Stress is a general term defined by Hans Selye in 1936 as the nonspecific response of the body to any

demand for change. Stress is a negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical,
physiological, cognitive, and behavioral changes that are directed either toward altering the stressful
event or accommodating to its effects.

Stress is the consequence of a person’s appraisal processes: primary appraisal occurs as a person is
trying to understand what the event is and what it will mean. Events may be appraised for their harm,
threat, or challenge. Harm is the assessment of the damage that has already been done, as for example
being fired from a job. Threat is the assessment of possible future damage, as a person anticipates the
problems that loss of income will create for him and his family. But events may also be appraised in
terms of their challenge, that is, the potential to overcome or even profit from the event. For example, a
man who lost his job may regard his unemployment as an opportunity to try something new. Challenge
assessments lead to more confident expectations that one can cope with the stressful event, more
favorable emotional reactions to the event, and lower blood pressure, among other benefits (Blascovich,
2008).

Secondary appraisals assess whether personal resources are sufficient to meet the demands of the
environment. When a person’s resources are more than adequate to deal with a difficult situation, he or
she may feel little stress and experience a sense of challenge instead. When the person perceives that
his or her resources will probably be suffi cient to deal with the event but only with a lot of eff ort, he or
she may feel a moderate amount of stress. When the person perceives that his or her resources will
probably not be sufficient to overcome the stressor, he or she may experience a great deal of stress.

Stress, then, is determined by person-environment fit (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Lazarus & Launier,
1978). It results from the process of appraising events (as harmful, threatening, or challenging), of
assessing potential resources, and of responding to the events. To see how stress researchers have
arrived at this current understanding, we examine the origins of stress research.

FIGHT OR FLIGHT

The earliest contribution to stress research was Walter Cannon’s (1932) description of the fight-or-flight
response. Cannon proposed that when an organism perceives a threat, the body is rapidly aroused and
motivated via the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system. This concerted physiological
response mobilizes the organism to attack the threat or to flee; Hence, it is called the fight-or-flight
response.

At one time, fight or flight literally referred to fighting or fleeing in response to stressful events such as
attack by a predator. Now, more commonly, fight refers to aggressive responses to stress, such as
getting angry or taking action, whereas flight is reflected in social withdrawal or withdrawal through
substance use or distracting activities. On the one hand, the fight-or-flight response is adaptive because
it enables the organism to respond quickly to threat. On the other hand, it can be harmful because
stress disrupts emotional and physiological functioning, and when stress continues unabated, it lays the
groundwork for health problems.

SELYE’S GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

Another important early contribution to stress was Hans Selye’s (1956, 1976) work on the general
adaptation syndrome. Selye exposed rats to a variety of stressors, such as extreme cold and fatigue, and
observed their physiological responses. To his surprise, all stressors, regardless of type, produced
essentially the same pattern of physiological changes.

From these observations, Selye (1956) developed the general adaptation syndrome. He argued that
when a person confronts a stressor, it mobilizes itself for action. The response itself is nonspecific with
respect to the stressor; that is, regardless of the cause of the threat, the person will respond with the
same physiological pattern of reactions. (As will be seen, this particular conclusion has now been
challenged.) Over time, with repeated or prolonged exposure to stress, there will be wear and tear on
the system. The general adaptation syndrome consists of three phases. In the first phase, alarm, the
person becomes mobilized to meet the threat. In the second phase, resistance, the person makes efforts
to cope with the threat, as through confrontation. The third phase, exhaustion, occurs if the person fails
to overcome the threat and depletes its physiological resources in the process of trying. Let’s discuss
these above three phases in depth :

1) Alarm reaction stage

At the alarm reaction stage, a distress signal is sent to a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The
hypothalamus enables the release of hormones called glucocorticoids.

Glucocorticoids trigger the release of adrenaline and cortisol, which is a stress hormone. The adrenaline
gives a person a boost of energy. Their heart rate increases and their blood pressure rises. Meanwhile,
blood sugar levels also go up.

These physiological changes are governed by a part of a person’s autonomic nervous system (ANS)
called the sympathetic branch. The alarm reaction stage of the GAS prepares a person to respond to the
stressor they are experiencing. This is often known as a “fight or flight” response.

