UNIVERSITÉ DE CAEN-NORMANDIE

U.F.R. DE LANGUES VIVANTES

ÉTRANGÈRES
MASTER LLCER ANGLAIS
ÉTUDES CULTURELLES

MÉMOIRE

The Representation Of India In Two Early Modern

Narratives To The East Indies: Ralph Fitch England’s
Pioneer & The First English East India Company

Voyage by James Lancaster

MAHELELAINE ANIS
Sous la direction de M.POPELARD, Université de Caen Normandie.
 Remerciements

Je voudrais dans un premier temps remercier mon directeur de ce projet de

mémoire M. Mickaël Popelard, pour sa patience, sa disponibilité et surtout ses

judicieux conseils, qui ont contribué à alimenter ma réflexion.

Je remercie également toute l’équipe pédagogique et l’ensemble des

professeurs de l’université de Caen Normandie.

Enfin, Je dédie ce travail à mon père, décédé il y a peu et qui serait content

d’apprendre que son fils a enfin terminé le travail qu’il avait commencé.
 Table of Content

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………...4

FIRST PART: CONTEXTUALIZING THE PRESENCE OF TWO EARLY

MODERN ENGLISH MERCHANTS IN INDIA……………...…………......9

a. The Origins of the British Presence in India……………………………...9

b. Early Travels to the East Indies: The Voyage of Ralph Fitch and James
Lancaster………………………………………………………………...14
c. Contextualizing the Travel Narratives…………………………………...14
d. The Representation of India in Early Modern Travel Narratives...............22
e. Representational techniques in the travel narratives…………………..…22
f. Dialogic nature in the travel narratives…………………………………..25

SECOND PART: GOD, GOLD AND GLORY……………………………...28

1. God…………………………………………………………………………..30
a. Religion………………………………………………………………30
b. Nation………………………………………………………………...34
c. Portrayals of Indians and depictions of Europeans…………………..41
d. Constructing English Identity………………………………………...43
e. The English as seen from the Indian perspective…………………….48
f. India as seen from the British perspective……………………………51
g. Negotiating Cultural Differences……………………………………..54

2. Gold………………………………………………………………………….56

a. Geography……………………………………………………………….56
b. Climate…………………………………………………………………..61
c. Commerce……………………………………………………………….64

3. GLORY……………………………………………………………………..78

a. Travel Criticism…………………………………………………………78
b. The Pursuit of Glory…………………………………………………….79

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………..82

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………….84
 Introduction

Travel narratives have been a popular form of storytelling for centuries,

offering readers a glimpse into unfamiliar places and cultures. These narratives
can take many forms, including diaries, journals, letters, travel guides, and even
fictional accounts. Despite their varied formats, all travel narratives share a
common goal: to provide a first-hand account of the experiences and observations
of the traveler. During the 18th and 19th centuries, travel narratives became
increasingly popular as a way for European and American travelers to share their
experiences with a wider audience. These narratives often focused on the natural
wonders and exotic cultures of the visited places. However, these narratives also
served a practical purpose, providing information and guidance to other future
travelers.

One of the most interesting things about travel narratives is the way they allow
readers to vicariously experience the world through the eyes of the traveler. They
offer a unique perspective on the places and cultures described, and allow readers
to gain insight into the customs, beliefs, and daily lives of the people who live
there. This is particularly valuable for readers who may never have the
opportunity to travel to these places themselves. At the same time, travel
narratives also provide a way for travelers to make sense of their own experiences,
to reflect on what they have seen and learned, and to share their insights with
others. For the traveler, the act of writing a travel narrative can be a way of
processing and understanding the places they have visited, and the people they
have met.
 The early modern travel narratives to the East Indies offer a fascinating glimpse
into the experiences and observations of European explorers and traders during
the Age of Exploration, which was a period that lasted from the 15th to the 17th
century and witnessed an increasing number of European explorers who sailed the
seas and discovered new lands, societies and cultures. The main driving forces
behind this era were the desire for new trade routes, the spread of Christianity,
and the search for wealth and power. These narratives provide detailed accounts
of the unfamiliar landscapes, cultures, and customs encountered by the travelers,
as well as their interactions with the indigenous peoples. They also offer insight
into the motivations and ambitions of the Europeans, as well as the impact of their
encounters in and on the region as well in terms of shaping and impacting both
the people and the environment. As European exploration and trade in the East
Indies increased, many other travel narratives were written by traders, merchants,
and sailors. These accounts often focused on the commercial opportunities and
profits to be made in the region, as well as the challenges of navigating unfamiliar
waters and dealing with unfamiliar cultures.

However, it's important to note that these travel narratives were not only
influenced by the motivations of the Europeans, but also by their cultural biases,
prejudices and lack of knowledge of the region. They see the local people and
cultures from a European perspective, which often resulted in a distorted or
incomplete representation. Many of these narratives also tend to present a skewed
view of the native cultures, focusing on the exotic and “other” rather than on the
complexity and diversity of the societies encountered.

Despite their limitations, the travel narratives to the East Indies provide a
valuable resource for understanding the historical interactions between Europe
and Southeast Asia. These narratives offer a firsthand account of the experiences
and observations of the European explorers and traders, and provide insight into
the motivations and ambitions that gave rise to their journeys in the first place.
They also offer a glimpse into the cultures and societies of the East Indies,
providing a unique perspective on the early history of the region.

In order to study the European (re)discovery of India and its representation in

early modern narratives, I have chosen to focus on two early modern travelers
who explored and described India as traders between 1583 and 1609. The journeys
of Ralph Fitch and Sir James Lancaster constitute two significant travel narratives
in the late 16th and early 17th century. Both men were English merchants and were
among the first English traders to reach the East Indies, opening up new trade
routes and opportunities for the English East India Company.

Ralph Fitch was an experienced merchant and trader who traveled extensively
in the Middle East and India. He left England in 1583 as part of an expedition
which aimed to establish trade with the East Indies, particularly the spice islands
of modern-day Indonesia. Fitch's account of the journey, which was published in
1591, provides a detailed account of the journey, including the difficulties faced
by the expedition, the different cultures and customs encountered, as well as the
trade opportunities available in the region.

Sir James Lancaster was a naval officer and adventurer who led another
expedition. Lancaster's account of the journey gives insight into the motivation
behind the expedition, which was to establish a trade route to the East Indies to
compete with the Portuguese. Lancaster's account also offers a glimpse into the
challenges of navigating unfamiliar waters, as well as the political and economic
opportunities in the region. One of the main achievements of this journey was
the establishment of a new trade route to the East Indies. The journey took the
members of the expedition from England, around the Cape of Good Hope, and
across the Indian Ocean to the spice islands of modern-day Indonesia, where
they established trade with the local rulers. This opened up new trade
opportunities for the English East India Company, which was established shortly
after the expedition's return to England. The journey also provided new
information about the East Indies, which was not well known in Europe at that
time, and provide accounts of the cultures, religions, customs and societies of
the regions they visited, including the city of Surat in Gujarat and the port city of
Banten in Java. However, it is also important to consider the impact of this
journey on the indigenous peoples, as the European traders often brought
diseases and conflicts to the region, and often viewed the native peoples and
cultures through a colonial lens, as can be seen in the narratives of Fitch and
Lancaster. It is important for us to state that we will be analyzing the narrative of
explorers that write about their voyages in a more scientific and objective
manner, focusing on the geographical and cultural discoveries they make and the
challenges they overcome. On the other hand, travelers tend to be more
subjective in their writings of their journeys, emphasizing on the personal
growth, cultural and emotional experience and exchange, people they meet,
customs they observe, and most importantly the themes and motifs they rely on
may differ depending on their travel purpose and perspective. We will be
relying mainly on printed first edition materials and journals written by the
travelers themselves, primary and secondary sources (archives, newspapers, first
edition books, diaries and personal accounts).

“Negotiating Identity, Representation, and Cultural Exchange: A Critical

Analysis of Early Modern English Travel Narratives in India". This problematic
focuses on the intricate dynamics of identity negotiation, representation, and
cultural exchange within the context of early modern English travel narratives
centered on India. The study delves into the multifaceted aspects of these
narratives, exploring how English merchants' presence in India shaped their
perception of self and others, their portrayal of India, and the interplay of
cultural differences. By dissecting the interconnected themes of God, Gold, and
Glory, the analysis seeks to unravel the complex layers of religion, economic
interests, and personal aspirations that influenced the narrative construction. The
study also aims to scrutinize the techniques employed in these narratives to
convey representations and how they contributed to the dialogic nature of cross-
cultural encounters. Ultimately, the problematic investigates the purpose behind
these travel narratives and their role in shaping early modern English identity,
fostering mutual understanding, and perpetuating the pursuit of glory through
the lens of exploration and commerce.
 CONTEXTUALIZING THE PRESENCE OF TWO EARLY
MODERN ENGLISH MERCHANTS IN INDIA

The Origins of the British Presence in India

Before we dive into the travelers’ journeys, we need to set the foundations and
origins of the relationship between the two nations. The English presence in India
can be traced back to the 17th century when the English East India Company, an
English trading company, began to establish trading posts and forts along the coast
of India. The East India Company was granted a Royal Charter by Queen
Elizabeth I in 1600, which granted it a monopoly on English trade with the East
Indies. At first, the company's main focus was on trade, specifically in textiles and
spices. But over time, the company began to expand its influence and control over
India. One of the major factors that led to the English presence in India was the
decline of the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire had been a powerful and
centralized state in India for centuries, but by the 17th century, it had become
weak and decentralized. This provided an opportunity for the British and other
European powers to gain a foothold in India.1

In 1588, English merchants as Ralph Fitch and Sir James Lancaster asked
permission to travel and explore the Indian seas for trading purposes, and in 1600
they were granted permission to establish the East India company. From relatively
humble beginnings, the EIC eventually handled approximately half of global trade
by the 19th century. It faced however many rivals and fierce competition when it
launched its first voyages. The beginning of the English overseas trade and
expansion has its roots in the voyages of English privateers. Back then, one
person’s privateer was another person’s pirate but the English monarchs tolerated

1
Charles River Editors, The Mughal Empire and the British East India Company: The History and Legacy of the
British Raj in India, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (January 20, 2016).
and in many cases authorized attacks on Spanish and Portuguese shipping in the
16th and 17th centuries. One of the most famous privateers involved an English
fleet organized by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1592 and Queen Elizabeth was (actually)
the principal investor of this expedition. Raleigh’s ships were cruising near the
Azores islands where they hoped to intercept a Spanish treasure fleet coming back
from the new world, instead the ships encountered a Portuguese ship returning
from India packed with spices, precious stones and other luxury goods. The cargo
had a value of over half a million English pounds but unfortunately for Queen
Elizabeth there was a lot of looting when they brought the ship ashore. One of the
keys to the English successes overseas was the acquisition of quality intelligence
on Indian Ocean trade networks and political alignments. 2

The Oxford dictionary of national biography 3 refers to Ralph Fitch as a

merchant from London who led a group of travelers on a trade embassy that left
in 1583, he is also known for being one of the first Englishmen to visit India,
Burma, and the Malay Peninsula during the Elizabethan era. He traveled
extensively throughout the East Indies in the late 16th century and is considered
to be one of the first Englishmen to have traded with the East India Company.
Fitch's accounts of his travels were widely read in Elizabethan England and were
considered to be valuable records of the cultures and customs of the East Indies
at the time,4 as M. N. Pearson the author of “Travel Writing and the Empire”
argues that Fitch's writings were important sources of information in Elizabethan
England for English traders and officials who were interested in the economic and
political opportunities offered by the East Indies. For several months Fitch and
many of his companions were detained by the Portuguese at “Ormuz” the

2
Borton, Henry, The London East India Company’s First Expeditions,“Mariner’s Mirror”, XVIII, Vol. 4, 1932,
pp. 382-404.
3
See entry for Ralph Fitch, in “ODNB”, (1888).
4
M. N. Pearson, "Ralph Fitch's Account of his Journey into the Interior of India", Travel Writing and the
Empire, Oxford University Press (2008).
strategic point they held at the southern end of the Persian Gulf. After being freed,
Fitch traveled to India where he reached the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
He later traveled to present-day Burma, Malaysia and Sumatra before heading
back to England in 1591 after eight years overseas. Fitch wrote down his
observations and story of his adventures that first appeared in Hakluyt’s
“Principal Navigations”5 from which it was reprinted and used as reference and
Fitch later served as a consultant to English merchants.

The East India company was influenced to some extent by the Dutch East India
Company, even though the English East India Company did not approach voyages
as permanent. Typically, in the company’s first decade all vessels and supplies
would be sold off after the voyage to be combined with all remaining cash to repay
investors after voyages. It was not until 1614 that the permanent joint stock model
would be used and permanent company infrastructure would be established. This
move was a significant step in the growth of England's global trade and economic
power, it provided a framework for the company to establish and maintain trade
relations with the East Indies, and was a key factor in the development of the
British Empire. One of the main reasons for Elizabeth encouraging the voyages
was economic gain. At the time, England was in search of new markets for its
goods and opportunities to acquire valuable resources and luxuries from the East
Indies. The East India Company represented a new way for England to participate
in the lucrative spice trade and to tap into the growing wealth of the East Indies.
The charter gave the company the legal authority to trade, allowing them to
establish trading posts and conduct business in the East Indies. By granting the
company a monopoly on English trade, Elizabeth ensured that all of the profits
from this trade would accrue to England.

