PAGE ONE Economics ®

FFR A New Frontier:

Monetary Policy with Ample Reserves

Scott A. Wolla, Ph.D., Economic Education Coordinator

GLOSSARY “Consistent with its statutory mandate, the Committee seeks to foster
Arbitrage: The simultaneous purchase and maximum employment and price stability. In support of these goals,
sale of a good in order to profit from a the Committee decided to maintain the target range for the federal
difference in price. funds rate at 2-1/4 to 2-1/2 percent.”
Balance sheet: A statement of the assets —FOMC Statement, March 20, 20191
and liabilities of a firm or individual at
some given time.
Federal funds rate (FFR): The interest rate Introduction
at which a depository institution lends
funds that are immediately available to The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the United States. Its dual
another depository institution overnight. mandate from Congress is to promote maximum employment and price
Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC): stability. To achieve this mandate, the Federal Reserve conducts monetary
A committee created by law that consists policy by influencing market interest rates. However, the means by which
of the seven members of the Board of
the Federal Reserve influences interest rates have changed over time.
Governors; the president of the Federal
Reserve Bank of New York; and, on a
rotating basis, the presidents of four other Influencing the Economy through the Federal Funds Rate
Reserve Banks. Nonvoting Reserve Bank
For decades prior to 2008, the Federal Reserve’s Federal Open Market
presidents also participate in FOMC
deliberations and discussion. Committee (FOMC) would adjust monetary policy to match economic
Liquidity: The quality that makes an asset
conditions by raising or lowering its target for the federal funds rate (FFR),
easily convertible into cash with relatively the rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans.2 The Fed can
little loss of value in the conversion influence the general cost of borrowing through this one rate because,
process. although short-term interest rates differ from each other, they are closely
Monetary policy: Central bank actions linked.3 If one short-term rate gets much below others, financial institutions
involving the use of interest rate or money
will tend to borrow in that market and lend where rates are higher. This
supply tools to achieve such goals as
maximum employment and stable prices. tendency puts upward pressure on the lower rate and downward pressure
on the higher rate—keeping rates linked. This is known as arbitrage, an
Open market operations: The buying and
selling of government securities through important aspect of the way financial markets, and monetary policy, work.
primary dealers by the Federal Reserve in So, by influencing one rate—the FFR—the Federal Reserve can influence
order to influence the money supply. other short-term rates, which affect longer-term interest rates, consumer
Stimulus: Actions taken by a government or and producer decisions, and ultimately the level of employment and
a central bank that are intended to inflation in the U.S. economy (Figure 1).
encourage economic activity and growth.

Monetary Policy with Scarce Reserves

Prior to September 2008, the Federal Reserve primarily bought and sold
relatively small quantities of Treasury securities in the open market, termed
open market operations, to adjust the level of bank reserves and thereby
influence the FFR. Bank reserves are the sum of cash that banks hold in

May 2019 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis | research.stlouisfed.org

PAGE ONE Economics® Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis | research.stlouisfed.org 2

Figure 1
Transmission of Monetary Policy

Longer-term
interest rates Maximum
FOMC Federal Short-term and other Consumers and employment
policy decision funds rate interest rates financial Producers and stable
conditions prices