2) Resistance

During the resistance stage, the body tries to counteract the physiological changes that happened
during the alarm reaction stage. The resistance stage is governed by a part of the ANS called the
parasympathetic.

The parasympathetic branch of the ANS tries to return the body to normal by reducing the amount of
cortisol produced. The heart rate and blood pressure begin to return to normal. If the stressful situation
comes to an end, during the resistance stage, the body will then return to normal. However, if the
stressor remains, the body will stay in a state of alert, and stress hormones continue to be produced.
This physical response can lead to a person struggling to concentrate and becoming irritable.

3) Exhaustion stage

After an extended period of stress, the body goes into the final stage of GAS, known as the exhaustion
stage. At this stage, the body has depleted its energy resources by continually trying but failing to
recover from the initial alarm reaction stage.
Once it reaches the exhaustion stage, a person’s body is no longer equipped to fight stress. They may
experience:

• tiredness

• depression

• anxiety

• feeling unable to cope

If a person does not find ways to manage stress levels at this stage, they are at risk of developing stress-
related health conditions.

Understanding stress triggers may help someone to make lifestyle changes to reduce stress. Where this
is not possible, finding ways to manage the impact of stress on the body and mind is critical. Managing
stress can include activities, such as deep-breathing, yoga, mindfulness, or meditation.

CRITICISMS OF THE GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

Selye’s model has been criticized on several grounds. First, it assigns a very limited role to psychological
factors, and researchers now believe that the psychological appraisal of events is critical to experiencing
stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). A second criticism concerns the fact that not all stressors produce the
same endocrinological responses (Kemeny, 2003). How people respond to stress is influenced by their
personalities, emotions, and biological constitutions (e.g., Moons, Eisenberger, & Taylor, 2010). A third
criticism concerns whether exhaustion of physiological resources or their chronic activation is most
implicated in stress; research suggests that continued activation (the second phase) may be most
important for accumulating damage to physiological systems. Finally, Selye assessed stress as an
outcome, that is, the endpoint of the general adaptation syndrome. In fact, people experience many
debilitating effects of stress after an event has ended and even in anticipation of its occurrence. Despite
these limitations and reservations, Selye’s model remains a cornerstone in the field.

Stress control and management :

Stress is a general term defined by Hans Selye in 1936 as the nonspecific response of the body to any
demand for change. Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or
thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, or nervous. Stress management is set of techniques and
programs intended to help people deal more effectively with stress in their lives by analysing the specific
stressors and taking positive actions to minimize their effects. Popular examples of stress management
include meditation, yoga, and exercise. The main techniques of stress management are categorized into
three groups:

1) Action Orientated Approaches: They are used to take action to change a stressful situation.
 1. Be assertive

Clear and effective communication is the key to being assertive. When we’re assertive, we can ask for
what we want or need, and also explain what is bothering us. The key is doing this in a fair and firm
manner while still having empathy for others. Once you identify what you need to communicate, you
can stand up for yourself and be proactive in altering the stressful situation.

2. Reduce the noise

Switching off all the technology, screen time, and constant stimuli can help us slow down. Make time for
some quietness each day. You may notice how all those seemingly urgent things we need to do become
less important and crisis-like. Remember that recharging is a very effective way of tackling stress.

3. Manage your time

If we let them, our days will consume us. Before we know it, the months have become overwhelmingly
busy. When we prioritize and organize our tasks, we create a less stressful and more enjoyable life.

4. Creating boundaries

Boundaries are the internal set of rules that we establish for ourselves. They outline what behaviors we
will and won’t accept, how much time and space we need from others, and what priorities we have.

For example, let’s say you are invited to a social event this weekend, but you have not had any time for
yourself. The idea of reading a book and eating Chinese take-out sounds like your dream, but you’re
afraid of hurting someone’s feelings if you don’t attend. It could be helpful to consider what you would
do, if no one cared either way.

5. Get out of your head

Sometimes it’s best not to even try contending with the racing thoughts. Sometimes you just need a
break. Distract yourself. Watch a movie, phone or catch up with a friend, go for a walk, or do something
positive that you know takes your mind off things.

