A.Assembly of Personal Computer.

 Parts of a Computer Motherboard :-

 Some of the major components of a motherboard.

The main printed circuit board in a computer is known as the motherboard.
Other names for this central computer unit are system board, main board, or
printed wired board (PWB). The motherboard is sometimes shortened to Mobo.
Numerous major components, crucial for the functioning of the computer, are
attached to the motherboard. These include the processor, memory, and
expansion slots. The motherboard connects directly or indirectly to every part of
the PC.
The type of motherboard installed in a PC has a great effect on a computer's
system speed and expansion capabilities.
Major Motherboard Components and Their Functions

A labeled ASRock K7VT4A Pro Mainboard. | Source

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Also known as the microprocessor or the processor, the CPU is the computer's
brain. It is responsible for fetching, decoding, and executing program
instructions as well as performing mathematical and logical calculations.
The processor chip is identified by the processor type and the manufacturer.
This information is usually inscribed on the chip itself. For example, Intel 386,
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) 386, Cyrix 486, Pentium MMX, Intel Core
2Duo, or iCore7.
If the processor chip is not on the motherboard, you can identify the processor
socket as socket 1 to Socket 8, LGA 775 among others. This can help you
identify the processor that fits in the socket. For example, a 486DX processor
fits into Socket 3.

 Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory, or RAM, usually refers to computer chips
that temporarily store dynamic data to enhance computer performance
while you are working.
In other words, it is the working place of your computer, where active
programs and data are loaded so that any time time the processor
requires them, it doesn't have to fetch them from the hard disk.
Random access memory is volatile, meaning it loses its contents once
power is turned off. This is different from non-volatile memory, such
as hard disks and flash memory, which do not require a power source
to retain data.
When a computer shuts down properly, all data located in RAM is
returned back to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive.
At the next boot-up, RAM begins to fill with programs automatically
loaded at startup, a process called booting. Later on, the user opens
other files and programs that are still loaded in the memory.
 Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. BIOS is a "read only"
memory, which consists of low-level software that controls the
system hardware and acts as an interface between the operating
system and the hardware. Most people know the term BIOS by
another name—device drivers, or just drivers. BIOS is essentially the
link between the computer hardware and software in a system.
All motherboards include a small block of Read Only Memory
(ROM) which is separate from the main system memory used for
loading and running software. On PCs, the BIOS contains all the code
required to control the keyboard, display screen, disk drives, serial
communications, and a number of miscellaneous functions.
The system BIOS is a ROM chip on the motherboard used during the
startup routine (boot process) to check out the system and prepare to
run the hardware. The BIOS is stored on a ROM chip because ROM
retains information even when no power is being supplied to the
computer.
  Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Random
Access Memory (CMOS RAM)

A CMOS battery.
Motherboards also include a small separate block of memory made
from CMOS RAM chips which is kept alive by a battery (known as a
CMOS battery) even when the PC’s power is off. This prevents
reconfiguration when the PC is powered on.
CMOS devices require very little power to operate.
The CMOS RAM is used to store basic Information about the PC’s
configuration for instance:-
 Floppy disk and hard disk drive types
 Information about CPU

 RAM size

 Date and time

 Serial and parallel port information

 Plug and Play information

 Power Saving settings

Other Important data kept in CMOS memory is the time and date,
which is updated by a Real Time Clock (RTC).
  Cache Memory:

L2 cache on an old motherboard.

Cache memory is a small block of high-speed memory

(RAM) that enhances PC performance by pre-loading
information from the (relatively slow) main memory and
passing it to the processor on demand.
Most CPUs have an internal cache memory (built into the
processor) which is referred to as Level 1 or primary cache
memory. This can be supplemented by external cache
memory fitted on the motherboard. This is the Level 2 or
secondary cache.
In modern computers, Levels 1 and 2 cache memory are built
into the processor die. If a third cache is implemented outside
the die, it is referred to as the Level 3 (L3) cache.
  Expansion Bus

PCI slots.
An expansion bus is an input/output pathway from the CPU to
peripheral devices and it is typically made up of a series of slots on
the motherboard. Expansion boards (cards) plug into the bus. PCI is
the most common expansion bus in a PC and other hardware
platforms. Buses carry signals such as data, memory addresses,
power, and control signals from component to component. Other
types of buses include ISA and EISA.
Expansion buses enhance the PCs capabilities by allowing users to
add missing features in their computers by slotting adapter cards into
expansion slots.
 Chipsets
A chipset is a group of small circuits that coordinate the flow of data
to and from a PC's key components. These key components include
the CPU itself, the main memory, the secondary cache, and any
devices situated on the buses. A chipset also controls data flow to and
from hard disks and other devices connected to the IDE channels.
A computer has got two main chipsets:
 The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge
of controlling transfers between the processor and the RAM,
which is why it is located physically near the processor. It is
sometimes called the GMCH, for Graphic and Memory Controller
Hub.
 The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or
expansion controller) handles communications between slower
peripheral devices. It is also called the ICH (I/O Controller Hub).
The term "bridge" is generally used to designate a component
which connects two buses.
Chipset manufacturers include SIS, VIA, ALI, and OPTI.

 CPU Clock
The CPU clock synchronizes the operation of all parts of the PC and
provides the basic timing signal for the CPU. Using a quartz crystal,
the CPU clock breathes life into the microprocessor by feeding it a
constant flow of pulses.
For example, a 200 MHz CPU receives 200 million pulses per second
from the clock. A 2 GHz CPU gets two billion pulses per second.
Similarly, in any communications device a clock may be used to
synchronize the data pulses between sender and receiver.

A "real-time clock," also called the "system clock," keeps track of the
time of day and makes this data available to the software. A "time-
sharing clock" interrupts the CPU at regular intervals and allows the
operating system to divide its time between active users and/or
applications.

 Switches and Jumpers

DIP (Dual In-line Package) switches are small electronic switches

found on the circuit board that can be turned on or off just like a
normal switch. They are very small and so are usually flipped with a
pointed object, such as the tip of a screwdriver, a bent paper clip, or a
pen top. Take care when cleaning near DIP switches, as some solvents
may destroy them. Dip switches are obsolete and you will not find
them in modern systems.

 Jumper pins are small protruding pins on the motherboard. A

jumper cap or bridge is used to connect or short a pair of jumper
pins. When the bridge is connected to any two pins, via a shorting
link, it completes the circuit and a certain configuration has been
achieved.

 Jumper caps are metal bridges that close an electrical circuit.

Typically, a jumper consists of a plastic plug that fits over a pair of
protruding pins. Jumpers are sometimes used to configure
expansion boards. By placing a jumper plug over a different set of
pins, you can change a board's parameters.

NOTE: You can check the jumper pins and jumper cap at the back of
an IDE hard disk and a CD/DVD ROM/Writer.
2.Partition a hard drive during Windows setup

Windows build-in tool, Disk Management or Diskpart.exe can be used for hard
drive partitioning. Disk Management can only be used when OS has been
successfully loaded, so you can use Disk Management to create a new partition
for another OS if you already have windows installed. If you want to create
partition without Windows pre-installed on the hard drive, you can use a
Windows installation disc to run Diskpart. The specific steps listed as below:
1. Insert the installation disc, and boot your computer from it.
2. At the Windows Setup screen, press Shift+F10 simultaneously to open a
command line prompt. If you use the New button to create partitions, it will
generate a system partition for an MBR disk.
 3. Type “diskpart” and press Enter.

