achievements. There are many different ways that parents can be involved in
curriculum implementation (Becker & Epstein, 1982; Epstein, 1987, 2005; Moles, 1993; Pelco,
Sheldon & Epstein, 2005). They can help in their children’s studies, attend parent teacher
meeting and conferences, observe sporting events and participate in special functions. They
can help their child at home by ensuring that homework is completed, reading to their child,
or bringing their child to community. Parents can collaborate and communicate with the
school, observe how their child’s teacher instructs, and talk with teachers about their child’s
progress. Parent involvement is what parents do to enhance their children’s schooling success,
strengthen the communication they have with their children’s school, and effective curriculum
implementation. All types of parental involvement are important for successful curriculum
implementation (Comer, 1988; Eccles& Harold, 1996; Epstein, 1985; Senechal&LeFevre, 2002;
Sheldon & Epstein, 2005). Students’ reading scores improved when their parents had
contracts with teachers to assure homework completion (Epstein, 1985). The language and
emergent literacy of primary grade students developed when their parents taught them to read and
print words, and read storybooks with them (Senechal&LeFevre, 2002). Other benefits to
students when parents are involved include improved school attendance (Christenson &Conoley,
1992; Epstein & Sheldon, 2002; Henderson &Mapp, 2002), regular homework habits and increased
completion of homework (Callahan, Rademacher, &Hildreth, 1998; Epstein & Becker, 1982;
Henderson, 1989), more positive attitudes toward school (Christenson &Conoley, 1992; Epstein,
1985; Kelleghan, Sloan, Alvarez, & Bloom 1993; Shumow& Miller, 2001), a more positive self-
concept and academic self-confidence (Christenson &Conoley, 1992; Henderson, 1989; Sanders
&Herting, 2000), increased educational and career aspirations in adolescents (Hill et al., 2004),
fewer suspensions and conduct problems (Comer & Haynes, 1991; Fantuzzo, McWayne, Perry, &
Childs, 2004), lower rates of grade retention (Graue et al., 2004), and fewer placements in
special education (Graue et al., 2004; Lazar & Darlington, 1978). Parents have also benefited from
being involved in their children’s schooling. Parents have learned how to effectively help their
children with schoolwork; become more aware of what teachers do, what their children are
learning, and how the school functions; and developed more positive feelings about their
children’s teachers and school (Collins, Moles, & Cross, 1982; Desimone, Finn-Stevenson,
&Henrich, 2000; Epstein, 1985, 1986, 1987a, 1995). Parents who are involved feel useful and have
a better understanding of how they can help their children succeed in school (Davies, 1993;
Desimone et al., 2000; Mapp, 2003). When parents are involved, teachers feel more comfortable
asking other parents to be involved and believe that their classrooms are managed more effectively
(Epstein, 1985, 1986, 1987). Additionally, more parents become involved when teachers are
caring and trustworthy (Mapp, 2003). Parents and principals also give teachers more
recognition for their teaching and interpersonal skills (Christenson, 1995).

The place of curriculum in education makes it axiomatic that concerted efforts be made at all times
to implement a curriculum that meets the needs of the society. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) note
that curriculum implementation focuses on the processes and practices through which a curriculum
is implemented. Nnadozie (2004) defines curriculum implementation as the execution of relevant
curriculum and teaching tasks within and outside the school setting. The task of curriculum
implementation as described in Thomas (2012) involves putting into practice the stipulated
curriculum policies, content and innovations. Curriculum implementation involves the performance of
teaching tasks and rendering of expected services as specified in the curriculum. It is the process of
curriculum delivery. It is a process through which curriculum stipulations are adapted to suit school
goals, resources are secured, and the school generally monitors progress of implementation and
evaluates the outcomes at specified stages in the implementation process.
Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial and sometimes the most difficult phase of the
curriculum development process. This is because the final destination of any curriculum (whether it
be a school, college, university or training organisation) is the classroom involving students,
teachers, administrators and the community. Implementation takes place as the learner acquires the
planned or intended experiences, knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes that are aimed at enabling
the same learner to function effectively in a society (University of Zimbabwe, 1995, 8). Effective
implementation requires among other things, the involvement of parents in the education of their
children.
Gonzalez-Mena (2011) defined parental involvement as a combination of commitment and active
participation on the part of the parent to the school and child. Anyikwa and Obidike (2012) describe
parental involvement as the participation and support of parents at school and in the home, which
directly and positively impacts the educational performance of their children. It is the provision of
curricular and co-curricular support by parents to promote effective learning for their school children.
Parental involvement entails seeing parents as active collaborators in their own children’s learning
and development and ensuring that they are well informed about their children’s school lives and
clear about the ways in which they can work with the school (Williams & Ullman, 2002). According to
Chan (1995, 19), “parental involvement is not something that is ‘done’ to parents”. It is rather what
parents and the school do collectively and collaboratively to ensure adequate and effective policy
making and implementation, discipline, funding, facilities and staffing for the success of children.

A large body of evidence demonstrates a strong and positive link between parents’ involvement and
interest in a child’s learning and a child’s subsequent adjustment and achievement (Ali, 2012;
Curriculum for Excellence 2010; Reynolds, 2007; Sylva, Scott, Totsika, Ereky-Stevens & Crook,
2008). Anyikwa and Obidike (2012) report that for children to maximize their potentials from
schooling, they need the full involvement of their parents. The importance of parental involvement is
further highlighted by Morrison (2007) who notes that parents’ involvement in children’s learning
positively affects the children’s performance at school. Similarly, Kindiki (2009) observes that when
there is adequate parental involvement in their children’s education, an increase in the children’s
academic motivation and achievement can be observed.