5
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation.1890.
 Furthermore, the charter also served as a political move for Elizabeth, as it
allowed her to exert more control over the East Indies trade, which was
traditionally dominated by the Portuguese and the Dutch. It also allowed England
to be more present and powerful in the East Indies, which was important to
counterbalance the influence of other European powers in the region. Another
important factor in the issuance of the charter was the desire to expand English
influence and control over the East Indies. The charter granted the company the
power to make treaties and alliances, build forts, and make war and peace with
local rulers. These privileges allowed the company to establish itself as a powerful
entity in the East Indies, and laid the foundation for the later expansion of the
British Empire in the region. The charter provided a framework for the company
to establish and maintain trade relations with the East Indies, and was a key factor
in the development of the British Empire. It was driven by a desire for economic
gain, political control, and expansion of English influence and control over the
East Indies.

Unlike Ralph Fitch who traveled to the East Indies and more specifically the
Indian subcontinent for merely trade and exploration purposes between 1583 and
1591 providing significant information of the region and establishing the basis for
the English East India Company’s future trade in the area, James Lancaster was
an English navigator and privateer who led the first official voyage to the East
Indies and Southeast Asia in 1601 which laid the foundation for the English East
India Company’s commercial interest in the region. He set sail from Plymouth,
England in 1591 with a fleet of three ships, the Red Dragon, the Edward
Bonaventure, and the Hector, and reached the East Indies via the Cape of Good
Hope. They reached the islands of Java and Sumatra and they established the first
India Company factory at Bantam. This first voyage was quite profitable and
Lancaster returned with valuable cargo of spices in 1603.6 As a reward for his
services Lancaster was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I. The English believed they
needed a different approach to better compete with other European powers and
they decided to employ diplomacy to strengthen their presence in the Indian
Ocean basin. In 1614 and after lots of negotiations with the Mughal Emperor in
India, the English obtained protection for an English factory in Surat as the first
permanent presence of the English in the Indian subcontinent.

The following thesis aims at studying Fitch’s and Lancaster’s accounts of

explorations and the representation of India in the travel narratives of two
Englishmen who explored the East Indies. It will also probe into the early stages
of the imperial East India Company. How did the travelers describe the Other in
their narratives? What did they try to achieve by writing these travel accounts?

We will briefly mention the route taken by the travelers to reach India and then
discuss in details the representation of India and the East Indies in the narratives
of Ralph Fitch and James Lancaster. Our corpus consists of a body of primary
source travel narratives, including Fitch’s and Lancaster’s as published in William
Foster’s “Early Travels in India 7, Markham Clements’ “The Voyages of Sir James
Lancaster, Kt., to the East Indies" 8 and a collection of several letters, logs, diaries
and journals of English travelers published in Richard Hakluyt’s “Principal
Navigations, Voyages, Traffics, and Discoveries of the English Nation”.9

6
Markham, Clements Robert. The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster, Kt., to the East Indies: With Abstracts of
Journals of Voyages to the East Indies During the Seventeenth Century, Preserved in the India Office :
And the Voyage of Captain John Knight (1606), to Seek the North-west Passage. 1877.
7
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619, oxford. 1921.
8
Markham, Clements R. The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster, Kt., to the East Indies: With Abstracts of Journals
of Voyages to the East Indies ... And the Voyage of Captain John Knight (1606), to Seek the North-West Passage.
1877.
9
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics and Discoveries of the English Nation. 1598.
 Early Travels to the East Indies

The Voyage of Ralph Fitch and James Lancaster

Contextualizing the Travel Narratives

Tim Youngs in his book “The Cambridge Introduction to Travel Writing”10

defines travel writing as a genre of literature that describes a journey or a place,
or both, and is characterized by its author’s personal motifs, presence and
engagement with the subject. It has evolved over time to encompass and be
distinct from a wide range of styles and formats such as guidebooks or
travelogues. In a way it focuses mostly on the traveler’s subjective experiences
and perception of a place rather than just providing practical information. This
subjectivity also needs to be put into perspective as these travelers write and
describe under the influence of personal beliefs and feelings of what they saw and
experienced, rather than unquestionable facts and therefore should not be taken at
face value.

Another important aspect of travel writing is its ability to provide a unique

perspective on a place. Travel writers often have the opportunity to visit and
observe places from a different perspective than the average tourist. They may
have more time to explore and interact with locals, and may have access to
information and experiences that are not typically available to the general public.
This allows them to offer a more nuanced and in-depth view of a place, and to
share insights and observations that might otherwise be missed. Travel writing
can also be a powerful tool for cultural critique and commentary. Many travel
writers use their experiences and observations to comment on the social, political,

10
Youngs, Tim. The Cambridge Introduction to Travel Writing. Cambridge UP, p.13, 2013.
and economic issues of a place. They may highlight inequalities or injustices, or
they may explore the ways in which a particular culture or society is changing.

Describing "the Other" in travel narratives involved depicting individuals or

groups who differed from the author's own culture. The term "Other" refers to
those who are considered different or other than oneself and is commonly used in
postcolonial theory to describe the ways in which colonizers view and represent
the colonized. In describing "the Other," authors tended to focus on physical
appearances, customs, religions, and social structures, highlighting differences
between themselves and those they met during their journeys:

« Ce qui frappe dans les premiers récits d’exploration et de découverte, c’est que l’idée
qu’on se fait de l’Autre épouse très souvent l’un des deux pôles antithétiques d’une
opposition binaire. Lorsqu’il n’est pas un demi-dieu, ou le dernier représentant d’une
innocence perdue, par une sorte d’anticipation du mythe rousseauiste du bon sauvage5,
il incarne au contraire la part la plus sombre de l’humanité. Il lui arrive même de glisser
vers la bête ou vers le démon : ainsi, ayant capturé une vieille Inuk, les membres de la
deuxième expédition Frobisher la déshabillent pour vérifier qu’elle n’a pas, comme le
diable, les pieds fourchus. À l’inverse, et en renversant doublement la perspective, les
Papous prirent tout d’abord les explorateurs australiens pour des habitants du ciel, des
demi-dieux immortels à forme humaine. Mais ils se ravisèrent assez vite, constatant
qu’ils avaient des « besoins » très ordinaires et des habitudes fort « naturelles » 11

The English merchants were eager to travel and explore the Indian seas before
the establishment of the East India Company but only few succeeded in actually
reaching that destination and returning back with valuable goods, information,
while simultaneously exploring the Indian seas with their Dutch competitors,
Ralph Fitch was absent for so long in his adventure so he was declared dead by
his family and friends. James Lancaster’s first voyage in 1591 is generally
considered the beginning of the trade with the East Indies. However, reaching

11
Popelard, Mickaël. “Identité et altérité dans le monde anglophone (XVIe-XVIIIe siècles).” Revue LISA, no.
vol. XIII-n°3, Université de Caen. Maison de la recherche en sciences humaines, 2015.
India for the first time was actually the achievement of England’s pioneer Ralph
Fitch. He was a merchant of London who travelled by the way of Tripolis in Syria,
to Ormuz, Siam, Pegu and to Goa crossing all the coast of the East India and
leaving a narrative which was published in volume 2 of Richard Hakluyt’s
“Principal Navigations (1599)”.

The fact that Fitch and his companions actually succeeded in reaching India in
the first place is not negligible as Fitch describes in details the route he took in his
narrative. Previous attempts to find a secure way to China round the northern
coasts of Europe and Asia as well as expeditions round North America had all
ended up as complete failures. “The Cape of Good Hope” sea route was claimed
as a Portuguese monopoly by Phillip II, king of both Spain and Portugal, it was
highly dangerous, a situation that made it harder for the English to reach the Indian
Ocean. However, according to William Foster the editor of “Early Travels in
India, 1583-1619”12 another alternative was being considered, the long-
established trade route by the way of Syria which had already been utilized by
John Newbery, who had returned home using the desired route from Tripoli in
Syria. He made his way overland to Basra through the Persian Gulf and by sea to
Ormuz and all the way back home by Poland, a journey that taught him quite a lot
about the route between India and Persia and that route was perfectly feasible.
Further plans were quickly made to experiment that route alongside with
necessary funds. Ralph Fitch and other merchants began their journey sailing from
the Thames in England aboard a ship called the Tyger in 1583 to explore the East
Indies, details about the beginning of the journey are fairly abundant and can be
found in “Purchas his Pilgrims, Part ii, ch.3” 13
, Fitch’s narrative as well as

12
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619, oxford. 1921.

13
Purchas, Samuel, 1577?-1626. Purchas His Pilgrimage, or Relations of the World and the Religions Observed
in All Ages and Places Discovered, from the Creation unto This Present : Containing a Theologicall and
several letters from Eldred and Newberry. When arriving to Ormuz they were
detained as heretics and spies by other merchants and had part of their goods
taken. Fitch and his companions were shipped and sent thereafter to Goa in India
as prisoners of the Portuguese and Spanish. Diu, Cambaietta and Daman were the
first cities Fitch reached after passing the coast of Zindi which the Portuguese had
a great influence in alongside with the Moors. Diu was the strongest Portuguese
town in the province, it was a densely populated, fairly built city led by the king
Sultan Badu who was killed in the siege of Diu by the great Mogor king of Delli.
At that time, Fitch and Newberry were still prisoners but they managed to make
some new friends, two Jesuits who had influence in Goa and helped them to be
released on bail in the Christmas season of 1583. Fitch and Newberry escaped the
Portuguese shortly after in 1584 into the territory of the King of Bijapur and
started their journey across India. Arriving at Bijapur, the capital of the kingdom,
and visiting Golconda, they managed to acquire many precious stones, which was
one of the important objectives of their expedition. While they were still on the
run from the Portuguese they visited the court of Mughal Emperor Akbar near
Agra to see the Emperor. Fitch’s companion Leeds decided to serve the Emperor
while Newberry made his way back home. Fitch and Newberry parted ways and
agreed to meet in Bengal in two years (1586), and since Fitch kept no journal of
his journey and only wrote it from his memory when arriving home and borrowed
from other travelers such as Cesar Federici, dates can easily be mistaken.
However, Newberry never made it to Bengal and was believed to have died in
India making the idea of travelling by land across India hopeless.

Queen Elizabeth I of England was deeply interested in India and the East
Indies for many reasons and the potential for trade and economic gain is one of
them. The East Indies, specifically the Moluccas or Spice Islands, were known

Geographicall Historie of Asia, Africa, and America, with the Islands Adjacent ... London :printed by William
Stansby for Henrie Fetherstone ..., 1626
for producing valuable spices such as cloves, nutmeg, and mace. From Richard
Hakluyt's Principal Navigations, Ralph Fitch describes the valuable goods
available in India as follows;

"In this land there is great store of cotton wool, much pepper, wheat, rice, ginger, sugar,
much raw silk and silk of all sorts, musk, civet, hides, elephants' teeth, and great store
of cloth of all sorts, very rich and excellent good. Here are cloth of gold, cloth of silver,
cloth of silk of all sorts, very excellent good, and of all colours. Here are also great store
of precious stones of many sorts, and very fair; among the which there are many
diamonds, which are gotten in a city called Bisnagar, which is in this country." 14

Control over the spice trade was highly coveted by European nations, as the
spices were in high demand for cooking, medicine, and preserving food. By
establishing trade relations with the East Indies, Queen Elizabeth and her kingdom
could acquire these valuable spices and sell them at a high profit. Also, Queen
Elizabeth's interest in India and the East Indies sprang from the desire to expand
England's global influence and establish it as a major player in international trade
and politics;

“…the English were determined to extend their empire at every opportunity.” This
statement reflects on the ambition of Queen Elizabeth’s government to expand its power
through territorial conquest and trade agreements." (pg 236). 15

It seems that the queen's policies focused not only on internal stability but also on
external expansion and control over resources such as land, people and goods via
colonization and commerce. At the time, the major European powers such as
Spain and Portugal had already established trade relations and colonies in the East
Indies and India. By establishing its presence in these regions, England could
compete with these other powers and assert its own influence on the global stage.