4. At Diskpart>, run a few lines of commands to create a new

partition:

 List disk
 Select disk [disk number]
 Create partition primary [size=n]

For example, the following command is to create a 30000 MB

primary partition on disk 0:

 List disk
 Select disk 0
 Create primary partition size=30000
5. Then you will have created a partition around 30GB.
You can use this command to create more partitions or
exit.
If your hard drive has enough space, then it is recommended to
allocate more than 100GB to the system drive because Windows
update, installed programs, and other system files will keep
comsuming space on system partition. If you don’t have a Windows
installation disc, then you can use third party free partition manager
software to partition hard drive without operating system.
Create partitions with free partition manager

AOMEI Partition Assistant Standard is a freeware for disk and

partition management that provides the ability to create bootable
media, so you can partition a hard drive with or without OS pre-
installed. If you have Windows installed on your hard drive, you can
get this software and start to partition your hard drive without losing
data. Let’s see how it works:
1. Boot your computer from the AOMEI bootable media you created.
It will lead you to the main interface of AOMEI Partition Assistant.
2. Right click on unallocated space or a partition that is big enough to
create a new partition, and then choose Create Partition button.

3. At the next screen, drag the slider or enter the amount of space to
specify the partition size. You can also click Advanced option to see
more options. Click OK when settings are done.
4. The program allows you to preview the partition layout without
making any changes to your hard drive. If no problem, click Apply to
run the operations.

It is really a good shot to create partition before installing another OS

on your hard drive. Besides NTFS, AOMEI Partition Assistant also
supports many other file systems including FAT32, FAT16, FAT12,
exFAT, ReFS, and Ext2/Ext3/Ext4. What’s more, it can also be used
to convert NTFS to FAT32 without data loss, and vice versa. The paid
edition, like AOMEI Partition Assistant Professional or AOMEI
Partition Assistant Server, provides even more advanced features.
Creating and formatting a partition in Windows

Before you can partition a hard drive in Windows, you must have installed a new unused hard
disk, deleted an existing partition, or have some unpartitioned space available on an existing
drive. In the example in this tutorial I will take the unused space from one of my hard drives
and partition/format it. The steps shown here will work whether you are working with a brand
new hard drive, deleting an existing partition and reusing it, or partitioning available space on
an existing hard drive.

All hard disk management is done in the Disk Management Administrative Tool. Follow
these steps to open this tool:

1. If you are using Windows 8, type Disk Management at the start screen, click on Settings,
and then click on the Create and format hard disk partitions option. Then skip to step 3.
Otherwise, click on the Start button and select the Control Panel option.

2. If in Classic control panel mode, double-click on the Administrative Tools icon and then
double-click on Computer Management icon.

If your control panel is in the Category view, click on Performance and Maintenance, then
click on Administrative Tools, and finally double-click on the Computer
Management icon.

3. When the Computer Management screen opens, click on the Disk Management option
under the Storagecategory. This will present you with a screen similar to the one below.

The Disk Management Screen

When you are in the disk management tool you will see a listing of your current hard drives
and how they are partitioned. From the image above you can see that I have two hard disks
installed. The first disk, Disc 0, has two partitions. One partition is a 24 GB NTFS partition
that has been assigned the drive letter C:. The other partition on that drive is a 87 GB NTFS
partition that has been assigned the drive letter E:. The other drive, has only one partition, the
D: partition. The rest of the space, 26 GB, shows that it is unallocated and therefore can be
used to make other partitions.

To make a partition from the unused space you would do the following.

1. Right click on the space listed as unallocated.

2. At the menu that comes up, click on the New Partition option.

3. You will now be presented with a wizard as to how you would like the partition to be
created. At the first screen press Next.

4. At the following screen, determine if you need a primary or extended partition. For more
information about these partitions you can read our partition tutorial listed above. Most
people will be fine selecting Primary Partition. Select Primary Partition and press Next.

5. At the next screen you will be prompted to type in how much of the unallocated space you
would like used for the new partition. In my example, my unallocated space is 26.43 GB, so I
can choose to make a partition of that entire amount of only use half and save the rest for
another partition. Regardless, of what you decide, you need to enter a size in the Partition
size in MB: field, or stick with the default size, and press the Next button.

6. At the next screen select the drive letter you would like assigned to it, or use the default
one given. When done, press the Next button. The drive letter that you assign here will be
how you access the partition later.

7. In this step you will determine how you would like the new partition to be formatted. For
the most part you are advised to use the NTFS file system. If you need a file system that can
be readable by older operating systems like DOS, Windows 95, Windows 98, or Windows
ME, then you should instead choose the FAT32 file system.

8. Type a name in the Volume Label field that will be associated with this partition or leave
it blank.

9. Finally press the Next button and you will come to a summary screen. Review how the
partition will be created, and if you are satisfied, press the Finish button to complete the
creation and formatting of your new hard disk partition.
When the computer finishes creating and formatting the new partition you will be presented
with the Disk Management screen again and will see that you have a new partition and drive
letter on your computer. Now you can use that drive to start storing your data.

Deleting a partition in Windows

If you have existing partitions on your computer that you would like to delete in order to use
its space for other purposes, then you first need to delete this partition. It is important to
note that by deleting a partition you will lose all your data on that partition. With that
warning given, let me give some examples of why you would want to delete a partition. Lets
say that you have a 60 GB hard drive in your computer that was originally partitioned into a
20 GB partition and a 40 GB partition. You would like to install another operating system on
your computer, but feel that neither partition is big enough on its own, and would like to
instead create one partition using the full storage of 60 GB. The only way to do that would be
to delete both of the existing partitions and recreate a new one using all the available space.

To delete a partition please follow these steps:

1. Click on the Start button and select the Control Panel option.

2. If in Classic control panel mode, double-click on the Administrative Tools icon and then
double-click on Computer Management icon.

If your control panel is in the Category view, click on Performance and Maintenance, then
click on Administrative Tools, and finally double-click on the Computer
Management icon.

3. When the Computer Management screen opens, click on the Disk Management option
under the Storagecategory.

4. Right-click on the partition you would like to delete and choose the Delete
Partition option.

5. A confirmation box will come up asking if you are sure you would like to continue. If you
press the yes button, all data on this partition will be deleted. If you are sure about deleting
this partition, press the Yes button.

The partition will now be deleted and you can either create a new partition or exit the
program.

--
HOW TO INSTALL WINDOWS XP:

Step 1: Insert Your Windows XP Bootable Disk

For this step, you will need to open your CD-Rom drive and insert your Windows XP disk.

You can now close the CD-Rom Drive.

Step 2: How to Boot From a CD

On most home computers, you will want to shut down your station. After the station is off,

you can restart it. While the station is restarting, begin pressing the F12 key over and over

again. This will take you to the boot options menu.

Now that you are in the boot options menu, you will need to use the arrow keys on your

keyboard to move over the choice for an Onboard or USB CD-ROM Drive. Press Enter.

After you have pressed Enter, most Windows XP disks will prompt you to press any key to

boot from the CD (As seen in picture 2). When this appears, you will have only a few

seconds to press any key on the keyboard. I usually choose the Space-bar because it is the

easiest to find and press.

Step 3: Beginning the Process

After you have chosen to boot from the CD, you will have to wait a few minutes. The disk

will check your hard drive to see if windows XP is currently installed on it. After the disk

has made its check you should see a screen like the one in the first picture on this page.

You will want to press Enter because you are planning on installing Windows XP on your

system. If you realize that you have data on your hard drive and need to back it up, now

would be the time to press F3 and exit the installation program to back it up.

Step 4: Licensing Agreement and Begin Setup

The next page that you will see is the Windows XP Licensing Agreement. On this page, you

can take the time to read through the agreement, but it is just saying that you will not be

breaking any laws using this product. I personally just hit F8 (to agree) and move on to the

next step in the installation.

After pressing F8, you will come to the beginning of the Windows XP setup. On this page,

you will want to press the Esc key on the keyboard. This will tell the program not to try and

repair the current installation.