2) Emotion-oriented approaches: They are used to change the way we perceive a stressful
situation.

6. Affirmations and imagery

The power of positive imagery and affirmations is now scientifically proven to increase positive emotion.

How? When you think of a positive experience, your brain perceives it to be a reality.

So, replace those negative thoughts with positive statements and challenge and change the way you see
and experience the world.

7. Cognitive Restructuring

Cognitive restructuring, developed by Dr. Albert Ellis, is a technique for understanding negative
emotions and challenging the sometimes incorrect beliefs that cause them.
8. ABC Technique

The ABC technique was also originally created by Dr. Albert Ellis and later adapted by Martin Seligman.
The letters ABC stand for; A – adversity, or the stressful event. B – beliefs, or the way that you respond
to the event. Then C – consequences, the result of your beliefs lead to the actions and outcome of that
event. Essentially, the more optimistic your beliefs, the more positive the outcome.

3) Acceptance-oriented approaches: They are used for dealing with stressful situations you can’t
control.

9. Diet and Exercise

It’s important to be mindful of having a balanced and healthy diet. Making simple diet changes, such as
reducing your alcohol, caffeine and sugar intake is a proven way of reducing anxiety. Another
guaranteed way to reduce stress is exercise. It’s proven to also be as effective as antidepressants in
relieving mild depression.

10. Meditation and physical relaxation

Use techniques such as deep breathing, guided visualizations, yoga, and guided body scans. These
activities help relax the body.

11. Build resilience

Resiliency is our ability to bounce back from stressful or negative experiences. To simplify, resilient
people are skilled at accepting that the situation has occurred, they learn from what transpired and then
they move on.

12. Talk it out

Don’t hold it all inside. Talk to someone close to you about your worries or the things getting you down.
Sharing worries can cut them in half, and also give you a chance to laugh at potentially absurd situations.
If you don’t feel up to sharing, writing them down is also a great way to release them. Or maybe engage
with an independent professional.

13. Sleep

Getting a good night sleep is fundamental for recharging and dealing with stressful situations in the best
possible way. While it varies from individual to individual, on the exact amount of sleep needed, an
uninterrupted sleep of approximately 8 hours is generally recommended.

STRESS & ILLNESS

These early contributions to the study of stress have helped researchers identify the pathways by which
stress leads to poor health. The first set of pathways involves direct effect on physiology. As both
Cannon and Selye showed, stress alters biological functioning, and the ways in which it does so and how
it interacts with existing risks or genetic predispositions determine what illnesses a person will develop.
Direct physiological effects include such processes as elevated blood pressure, a decreased ability of the
immune system to fight off infection, and changes in lipid levels and cholesterol, among other changes.

A second set of pathways concern health behaviors. People who live with chronic stress have poorer
health habits than people who do not, and acute stress, even when it is short-term, often compromises
health habits. These poor health habits can include smoking, poor nutrition, little sleep, little exercise,
and use of substances such as drugs and alcohol. Over the long-term, each of these poor health habits
contributes to specific illnesses. For example, smoking can cause lung disease. Even in the short-term,
changes in these health habits may increase physiological vulnerabilities and set the stage for longer
term adverse health outcomes.

Third, stress affects psychosocial resources in ways that can adversely affect health (Chapter 7).
Supportive social contacts are protective of health, but stress can make a person avoid these social
contacts or, worse, behave in ways that drive others away. Optimism, self-esteem, and a sense of
personal control also contribute to good health, yet many stressors undermine these beneficial beliefs.
To the extent that time, money, and energy must be put into combating the stressor, these external
resources are compromised as well, falling especially hard on people who have very little of those
resources.

A fourth set of pathways by which stress adversely affects health involves the use of health services and
adherence to treatment recommendations. People are less likely to adhere to a treatment regimen
when they are under stress, and they are more likely to delay seeking care for disorders that should be
treated. Alternatively, they may not seek care at all.

These four routes—physiology, health behaviors, psychosocial resources, and health care—represent
the most important pathways by which stress affects health.