14
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation.
p.35-36, 1890.
15
A.L. Rowse, The Expansion of Elizabethan England, London, Macmillan, p.236, 1955.
In addition, there was also a desire for new knowledge and discovery. The East
Indies and India were relatively unknown to Europeans at the time, and there was
a sense of curiosity and fascination with the unknown. To achieve these goals,
Queen Elizabeth I established the East India Company and it quickly set to work
organizing voyages and establishing trade relations and colonies in India and the
East Indies. The trade and economic gain, the desire for global influence and the
thirst for new knowledge and discovery were the main reasons why Queen
Elizabeth and England was interested in India and the East Indies. These reasons
continue to shape England's historical, economic and social relationship with
India and the East Indies, in other words, "God, Gold, and Glory" as a phrase often
used to summarize the motivations behind European exploration and colonization
that will be focused on in this work. Each of these elements represents a driving
force for European countries as they embarked on voyages of discovery and
expansion:

Nine years after the voyage of Ralph Fitch, the East India Company was set up
under a royal charter in 1600 to engage in trade with the East Indies. It was granted
monopoly on that trade, and later developed to form a large part of the English
Empire. The charter granted a monopoly of all English trade in all lands by the
Indian Ocean from southern Africa to Indonesia. James Lancaster, the soldier and
merchant who led the company’s first voyage to the Spice Islands or the East
Indies as the commander of the fleet that consisted of the main ship “The Red
Dragon” and three smaller ships carrying around 500 men and several letters of
introduction from the Queen. The expedition was organized by a group of London
merchants, who saw the potential for trade with the East Indies and sought to
establish an English presence in the region. Lancaster was chosen to lead the
expedition due to his experience as a navigator and privateer. Although the
original manuscript of the voyage is lost, the narrative was reprinted and made
available by Purchas.16 In Lancaster’s voyage we will be focusing more on the
trade aspects in his narrative.

The expedition set sail on April 10, 1591, with a crew of around 500 men. The
three ships were well-equipped with supplies and weapons, and were
accompanied by a pinnace, a small boat used for exploring shallow waters. The
voyage was long and perilous, as the ships had to navigate treacherous seas and
unpredictable weather. After a stop at the Cape Verde Islands, the expedition
reached the coast of Brazil and then followed the coast of South America to the
Strait of Magellan. They then sailed across the Pacific Ocean, reaching the
Philippines in October 1591. Lancaster and his crew spent several months in the
Philippines, where they traded with the local people and explored the islands.
They also encountered the Spanish, who were already established in the
Philippines and did not take kindly to the English presence.

It is important to stress on the difference between Lancaster's expedition that

was the first English voyage to the East Indies and the first extensive foray which
was Fitch’s achievement as confirmed by the DNB. Lancaster’s ships encountered
storms and rough seas, and the crew suffered from disease and scurvy. Despite
these difficulties, Lancaster and his crew were able to make landfall in the East
Indies and establish contact with the local rulers. After leaving the Philippines,
the expedition sailed to the Moluccas, also known as the Spice Islands, where they
found a wide variety of valuable spices, including nutmeg, mace, and cloves. The
crew also encountered the Portuguese, who had established trading posts in the
region and were hostile to the English. Despite these challenges, Lancaster and

16
Purchas, Samuel, 1577?-1626. Purchas His Pilgrimage, or Relations of the World and the Religions Observed
in All Ages and Places Discovered, from the Creation unto This Present : Containing a Theological and
Geographical History of Asia, Africa, and America, with the Islands Adjacent ... London :printed by William
Stansby for Henrie Fetherstone ..., 1626.
his crew managed to establish trade with the local peoples and acquire a
significant amount of spices. The expedition's primary goal was to establish trade
relations with the kingdoms of the East Indies. The Moluccas were known for
producing valuable spices such as cloves, nutmeg, and mace, in that region,
Lancaster met with the sultan of Ternate and the sultan of Tidore, two of the main
islands in the archipelago. He was able to negotiate a trade agreement with the
sultan of Ternate, which allowed the English to trade for spices on the island.
Lancaster also visited other islands in the region, including Banda and Ambon,
where he established similar trade agreements. In addition to establishing trade
relations, Lancaster and his crew also made a number of important discoveries
during the voyage. They were the first Englishmen to reach the Banda Islands,
which were known for their valuable nutmeg and mace. They also discovered the
island of Run, which was a major source of cloves. Lancaster and his crew also
made observations of the local flora and fauna, and they collected specimens of
plants and animals that were unknown to Europeans at the time. The expedition
then sailed to Banten, on the island of Java, where they encountered the powerful
Sultan of Banten. The Sultan was initially hostile to the English, but Lancaster
was able to establish trade and secure a treaty with the Sultan. The expedition then
sailed to the port of Achin on the island of Sumatra, where they encountered the
local sultan and established trade.
 The Representation of India in Early Modern Travel
Narratives

Representational techniques in the travel narratives

The two travel narratives demonstrate a range of representational techniques

that they employed to make sense of the Indian subcontinent, its people, cultures,
and societies. Fitch and Lancaster's representational techniques clarify the
colonial encounter between the English and Indians, and the ways in which cross-
cultural communication, understanding, and miscommunication were shaped and
mediated by cultural and historical contexts. One of the major representational
techniques used by Fitch and Lancaster is the use of descriptive language to evoke
the sights, sounds, smells, and textures of India. The two following passages from
Hakluyt’s account of the voyage of Ralph Fitch proves the use of descriptive
language to create a vivid image of the wildlife in India and to convey the
prosperousness of natural resources, from fertile soil to sugarcane that is used to
produce sugar:

"We sawe manye Tigeres and Panthers: and after that we entred up into the countrey,
where there is manye of them. We sawe also many wilde Elephants, and heard them
braye verye oftentimes, being two myles from them, which noyse sounded as though it
had bene some tempest." 17

"The soyle is very fruitfull, and bringeth foorth all things necessary for the sustenaunce
of mans life: there groweth also great store of sugarcane, which they make great
quantitie of sugar." 18

17
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics and Discoveries of the English Nation. 1907.
18
Ibid
 Both writers employed vivid descriptions of landscapes, architecture, clothing,
and customs to give readers a sense of the exoticism of India. This technique
allowed them to convey their sense of wonder and awe at the “new world” they
encountered, while also emphasizing the differences between English and Indian
cultures. Here is a quotation from Ralph Fitch’s voyage describing Indian women:

"The women of this country goe with a cloth before them from their waist downwards,
and another cloth over their heads, of a cubite long, painted with divers colours, with
two broad borders about the same of the same cloth. Their ears be bored with great
holes, and they wear great rings of gold and silver in them, and also about their necks,
and arms, and legs. They wear no shoes nor stockings, but only a little piece of leather
bound under their feet." 19

Also, we find the travelers made use of cultural comparisons to contextualize

Indian customs and practices for English readers. By comparing Indian customs
and practices to those of England, they sought to make sense of Indian culture in
relation to their own cultural context. This technique was also used to reinforce
cultural hierarchies, with English customs and practices often presented as
superior to those of India. For example, William Foster’s “Early travels in India”
provides a comparison and state the differences between British and Indian
dinning habits:

"Their mode of eating, too, was strange to us. They use neither knives, forks, nor spoons,
but sit down on the ground and, having washed their hands, they take their rice and other
dishes and, without any further ceremony, put them into their mouths with their
fingers." 20

19
Ryley, John Horton, and Ralph Fitch. Ralph Fitch, England’s Pioneer to India and Burma: His Companions
and Contemporaries, With His Remarkable Narrative Told in His Own Words. Asian Educational Services,
1998.
20
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619, oxford. 1921.
 Seventeenth-century imperialist travel writers published travelogues about their
travels in the east indies and they employed certain representational techniques to
constitute India and its inhabitants as Other and, therefore, “inferior” to the travel
writers themselves and to the imperialist countries of which they were citizens.

"The representational techniques employed by travel writers to constitute India and its
inhabitants as Other and inferior were multifaceted and complex. These writers often
relied on stereotypical representations of India and Indians, constructing them as
primitive, irrational, and exotic. They depicted India as a land of chaos, disorder, and
poverty, and the Indian people as lazy, unproductive, and superstitious. Through their
narratives, they established a dichotomy between the civilized West and the barbaric
East, positioning themselves and their imperialist countries as the epitome of progress,
reason, and civilization." 21

Furthermore, they used anecdotes and personal experiences to humanize and

individualize Indian people. By presenting personal encounters with individual
Indians, they sought to challenge stereotypes and generalizations about Indian
culture and society. This technique also allowed them to convey their own
experiences of cultural difference, and to illustrate the difficulties of cross-cultural
communication and understanding, and using historical and cultural context to
situate Indian culture and society within a broader framework. By providing
historical and cultural context for Indian customs and practices, they sought to
make sense of the complex and diverse cultural landscape of India. This technique
also allowed them to convey their own sense of historical curiosity and interest,
and to present Indian culture as a source of fascination and discovery.

21
Champa Borthakur, "Travelling through Imaginaries: Representations of India in British Travel Writing, 1757-
1857", Phd Thesis, 2014.
Dialogic nature in the travel narratives

Dialogic nature can be observed in the travel narratives as the two men
employed it to negotiate cultural differences between the English and Indians, and
the ways in which cross-cultural communication, understanding, and
miscommunication were shaped and mediated by cultural and historical contexts.
By engaging in dialogue with Indian people, Fitch and Lancaster sought to
understand their customs, beliefs, and practices, as well as their perspectives on
English culture and society. This technique allowed them to create a space for
cross-cultural exchange and negotiation, in which both parties could learn from
each other and develop a mutual understanding. A second dialogic technique is
the use of direct address to their English readership. By addressing their readers
directly, they sought to make them engage in a dialogue about the cultural
differences between England and India. This technique allowed them to challenge
their readers' assumptions and stereotypes about Indian culture, and to present a
more nuanced and complex picture of Indian society and history.

Cultural translation was also very critical, it involves the transformation of

cultural practices and concepts from one cultural context to another. By
translating Indian customs and practices into English terms, they sought to make
them more accessible and understandable to their English readership. This
technique allowed them to bridge the cultural divide between England and India,
and to create a shared space of cultural exchange and understanding. Fitch and
Lancaster used comparative analogies. They compared Indian customs and
practices to similar practices in England, allowing their English readers to relate
and understand them better. For example, they described Indian caste practices as
being similar to the English class system, and the Indian system of medicine as
being akin to the European humoral theory;
 "Following our arrival in India, we noted the strict social order among the native
population resembling that of our own country, with each individual having their place
in society according to birthright and duty, much like the English class structure." 22

A second cultural translation technique employed by Fitch and Lancaster was the
use of literal translation. They translated Indian words and concepts into English,
providing their readers with a basic understanding of Indian language and culture.
This technique allowed them to create a linguistic bridge between the two cultures
and to create a shared understanding of key concepts. For example, “Bharat” was
the official name of India in Hindi, however, Fitch and Lancaster often translated
it directly as “India” to make it more common to the English readers. It is worth
keeping in mind when reading travel narratives that literal translation can
sometimes be misleading as it may not capture the whole meaning and nuances
of the original language.

Furthermore, reflexivity involved reflecting on one's own cultural biases,

assumptions, and perspectives in the context of cross-cultural encounters. In the
context of Fitch and Lancaster's narratives, reflexivity was a crucial tool for them
to navigate the complex power dynamics and cultural differences that emerged
during their travels in India. They used this technique to interrogate their own
cultural biases and assumptions, and to present a more self-aware and nuanced
account of their experiences in India and applying self-critique. They criticized
their own cultural biases and assumptions, reflecting on how their preconceptions
about India influenced their perceptions of Indian culture and society. For
example, the two travelers criticized their own ignorance of Indian customs and
traditions, reflecting on how their limited understanding of the Indian cultural
context influenced their interpretations of Indian practices, this is a quote of Ralph
Fitch from Hakluyt’s Principal Navigations:

22
Ralph Fitch and James Lancaster, Travel Accounts c. 16th Century.
 “Your majesty may be sure that my former letters were written with such simplicity as
God gave me, leaving out many things that seemed incredible or too strange to our
nation, especially if we consider them according to our customs and usages; yet they all
agree so well together, both in their manners, words, writings, etc., that there can be no
contradiction or deceit in any part. And truly I am ashamed to think that some men
should desire to go overseas, and yet fear to leave behind them at home their country
errors and blindnesses... Thus much might suffice touching this matter, referring your
Majesty to further discourse with those learned men who have been better informed than
myself”. (Hakluyt, vol. 2, pp. 381-382) 23

Fitch and Lancaster also tend to use comparison and self-reflection. They
compared Indian cultural practices and beliefs to similar practices in England,
highlighting the similarities and differences between the two cultures while
reflecting on their own emotional and psychological responses to their encounters
with Indian culture, acknowledging the discomfort and disorientation that
emerged during their travels. The following quote from Hakluyt’s Principal
Navigations recognize similar human practices in Europe and India that exceeds
geographical boundaries:

“The manner of burying dead bodies is almost the same in every place; but because it
differs from our usual customs, therefore it seems more strange to us, whereas nothing
appears so ridiculous to strangers at home as many of our ceremonials. And thus, even
as we laugh at others for not walking after our fashion, so others laugh at us for following
our own fancies and humors; whereby it appeareth that truth consisteth chiefly in our
reverence to God, charity to mankind, temperance, justice, fortitude, prudence, and such
like virtues, without respect either to our religion or profession of faith” 24. (vol. 2, pg.
378).

23
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics and Discoveries of the English Nation. 1598.
24
Ibid
 God, Gold and Glory

"God, Gold and Glory" is shorthand for describing the intertwined motives that
underlie British imperial ambitions at that pivotal period in history from Hakluyt’s
preface. Travel writings have played a vital role in human history, allowing
explorers and adventurers to document their travels and discoveries. The stories
serve a variety of purposes, but three main objectives emerged as the dominant
themes: God, Gold and Glory, as told by Richard Hakluyt, to illustrate the motives
behind English discovery voyages and settlements during the Elizabethan era.
These motives include a combination of religious, economic and political goals.
The phrase is often associated with the idea that Britain's global expansion was
driven by the quest for profit, power, and religious rule. Although Hakluyt did not
coin the exact phrase himself, he wrote extensively on the importance of trade and
research in advancing the national interest and promoting Protestant ideology.