Step 5: Deleting the Current Partition

The next step in installing Windows XP is to delete the old partition on your hard drive. You

will see a screen similar to the one in the first picture of this page. You will want to scroll

over the C: partition that is current on your hard drive. The next thing you will need to do is

click the D key. This will tell the program that you want to Delete the current partition.

After you click the D key, you will see a screen like the one in the second picture. On this

screen you will want to press the L key to confirm the deletion of the partition of the hard

drive.
Step 6: Beginning the Install

Now that you have deleted the old partition, you will need to be sure that partition is selected
and press the Enter key. This will tell the program that you want to install Windows XP on

that partition.
Step 7: Choosing the Type of Installation

In this step, you will want to choose whether you want to have system do a quick installation

or a standard installation. For the purposes of this set of instructions, I have chosen to do a

standard installation.

After choosing your method of installation, you will want to press the Enter key to continue

to the installation.
Step 8: Allowing Windows XP to Install
This step will probably be the longest step. This is because you are at the mercy of the

system and how fast it installs Windows XP. After you have pressed the Enter key in the last

step, you will see the screen in the first picture here appear. This will mean that the program

is running the installation.

Over time, the progress bar will move across the screen, as shown in the second picture

where the progress bar is at twenty-five percent. After the Installation has finished placing

the file system on your hard drive, you will see the program restart your computer. Do not

be alarmed at this. it will boot back up and you will see a screen similar to the third picture

on this page.
Step 9: Choosing Your Keyboard Layout, Organization, and Computer Name
The first screen (seen in the first picture) that will come up will be a screen for you to select

the language and keyboard style that you wish to use for your new installation of Windows

XP. I have chosen to use the English Language and the US keyboard layout. You may select

any configuration that you are comfortable with and then press the Next button.

The next thing the program will ask for is the name and organization that this install is

affiliated with (as seen in the second picture). You will want to fill this in with your

information. After filling in the information, you will press the Next button.

When the next screen comes up (as seen in the third picture), you will want to choose the

name you want to give to your computer and the password the Administrator of the computer

will have. Press the Next button.

Step 10: Choosing Your Time Zone

You will now see the area for you to choose the time and date to be set on the computer. This

will correspond to the Time Zone in which you live. I live in the Central Time Zone, so I

have chosen to have the date and time correspond to that. You may pick which ever you

would like from this menu.

After choosing the Time Zone you are in, you will need to make sure the time is correct.

This can be done by checking the time (as seen in the second picture).

Step 11: Waiting for Installation to Continue

Now you will need to wait for the installation to continue before you can do anything more.

Step 12: Display Settings

The installation will prompt you to improve the display settings (as seen in the first picture).

You will need to press the OK button for this to continue.

After pressing the OK button, you will see another box appear (like the one in the second

picture). This box will want you to press the OK button also.

Step 13: Protecting Your Computer and Giving It a User

After pressing OK in the last step, you will see the Microsoft Windows welcome screen

appear (like the first picture). On this page, you will want to press the next button at the

bottom right.

Now you will see a screen prompting you to protect your PC. You will want to decide if you

want Windows XP to have automatic updates on or not. I chose to have the system do

automatic updating to save from the hassle of having to be sure the computer's user

remembers to update the computer. After making your choice, you will need to press the

next button in the bottom right.

Now you will be prompted to give the computer a user. For the purposes of this set of

instructions I gave it a user named "MyName", but you can name this user whatever you

would like. After giving the computer at least one user (you may want to give it many), you

will need to press the next button.

Step 14: Finishing the Installation
After pressing the next button, you will see a Thank you screen. On this screen you will need

to press Finish.

This will bring up a screen similar to the second picture on this page.

Now you will see that the computer has logged you in for the first time. You should see a

screen like the third picture on this page.

Instructions to Download, Compile and Install Linux Kernel.

Step 0: Get the Kernel Source.

• Go to https://www.kernel.org/

• Download the tarball of the latest/stable version into any directory within your home

directory.
 • Read more about distinguishing between a stable and development version here: ◦

http://www.makelinux.net/books/lkd2/ch01lev1sec4

• Extract the tarball using ◦ tar -xvfJ linux-x.x.x.tar.xz • cd into the linux-x.x.x directory thus

created.

• Lets call this your build directory.

Step 1: Configure, Build and Install Kernel.

a. From the build directory configure the Kernel your are going to build using

one of: ◦ make defconfig ◦ make config ◦ make menuconfig ◦ Read more

about configuration commands here:

▪ http://www.linux.org/threads/the-linux-kernel-configuring-the-kernel-part-1.4274/ ▪

http://www.linuxchix.org/content/courses/kernel_hacking/lesson2

• Keeping the default options while configuring is fine.

• Now compile the Kernel using: ◦ make or ◦ make -jx (Where x = 2*no.of cores in your

system) to speed up the build.

• Install the Kernel Modules ◦ make modules_install

• Install the new Kernel onto the system using: ◦ make install • This creates: ◦ kernel

image/binary file by the name

▪ vmlinuz-x.x.x* ◦ the initramfs(initial RAM file system) or initrd(initial RAM Disk) by the

name ▪ initramfs-x.x.x* or ▪ initrd.img-x.x.x* ◦ in your /boot directory.

• Here is a list of files of importance created in the /boot directory ◦ vmlinuz-x.x.x* – The

actual kernel ◦ System.map-x.x.x* – The symbols exported by the kernel ◦

initrd.img-x.x.x*/initramfs-x.x.x* – temporary root file system used during boot process ◦

config-x.x.x* – The kernel configuration file

• The make install command also executes a update-grub command which will make the

grub (the Grand Unified Boot Loader) aware of the new kernel image available • and

updates /boot/grub/grub.cfg file so that during the next boot the new kernel image shows up

in the GRUB menu.

Step 2: Making your new Kernel the default entry in your GRUB menu. • In the scenario

where you are logging into a remote machine using, for eg., ssh or telnet you won't be

presented with a grub menu. You'll be just logging into an already booted up machine.

• In order to ensure that you boot into the Kernel that we just built we need to make its entry

the one that is selected by default in the grub menu.

• Open /boot/grub/grub.cfg in any of your favorite text editor.

• Locate the menuentry that has our vmlinuz-x.x.x* image file listed against the linux field

inside the menuentry.

• Our aim is to boot into this menuentry by default. • For example in the sample grub.cfg, we

wish to make the menuentry ◦ 'Ubuntu GNU/Linux, with Xen hypervisor' the default one.

• Note that it is the 3rd main menuentry item in the grub.cfg. Out of all these: ◦ (0) menuentry

'Ubuntu'

◦ (1) submenu 'Advanced options for Ubuntu'

◦ (2) menuentry 'Ubuntu GNU/Linux, with Xen hypervisor'

◦ (3) submenu 'Advanced options for Ubuntu GNU/Linux (with Xen hypervisor)'
 • To achieve this open /etc/default/grub in a text editor and update the value of

GRUB_DEFAULT to 2

• That is make the following change: ◦ GRUB_DEFAULT=”2” • Then issue an update-grub

command. • Another example: • We wish to make the menuentry ◦ 'Ubuntu, with Linux

3.13.0-32-generic' • within the submenu item ◦ 'Advanced options for Ubuntu' the default;

• submenu 'Advanced options for Ubuntu' is the 2 nd main menuentry item in grub.cfg • And

menuentry 'Ubuntu, with Linux 3.13.0-32-generic' is the 3 rd sub-menuentry within that ◦ (0)

menuentry 'Ubuntu' ◦ (1) submenu 'Advanced options for Ubuntu'

▪ (0) menuentry 'Ubuntu, with Linux 3.13.0-39-generic' ▪ (1) menuentry 'Ubuntu, with Linux

3.13.0-39-generic (recovery mode)' ▪ (2) menuentry 'Ubuntu, with Linux 3.13.0-32-generic'

▪ (3) menuentry 'Ubuntu, with Linux 3.13.0-32-generic (recovery mode)'

▪ (4) menuentry 'Ubuntu, with Linux 3.3.1-mortar'

▪ (5) menuentry 'Ubuntu, with Linux 3.3.1-mortar (recovery mode)' ◦ (2) menuentry 'Ubuntu

GNU/Linux, with Xen hypervisor' ◦ (3) submenu 'Advanced options for Ubuntu GNU/Linux
(with Xen hypervisor)' • In order to boot into this we need to make the following change in

/etc/defaults/grub ◦ GRUB_DEFAULT=”1>2”

• Follow it up by an update-grub command. • For additional info look up

https://help.ubuntu.com/community/Grub2/Submenus#Setting_a_Submenu_entry_as_the_d

efault

• Once you've made all the changes reboot.