Figure 2 a tax because the Fed did not pay interest on these hold-
Monetary Policy with Scarce Reserves ings. Absent the requirement, banks could lend or invest
Federal Funds Rate those reserves to earn interest. As a result, banks main-
tained required reserves, but minimized excess reserves,
Supply preferring to earn interest by lending or investing the
Discount funds. And, because reserves were scarce, Banks frequently
Rate had to borrow in the federal funds market (paying the
Demand FFR) to ensure they were meeting their overnight reserve
FFR
requirements.
In that framework, the Federal Reserve could raise or
lower the FFR by making relatively small changes to the
supply of reserves (Figure 2). For example, the Fed could
$15 Billion Reserves increase reserves by buying Treasury securities on the
The supply of bank reserves is vertical because the supply of open market and crediting the accounts of the seller with
reserves collectively held by the banking system is determined by reserves as payment. A greater quantity of reserves shifted
the Federal Reserve.* When reserves are scarce, the Federal Reserve
the reserves supply curve to the right and put downward
can shift the supply curve to the right or left by adding or subtract-
ing reserves from the banking system using open market operations. pressure on the FFR. And a lower FFR tended to put down-
The intersection of supply and demand determines the FFR. ward pressure on other interest rates in the economy.
When the supply curve was in the downward-sloping region of the
demand curve, relatively small shifts in supply had a significant Likewise, the Fed could decrease reserves by selling
effect on the FFR. The Trading Desk at the Federal Reserve Bank Treasury securities on the open market and debiting the
of New York used open market operations to fine-tune the supply accounts of buyers. As the supply of reserves decreased,
of reserves to achieve the target FFR set by the FOMC. This fine-­
tuning was done by selling or purchasing securities to shift the it shifted the reserves supply curve to the left and put
reserve supply curve left or right. upward pressure on the FFR. And as the FFR increased,
*More precisely, a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve, determines a so did other interest rates.
country’s “monetary base,” which is the sum of currency held by the public
plus total bank reserves. The monetary base equals the value of the central The Federal Reserve used these policies to achieve its
bank’s assets. But, conditional on the public’s choice of how much currency dual mandate. For example, the Fed could increase
to hold, the choice of the monetary base pins down total bank reserves.
reserves to decrease the FFR and other interest rates,
thereby encouraging economic activity when the econ-
their vaults and the deposits they maintain at Federal omy was in recession (to achieve its maximum employ-
Reserve Banks. Reserves fall into two categories. First, ment objective). Or, it could reduce reserves to increase
banks hold required reserves, funds that must be held as the FFR and other interest rates in an attempt to restrain
vault cash or deposits at a Federal Reserve Bank.4 And spending when inflation exceeded its 2 percent inflation
banks can also hold excess reserves, funds held as vault objective (to achieve its price stability objective). The
cash or deposits at a Federal Reserve Bank in excess of Trading Desk of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York
required reserves. Banks had long argued that because conducted open market operations, as needed, to main-
they had to hold required reserves, these reserves were tain the FFR very near the FOMC’s target rate (Figure 3).
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Figure 3 Figure 4
Monetary Policy Prior to 2008: The FFR Target Excess Reserves

The FOMC’s FFR target has varied widely in response to economic NOTE: Gray bars indicate recessions as determined by the NBER.
conditions. Prior to 2008, the FOMC set a single target for the FFR SOURCE: FRED®, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis;
and used open market operations to move the rate toward its target. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=mc6A , accessed February 22, 2019.

NOTE: Gray bars indicate recessions as determined by the National Bureau of

Economic Research (NBER).
SOURCE: FRED®, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis;
https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=n3IM, accessed February 22, 2019.
Monetary Policy Acronyms

Federal funds rate FFR

The Financial Crisis
Federal open market committee FOMC
The Financial Crisis and resulting recession, known as the
Interest on reserves IOR
Great Recession, hit the U.S. economy hard. By December
Interest on required reserves IORR
2008, the Federal Reserve had lowered the FFR to a target
Interest on excess reserves IOER
rate range of 0 to 25 basis points.5 Then, to provide fur-
Overnight reverse repurchase agreement ON RRP
ther stimulus and liquidity, the Federal Reserve made a
series of large-scale asset purchases between late 2008
and 2014.6 The primary purpose of these purchases was
to lower long-term interest rates to encourage consump- hold more or fewer reserves, it gives the Fed an additional
tion and investment. The purchases, which were also open tool for conducting monetary policy.8 Prior to the summer
market operations, increased the size of the Fed’s balance of 2008, excess reserves had not exceeded $2 billion;
sheet and also dramatically increased the amount of by December 2008 they reached $767 billion, eventually
reserves in the banking system. In addition, over the peaking near $2.7 trillion in August 2014 (Figure 4)
course of the crisis, the Fed introduced two new tools to because of the large-scale asset purchases by the Fed
U.S. monetary policy: interest on reserves (IOR) and the over this period.
overnight reverse repurchase agreement (ON RRP) facility.
The second new tool of monetary policy is the ON RRP
(See the table for a list of monetary policy acronyms.)
facility: When an institution uses the ON RRP facility it
Congress had enacted IOR in 2006, with an originally essentially deposits reserves at the Fed overnight (with
scheduled start in 2011. To enable the Fed to use this a U.S. government security from the Federal Reserve’s
tool during the Financial Crisis, the start was pushed up portfolio acting as collateral) and earns interest (the ON
to October 2008, and it applied to both required reserves RRP rate) on the deposit.9 This is similar to a consumer
(paying interest on required reserves, or IORR) and excess buying a certificate of deposit, holding it for a specified
reserves (paying interest on excess reserves, or IOER).7 time, and being paid interest when it is redeemed. The
IORR eliminates the implicit tax on reserves requirements. purpose of the ON RRP facility is to set a floor on interest
And, because the IOER rate influences banks’ decision to rates.
PAGE ONE Economics® Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis | research.stlouisfed.org 4