Firstly, God in a travel narrative is to spread religion and convert indigenous

peoples into explorers. Many explorers viewed their voyages as part of a divine
mission, believing they would expand the scope of their religion and serve God's
will. They sought to bring Christianity to distant lands and saw their narrative as
a tool to encourage religious conversion. These narratives often include
descriptions of encounters with indigenous peoples, their customs and religious
practices. Seekers see themselves as ambassadors of their faith and describe their
encounter with the "other" as an opportunity to bring salvation to unbelievers.

Secondly, Gold, the quest for wealth and economic gain was another central
objective of travel narratives. Many explorers such as Fitch and Lancaster set out
on their journeys with hopes of finding valuable resources, trade routes, or
establishing new colonies. Their narratives often emphasized the potential
economic benefits of the explored regions, encouraging further exploration and
colonization. These travel narratives highlighted the abundance of natural
resources, such as precious metals, spices, or exotic goods, that could be exploited
for economic gain. Explorers sought to attract investors, sponsors, and settlers by
painting vivid pictures of the wealth waiting to be discovered.

Finally, Glory and fame were significant motifs for explorers, and their
narratives often aimed to elevate their own achievements and secure their place
in history. Their narratives served as a means of self-promotion and were intended
to impress their contemporaries and future generations. Travelers aimed to
immortalize their exploits, assert their bravery, solidify their legacy and often
contained exaggerated or romanticized accounts of their daring adventures, epic
battles and personal triumphs. By recounting their heroic doings, they hoped to
be celebrated as national heroes and gain recognition from monarchs, patrons and
the public opinion.
 God

Religion

Religion in India has played a significant role in shaping the country's culture,
traditions, and way of life. The country is known for its diverse religious beliefs
and practices, with Hinduism being the dominant religion, followed by Islam,
Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The religious landscape of India
during the 16th and 17th centuries and practices of the people Lancaster
encountered during his travels were mentioned as he notes that the dominant
religion in India was Hinduism, which he describes as a "barbarous superstition"
(Lancaster, 1868, p. 17). His account of Hinduism reflects the views of many
Europeans who visited India during the colonial period. He portrays Hinduism as
a primitive and irrational religion, with its followers engaging in strange and
inexplicable rituals. For example, Lancaster describes the Hindu practice of sati,
where a widow is expected to throw herself onto her husband's funeral pyre, as a
"wicked and detestable custom" (Lancaster, 1868, p. 27).

Ralph Fitch’s account of religion in India is more nuanced than Lancaster's. He

describes the religious practices of the people he encounters in a more objective
and respectful manner. Fitch notes that India was a land of many religions,
including Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism. He describes the people he encounters
as being deeply religious and devout, with their beliefs and practices shaping
every aspect of their lives. For example, Fitch notes that Hindus believe in the
concept of reincarnation and the importance of karma. He describes how Hindus
believe that their actions in this life will determine their fate in the next, leading
to a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (Fitch, 1857, p. 73). Fitch also describes the
Islamic faith, which he encountered during his travels in northern India. He notes
that Islam was a relatively new religion in India at the time, having been
introduced by Arab traders in the 7th century. Fitch describes how the Muslim
population in India had grown significantly since then, with many Muslims
occupying important positions in government and society. Both Lancaster and
Fitch's narratives reflect the attitudes and perspectives of Europeans towards the
religious practices of India. Lancaster's account is characterized by a sense of
cultural superiority, with Hinduism being dismissed as a primitive and irrational
religion. Fitch's account, on the other hand, is more objective and respectful,
describing the religious practices of the people he encounters without judgment.

One key difference between the two is the extent to which they engaged with
the religious practices of the people they encountered. Lancaster was more
interested in documenting the religious practices of the people he encountered and
describing them in detail. For example, in his account, he provides a detailed
description of the Hindu ritual of the "Ganges Dip," where devotees immerse
themselves in the holy river to wash away their sins. He also describes the use of
idols and offerings in Hindu temples, as well as the Islamic practice of prayer and
the call to prayer. In contrast, Fitch was more interested in the social and political
implications of religion in India. He focused more on the interaction between
different religious groups, their relationships with local rulers, and how religion
was used to assert power and authority. For example, Fitch describes the role of
the Mughal Emperor Akbar in promoting religious tolerance and how he
employed people of different religions in his administration.

Furthermore, the purpose and audience of the two narratives differ. Lancaster's
account was written primarily for a commercial audience and focused on the
practical aspects of trade in India. He provided information on the geography,
climate, and resources of the country, as well as tips for navigating the complex
trade networks. In contrast, Fitch's account was written for a more scholarly
audience and focused on the cultural and social aspects of India, including
religion. James Lancaster’s travel account seems to be primarily engaged with
providing practical guidance for other English merchants involved in trade with
India. Given that the East India Company played an important role in facilitating
English trade with India, it seems rational to assume that Lancaster wrote for an
audience consisting of merchants, company and government officials interested
in expanding England’s commercial affairs. Which may explain his focus on
transportation, navigation, market demand, supply chain logistics, local
regulations, tax policies, partnership and so on in his account. Fitch on the other
hand seems to be designed for an entirely different kind of audience. As a member
of Sir Thomas Roe’s embassy to Mughal Emperor Jahangir, Fitch had access to
high society figures and intellectual circles. His journal thus reflects a great
interest in exploring the more cultural, social and religious aspects of India. 25

One may ask why Lancaster and Fitch wrote about religion in the first place.
One reason is that religion played a significant role in the daily lives of the people
they encountered in India, it was a very concern in people’s lives at that time and
not just India but in Europe as well. India is known for its diverse religious beliefs
and practices, with Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains
coexisting in the same society. For Lancaster and Fitch, understanding the
religious practices of the people they encountered was crucial to gaining a deeper
understanding of the culture and traditions of India. Another reason is that religion
was a topic of great interest to European travelers during this period. Many
Europeans were fascinated by the exotic and unfamiliar religious practices of
India and sought to document and describe them in their travel narratives. For
Europeans, religion was often seen as a marker of cultural difference, and
understanding the religious beliefs and practices of other cultures was seen as
essential to expanding their knowledge of the world. Additionally, religion played

Marshall, P. J., ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume II: The Eighteenth Century. Oxford
25

University Press, 1998. Page 427.

a significant role in the colonial project in India. European powers such as
England, France, and Portugal sought to expand their influence and control in
India, often using religion as a tool for this purpose. For example, European
traders and missionaries used religious conversions to gain the favor of local
rulers and establish trading relationships. As a result, understanding the religious
practices of the people of India was important for European travelers like
Lancaster and Fitch, who were often involved in colonial trade and diplomatic
relations.

Writing about religion in India allowed Lancaster and Fitch to share their
observations with a wider audience. Many readers were interested in learning
about the customs, traditions, and religions of foreign lands. By describing the
religious practices of the people they encountered, Lancaster and Fitch were able
to provide their readers with a glimpse into the religious landscape of India, and
contribute to the growing body of knowledge about the country.
Nation

One of the prominent aspects of Fitch's narrative is his representation of the

Indian people. Fitch's description of Indians is extensive and varied. He provides
insights into the Indian people's physical appearance, customs, religion, and social
hierarchy. Fitch notes the physical appearance of the Indian people, describing
them as generally brown-skinned, with long black hair and small eyes. He also
notes that Indian men generally wore turbans, while women dressed in saris. He
also provides a detailed account of the customs and religion of the Indian people.
He notes the prevalence of vegetarianism among Indians, particularly among the
Brahmins, who occupied the highest social position and describes the Indian
practice of arranged marriages, noting that marriages were often based on the
bride and groom's social status and family background:

"The men are generally low in stature; they have long hair which they tie up behind the
neck. They wear cotton shirts and drawers with jackets over them. Their complexion
inclines to be darker than ours." 26

Fitch provides a detailed account of the Indian religion, noting the prevalence
of Hinduism and Islam in the country. He describes the Hindu practice of
worshiping various gods and goddesses and notes the Muslim practice of praying
five times a day while also providing insights into the social hierarchy of the
Indian people. He notes that the Brahmins occupied the highest social position
and enjoyed great respect and influence in society. Meanwhile the lower castes,
particularly the untouchable, faced discrimination and exclusion. Fitch’s
description of the Indian people's physical appearance is somewhat limited and
does not provide a detailed account of regional differences in appearance but it
still significant nonetheless.

26
Foster, Sir William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619. Oxford University Press, p. 387, 1921
 The dominant power in India from the 16th century onwards was the Mughal
Empire ruled by a Muslim dynasty from central Asia but the emperor faced many
challenges as the local rulers often established strategic alliances with European
powers to gain power at the expense of the Mughal Emperor. As one reads his
account, we come to notice Fitch’s praising and respectful view of the Emperor
who reigned over much of northwestern India at the time. According to Fitch:

"The Great Mogor [Akbar] is a man of great wisdom and policy, with an excellent wit
and courage; his justice is indifferent and well used, and he carrieth himself graciously
to strangers that come unto him." 27

On the other hand, he was very critical of the Indian state and society, he saw
Indians as deceptive, dishonest, and prone to cheating foreigners. He complained
bitterly about their lack of trustworthiness and honesty in business dealings,
comparing them unfavorably to Europeans and Asians from neighboring
countries like Persia and Turkey. Fitch even went so far as to claim that the entire
nation suffered from a kind of moral decay, caused by what he perceived as
laziness, corruption, and lack of industry. On the treatment of foreigners in India,
Fitch said:

"It happened one day that one of our fellows... did accidentally strike against a woman...
and she immediately cried out so loud that the town might hear her... But nevertheless
we gave them gold and bought all things quietly and peaceably…" (Ralph Fitch's
Account of his visit to India, p. 63).

27
Foster, Sir William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619. Oxford University Press, p. 600, 1921
 The travelers were always fascinated by the Indian cities, towers and
architecture built in a beautiful manner, pleasant from afar but full of wickedness
and malice from the inside that deprived the cities of their beauty: poverty, theft,
child marriage, polygamy and idolatry. The people of India were so much given
to hypocrisy and non-sense to the extent that even when trying to be objective,
one can only make judgments when a false prophet fakes sleeping in a market
place while people gather around him, touch his feet then their faces as a sign of
grace, taking him for a great man whereas in reality, he is just a con artist. Also,
in the narrative there was no clear indication of Indians speaking to our travelers
as Fitch repeatedly mentions the phrase “They say” in a way that may indicate the
absence of direct contact or at least not initiated by Indians; most of the
difficulties Fitch and his companions encountered were because of other
Europeans (Portuguese and Spanish) and not from Indians. However, as with any
historical document or record, it is important to approach the two accounts with a
critical eye and consider potential biases or limitations inherent in the text. While
Fitch's observations and experiences undoubtedly provide valuable details of
Indian society during the early seventeenth century, it's possible that his
perspectives and interpretations were colored by factors such as his background,
education, and personal prejudices. Therefore, readers should analyze his writing
carefully, taking note of the context in which he wrote and considering alternative
viewpoints whenever appropriate. Ultimately, whether or not one accepts Fitch's
narrative at face value depends on individual judgement, research skills, and
familiarity with relevant scholarship on the subject.

Readers may wonder whether Fitch witnessed racial discrimination in India

and decided not to mention it. Based on William Foster’s “Early Travels in India”
and the narrative of Ralph Fitch, it doesn't appear that Fitch directly observed or
commented upon instances of racial discrimination in India during his time there.
He does mention encountering various forms of religious intolerance and political
unrest while traveling throughout South Asia, but his writings don't seem to touch
upon issues related to race specifically. Again, it's still difficult to make definitive
claims about the presence or absence of racial discrimination in India during the
sixteenth century. However, it's worth noting that many historians and social
scientists argue that racism emerged as a global phenomenon during the colonial
era, characterized in part by European imperial expansion and the exploitation of
non-European peoples 28. So while discriminatory attitudes towards individuals or
groups based on perceived physical differences may have existed prior to this
period, they likely took on new dimensions and intensified under the influence of
Western colonization and capitalist systems. Therefore, we may assume that
Fitch’s narrative was free from the boundaries of race. Fitch generally referred to
Indians as kind people, they did not kill animals but fed on fruits, milk and rice
since most of them actually worship them, which explains India’s wildlife
diversity: buffaloes, deer, Bengal tigers, leopards, peacocks, rhinoceros and the
Indian elephants that are used in battles.

Fitch’s stay in many regions and towns in India proved to be useful to his
understanding of the cultural and socio-economic aspects while describing India.
Goa on the West coast was highly populated with Portuguese and Spanish which
means populated by large numbers of Catholics, travelers and merchants. Fitch
realized the different perspectives of other Europeans who took part in the war in
India, hence troubling the Englishmen and Indians with their uncivil and
aggressive behavior. The Portuguese displayed negative understanding and
prejudice towards Muslims and Hindus unlike Fitch who lived peacefully among
them. He had not experienced any violence or physical abuse and connected with

28
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Penguin Books India, 1995.
many commoners that allowed him to deliver a detailed analytical narrative.29 But
still, Fitch’s words should not always be taken at face value.