• Note that you won't be able to log into the remote system until it reboots.
• Once you've logged into the re-booted system check whether you've booted into the latest

compiled kernel with ◦ uname -r command.

 3. Circuit Tracing

It is the technique which is used for initial installation of your PC as well as

during upgrades of the existing machines.

Circuit boards and the chips of the PC are enough reliable if you handle them
properly and keep them under suggested environmental and power protection.
That is keeping them away from the water, high temperature, high voltage etc.

While putting a new board into your system you have to follow these steps

* Installing the board

* Configuring

* Testing

* Loading and configuring the drivers

* Device connection.

Installing the board

It means putting the board in the computer system. In order to putting the board
you require screw drivers, documentations for the board and documentation of
the motherboard on which you are installing the circuit board.
The installation CD or the disk for the new board there be there in you tool kit
and make sure that you have turned off and unplugged your PC.
Now follow these steps to install the board :

* Set the jumpers and switches on the new board.

* Install the board in correct slot available on the motherboard.

Configuring
When you install a circuit board some of them may be faulty functional while
some of them does not work. This networking is because of the conflicts of the
new board with the existing boards. In this case configuring of the new boards
are required.

It consists of assigning resources to the device and providing software support

for the device such that operating system and the board may do the following-

Specify the COM port of modem, LPT port for printer, DMA port for printer,
I/O address on the boards, IRQ lines on the board.

One specifying to the each source is configured then connect the ports to
complete the connections of your computer and starts its working.

Testing
If configured then Reboot the system and let the window to detect the card and
install the drivers.

Test the operations of the board and also test all the other devices on your
system to ensure that the new card is not causing any problem to the PC.
Loading and configuring the drivers
Once again after installing the drivers check whether each connection provided
on the circuit board is right or the wrong. if wrong then configure it in a right
manner and then again check the drivers and other connections.

Device connection

In this,provided the appropriate connection of all devices to the memory,

processor and the input /output unit and check whether there is any loose
connection or not, If there then tight it and then document the all steps and the
settings in the paper for the future purpose , As this steps will help you next
time doing the operation of the circuit tracing.

***
 Load testing
PC power supplies are of a switching rather than a linear design. The switching type of
design uses a high-speed oscillator circuit to convert the higher wall-socket AC voltage to the
much lower DC voltage used to power the PC and PC components. Switching type power
supplies are noted for being very efficient in size, weight, and energy in comparison to the
linear design, which uses a large internal transformer to generate various outputs. This type of
transformer-based design is inefficient in at least three ways. First, the output voltage of the
transformer linearly follows the input voltage (hence the name linear), so any fluctuations in
the AC power going into the system can cause problems with the output. Second, the high
current-level (power) requirements of a PC system require the use of heavy wiring in the
transformer. Third, the 60Hz (hertz) frequency of the AC power supplied from your building
is difficult to filter out inside the power supply, requiring large and expensive filter capacitors
and rectifiers.

The switching supply, on the other hand, uses a switching circuit that chops up the incoming
power at a relatively high frequency. This enables the use of high-frequency transformers that
are much smaller and lighter. Also, the higher frequency is much easier and cheaper to filter
out at the output, and the input voltage can vary widely. Input ranging from 90 volts to 135
volts still produces the proper output levels, and many switching supplies can automatically
adjust to 220v input.

One characteristic of all switching-type power supplies is that they do not run without a load.
This means that you must have the supply plugged into something drawing power for the
supply to work. If you simply have the power supply on a bench with nothing plugged into it,
either the supply burns up or its protection circuitry shuts it down. Most power supplies are
protected from no-load operation and shut down automatically. Some of the cheap clone
supplies, however, lack the protection circuit and relay. They are destroyed after a few
seconds of no-load operation. A few power supplies have their own built-in load resistors, so
they can run even though no normal load is plugged in.

According to IBM specifications for the standard 192-watt power supply used in the original
AT, a minimum load of 7.0 amps was required at +5v and a minimum of 2.5 amps was
required at +12v for the supply to work properly.

Because floppy drives present no +12v load unless they are spinning, systems without a hard
disk drive often do not operate properly. Some power supplies have a minimum load
requirement for both the +5v and +12v sides. If you fail to meet this minimum load, the
supply shuts down.
Because of this characteristic, when IBM used to ship the original AT systems without a hard
disk, they plugged the hard disk drive power cable into a large 5-ohm, 50-watt sandbar
resistor, which was mounted in a little metal cage assembly where the drive would have been.
The AT case had screw holes on top of where the hard disk would go, specifically designed
to mount this resistor cage.

NOTE

Several computer stores I knew of in the mid-1980s would order the diskless AT and install
their own 20MB or 30MB drives, which they could get more cheaply from other sources than
from IBM. They were throwing away the load resistors by the hundreds! I managed to grab a
couple at the time, which is how I know the type of resistor they used.

This resistor would be connected between pin 1 (+12v) and pin 2 (Ground) on the hard disk
power connector. This would place a 2.4-amp load on the supply's +12v output, drawing 28.8
watts of power (it would get hot!) and thus enabling the supply to operate normally. Note that
the cooling fan in most power supplies draws approximately 0.1–0.25 amps, bringing the
total load to 2.5 amps or more. If the load resistor were missing, the system would
intermittently fail to start up or operate properly. The motherboard would draw +5v at all
times, but +12v would normally be used only by motors, and the floppy drive motors would
be off most of the time.

Most of the power supplies in use today do not require as much of a load as the original IBM
AT power supply. In most cases, a minimum load of 0–0.3 amps at +3.3v, 2.0–4.0 amps at
+5v, and 0.5–1.0 amps at +12v is considered acceptable. Most motherboards easily draw the
minimum +5v current by themselves. The standard power supply cooling fan draws only 0.1–
0.25 amps, so the +12v minimum load might still be a problem for a diskless workstation.
Generally, the higher the rating on the supply, the more minimum load required; however,
exceptions do exist, so this is a specification you want to check when evaluating power
supplies.

Some high-quality switching power supplies have built-in load resistors and can run under a
no-load situation because the supply loads. Other high-quality power supplies, such as those
from PC Power and Cooling, have no internal load resistors. They require only a small load
on the +5v line to operate properly. Many of the cheaper clone supplies, which often do not
have built-in load resistors, might require +3.3v, +5v, and +12v loads to work.

If you want to bench test a power supply, make sure you place loads on at least one but
preferably all of the positive voltage outputs. This is one reason you should test the supply
while it is installed in the system, instead of testing it separately on the bench. For impromptu
bench testing, you can use a spare motherboard and hard disk drive to load the outputs.

TASK (1)
AIM:- Identify the peripherals of a computer, components in a CPU
and its functions. Draw the block diagram of a CPU along with the
configuration of each peripheral and submit it to your instructor.