Figure 5 Figure 6
Monetary Policy with Ample Reserves Interest on Excess Reserves

Federal Funds Rate

Supply

Discount
Rate Demand

IOER Rate
ON RRP Rate

$1.6 Trillion Reserves

SOURCE: FRED®, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis;
In a world with ample reserves, the Federal Reserve operates where https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=mXVq, accessed February 22, 2019.
the following are true:
(i) The demand curve is flat and near the IOER rate.
(ii) The supply of reserves is ample and far to the right of the origin, Figure 7
intersecting demand on the flat portion of the curve. As such, Monetary Policy with Ample Reserves
making slight adjustments to the supply of reserves no longer
puts upward or downward pressure on the FFR and instead the
FFR is guided by the IOER rate as well as the ON RRP rate.

The Current Framework: Monetary Policy with Ample Reserves

Although the quantity of excess reserves has been declin-
ing since its peak in 2014, reserve balances are currently
far in excess of banks’ reserve requirements and the FOMC
has indicated that it will in the longer-run conduct policy
with ample reserves. With such a large quantity of reserves
in the banking system, the Federal Reserve can no longer
effectively influence the FFR by small changes in the
The FFR target is now communicated as a range 25 basis points
supply of reserves. For example, a relatively small increase wide rather than a single rate.
in reserves will not lower interest rates, nor will a relatively
NOTE: Gray bar indicates recession as determined by the NBER.
small reduction in reserves raise short-term interest rates
SOURCE: FRED®, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis;
(Figure 5). Instead, the Fed uses its newer tools—IOER https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=n3IV, accessed February 22, 2019.
and the ON RRP facility—to influence the FRR and short-
term interest rates more generally. This tends to pull the FFR in the direction of the IOER
rate (Figure 6). As such, to conduct monetary policy, the
IOER Federal Reserve moves the FFR into the target range set
The IOER rate offers a safe, risk-free investment option to by the FOMC primarily by adjusting the IOER rate.10 But
banks holding reserves at the Fed. Given this rate, banks not every financial institution can hold reserves with the
will not lend reserves in the market for less than the IOER Fed.
rate. Arbitrage plays a key role in steering the federal
funds toward the target. For example, if the FFR falls very ON RRP Facility
far below the IOER rate, banks have an incentive to bor- More types of financial institutions can participate in the
row in the federal funds market and to deposit those ON RRP program than can earn interest on reserves. These
reserves at the Fed, earning a profit on the difference. institutions use the facility’s rate to arbitrage other short-
PAGE ONE Economics® Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis | research.stlouisfed.org 5

term rates. In particular, because these institutions will Notes

never be willing to lend funds for lower than the ON RRP 1 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “FOMC Statement.” March 20,

rate, the FFR will not fall below the ON RRP rate. As such, 2019; https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/pressreleases/mone-
tary20190320a.htm.
the rate paid on ON RRP transactions acts as a floor for the
2 In 2008, as the FFR neared zero, the FOMC began to implement monetary policy
FFR.
primarily through purchases of long-term bonds to reduce long-term interest
rates, a strategy commonly (but inaccurately) known as “quantitative easing.”
FFR Range Such purchases are one type of “unconventional” monetary policy. The FOMC
supplemented this strategy with “forward guidance” to financial markets. The
Rather than setting a single target for the FFR, the target FFR remained near zero until December 2015.
is now communicated as a range 25 basis points wide. 3 Short rates can differ because of several factors: the duration of the loan, the
As stated above, the IOER rate and ON RRP rate are used credit worthiness of the borrower, and whether collateral is required/available.