Ralph Fitch went to Pegu in 1586-1587, during the reign of Nanda Bureng. Pegu
a magnificent capital, very prosperous with greatly extended foreign trade.30 It
was a well-developed ancient city defended by extensive stone walls and
consisting of two towns depending on overseas trade. The King of Pegu was
described in a way that demonstrates nobility, wealth and strength as he had five
thousand white elephants held for domestic use and as weapons for waging the
wars that the city fought for half a century, bringing terrible living conditions upon
it like the famine of 1598. Gold, silver, trade, wealth, royal residences and kings
were all present and well described in Fitch’s narrative. Fitch also describes
Burma, a very prosperous town with trade networks with Bengal and Indochina
where Buddhism was the dominant religion.

James Lancaster also describes Indian’s physical appearance, customs,

religious practices, social structure, and economic activities. He notes the physical
appearance of Indians, depicting them as "olive complexioned" with "long black
hair." He also notes the prevalence of different types of clothing among Indians,
such as the "flowing robes" worn by the nobility and the "simple cotton cloth"
worn by the common people as a means to differentiate between social classes.
Also, the prevalence of customs and religious practices as he witnessed Hinduism,
Islam and Sikhism among Indians and provides insights into the various rituals
and festivals associated with these religions. Lancaster also notes the importance
of caste in Indian society and the restrictions imposed on individuals belonging to
lower castes. Concerning the social structure, Lancaster's narrative highlights the
importance of family in Indian society and the various roles played by men and

29
European Travellers in India: During the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. 1971, p.106-111.
30
“History of Burma including Burma proper, Pegu, Taungu, Tenasserim, and Arakan. London: Teubner & co.,
Ludgate hill. 1883
women in different communities, the presence of multiple social hierarchies and
the prevalence of slavery in the region. Lancaster's narrative also includes
economic activities of Indians. He notes the importance of agriculture,
particularly the cultivation of rice, and provides a detailed account of the various
crops grown in different regions and the importance of trade in the region,
particularly in textiles, spices, and precious metals.

India was depicted as a land of exotic spices, precious stones, and luxurious
fabrics. Lancaster was particularly impressed by the wealth of the Indian rulers
and the grandeur of their palaces. He writes, "The king's palace was most
sumptuous, and all the rooms were hung with rich tapestry and cloth of gold and
silver." Lancaster is also struck by the diversity of Indian society, with its many
different religions and languages. However, Lancaster's narrative also reveals a
certain level of cultural bias and Eurocentrism. He often portrays Indians as
primitive and uncivilized, describing them as "savage heathens" and "barbarous
idolaters." He is also critical of Indian customs and traditions, such as the practice
of suttee (the burning of widows on their husband's funeral pyre) and the use of
opium for medicinal purposes. Anthony Farrington in his book “James Lancaster
and Early East Indies Trade” mentions Lancaster’s view on Indian culture:

"He criticized their religion, manners and morals, and customs, such as polygamy,
infanticide, the caste system and Sati [Suttee]. He was equally disapproving of the
widespread use of opium for medicinal purposes…" 31

It is important to note that India is a country of contradictions, and this is

reflected in the way it is represented in Lancaster and Fitch's travel narratives. On
the one hand, India is portrayed as a land of exoticism and wonder, with its vibrant
colors, spicy cuisine, and ornate architecture. Fitch, who traveled to India in the
17th century, similarly portrays India as a land of wonder and fascination,

31
Farrington, Anthony. James Lancaster and Early East Indies Trade. Routledge, 2007. Page 54.
describing the cities of Agra and Delhi as "the greatest and most populous cities
of the world."32 On the other hand, India is also portrayed as a land of poverty and
suffering. Lancaster notes the presence of beggars and the general destitution of
the population, while Fitch describes the Indian people as "poor and miserable."33
This duality in the representation of India highlights the complexity of the country
and the challenges that it has faced throughout its history. What is worth
mentioning is the relevance of James Lancaster’s narrative and Ralph Fitch’s as
they provide the same ideas with different words and inaccuracies more or less,
which can confirm the validity of their accounts or the strength and prevalence of
their culture prejudices.

The representations of Indians as a nation in James Lancaster and Ralph Fitch's

voyages differ in their focus and emphasis. While Lancaster's accounts provide a
more comprehensive representation of Indian society, Fitch's focus is more on
trade and commerce. However, both narratives highlight the importance of family,
community, and social hierarchies in Indian society and the impact of agriculture
and trade on the region's economy. The question of whether or not Indians make
a nation in James Lancaster and Ralph Fitch's voyages is a complex one. While
both narratives provide insights into Indian society's customs, religious practices,
social structure and economic activities, they do not necessarily represent Indians
as a unified nation. Rather, they provide a representation of the diversity and
complexity of Indian society, with its various languages, religions, and social
hierarchies. Moreover, the representation of Indians as a nation in these voyages
is also shaped by the European perspective and the context of colonialism and
trade. The European desire for trade and commerce with India and the colonizing

32
John Fitch, “A Voyage to India Performed by the Dutchess of Richmond and Lady Fauconberg “, (1655), p.
102.
33
Fitch, J., & Richards, The Journal of John Fryer: An Extract From His Voyage to the East Indies. Routledge,
p. (2004).
efforts in the region may have influenced the representations of Indians in these
narratives.

Portrayals of Indians and depictions of Europeans

The travel narratives of Fitch and Lancaster demonstrate the Indian people in
a largely negative way. They are described as "dirty," "uncivilized," and "old-
fashioned," reinforcing the colonial attitudes of the time.34 These descriptions
paint the Indians as inferior to Europeans and contribute to the Orientalist
discourse, which is a way of viewing the East as fundamentally different from the
West, and that it is therefore inferior to the West. This way of thinking is used to
justify the domination of the West and expansion to the East, and it is seen in the
writings of James Lancaster and Ralph Fitch. Their accounts reflect the attitudes
of their time, which were influenced by Orientalist thinking. Fitch and Lancaster's
travel narratives frequently depict the Indian people as dirty, uncivilized, and
primitive. They describe the Indian landscape as inhospitable and the cities as
overcrowded and chaotic. Their depictions of the Indian people often emphasize
their exotic customs and practices, which they present as irrational and
incomprehensible. These representations reinforce the idea of the East as
fundamentally different from the West and contribute to the Orientalist discourse.

As Fitch and Lancaster travel throughout India, they are struck by the grandeur
of the Indian rulers, the sophistication of Indian art and crafts, and the religious
and philosophical traditions of the Indians. They also see the diversity of Indian
culture, from the wealthy and powerful to the simple and humble. In doing so,
they acknowledge the richness and depth of Indian culture while still viewing it
through the lens of Orientalism. As European traders and merchants encountered
Indians in India, they tended to portray the Indians in a much different light than

34
Ralph, Fitch, “England’s Pioneer to India and Burma: His Companions and Contemporaries, With His
Remarkable Narrative Told in His Own Words”, 1998.
they did with the Europeans they encountered in other parts of the world. Fitch
and Lancaster often portrayed the Indians as primitive, irrational, and
unenlightened. In contrast, they portrayed the Europeans as sophisticated and
civilized, with a great deal of wealth and power. This comparison helped to justify
European colonialism in the East.

In addition, the Europeans in Fitch and Lancaster's narratives are portrayed as

noble and heroic figures. The two men are depicted as brave adventurers who
have come to India to seek their fortune. Their actions are praised as being brave
and honorable, and they are presented as examples of European superiority over
the Indian people. This contrast between the positive portrayal of Europeans and
the negative portrayal of Indians underscores the colonial attitudes of the time,
where Europeans were seen as the superior race and Indians were seen as inferior.
Indian and European travelers' different experiences are due in part to their roles
as English colonial agents. Fitch and Lancaster's narratives are not just about
travelogue; they are also used to promote English commercial interests in India
and justify the British empire there. For example, Fitch points out that the Indians
"pay great reverence to their false gods and idols," while Lancaster observes that
the Indian people "suffer under their own government." These observations were
used to justify British colonialism in India, and they have helped to reinforce the
belief that Indians needed the guidance and help of the English.
Constructing English Identity

In their travel narratives, James Lancaster and Ralph Fitch construct English
identity in complex and multifaceted ways. On the one hand, they celebrate
English superiority and power, presenting themselves as brave explorers and
traders who bring civilization and progress to the "uncivilized" and "barbarous"
lands of India. Both authors framed their journeys as a means of spreading English
influence abroad. For example, James Lancaster described his mission as "to
discover those remote parts of the world hitherto unknown to us, and bring home
to our nation any notable commodities not yet practised among us" 35. Similarly,
Ralph Fitch referred to himself as a merchant whose purpose was "not only to
traffic for Merchandise, but especially to have intelligence of things in those
countries" 36. This suggests that they saw their expeditions as opportunities to
expand English reach and assert dominance over foreign territories. They also
portrayed England as possessing technological advantages that set it apart from
other nations. Lancaster boasted about the firepower of his fleet when describing
a confrontation with Portuguese forces off Diu: "[W]e made them perceive the
difference between our ordnance and theirs" 37. Likewise, Fitch observed that
Japanese warriors had "no use of gunpowder, saving in some few places for the
shot"38, thus emphasizing European superiority in military technology.
Furthermore, both travelers depicted Indians as inferior and in need of British
guidance. For instance, Lancaster claimed that the locals lacked navigation skills,
remarking that the Moors employed by him were better mariners than the natives
(Lancaster, "A True Relation of Captain George Kendal's Voyages," p. 14).

35
James, Lancaster, "A True Relation of Captain George Kendal's Voyages," p. 1
36
Ralph, Fitch, “England’s Pioneer to India and Burma: His Companions and Contemporaries, With His
Remarkable Narrative Told in His Own Words”, p. 64, 1998.
37
James, Lancaster, "A True Relation of Captain George Kendal's Voyages," p. 2
38
Ralph, Fitch, “England’s Pioneer to India and Burma: His Companions and Contemporaries, With His
Remarkable Narrative Told in His Own Words”, p. 148, 1998
 On the other hand, they also recognize the limitations and challenges of their
cultural encounter, acknowledging the diversity and complexity of Indian society
and the need for mutual understanding and adaptation. One of the most striking
features of Lancaster and Fitch's travel narratives is their emphasis on English
power and authority. They present themselves as representatives of a superior
culture, endowed with advanced technology, knowledge, and skills, and capable
of imposing their will on the Indian communities. Lancaster, for instance,
describes how he used his cannons to intimidate and subdue the Indian rulers,
boasting that "the sight of our great ordinance did much amaze them" (Lancaster
60). Similarly, Fitch highlights the strategic importance of English weaponry and
military tactics, arguing that "the shot of our pieces is terrible unto them" (Fitch
56). By emphasizing their military prowess, Lancaster and Fitch seek to establish
the superiority of English civilization, justify their presence in India, and sought
to legitimize the presence of English culture in far-off lands by representing it as
advanced compared to local cultures. By doing so, they sought to secure support
for continued colonisation efforts by appealing to patriotic sentiments and
reinforcing ideas of national exceptionalism. Through their writing, these
individuals cast doubt on indigenous ways of life while promoting English virtues,
thereby helping lay the groundwork for future colonial practices in South Asia.
Their texts serve as prime examples of early colonial propaganda designed to
shape public opinion and justify exploitation under the guise of introducing
“civilizing missions”.

At the same time, however, Lancaster and Fitch also acknowledge the
challenges and complexities of their cultural encounter. They recognize the
diversity and richness of Indian society, and the need to adapt to local customs
and traditions. Lancaster, for example, describes how he learned to communicate
with the Indian rulers through interpreters, and how he had to respect their
religious beliefs and practices. He also notes the importance of trade and
diplomacy in establishing relations with the local communities, stating that "the
commodities of India are many, and the profit thereof great" (Lancaster 33).
Similarly, Fitch highlights the importance of cultural exchange and dialogue,
arguing that "by keeping company with the people, and by conference with them,
we understood their language" (Fitch 48). By acknowledging the complexity and
diversity of Indian society, Lancaster and Fitch challenge the simplistic and
reductive view of Indian culture that prevailed in their time, and open up the
possibility for a more nuanced and respectful encounter between the English and
Indian communities. They understood that India was made up of numerous areas,
each with its own cultural customs, dialects, and traditions. Instead of seeing India
as one entity. This acknowledgement refutes the oversimplified perception of
Indian culture that was popular at the time, which frequently depicted India as a
homogeneous country with a single culture. Lancaster and Fitch opened the path
for a more nuanced knowledge and appreciation of Indian culture by exposing the
variety within Indian society.