PERIPHERALS OF COMPUTER :- A peripheral device is

generally defined as any auxiliary device such as a computer
mouse or keyboard that connects to and works with the computer in
some way.

INPUT DEVICES:-

The devices which are connected to computer and they are used to send the
data to the computer internally, are known as the input devices. Following
are some important input devices;

Mouse: Mouse is the one of the most common device that one would find in a
desktop. It is normally plugged with the USB connection. It would be connected
through the PS/2 port which is located on the back of the computer. In older
system, one might find the serial port which was used to move the move around.
The old mouse contained ball inside of it which helped it move. But nor the
trend has changed the mouse that one uses contains some LED light. They are
called the laser mouse. The LED light now emits out of the mouse sensing that
where the mouse is being moved. The installation of mouse is easy, one can just
plug the mouse and the drivers would be searched by windows itself. The
mouse can be configured from the control panel where the speed of it can be
improved.

Keyboard: it is the famous device that is being used today and it is connected
through a USB connection at the back of the computer. Old keyboards used to
have the Mini DIN PS/2 connection with them; one would have to go through
the manufacturer's website to know that what are the drivers for the keyboard
and then can get them installed when he connects the keyboard with the
computer.

Touch screen: Touch screen is becoming common as well. They are normally
used on the mobile phones and other smart devices. Also, the tablets also
contain this feature. Now it is even common to find a computer's large screen
which works with the touch screen system. It makes it very easy to type and
navigate and one can bring the keyboard on the screen and type it there as well
hence one doesn't have to install the keyboard. The configurations and the
installation of the touch screen are also done in a display when it is bought.

Scanner: At a time, the fax machines were widely used by the people and till
now, they use it. But now the tables have turned and people tend to use the
scanners. The scanners have the ability to turn the paper's image into a digital
one hence sending the data from one place to another while keeping the same
paper with us is now an easy task and the data can be sent more easily through
the internet. The scanners are now used a lot and one can simply scan a paper
and save it in any format he wants to.

Barcode reader: If one goes to some super market or the retail environment,
one would see the barcode. It's a machine that is used to read the code which is
printed at the back of the products. The connection of the bar code is normally
made through the USB connection. Some old versions of the bar codes also use
the PS.2 connections to get connected to the computer. The barcodes use the
laser technology to read the barcode. The light comes and goes when the code is
exposed to the barcode reader. This eye can directly damage one's eye as well
so one has to be careful while using this machine. The barcode contains a
specific driver when it is connected, the driver is detected by the windows and
hence it can work properly.

Microphone: the putting of voice in our computer is very common. It is done

by the chat or it is even done for the voice reorganization software's which are
available in the market. Microphones on not only at the headset, but they can be
found separately and are there in the laptops as well. They also have the specific
drivers and the configuration can be made through the control panel.

Biometric devices: these devices are used as the security tools. They are mostly
used on some portable devices which tend to go away from one. If one tries to
use the laptop, he might find there is a finger print reader there and hence it is
protected since only the administrator who has set it up can log in to the
computer.
Game pads: Game pad is the wonderful thing for the gamers. It allows the
gamers to have some control over the gaming experience.
Joysticks: it is the gaming input which is widely used. It is a stick which has
many buttons on it.
Digitizer: the digitalizing pad has some specialized pins that allow the user to
draw on it very carefully and accurately. They are for those who have got some
artistic abilities and they are installed with the driver.
Multimedia devices:
Multimedia devices have become so common these days and now they are an
important part of our lives. Following are a few devices which are as follows;

Digital cameras: the digital cameras are the standalone cameras which are used
by the individuals. These days almost everyone has got a digital camera and
they are even embedded into the mobile phone where they can be used to take
picture. The digital cameras when connected to the PC for transfer of pictures
require the driver to get installed and that driver comes with the accessories.
Microphone: if one wants to do some conferences or the voice chat, he would
be meeting the microphone. They are available as the separated ones as well
which can be easily used. They are normally connected through some USB
connection and there is the digital connector which is associated with it to
provide the high quality.

Webcam: Having a video is now a great need of the everyday life. Now it is
very common to find some built in cameras into the displays which are being
used these days. Specially, they are so common in the laptop and if they are not
present, it is pretty common to get it connected and it is done pretty cheap
amount. One can also enjoy the live video if it is plugged through the 802.11
wireless connections which go into the USB connection in the computer.
Camcorder: Most of the video conference has to be recoded and hence one
needs the camcorders. They are normally done for some live videos. They are
not only into the digital cameras but they can be found easily on every laptop
and almost every mobile phone so one can record anything anytime without any
hustle. The video is stored in the flash memory.
MIDI enabled devices: MIDI stands for the Musical Instrument Digital
Interface. It is actually a device which is musical one and can digitalize all of
the information and can transfer it to the computer in some really standard way.
Many of the application which contains these capabilities of the music use this
midi as the standard format so that the information can be getting in and out of
the computer. It is common to get these devices plugged into the computers
with the help of some Ethernet cables and even the USB cable.
OUTPUT DEVICES:-
Output devices are those devices which do not send the data into the
computer, in fact through these devices, the computer communicates with
the user. They contain the devices like displays, printers etc. Some of these
output devices are as follows;

Printers: if one has the data in the computer, it is obvious that he has to take it
out of the computer. There are several ways for it and one of them is the
painters. These printers are available not only in the office environment and in
some retail environment, but at the homes as well. One might need the printer
to take out the prints of the important information he finds on the internet or
the assignment which he creates. At office, many important documents are
sent and received in the digitalized format and they have to be converted to
the hard copy so they can be read easily. At the shops, one might find the
painters which are used for printing out the receipts which are handed over to
the customers. Hence printers are used in every aspect of the busy life.

Speakers: many of the features which are used by us are mainly related to the
audio. Doesn't matter whether one listens to the podcasts or plays music, He
would need the audio to be heard. Even while watching the movie or some
educational video, hearing the voice is really important part and for that
purpose, one needs the speakers. The laptop contains the right left speakers
which are located at these both sides. There is also a subwoofer which can be
used for the mixing of the voice. Also, one can have some advanced computer
speaker which can be plugged into the computer externally for the sake of better
quality of the sound. The laptops have various options which ate provided to
user so that he can hear the sound with different options.

Display devices: one of the most integral parts of the PC is the display devices
which are used. The human beings need to see that what's going on the
operating system and to get in touch with the interface, they must have some
display device which can show them the appropriate amount of data. These
device can be both non touchable and the touchscreen. These display devices
are not just connected to the computers; instead they are connected to the
mobile phones as well.These displays show us what is exactly going on there
and how we can control the computer.
Hence, the computer is made up of many parts and each part plays some really
vital role so one should know all the parts of the computer so that he can get the
knowledge about how they work, how they are installed and how they can be
configured once they are connected to the computer/laptops.

FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF CPU:-

In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the
computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer
system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

Logical Unit :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the
primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are
performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the
ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison.

Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing
the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting
stored.

Control Unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the
supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is
responsible for co ordinating various operations using time signal. The control
unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are
executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory,
interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the
computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several
users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities
of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) :-The ALU and the CU of a computer system
are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain
of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions,
makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer
functions by activating and controlling the operations.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:-

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve
highly complicated problems quickly and accurately. A computer as shown in
Fig. performs basically five major computer operations or functions
irrespective of their size and make. These are :

1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input,

2) it stores data,
3) it can process data as required by the user,
4) it gives results in the form of output, and
5) it controls all operations inside a computer.
1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer
system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other
machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving
out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer
in an organized manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known

as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts.
It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast
that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data
is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage
unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above
functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical
operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data
and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based
on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to
the storage unit.
4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting
useful information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after
processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given
to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the
computer for further processing.
5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations
are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output
are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all
operations inside the computer.