to guide the FFR within the target range (Figure 7). 4 Although legal reserve requirements still exist, in practice, financial innovation
in the 1990s had enabled banks to avoid nearly any obligation to hold reserves.
Despite the recent changes, the FFR will continue to be 5 A basis point is 1/100th of 1 percent. It is used chiefly to express differences in
the primary means of adjusting the stance of monetary interest rates. For example, an increase in a particular interest rate of 0.25 percent
can be described as an increase of 25 basis points.
policy.11 And the transmission channels are the same—
the FFR influences other interest rates in the economy, 6Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “What Were the Federal
Reserve’s Large-Scale Asset Purchases?” https://www.federalreserve.gov/faqs/
which influence the decisions of consumers and producers what-were-the-federal-reserves-large-scale-asset-purchases.htm.
(see Figure 1). To conduct monetary policy, the FOMC 7 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “Interest on Required Reserve
increases or decreases the target range in a manner Balances and Excess Balances.”
https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/reqresbalances.htm.
consistent with its policy goals of price stability and
maximum employment.12 8 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. See footnote 7.
9Federal Reserve Bank of New York. “Reverse Repo Counterparties.”
Conclusion https://www.newyorkfed.org/markets/rrp_counterparties
10 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. See footnote 7.
When reserves were scarce, the Federal Reserve could
11Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “FOMC Communications
influence the FFR with small changes in the supply of
Related to Policy Normalization.”
reserves by conducting open market operations that https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/policy-normalization.htm.
would shift the supply curve to the right (increasing 12 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. See footnote 11.
reserves) or left (decreasing reserves). In the past few
years, the Federal Reserve has adopted a new strategy
for implementing monetary policy. With ample reserves in
the banking system, the Fed now sets a target range for
the FFR and uses the rates on IOER and the ON RRP facility
to keep the FFR rate in the FOMC’s target range. n

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PAGE ONE Economics® Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis | research.stlouisfed.org 6

Name___________________________________ Period_______

Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page One Economics ®:

“A New Frontier: Monetary Policy with Ample Reserves”

After reading the article, complete the following:

1. Prior to 2008, the Federal Reserve moved the federal funds rate (FFR) higher and lower using
a. the interest on excess reserves (IOER).
b. the overnight reverse repurchase agreement (ON RRP) facility.
c. open market operations.
d. the interest on required reserves (IORR).

2. In the “ample reserves” framework of monetary policy,

a. relatively small changes in the supply of reserves by the Federal Reserve can shift the FFR up and down.
b. relatively small changes in the FFR by the Federal Reserve can shift the supply of reserves up and down.
c. the Federal Reserve moves the FFR into the target range primarily by adjusting the IOER rate.
d. the Federal Reserve does not target the FFR.

3. Thinking in terms of a supply and demand graph, how did the Financial Crisis move the supply of reserves?
a. The Financial Crisis moved the supply curve left along the downward sloping demand curve.
b. The Financial Crisis moved the supply curve right into the flat portion of the demand curve.
c. The Financial Crisis moved the demand curve upward along the downward sloping supply curve.
d. The Financial Crisis moved the demand curve downward into the flat portion of the supply curve.

4. How does arbitrage ensure that the FFR does not drop too far below the IOER rate?
a. Banks have an incentive to borrow at the FFR and deposit at the ON RRP rate.
b. Banks have an incentive to borrow at the IOER rate and deposit at the FFR.
c. Banks have an incentive to borrow at the ON RRP rate and deposit at the FFR.
d. Banks have an incentive to borrow at the FFR and deposit at the IOER rate.

5. Adjustments in the stance of monetary policy are communicated as a change in which of the following?
a. FFR
b. IORR
c. IOER
d. ON RRP
PAGE ONE Economics® Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis | research.stlouisfed.org 7

6. Which of the following best describes how the Federal Reserve might use the current framework to increase
employment during a recession to achieve its maximum employment objective?
a. Increase the target rate range for the FFR.
b. Decrease the target rate range for the FFR.
c. Sell Treasury securities in the open market to decrease the FFR.
d. Buy Treasury securities in the open market to increase the FFR.

7. In the ample reserves framework, what rate acts like a floor for the FFR?
a. IOR
b. IORR
c. IOER
d. ON RRP

8. Whereas the Federal Reserve used to set a single target for the FFR, it now
a. sets a range that is 1 percentage point wide.
b. sets multiple targets.
c. does not set a target.
d. sets a range that is 25 basis points wide.