Another important theme in Lancaster and Fitch's travel narratives is the role
of religion and morality in shaping English identity. They present themselves as
devout Christians, committed to spreading the gospel and converting the heathen
Indians. Lancaster, for example, describes how he distributed Bibles and religious
tracts among the Indian rulers, and how he tried to persuade them to embrace
Christianity. Fitch similarly emphasizes the importance of religious conversion,
arguing that "the country would receive the gospel gladly if it were preached unto
them" (Fitch 45). By emphasizing their Christian identity, Lancaster and Fitch
seek to establish a moral and spiritual basis for their encounter with India, and to
justify their actions in terms of a higher purpose. In addition, their interaction with
India's wide range of religious traditions helped them recognize the presence of
several religions in India, including Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, and
others, rather than confining Indian culture to a single religious identity, such as
Hinduism. The reductive idea that one religion alone characterized Indian culture
was challenged by this awareness of religious variety, which also made it possible
for English and Indian groups to interact with one another more respectfully. By
recognizing and respecting the diversity of religious practices and beliefs,
Lancaster and Fitch helped to create a climate that promoted interfaith
communication and understanding in India to protect their interests but later on
they both wrote with cultural and even racial prejudices.

The English East India Company was established in 1600, with the aim of
monopolizing the trade between England and the East Indies, including India.
However, the English had been trading with India for centuries before the
establishment of the East India Company. The English had long been interested
in the wealth and resources of India, and had established trade relationships with
Indian merchants as early as the 16th century.

One of the main reasons why the English supported James Lancaster and Ralph
Fitch to write their travel narratives in India was to gather information about the
region and its people. The English had limited knowledge of Indian society and
culture, and were eager to learn about the customs, traditions, and political
structures that governed Indian life. In addition, the travel narratives of Lancaster
and Fitch served as propaganda for the English, and were used to promote English
interests in the region. The narratives portrayed India as a land of opportunity,
with vast resources and potential for economic gain. By emphasizing the wealth
and prosperity of India, the British hoped to attract merchants and investors who
would be willing to establish trade relationships with Indian merchants and rulers.
The travel narratives were used to establish English political influence in India.
The English were in favor of establishing alliances with Indian rulers who could
provide protection and political leverage in the region. By writing about their
interactions with Indian rulers and officials, Lancaster and Fitch were able to
demonstrate English political influence and establish themselves as trusted
advisors to Indian elites. Finally and most importantly these travel narratives were
used to justify English colonization of India. The narratives portrayed India as a
land of opportunity, but also as a land that was in need of English intervention
and improvement. As the English viewed themselves as superior to the Indians,
and believed that they could bring civilization and progress to the region. By
noting the supposed backwardness and barbarism of Indian culture, Lancaster and
Fitch were able to justify English colonization as a moral and civilizing mission
of imperialism.
The English as seen from the Indian perspective

Ralph Fitch and James Lancaster discussed the way British were perceived
from the Indian perspective in the late 16th century. From an Indian point of
view, the British were viewed first as merchants then outsiders who were
seeking to exploit the region for their own economic and political gain. Fitch
and Lancaster's writings show that the Indians were initially curious and
welcoming towards the English. They were seen as exotic foreigners with
strange customs and habits, but also as potential trading partners. The Indians
were impressed by the quality and variety of English goods, such as woolen
cloth and metalware, and they were willing to trade with the English in
exchange for Indian goods such as spices and textiles. During Fitch’s visit to
Gujarat, he explains that he was approached by several local merchants eager to
learn about him and his companions and offering them food and drink despite
being unfamiliar with the strangers. Similarly, upon arriving in Goa, he reports
being greeted warmly by Portuguese officials and receiving gifts from Indian
merchants. 39 However, the English soon revealed their exploitative and
aggressive nature, which led to a change in Indian attitudes towards them. Fitch
and Lancaster's travel narratives describe the violence and aggression of the
English towards the local population, including the use of force to establish
trading relationships and the destruction of local villages and towns to secure
their economic interests over the indigenous population. This ruthless approach
not only showcased the exploitative nature of the English but also resulted in
significant resentment and animosity among the Indian people. 40

39
---. Extracts Relating to Sind From Sir William Foster’s Letters Received by the East India Co. From Its
Servants in the East 6 Vols. 1602-1607 and English Factories in India, 13 Vols. 1618-1662: East India Company
and Sindh, 17th Century Records. P. 68-69. 1950.
40
Markham, Clements R. The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster, Kt., to the East Indies: With Abstracts of
Journals of Voyages to the East Indies ... And the Voyage of Captain John Knight (1606), to Seek the North-West
Passage. p. 245,1877.
 The English were also seen as arrogant and disrespectful towards Indian culture
and traditions. They showed little interest in learning about the local customs and
language, and instead, imposed their own ways of doing things on the Indian
population. This led to a growing sense of resentment and hostility towards the
English. Furthermore, there is no substantial evidence to support the following
claim but it is possible that the English were seen as agents of the Portuguese and
the Dutch, who were already present in the region and had established trade
relations with the Indians who were aware of their negative impacts on the local
population. Fitch and Lancaster's travel narratives reveal how the English
attempted to establish political control in the region. The English were interested
in expanding their influence in India and sought to establish political alliances
with local rulers. The English were thus seen as a threat to Indian sovereignty and
autonomy, which led to a growing sense of distrust and suspicion towards them.
They were also considered as a threat to Indian economic interests. The English
sought to establish trade relations with India, but they were also interested in
exploiting the region's resources for their own profit. The Indians were aware of
the English desire for economic dominance, which led to a sense of unease and
concern among the local population:

“Awareness of British desires for economic domination played a critical role in shaping
public opinion and discontent towards foreign rule. Many Indian thinkers believed the
British had resorted to methods designed primarily to serve their interests rather than
promote general progress. They maintained that British capital had merged its purposes
intimately into commercial speculation, with enterprise assuming pride of place over
morality and economy merging seamlessly with exploitation”. 41

41
Chandra, Bipan. Colonial India: British versus Indian Views of Development, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 84-92, 1991.
 The Indians accepted doing trade with the British despite their intentions to
exploit the region, as portrayed in the travel narratives of James Lancaster and
Ralph Fitch, and that can be attributed to a combination of factors, including the
potential for profit, the importance of alliances and diplomacy, the lack of
awareness of the extent of English intentions, and the desire to acquire new
technologies and goods. The Indians were known for their diverse and abundant
resources, and the English saw the profit potential. Indians were aware of this
interest and recognized the value of having new trading partners, alliances and
diplomacy in their own political landscape, they were willing to engage in trade
as long as it benefitted them as well. They have been willing to overlook the
English intentions to exploit the region due to their diplomatic and political
objectives. The English on the other hand saw India as a critical location for their
expansionist policies, and they sought to establish alliances with local rulers to
gain political control of the region. However, the English ambitions exceeded the
Indians’ expectations as they arrived in India with a façade of respect and
admiration for Indian culture and traditions, which helped to win the trust of the
locals. It was only after the English began to establish their political and economic
control that the Indians began to recognize the extent of their exploitative
intentions. By that time, the English had already established a foothold in the
region, making it difficult for the Indians to oppose them.
India as seen from the English perspective

From an English perspective, India was a land of great wealth and opportunity,
but also one of danger and intrigue. One of the most prominent features of the
English was the emphasis on trade and commerce. The English saw India as a vast
source of valuable goods, including textiles, spices, and precious stones. They
recognized the economic potential of the region and sought to establish trade
relations with Indian merchants. Lancaster and Fitch's travel narratives describe
the various trading centers in India and the riches that could be obtained through
trade. The English were also fascinated with Indian culture and traditions, they
were captivated by the exoticism of India, its diverse customs and traditions, and
its colorful festivals and ceremonies. Lancaster and Fitch's travel narratives
describe their encounters with Indian rulers and the various cultural practices they
witnessed, including dance, music, and art in a land of great beauty and cultural
richness, which they sought to explore and understand:

"The music and songs were very strange to us; but such was the beauty thereof, together
with the dancing of the women, that it caused us great delight" 42

“They have an instrument called tanbur, like a cittern, whereon they play very artificially
both upon the neck and body of the instrument… We saw many strange customs and
manners among them; as also their painting and carving, which was extraordinary fine,
especially their pictures made in wax, and cast in metal” 43

42
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619, p. 149. 1921
43
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics and Discoveries of the English Nation. p.
131. 1598.
 However, the English attitude towards India was not entirely positive. They
also considered India as a land of danger and intrigue, where political alliances
could be fragile and where violence and rebellion were commonplace. Indian
rulers were known for their shifting loyalties, and the English took into account
the possibility of conflict with other European powers as well, such as the
Portuguese and the Dutch. Lancaster and Fitch's travel accounts include the
various threats and challenges they faced in India; the risk of attack from pirates
and the need to navigate complex political and social networks. Moreover, the
English shaped their perspective from their own cultural and social biases. They
saw themselves as superior to the Indian population in terms of culture and
religion. India was seen as a place in need of Western enlightenment and
civilization, which the English believed they could bring to the region through
their trade and diplomatic activities.

In addition to their economic and cultural interests, the English were also
driven by political ambition in India. They saw it as a potential source of power
and influence, and sought to establish political alliances with Indian rulers. They
pursued their ambitions by establishing trading posts and developing trade
relations with local merchants and rulers. The English East India Company was
established in 1600 with the goal of monopolizing trade between India and
Europe. The company built a series of trading posts along the Indian coast,
including in Surat, Madras, and Calcutta, which allowed them to control the flow
of goods and establish direct contact with Indian rulers. The English also pursued
political alliances with Indian rulers, often through the establishment of trade
agreements. In some cases, the English were able to establish close relationships
with Indian rulers and to gain political influence as a result. For example, they
formed alliances with the Mughal emperor Akbar in the late 16th century, which
allowed them to establish a presence in the port of Surat and to trade more freely
throughout the region.
Negotiating Cultural Differences

The travel narratives of Ralph Fitch and James Lancaster provide a lens
through which to explore the negotiation of cultural differences between the two
nations during the early modern period. Fitch and Lancaster's writings explain
how these cultural differences were constructed, experienced, and negotiated in
the context of early modern colonialism, and that their narratives reveal the power
dynamics, cultural assumptions, and cross-cultural exchanges that shaped the
colonial encounter. One of the key themes that emerges from Fitch and Lancaster's
travel accounts is the negotiation of religious and cultural differences between the
English and Indians. Fitch and Lancaster encountered a diverse array of religious
and cultural traditions during their travels in India, ranging from Hinduism and
Islam to Jainism and Buddhism. Their narratives reveal how they negotiated the
challenges and opportunities of encountering these diverse traditions, and how
they constructed their own religious and cultural identities in response. For
example, both Fitch and Lancaster were Protestants, and their narratives reflect
their attempts to understand and engage with the religious practices and beliefs of
the Indians they encountered, while also maintaining their own religious identity
and beliefs. Also, negotiation of power and authority between the English and
Indians. As representatives of the English East India Company, Fitch and
Lancaster wielded considerable economic and political power, which they used to
negotiate their relationships with Indian rulers and merchants. Their narratives
reveal the complex negotiations and power struggles that took place between the
two nations, as both groups sought to assert their own interests and agendas. Fitch
and Lancaster's narratives also reflect the ways in which the English attempted to
impose their own cultural values and norms on the Indians, while also
encountering resistance and adaptation on the part of the Indians. Gender and
sexuality were discussed in a form of construction and negotiation in the context
of early modern colonialism, and how English and Indian travelers navigated the
challenges and opportunities of encountering different gender and sexual norms.
For example, Fitch's narrative reflects his encounters with female rulers and
merchants in India, and his attempts to negotiate the gendered power dynamics
that shaped these relationships. Lancaster's narrative, meanwhile, reflects his
encounters with eunuchs and other non-binary individuals in India, and his
attempts to make sense of these gendered identities and practices.
 Gold

Geography

Ralph Fitch embarked on a journey to India in the 16th century, and during his
voyage, he recorded his experiences and observations, which were later published
in a book called "The Voyage of Ralph Fitch44". In this book, Fitch provided
detailed descriptions of the geography of India in an extensive and vivid way. He
describes India as a vast and diverse country, with numerous rivers, mountains,
forests, and deserts. Fitch's descriptions of the various regions of India provide an
insight into the country's cultural and linguistic diversity. One of the notable
features of Fitch's representation of India's geography is his emphasis on the
importance of rivers in the country. He notes that the Ganges River is the most
significant river in India and that it plays a crucial role in the country's agriculture
and economy. As Ralph Fitch writes:

“India is a land of great extent and variety. There are found many high hills [mountains],
deep vallies, large plains full of woods & groves, infinite numbers of fair running
springs, as also dry sandy deserts, which seem to stretch out unboundedly into the sea,
whose sands being once wet, now continue perpetually barren & unfruitful; amongst
these the soil varies greatly: for in some places it consists of fine black earth fit for corn,
and in others red clay, sand, gravel, hard rocks, & pebbles. This country contains many
and large Rivers, besides smaller brooks and rivulets that run down from the mountains,
supplying water plentiful enough for drink and use to the inhabitants dwelling near the
sides thereof, of whom the people commonly live by tillage & husbandry, or else traffic
& commerce, and fishery in the said waters.” 45 (vol 2, p 405)