MEMORY MANAGEMENT UNIT:

Most high-end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a

memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM
addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual
memory. Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include
an MMU.

TASK:-2
AIM:-Every student should disassemble and assemble the pc back to working
condition. Lab instructors should verify the work and follow up it with a viva.
Also students need to go through the video which shows the process of
assembling a pc. A video would be given as a part of the course content.

BASIC TOOLS:
Before you begin building or refitting a computer, you should have some basic
tools:

1. 2 Phillips-head (cross-shaped) screwdriver

2. Needle-nose pliers
3. Anti-static Wrist Strap
4. A large level working space
5. Brush

OTHER TOOLS:
Some other tools and equipment can come in handy as well, such as:

1. Spring action parts grabber.

2. Electrical tape
3. Wire or nylon ties
4. Flashlight, preferably hands-free
5. A second, working computer to swap parts, look for tips, ask for help on-
line, download drivers and patches, etc. - very useful
6. A can of compressed air - useful when working with older parts that have
collected dust. A better alternative but also more costly, is a vacuum
cleaner designed for cleaning electronics.
7. Magnetic screwdriver
8. Zip ties or velcro ties for cable management.
 PREPARATION:
Proper preparation is the key to a successful build. Before you begin, make sure
you have all the tools you will need, secure a clear, well-lit workspace, gather
all the components you’ll be using and unpack them one at a time, verifying that
everything that is supposed to be there is actually present. At this point you
should leave the parts themselves in their protective anti-static bags, and
assemble all the accompanying manuals. Now I know you want to get started,
but trust me, read the manuals, check the diagrams, make sure you understand
where each part goes and how it attaches. If there is anything you don’t
understand, now is the time to do a little extra Internet research or call the
manufacturer with your questions.
Find a dry, well-ventilated place to do your work. You should have plenty of
light and if possible, you should choose an area without carpet on the floor, as
carpet tends to generate a lot of static. An unfurnished basement is a good work
location.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. Static electricity is the biggest danger to the expensive parts you are about
to assemble. Even a tiny shock which is much too small for you to feel
can damage or ruin the delicate electronic traces many times smaller than
a human hair that make up your CPU, RAM and other chips. It’s
important to use your anti-static wrist strap to prevent damage to these
components. Once you have the power supply installed in the case, clip
the end of the wrist strap to the outside of the power supply. (Never plug
your computer in while you are connected to it by a wrist strap.) This
will ensure that you, the case and the power supply are all connected to a
common ground, in other words there will be no inequality of charge that
will allow a spark to jump from you to the case. It’s also helpful to have
an anti-static mat to set the case and other components on.
2. Nobody but you is at fault if you shock your components with static
electricity. Make sure that you take the precautions in the previous
paragraph to ground yourself from static electricity. (Note: if you really
must work on a computer and have not got proper anti-static equipment,
it is usually OK if you make sure that you do not move about much; are
not wearing any static-prone clothing; handle components by the edges;
and regularly (once a minute or so), touch a grounded object.). The case
metal of your PC's power supply will usually be a suitable grounded
 object. As noted above, touch it every few minutes while you are
working on your PC if you haven’t got a wrist strap.
3. Turn off your computer and switch off your Power Supply at the wall
before installing or removing any components - if power is flowing to
components as they are installed or removed, they can be seriously
damaged. In order to have a computer properly grounded, you need it
plugged in at the wall but turned off at the power supply and at the wall.
The neutral line may be earthed
4. Never cut the grounding pin off your power cord. This "safety ground"
stands between you and potentially lethal voltages inside the power
supply.
5. Be wary of sharp edges! Many lower-end PC cases have sharp,
unfinished edges. This is especially so on interior surfaces, and where the
case has been cut or punched-out. Use care and take your time to avoid
cutting your hands. If your case has this problem, a little time with some
sandpaper before you begin construction can spare you a lot of pain. Be
extra careful not to cut yourself when installing the I/O Shield.
6. Dismantling discrete electronic components such as your Power Supply
or Monitor is dangerous. They contain high voltage capacitors, which
can cause a severe electric shock if you touch them. These hold a charge
even when the unit is not plugged in and are capable of delivering a fatal
shock.
 TASK -3

AIM:- Every student should individually install Windows/Ubuntu/Fedora in

dual boot and virtual OS on the personal computer

PROCEDURE:- To install ubuntu in personal computer.

Insert the CD or flash drive. If nothing starts up automatically, open the drive in Windows
Explorer and run wubi.exe. Select the option Install inside Windows, and follow the prompts.

When you reboot after the install, your PC will boot Linux and start setting it up. This can
take a long time--especially if you're using a CD. Be patient.
The next time you boot, and with every boot afterwards, you'll get to pick between Windows
and Ubuntu. And you can uninstall Ubuntu like any other Windows program.

Install Ubuntu in a Virtual Machine

You can run both OSes simultaneously by installing Ubuntu inside a virtual machine (VM).
In a VM, software imitates hardware so that you effectively run one computer inside another.

I can recommend two free VM programs: VMware Player and Oracle VM VirtualBox.
Ubuntu installs just fine in either of them. VirtualBox is more powerful, but I find VMware
Player easier for the virtual machine novice. (Yes, I know that I recommended VirtualBox
just last week, but that was for a Windows 8-specific job.)

By the way, you don't actually need to burn a CD or prepare a flash drive to install Ubuntu
inside a virtual machine. Both VMware Player and Oracle VM VirtualBox can install directly
from the .iso file.
STEPS FOR UBUNTU INSTALLATION:-

Steps:

1.

Download the Ubuntu image. Ubuntu is available for free from the Ubuntu
website. It is downloaded in ISO format, which needs to be burned to a CD or
DVD before you can use it. Most newer computers (built after 2011) will use
the 64-bit version, while older computers will need the 32-bit version.
2

Burn the image to a disc. There are a variety of free image burning programs
available, and Windows 7, 8 and Mac OS X all have image burning capabilities
built-in.

In Windows 7 and 8, navigate to the downloaded ISO file and double-click on

it. Insert a blank disc into your burner, and follow the on-screen instructions to
burn the disc

In Mac OS X, open the Disk Utility. This is located in the Utilities folder, in
your Applications folder. Insert your blank disc into your disc drive. Drag and
drop the ISO file into the left frame of Disk Utility. Select the ISO file in the
frame and click Burn.
3

Set your computer to boot from the CD/DVD drive. In order to install Ubuntu,
you will need to set your computer to boot from discs. This is because the
installation has to occur before your existing operating system is loaded from
the hard disk.

When you reboot your computer, press the BIOS setup key to enter your BIOS
menu. In the Boot section, select your CD/DVD drive as the primary boot
device. Once you have it set, save and exit the BIOS. Your computer will reset
again.

In Windows 8, hold the Shift key while clicking Restart in the Power menu.
This will reboot the computer into the Advanced Startup Options. From here,
you can choose to boot from a CD or DVD.
4

Try Ubuntu before you install. If you’d like to take Ubuntu for a test drive
before you commit to installing it, you can run Ubuntu directly from the
installation CD without making any changes to your computer. Click the “Try
Ubuntu” button to test it out.
5

Start the installation process. Click the Install Ubuntu button to begin the
installation. If you are trying out Ubuntu before installing, you can start the
installation by opening the Install file on the test desktop.

You will need around 5 GB of free space on your computer to install Ubuntu.

Installation works best if you are connected to the internet. The easiest way to
do this is to plug an Ethernet cable directly into your computer from the router.