When schools and parents work in partnership, students realize that people who take care of them in
both environments are investing and coordinating time and resources to help them succeed. Studies
have also established a direct and positive correlation between parental involvement and academic
achievement or motivation (Crozier & Reay, 2005; Henderson & Berla, 1997). Cheeks (2012) adds
that parental involvement in education, either in school or at home, creates partnerships among
schools, parents, and communities. The resulting partnerships among students, parents, and
teachers develop effective communication from home to school and school to home. Through active
and ongoing communication, parents and teachers share information and resources regarding
students’ academic and behavioral conduct.

Together, these efforts establish a solid foundation for both families and schools to help children
succeed in school and in their future. On the other hand, proponents also suggest that part of the
benefit of parental involvement in education in any situation is that doing so can result in positive
change in homes, communities and the wider society (RSA, 2010; Scott & Sylva, 2004; UNICEF,
2009). Either way, parental involvement can be seen as a dynamic avenue that can bring about
change not only in schools and education systems, but also in homes and societies.
In line with the evidences of the gains of parental involvement in education, the Nigerian National
Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria 2004) includes a mandate that requires that the
local people particularly parents will be encouraged to participate in school management. Moreover,
some reference to parent involvement was addressed in the following legislation concerning public
school education: (a) Universal Basic Education Act 2004 (b) the Ten Year Strategic Plan 2005, and
(c) Public Private Partnership (PPP) 2006 (Federal Ministry of Education, 2005, 2011; Obioma,
2005). These mandates speak directly to the Nigerian agendas of democratisation of schooling and
citizen participation in public services including education. They also make the recognition of
parental involvement the purview of Nigeria’s education system. They present an opportunity for the
development of a form of parental involvement that meets the complex and multiple needs of
contemporary society, and a more localised and engaged education system.
The momentum to involve parents in education continued as schools wanted to better their school’s
environment and performance. This momentum to involve parents came as the result of poor
schooling, poor academic achievement, and poor student conduct in and out of classroom settings.
It was an understood belief that parent involvement not only improved a child’s morale, attitude, and
academic achievement across all subject areas, but it also promoted better behavior and social
adjustment. In all these ways, parent and family involvement in education helped children to grow up
to become productive, responsible members of society.

The National Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) (n.d) highlights 100 ways for parents to be involved
in their children’s education. The ways cover decision-making, influencing policy enactment and
implementation, enforcing discipline, negotiating and collaborating in curriculum, supervision and
monitoring of school processes, and providing staff, funds and facilities.
 Through these ways, the parental involvement provides a platform of developing good working
relationship between the home and the school towards a fruitful upbringing of the children. It also
help students develop the ability to think and reason, build self-respect and respect for others, and
reach their full potential as individuals, members of their communities and citizens of the world.
University of Zimbabwe (1995) speculates that the parents should provide schools with financial
resources to purchase required curriculum materials; demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the
curriculum; and influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the interests of the
group. As Edward and Lee (2009) assert, the involvement of the parents is crucial to enable children
to achieve, at a minimum, the knowledge and skills prescribed in the curriculum.

SUMMARY OF REVIEWED LITERATURES

Parental involvement in early childhood education has been recognized as a crucial factor
influencing children's academic performance. This literature review explores existing research on the
impact of parental involvement in early childhood education and its relationship with pupils' academic
performance in Oredo LGA State.

Studies have consistently shown a positive correlation between parental involvement and academic
performance. Parental involvement encompasses various activities, including home-based
involvement, school-based involvement, and communication with teachers. Active parental
participation in a child's education has been associated with higher academic achievement,
improved attendance, and better behavior.

Different forms of parental involvement have been identified in the literature. These include providing
a supportive home environment, engaging in educational activities at home, attending school events,
volunteering at school, and establishing effective communication with teachers. Each type of
involvement has the potential to contribute to a child's academic success.

Collaborative efforts between parents and educators, known as home-school partnerships, play a
vital role in enhancing pupils' academic performance. Effective home-school partnerships involve
open communication, shared decision-making, and mutual respect between parents and teachers.
Such partnerships promote a positive learning environment and facilitate the exchange of
information and resources.

Research suggests that socioeconomic factors can influence parental involvement in early childhood
education. Lower-income families may face barriers to involvement due to limited resources, time
constraints, and unfamiliarity with educational systems. However, studies also highlight the
importance of providing support and resources to disadvantaged families to encourage their active
engagement in their child's education.
Cultural beliefs, values, and community norms shape parental involvement practices. It is important
to recognize and respect diverse cultural perspectives on education and involve families in culturally
responsive ways. Community-based initiatives, such as parent-teacher associations and outreach
programs, can facilitate greater parental involvement and contribute to improved academic
outcomes.

Several challenges and barriers to parental involvement have been identified, including language
barriers, lack of awareness or understanding about the education system, and limited accessibility to
school resources. Addressing these challenges requires collaborative efforts between schools,
communities, and policymakers to create inclusive and supportive environments that encourage
parental engagement.

The reviewed literature demonstrates a strong association between parental involvement in early
childhood education and pupils' academic performance. Various forms of involvement, such as
creating a supportive home environment, engaging in educational activities, and establishing
effective home-school partnerships, contribute to positive outcomes. However, challenges and
barriers exist that need to be addressed to ensure equitable and meaningful parental involvement for
all families. The findings from this literature review provide insights for policymakers, educators, and
parents in Oredo LGA State to promote and enhance parental involvement to positively impact
pupils' academic performance.

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CHAPTER THREE