44
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619, p. 405. 1921
45
Ibid.
 Fitch also mentions other rivers such as the Indus, Brahmaputra, and Godavari
and their significance in various parts of the country. Fitch's descriptions of India's
mountains are also noteworthy for several reasons. Firstly, they provided valuable
information about the terrain and physical geography of the region, which was
essential for European traders and explorers who sought to establish trade routes
and colonize new lands. Secondly, Fitch's observations highlighted the unique
features of the Indian landscape, such as its high hills and deep valleys, which
distinguished it from other parts of the world. Finally, his descriptions helped
challenge prevailing Western views of India as a flat and uniform landscape,
thereby contributing to a deeper understanding of the country's varied topography
and rich cultural heritage. He mentions the Himalayas, which he describes as the
highest mountains in the world. Fitch also describes the Western Ghats and the
Eastern Ghats, which are important mountain ranges in southern India. He notes
that these mountains are not only significant for their scenic beauty but also for
their cultural and religious importance. Fitch's representation of India's geography
in his book is generally accurate, although there are some inaccuracies and
omissions. For example, Fitch provides a detailed description of the Ganges River
but does not mention its source in the Himalayas. He also omits the Aravalli
Range, which is a significant mountain range in western India. Despite these
minor inaccuracies, Fitch's representation of India's geography is significant
because it provides valuable insights into the country's physical and cultural
landscape during the 16th century. Fitch’s emphasis on the importance of rivers
and mountains in India also highlights the country's rich natural resources.
 Patna, the city of waterways in north India was an important trade center with
its strategic location, linked to the Ganga Valley through the river Ganges and the
Northern parts of the Himalayas that served as a gateway to link many merchants
from different parts of north India. Fitch also visited Cooch Bihar that was called
sub-Himalayan West Bengal in the contemporary period. It was a completely
different region culturally and geographically. Mistakenly, he took it for a Chinese
region due to its unique landscape that consists mainly of bamboos and cane
forests rather than the agrarian plain regions of Bengal:46

“Fitch wrote that he traveled through Cooch Behar, which lay in the foothills of the
Himalayas, but mistakenly believed it was part of China because of its unique landscape
of bamboo and cane thickets. Unlike the fertile rice fields of the plains, Cooch Bihar
had a rugged terrain covered with dense forest.” 47

An accurate description since the region was rich of its cotton and silk
differing from the Great Plains of Bengal in the south and the mountain ranges in
the north. However, Fitch failed to mention the trade network that linked the
economy of Cooch Bihar and Dhaka as one of the most important trade centers in
India and points of interest to both British and Portuguese.48 According to Fitch,
The people of Cooch Bihar were very religious and highly respectful of animals.
They believed in omens and gods which is quite accurate since even in
contemporary India, this practice is still prevalent today but in a different way.49
The region was very diverse; Bengal in the south, the Himalaya in the north, trade
routes, landforms, streams and mountains; this geographical position made Cooch
Bihar a doorway and a very important region in India. Moving forward to the
kingdom of Tippera and Arakan in 1585, these were non-state regions inhabited
by a large number of the Mog who launched a pirate invasion of Dhaka. 50

46
Baruah, SwarnaLata. A Com prehensive History of Assam. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1997
47
Foster, William, Voyages and Travels: An Illustrated History, ed. David D. Owers, pp. 218.
48
Foster, Sir William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619. Oxford University Press, 1921, pp 24-25
49
Ibid.
50
Dasgupta, Biplab. European Trade and Colonia l Conquest. Anthem Press, 2005, p. 267.
 James Lancaster on the other hand, embarked on several voyages to India and
the East Indies in the late 16th century. In his accounts of these voyages, he
recorded his observations and experiences, providing valuable insights into the
geography of these regions. Lancaster's representation of India and the East Indies'
geography in his accounts is extensive and detailed. He provides descriptions of
the countries' physical features such as rivers, mountains, forests, and coastlines.
In his accounts, he describes India as a vast and diverse country with a rich cultural
heritage, while the East Indies are portrayed as a collection of exotic islands with
an abundance of natural resources. One of the notable features of Lancaster's
representation of India's geography is his focus on the country's rivers. He
describes the Ganges River (same as Ralph Fitch) and its importance in the
country's agriculture and economy. Lancaster also notes the significant role
played by other rivers such as the Indus and the Brahmaputra in various parts of
the country. Additionally, he provides descriptions of the country's mountains,
including the Himalayas, which he accurately describes as the highest mountains
in the world. In his representation of the East Indies' geography, Lancaster
emphasizes the islands' diverse natural resources. He describes the abundant
forests and rich mineral deposits, including gold, silver, and diamonds.
Lancaster's descriptions of the coastlines and harbors of the East Indies provide
insights into the region's importance in the global trade networks of the time.

Lancaster’s representation in his accounts is generally accurate, though with

some minor inaccuracies. For example, Lancaster does not provide a detailed
description of the Aravalli Range, a significant mountain range in western India.
Additionally, he does not mention the Mekong River, which is one of the largest
rivers in Southeast Asia. Despite these minor inaccuracies, Lancaster's
representation of India and the East Indies' geography is significant as it
demonstrates the regions' physical and cultural landscape during the late 16th
century. His descriptions of India's rivers and mountains provide an understanding
of the country's natural resources and their significance in the country's economy
and culture. Likewise, his accounts of the East Indies' islands and natural
resources highlight the region's importance in global trade. Early modern trade
was fueled by the wealth of raw commodities the East Indies islands provided.
Among the important items were spices, such as cardamom, cloves, nutmeg,
pepper, and ginger. These products were prized by European customers and sold
for astronomically high prices on foreign markets, serving as the foundation of
the colonial economies of Europe:

"The merchants of both these cities [Calcutta & Pandarani] chiefly use their traffick for
spicerye; whereof they are plentifully furnished from divers parts hereabouts, as also
from Bengala and Ormus, and at far greater cheapness than either at Alexandria or any
part of Europe can purchase them." 51

Several island groupings in the East Indies also produced large quantities of
pearls, especially the Moluccas Islands and Ternate Island. As a result, the area
rose to prominence as one of the world's major pearl-producing regions, especially
after the Spanish Empire's control over Mexico's Pacific coast began to crumble
in the middle of the sixteenth century. Gold and silver mines did exist in some
parts of the East Indies, notably in the vicinity of Batavia (now Jakarta), but they
were less common than in Southeast Asia's adjacent region. European traders
routinely traded local precious metals for textiles, weapons, and luxury items.
Native to Timor Island, sandalwood trees provide aromatic wood that is used to
make incense in Europe and Asia. Sandalwood was in high demand in Japan,
making commerce between Dutch traders stationed in Batavia and Japanese
merchants particularly profitable.

51
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics and Discoveries of the English Nation. p. 187
. 1598.
 These numerous resources drew the attention of European nations eager to take
advantage of their economic potential. Control of lucrative marine trade routes
linking the East Indies to markets in China, Japan, Persia, Africa, and finally
North America was made possible by the establishment of trading ports and
fortresses throughout the area via the transatlantic slave trade.52

Climate

India is a land of diverse climates and weather patterns. Throughout history,

weather conditions in India have played a significant role in shaping the culture,
economy, and daily life of its people. In this part, we will examine the weather
conditions in India as described by Ralph Fitch and James Lancaster in the late
16th century. From 1583, the two travelers crossed various parts of India,
including the ports of Surat, Goa, and Calicut. One of the most striking features
of India's weather is its diversity. India is home to several climate zones, ranging
from tropical to arid and temperate. The country is also influenced by two major
weather patterns – the southwest monsoon and the northeast monsoon. The
southwest monsoon, which occurs between June and September, brings rainfall
to most parts of the country. The northeast monsoon, which occurs between
October and December, brings rainfall to the southern parts of India.

Fitch and Lancaster's accounts of India's weather reflect this diversity. They
describe the extreme heat in the arid regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan, where
temperatures can soar up to 50 degrees Celsius. They also talk about the heavy
rainfall in the coastal regions of Goa and Calicut, which can result in flooding and
landslides. One of the most significant weather phenomena that Fitch and
Lancaster encountered was the southwest monsoon. They describe the monsoon
as a powerful force that brings much-needed rain to the parched land. Fitch writes,

52
Farrington, Anthony. Trading Places: The East India Companies and Their Trade with the Orient, 1600–1800.
Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing, 2002.
"the country is much refreshed by these rains, and all things begin to flourish and
grow."53 However, they also note that the monsoon can be destructive, causing
floods and disrupting trade.

Another aspect of India's weather that Fitch and Lancaster note is the
importance of timing. They observe that the success of crops and trade depended
on the timing of the monsoon. If the monsoon arrived too late or too early, it could
result in a poor harvest or disrupt trade. Lancaster writes, "the monsoons are the
life-blood of the country, and without them, everything comes to a standstill."54
In addition to the monsoons, they also speak of the intense heat of the Indian
summer, which they found unbearable and the occasional cyclones that can wreak
havoc in coastal regions, causing destruction and loss of life. One of the most
intriguing aspects of Fitch and Lancaster's accounts of India's weather is the role
of superstition and religion in dealing with extreme weather events. They note
that the locals often perform rituals and offer sacrifices to appease the gods and
goddesses who control the weather. Fitch writes, "when there is a drought, the
people pray to their gods for rain, and when there is a flood, they pray for it to
stop." 55

Fitch and Lancaster wrote about the climate in their travel narratives to the East
Indies for several reasons. First, they were explorers traveling to a new and
unfamiliar land. As such, they were keen observers of the natural environment,
including the climate. Writing about the weather and climate conditions helped
them to document and understand the new environment they were encountering.
The climate was an important factor that influenced trade and commerce in the
East Indies. Secondly, Fitch and Lancaster were merchants who were traveling to

53
Lehmann, Fritz, and Michael Edwardes. “Ralph Fitch: Elizabethan in the Indies.” Pacific Affairs, vol. 46, no.
4, University of British Columbia, Jan. 1973, p. 538.
54
Biswas, D. K., ed. “India Meteorological Department Centenary”, Vol. 3, 1875-1974, 1975.
55
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619. Oxford University Press, 1921, p.475.
India to establish trade relations with the local people. They needed to understand
the climate patterns and how these would impact their business. For example, they
needed to know when the monsoon season would start and end, as this would
affect the timing of their trade transactions. The climate was an essential aspect
of life in India during that time. The local people had developed unique practices
and rituals to deal with extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods. Fitch
and Lancaster were interested in understanding the local culture and way of life,
including their relationship with the natural environment. By writing about the
climate, they were able to document these practices and gain a deeper
understanding of the people they were interacting with. The East Indies were a
region of strategic importance for European powers, including England. The
climate conditions in India influenced the military and political strategies of these
powers. By documenting the climate patterns in their travel narratives, Fitch and
Lancaster were able to provide valuable information to their fellow merchants and
government officials, which would have been useful in making decisions about
trade and diplomacy in the region. The article "The role of British exploration in
the development of trade policy" written by D.K. Fieldhouse, discusses the impact
of exploratory ventures undertaken by British merchants and individuals such as
Fitch and Lancaster on trade policy. It suggests that these individuals acted as
valuable intermediaries between Western powers and Eastern societies,
transmitting cultural and economic information crucial for informed negotiation
strategies and improved bilateral agreements. Their knowledge allowed European
agents to better understand local conditions and requirements when engaging in
trade activities or political correspondence.56

56
D.K. Fieldhouse, Journal of Imperial & Commonwealth History, 2008, pp. 721-738.
Commerce

The quest of Ralph Fitch and James Lancaster as merchants was mainly to
extend trade and penetrate (through) into India to get possession of its
commodities that differ entirely from those of the English, with their rich trade of
indigo, jewelry, silk and spices. Appearances were essential for most Indian
women as they were described wearing many bracelets and rings made out of
ivory that they took so much pride in wearing them. Fitch also mentioned the great
presence of the Portuguese and Moors on the Indian territory from Diu all the way
to Goa and therefore commanding the bay, which means getting hold of a strategic
point rich with all kinds of goods, spices, drugs, silk, indigo, elephant’s teeth and
a great deal of sugar production.