You can also connect to a wireless network if Ubuntu recognizes your wireless
adapter.
6

Check the boxes in the “Preparing to install Ubuntu” window. Ubuntu can
automatically download updates during the installation, and can install software
that will allow you to play MP3 files and Flash video (YouTube). Installing
these updates and software during installation will save you a significant
amount of time and headaches when the operating system is installed.
7

Choose your installation type. You can choose to install Ubuntu alongside your
existing operating system, you can replace your existing operating system, or
you can create new partitions yourself. If you choose to install alongside your
existing operating system, you will be given the option to set how much space is
allocated for each operating system.

If your computer doesn’t have an operating system installed yet, you will need
to select “Something else” and create a partition to install Ubuntu on. Make sure
that the partition is formatted as Ext4.

If you install Ubuntu alongside your existing operating system, you will be
given the option to choose your operating system every time your computer is
rebooted.

If you replace your existing operating system with Ubuntu, you will lose all of
your files and programs. Make sure that you have everything backed up that you
want to save.
8

Select your user options. Ubuntu will ask for your location in order to set the
correct timezone. If you are connected to the internet, this should happen
automatically. You will also need to select your keyboard layout, which is
typically automatically picked for you.
9

Select a username and password. In the “Who are you?” window, you will need
to enter your name, your computer’s name, and a username and password that
you will use to log in. You will need the password when making administrative
changes to the computer as well.
10

Wait for the installation to complete. Once you have set your options, Ubuntu
will begin to install. This can take 30 minutes or more depending on your
computer’s speed. Tips for using Ubuntu will be displayed above the progress
bar. Once the installation is complete, you will be prompted to reboot your
computer. Ubuntu is ready to use.
 TASK-4
AIM:-Every student should install LINUX on the computer .This computer
should have windows installed. The system should be configured as dual boot
with both windows and LINUX. Lab instructor should verify the installation
and follow it up with a viva.

Dual boot linux with windows procedure:-

(1) To start your installation ,boot with your chosen installation
medium .You should be greeted with kali boot screen .select Live ,and
you should be booted into the kali linux default desktop.

(2) Select your window partition .Depending on your system ,it will
usually be the second ,large partition .
(3) Once You have resized your window partition ,ensure you “ Apply
all operations ” on the hard disk. Exit gparted and reboot.

(4) The installation kali linux need to select large free space .
(5) Once the installation is done .you should be greeted with a GRUB
boot menu, which will allow to you to boot either into kali or
windows.

(6) Now that Your completed installing kali linux , its time to customize
your system .
 TASK-5
AIM :- Several mini tasks would be that cover basic command in linux and
basic system on administration in linux which includes : basic linux command
in bash ,create hard and symbolic link ,text processing ,using wildcard .
Basic linux command in bash :- “bash” is a unix shell and command
language written by brian fox for the GNU project as a free software
replacement for the bourne shell. First released in 1989, it has been distributed
widely as the default login shell for most linux distribution and apple’s macOS.

List of linux commands :-

(1) Is command:- the list command –function in the
linux terminal to show all of the major directories
field under a given file system.
(2) Cd comman :- change directory –will allow to user
to change between file directorice. As the name
command name suggest, you would use the cd
command to circulate between tow different
directores.
(3) Mv command :- move –allow a user to move a file
to another file or directory .just link dragging a file
located on PC desktop to the folder store within the
“Document ” folder the mv command function in in
the same manner .
(4) Man command :- the manual command –is used to
show the manual of the inputted command .
(5) Mkdir command :- make directory –command
allows to the user to make a new directory .
(6) Rmdir command :- The rmdir –remove directory –
command allow the user to remove an existing
command using the linux CLI.

Create a Hard and Symbolic links :-

 (1) Hard links :- To create a hard links in linux ,will use in utility .for
example ,the following command creates a hard links name TP to the file
TOPPROCS.SH.

(2) Symbolic links :- To create a symbolic links in linux ,we will use same in
utility with –s switch for example the following command creates a symbolic
link named TOPP.SH to file TOPPEROCS.SH.
 Text processing :-
The rich set of text processing command is comprehensive and time
saving .knowing even their existence in enough to avoid the need of written yet
another script .

 Linux Command Line

 About
 Linux Introduction
 Command Line Introduction
 Files and Directories
 Working with Files and Directories
 Text Processing
 Shell
 Shell Customization
 Shell Scripting


 Published with GitBook

Text Processing
 sort
 uniq
 comm
 cmp
 diff
 tr
 sed
 awk
 perl
 cut
 paste
 column
 pr

The rich set of text processing commands is comprehensive and time saving.
Knowing even their existence is enough to avoid the need of writing yet
another script (which takes time and effort plus debugging) – a trap which
many beginners fall into. An extensive list of text processing commands and
examples can be found.

sort
As the name implies, this command is used to sort files. How about alphabetic
sort and numeric sort? Possible. How about sorting a particular column?
Possible. Prioritized multiple sorting order? Possible. Randomize? Unique?
Just about any sorting need is catered by this powerful command

Options
 -R random sort
 -r reverse the sort order
 -o redirect sorted result to specified filename, very useful to sort a file inplace
 -n sort numerically
 -V version sort, aware of numbers within text
 -h sort human readable numbers like 4K, 3M, etc
 -k sort via key
 -u sort uniquely
 -b ignore leading white-spaces of a line while sorting
 -t use SEP instead of non-blank to blank transition

Examples
 sort dir_list.txt display sorted file on standard output
 sort -bn numbers.txt -o numbers.txt sort numbers.txt numerically (ignoring
leading white-spaces) and overwrite the file with sorted output
 sort -R crypto_keys.txt -o crypto_keys_random.txt sort randomly and write to
new file
o shuf crypto_keys.txt -o crypto_keys_random.txt can also be used
 du -sh * | sort -h sort file/directory sizes in current directory in human
readable format

$ cat ip.txt
6.2 : 897 : bar
3.1 : 32 : foo
2.3 : 012 : bar
1.2 : 123 : xyz

$ # -k3,3 means from 3rd column onwards to 3rd column

$ # for ex: to sort from 2nd column till end, use -k2
$ sort -t: -k3,3 ip.txt
2.3 : 012 : bar
6.2 : 897 : bar
3.1 : 32 : foo
1.2 : 123 : xyz

$ # -n option for numeric sort, check out what happens when -n is not used
$ sort -t: -k2,2n ip.txt
2.3 : 012 : bar
3.1 : 32 : foo
1.2 : 123 : xyz
6.2 : 897 : bar

$ # more than one rule can be specified to resolve same values

$ sort -t: -k3,3 -k1,1rn ip.txt
6.2 : 897 : bar
2.3 : 012 : bar
3.1 : 32 : foo
1.2 : 123 : xyz

uniq
This command is more specific to recognizing duplicates. Usually requires a
sorted input as the comparison is made on adjacent lines only

Options
 -d print only duplicate lines
 -c prefix count to occurrences
 -u print only unique lines
 Examples
 sort test_list.txt | uniq outputs lines of test_list.txt in sorted order with
duplicate lines removed
o uniq <(sort test_list.txt) same command using process substitution
o sort -u test_list.txt equivalent command
 uniq -d sorted_list.txt print only duplicate lines
 uniq -cd sorted_list.txt print only duplicate lines and prefix the line with
number of times it is repeated
 uniq -u sorted_list.txt print only unique lines, repeated lines are ignored
 uniq Q&A on unix stackexchange

$ echo -e 'Blue\nRed\nGreen\nBlue\nRed\nBlack\nRed' > colors.txt

$ uniq colors.txt
Blue
Red
Green
Blue
Red
Black
Red

$ echo -e 'Blue\nRed\nGreen\nBlue\nRed\nBlack\nRed' | sort >

sorted_colors.txt
$ uniq sorted_colors.txt
Black
Blue
Green
Red

$ uniq -d sorted_colors.txt
Blue
Red

$ uniq -cd sorted_colors.txt

2 Blue
3 Red

$ uniq -u sorted_colors.txt
Black
Green
 comm
compare two sorted files line by line
Without any options, it prints output in three columns - lines unique to file1,
line unique to file2 and lines common to both files

Options
 -1 suppress lines unique to file1
 -2 suppress lines unique to file2
 -3 suppress lines common to both files

Examples
 comm -23 sorted_file1.txt sorted_file2.txt print lines unique to sorted_file1.txt
o comm -23 <(sort file1.txt) <(sort file2.txt)' same command using process
substitution, if sorted input files are not available
 comm -13 sorted_file1.txt sorted_file2.txt print lines unique to sorted_file2.txt
 comm -12 sorted_file1.txt sorted_file2.txt print lines common to both files
 comm Q&A on unix stackexchange

$ echo -e 'Brown\nRed\nPurple\nBlue\nTeal\nYellow' | sort > colors_1.txt

$ echo -e 'Red\nGreen\nBlue\nBlack\nWhite' | sort > colors_2.txt

$ # the input files viewed side by side

$ paste colors_1.txt colors_2.txt
Blue Black
Brown Blue
Purple Green
Red Red
Teal White
Yellow

 examples
$ # 3 column output - unique to file1, file2 and common
$ comm colors_1.txt colors_2.txt
Black
Blue
Brown
Green
Purple
Red
 Teal
White
Yellow

$ # suppress 1 and 2 column, gives only common lines

$ comm -12 colors_1.txt colors_2.txt
Blue
Red

$ # suppress 1 and 3 column, gives lines unique to file2

$ comm -13 colors_1.txt colors_2.txt
Black
Green
White

$ # suppress 2 and 3 column, gives lines unique to file1

$ comm -23 colors_1.txt colors_2.txt
Brown
Purple
Teal
Yellow

cmp
compare two files byte by byte
Useful to compare binary files. If the two files are same, no output is
displayed (exit status 0)
If there is a difference, it prints the first difference - line number and byte
location (exit status 1)
Option -s allows to suppress the output, useful in scripts
$ cmp /bin/grep /bin/fgrep
/bin/grep /bin/fgrep differ: byte 25, line 1

 More examples

diff
compare files line by line
 Useful to compare old and new versions of text files
All the differences are printed, which might not be desirable if files are too
long

Options
 -s convey message when two files are same
 -y two column output
 -i ignore case while comparing
 -w ignore white-spaces
 -r recursively compare files between the two directories specified
 -q report if files differ, not the details of difference

Examples
 diff -s test_list_mar2.txt test_list_mar3.txt compare two files
 diff -s report.log bkp/mar10/ no need to specify second filename if names are
same
 diff -qr report/ bkp/mar10/report/ recursively compare files between report
and bkp/mar10/report directories, filenames not matching are also specified in
output
o see this link for detailed analysis and corner cases
 diff report/ bkp/mar10/report/ | grep -w '^diff' useful trick to get only names
of mismatching files (provided no mismatches contain the whole word diff at
start of line)

Further Reading
 diff Q&A on unix stackexchange
 gvimdiff edit two, three or four versions of a file with Vim and show
differences
 GUI diff and merge tools

tr
translate or delete characters
Options

 -d delete the specified characters

 -c complement set of characters to be replaced
 Examples

 tr a-z A-Z < test_list.txt convert lowercase to uppercase

 tr -d ._ < test_list.txt delete the dot and underscore characters
 tr a-z n-za-m < test_list.txt > encrypted_test_list.txt Encrypt by replacing
every lowercase alphabet with 13th alphabet after it
o Same command on encrypted text will decrypt it
 tr Q&A on unix stackexchange

sed
stream editor for filtering and transforming text
Options

 -n suppress automatic printing of pattern space

 -i edit files inplace (makes backup if SUFFIX supplied)
 -r use extended regular expressions
 -e add the script to the commands to be executed
 -f add the contents of script-file to the commands to be executed
o for examples and details, refer to links given below

commands
We'll be seeing examples only for three commonly used commands

 d Delete the pattern space

 p Print out the pattern space
 s search and replace
 check out 'Often-Used Commands' and 'Less Frequently-Used Commands'
sections in info sed for complete list of commands

range
By default, sed acts on all of input contents. This can be refined to specific
line number or a range defined by line numbers, search pattern or mix of the
two

 n,m range between nth line to mth line, including n and m

 i~j act on ith line and i+j, i+2j, i+3j, etc
o 1~2 means 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc lines i.e odd numbered lines
o 5~3 means 5th, 8th, 11th, etc
 n only nth line
 $ only last line
 /pattern/ lines matching pattern
 n,/pattern/ nth line to line matching pattern
 n,+x nth line and x lines after
 /pattern/,m line matching pattern to mth line
 /pattern/,+x line matching pattern and x lines after
 /pattern1/,/pattern2/ line matching pattern1 to line matching pattern2
 /pattern/I lines matching pattern, pattern is case insensitive
 for more details, see section 'Selecting lines with sed' in info sed
 see 'Regular Expressions' in grep command for extended regular expressions
reference
 also check out 'Overview of Regular Expression Syntax' section in info sed

Examples for selective deletion(d)

 sed '/cat/d' story.txt delete every line containing cat

 sed '/cat/!d' story.txt delete every line NOT containing cat
 sed '$d' story.txt delete last line of the file
 sed '2,5d' story.txt delete lines 2,3,4,5 of the file
 sed '1,/test/d' dir_list.txt delete all lines from beginning of file to first
occurrence of line containing test (the matched line is also deleted)
 sed '/test/,$d' dir_list.txt delete all lines from line containing test to end of file.
 TASK-6
Hardware Troubleshooting: Students have to be given a PC which does not
boot due to improper assembly or defective peripherals
AIM: Hardware troubleshooting
Troubleshoot:-
Motherboards sometimes don’t boot for bizarre reasons. Most system
builders experience “mobo” failures at least once. In fact, many retailers
employ different return policies specifically for their motherboards, due to a
high rate of return. Though, motherboard problems are largely user-related.
With the exception of user-incurred damage, most unbootable scenarios can
reverse with three simple tips. I’d like to share my experiences with a
supposedly unbootable motherboard and how to go from barefooted to
booting.

If you hit the power button & nothing happened.

1. Check all power connections.

2. Check for power on mother board.
3. If the system turns on but does not beep or begin to boot up.
4. Remove all components except motherboard/ cpu / mother
check by giving power to them Computer error beeps codes: No
beep: short, no power, bad CPU/ MD, loose peripherals.
5. One beep: everything is normal & computer posted tax.
6. Two beeps: post / CMOS error.
7. One long beep One short beep: Motherboard problem.
8. One long beep two short beep: video problem.
One long beep 3 short beeps: video problem.
3 long beeps: keyboard error.
Repeated long beep: memory error. Continuous high- low
beeps: CPU overheating

SOME OTHER CAUSES:-

If after performing all the necessary steps you still have problems, consider
these issues:

 Electrostatic discharge: Not wearing the right protective gear, or using

improper procedure, may cause a phenomenon known as “electrostatic
discharge”. Anyone who has ever worn wool socks and Moonwalked
across a carpet knows this intimately. The electrical discharge from
touching sensitive electronics can wipe the microcontrollers on board
your motherboard or subcomponents.
 Bent CPU pins: Sometimes manufacturers can ship motherboards with
bent pins. If you fail to observe these and insert a CPU, the pins can be
damaged further. Most of the time they can be bent back into position,
but there’s always the risk of breaking a pin.
 Bent motherboard: Overtightening the screws that anchor the
motherboard to the case can cause the board to bend, which may be
irreparable. I suggest tightening until you feel slight resistance – and
then using a quarter-turn to finish it off.
 Improperly seated RAM: Improperly seated RAM will cause your system
to fail to post.

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