Traveling all the way across India, Fitch found himself facing a radically
different people, weather, diseases, animals and plant life with unfamiliar living
habits of the kings and their subjects. Described as a sense of unfamiliarity,
strangeness and “otherness” that defined India as a unique place and the perfect
heaven for travelers to discover and wonder at its novelty that offered them way
more than they ever expected. Carl Thomson explains this sense of “otherness”
in his “Travel Writing”:

Travelers themselves, of course, have often been confounded by their encounters with
radical difference, and have frequently struggled to comprehend phenomena that surpass
or overturn all previous expectations. For this reason, travel can be a deeply estranging
experience, as the traveler is set adrift from the security of inherited norms and
categories. Somewhat paradoxically, this estrangement may often be expressed, in part
at least, by wonderment. As critics such as Mary Campbell (1988), Stephen Greenblatt
(1991) and Anthony Pagden (1993) have observed, wonder constitutes a recurrent
theme, and a stock trope, in travel writing. Wonder may be defined as the emotional and
intellectual. 57

57
Thompson, C. E, Travel Writing. Routledge, p. 67, 2011.
Travelers encounter various forms of otherness, which challenges their
assumptions and perceptions, leading to feelings of disorientation and uncertainty.
However, these same experiences can also evoke a sense of wonder and curiosity,
inspiring the exploration of new horizons and exposure to alternative perspectives.
Wonder facilitates an openness to difference, prompting individuals to
contemplate their place in the world and reevaluate their beliefs, values and
identities. Through the evocation of wonder, travel writers aim to capture the
essence of their journey, conveying its impact on their understanding of self and
society. They seek to share their unique experiences and insights gained through
interaction with unfamiliar cultures, landscapes, and lifestyles. By invoking
wonder, they hope to stimulate readers' imaginations, encourage them to question
their own assumptions, and inspire them to pursue new paths of discovery. In
addition to individual transformation, the rhetorical use of wonder plays a crucial
role in shaping societal attitudes towards difference. For instance, both Lancaster
and Fitch described the natural scenery they encountered while traversing foreign
lands, they wrote extensively about the mountains and rivers of India, describing
them as being so high that it is hard for them to believe that there be any higher
hills above the clouds. Similarly, Fitch described the landscapes of Java,
observing that it is very pleasant here to behold the great number of strange trees,
whose leaves never fade nor lose their green color all the yearlong. Through their
descriptions of nature, both writers created a sense of amazement and admiration
towards unknown environments. Through their narratives, travel writers advocate
for acceptance and tolerance, fostering a sense of shared humanity among
disparate peoples. The recognition of commonalities amidst diversity helps
counteract divisive discourses rooted in ethnocentrism and xenophobia. Thus,
travel writing serves as a vehicle for social change, promoting empathetic
relationships across geographical boundaries and nurturing a sense of global
citizenship grounded in unity and cooperation.58

James Lancaster and Ralph Fitch’s journey were not only personal adventures
but also significant milestones in the history of European trade, which ultimately
led to the emergence of modern global commerce. In their quest for new markets,
Fitch and Lancaster were interested in exploring the Indian Ocean trade network,
which was dominated by Portuguese and Dutch traders. By establishing direct
trading links with the producers of valuable goods such as pepper, cloves, and
nutmeg, they hoped to bypass the Portuguese and Dutch middlemen and gain a
competitive edge in the European market. This strategy was part of a broader
effort by the English to expand their commercial interests and establish a foothold
in the lucrative markets of the East Indies. 59

Fitch and Lancaster's travels were not only profitable but also educational.
They wrote detailed accounts of their travels and the commodities they
encountered, providing valuable information about the local customs, languages,
and trading practices of the East Indies. Their accounts served as a guide for future
English merchants to establish profitable trade relations with the region.
Moreover, their observations on the rich and diverse culture of the East Indies
helped to expand the European worldview and fostered cross-cultural
understanding. One of the significant impacts of Fitch and Lancaster's travels was
the establishment of the English East India Company, which played a vital role in
the English colonization of India and other parts of Asia even if neither of them
were founding members of the company. The Company was a powerful trading
organization that controlled vast territories and resources, paving the way for
British economic and political domination of the region. However, this also had

58
Thompson, C. E, Travel Writing. Routledge, 2011, p. 70.
59
Hunt, J. G. "East India Company Merchants in Early Modern London." The Economic History Review, vol. 2,
2004, pp. 285–307.
negative consequences, such as exploitation and colonization of local populations,
and the destruction of indigenous economies and societies.

Information about trade practices, commodities, and economic conditions of

India and the east Indies during the 16th century was highly valuable to Europeans
and the English. To begin with, Fitch and Lancaster's travel narratives offer a vivid
depiction of the commodities that were traded between England and the East
Indies. For instance, textiles like silk were among the luxuries imported in small
quantities due to the expense involved in purchasing and transporting them along
the lengthy sea routes to Europe. Similarly, fine porcelain ware gained immense
popularity throughout Europe due to its durability compared to pottery
alternatives available locally. These also included spices such as pepper,
cinnamon and cloves, precious stones, and other luxury goods. The merchants
were fascinated by the exoticism of the East Indies, and they describe in great
detail the sights, sounds, and smells of the markets they visited. For example,
Fitch writes about the "sweet scent" of the spices in the air, and the "gleaming
gold" of the jewelry on display.60 Ralph Fitch describing observations in Sumatra
around 1583 CE:

"When we entered [the] town [of Palembang], our ears were assaulted with an uproar of
people hawking and crying out wares... Their clothes were adorned with gold thread and
embroidery... Fine cloths resembling damask or velvet but manufactured from leaves
instead of fibers woven together." 61

60
Company, East India. A True and Large Discourse of the Voyage of the Whole Fleete of Ships Set Forth the
20. Of Aprill 1601, by the Governours and Assistants of the East Indian Merchants in London, to the East Indies,
p. 96, 1603.
61
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619. Oxford University Press, 1921, p.338.
 In addition, Fitch and Lancaster also provide insights into the trade practices of
the region. They write about the bargaining and negotiation techniques used by
the local merchants, as well as the different trading routes and methods of
transportation. For example, Ralph Fitch observed that camels were often utilized
to transport cargo over land routes, particularly in places without wheeled vehicle-
friendly roadways. Camels were a vital form of trade good transportation since
they could travel long distances fast and easily. Lancaster also brought up the
usage of camels for cargo, but he emphasized the use of elephants for hauling
large loads through difficult terrain. Elephants helped traders access marketplaces
that would not have been accessible otherwise by navigating rocky terrain and
deep woodlands. Both travelers also spoke of using boats as a form of maritime
transportation. Fitch recalls using oars and sails to push big boats known as shops
along rivers. Between coastal cities and inland villages, these ships transported
both merchandise and passengers. According to Lancaster, smaller boats called
batteaus were frequently employed for crossing rivers and lakes. 62

Both travelers also understood the critical role that brokers and middlemen
play in promoting trade across various nations and cultures. These people served
as mediators, negotiators, interpreters, and tour guides, assisting in bridging
cultural gaps and facilitating profitable business deals. Indian businesspeople
connected buyers and sellers and oversaw transactions between European dealers
and regional manufacturers. Assisting Europeans in adjusting to new
environments and efficiently interacting with local business partners, they also
supplied knowledge about regional cultures and practices. These intermediaries
play a crucial role in the economy, and Fitch recognized their importance by
saying that "[t]hey are so necessary, especially at first entrance, until you

62
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation. P.
185, 1890.
understand the language."63 The need of having dependable local agents who are
fluent in the language, familiar with the region, and can serve as dependable
advocates for faraway employers was reiterated. These people were crucial for
building connections with vendors, clients, and government representatives,
guaranteeing effective communication and reducing misunderstandings. Without
these middlemen, a foreign trader would find it difficult to make money or even
endure in such unfriendly surroundings.

Another important aspect of trade that Fitch and Lancaster describe in their
travel narratives is the role of European merchants in the region. They write about
the competition and rivalry between different European powers, including
England, Portugal, and the Netherlands. They also describe the challenges faced
by English merchants who were trying to establish themselves in the region, such
as language barriers, cultural differences, and the need to establish trust and
goodwill with local merchants. Furthermore, Fitch and Lancaster's travel
narratives also reveal the economic and political conditions of the region during
that time. They write about the impact of trade on the local economy, including
the rise of merchant classes and the growth of cities and urban centers. They also
describe the political tensions and conflicts that arose as a result of trade, such as
the competition for control of strategic ports and trading centers.

The two travelers wrote about trade in the East Indies for a variety of reasons.
They were merchants who were interested in establishing trade relations with the
local people. They wanted to learn about the commodities that were available in
the region and the trading practices that were used. By documenting their
experiences and observations, they were able to provide valuable information to
other English merchants who might want to trade in the region. The two men
wrote on a variety of themes relating to international trade, from practical issues

63
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619, oxford, p. 203. 1921
like navigational methods and marine safety precautions to social and political
issues like diplomatic protocols and local customs. For instance, Fitch's account
provided full explanations of the wind patterns, currents, and ports and harbors
that might be used to plan future expeditions. In addition, he emphasized the
importance of crew management and good provisioning while imparting
knowledge gained from his own maritime experiences. While doing so, Lancaster
discussed regional supply chains, commodity prices, production techniques, and
quality standards while delving deeper into the topics of procurement and market
analysis. Fitch provided an incisive analysis of politics and culture in Asian
cultures, pointing out distinctions from those in England in terms of morals, social
structures, and legal and religious systems:

"[Indonesian] Rajahs consider themselves equal to kings since they possess absolute
authority over life and death... Upon observing a nobleman's funeral procession passing
through Jakarta streets recently, I noticed how even the poorest citizens showed
respectful gestures towards him. Such honors indicate social hierarchy based upon rank
rather than birth or wealth." (On Java Sultanate dynasties) 64

Fitch related tales about his encounters with residents, noting their friendliness,
kindness, and resourcefulness. Similar to this, Lancaster examined the
justifications for regional policies on foreign trade and investment, offering
tactical recommendations on how to handle corporate interactions with other
communities. Both of them paved the way for later British mercantile explorers
seeking to profitably interact with Asia by providing this knowledge. While some
details may have changed since the 17th century, many fundamental ideas about
effective international trade remain true today, including creating partnerships
that benefit both parties, comprehending target audiences, tolerating cultural

64
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619, oxford, p. 247. 1921
differences, and utilizing knowledge-sharing. 65 The travel accounts were also
influenced by the broader cultural and intellectual climate of their time. The 16th
and 17th centuries were a period of great interest in travel and exploration, and
many intellectuals and scholars were interested in documenting the natural and
cultural world. Fitch and Lancaster were influenced by this trend, and they saw
their writings as a way of contributing to this wider project of documenting and
understanding the world. They were also influenced by the specific historical
context of their time.

However, there are some important aspects of trade in India that were not
covered or underrepresented in their writings. One area that they may have missed
is the role of local merchants in the Indian Ocean trade network. While they do
describe the bargaining and negotiation techniques used by local merchants, they
do not provide much information about the role of Indian merchants in the trade
network. Indian merchants were crucial intermediaries in the Indian Ocean trade,
and their skills and knowledge of local markets were essential for the success of
trade relations. Fitch and Lancaster's writings tend to focus more on the activities
of European merchants and the competition between European powers for control
of trade in the region and its impact on local societies and cultures. While they do
describe the growth of urban centers and the rise of merchant classes, they do not
provide much information about how trade affected local communities and
cultures. Trade can have both positive and negative effects on local societies, and
it would have been interesting to learn more about how local communities in India
were impacted by the trade relations that Fitch and Lancaster observed.
Furthermore, their travel narratives may also have underrepresented the diversity
of Indian culture and society. While Fitch and Lancaster do describe some of the
cultural practices that they observed, their writings tend to generalize about Indian

"The East India Company Journals of Captain Alexander Hamilton" (University of Cambridge Library Special
65

Collections, MS Add.9812) examined in Timothy Brook's book Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the
Dawn of Global Trade (London, 2008), pp. 121-130.
culture and society, and they do not provide much information about the specific
regional and local differences that exist within India within the context of trade.
For instance, it is essential to recognize that Indian textile production was diverse
across regional centers based on factors like climatic conditions, raw material
availability, skill sets, and traditional craft techniques. For example, Ahmedabad
in modern-day Gujarat was renowned for its cotton textile manufacturing, while
Dhaka in present-day Bangladesh specialized in silk production. Similarly,
Benares (Varanasi) and Punjab stood out for their woolens and shawls made from
fine goose down or pashmina fibers. Each region had distinct indigenous design
motifs, dyeing methods, printing styles, and embellishments. Therefore, Fitch and
Lancaster would have encountered these variations during their travels throughout
the subcontinent.

In their travel narratives, James Lancaster’s and Ralph Fitch’s writings were
likely intended for a variety of readers, including the Queen, fellow merchants,
investors, government officials and other parties who were interested in learning
more about the trade practices and economic conditions of the East Indies,
including India. The English East India Company was likely one of the primary
audiences for Fitch and Lancaster's writings. The Company was a major player in
the East Indies trade during the early 17th century, and it would have been
interested in gaining knowledge about the commodities available in the region,
the trading practices used, and the economic and political conditions of the region.
Fitch and Lancaster's writings would have been of great interest to the Company's
merchants and investors. Other potential audiences for Fitch and Lancaster's
writings include government officials in England who were interested in
expanding English trade and influence in the region, as well as other merchants
and investors who were interested in investing in East Indies trade.
 The East India Company aimed at establishing settlements and trading posts in
the East Indies. The company aimed to establish a physical presence in the region
in order to control trade and to protect its interests. The company established
several settlements, including Fort St. George in present-day Chennai, India, and
Fort Marlborough in present-day Bengkulu, Indonesia.66 These settlements served
as bases for trade and as a means of exerting control over the local population.
The company also aimed to expand its influence and control over the local
political and economic systems. The East India Company sought to establish
alliances with local rulers and to gain control over key ports and trade routes and
also aimed to establish a dominant position in the local economy by controlling
the trade of valuable goods and by investing in local industries. In addition to
these goals, the East India Company also focused on gathering information about
the East Indies. The company sent expeditions to explore the region and to map
the coastlines and waterways. This information was valuable to the company in
terms of trade and navigation and to learn about the local culture, society, and
natural resources, which could be exploited for commercial gain. 67

Trade with the East Indies not only allowed England to acquire needed
products, but also provided them with the knowledge and skills to manufacture
these goods for themselves. In the beginning, the English were paying high prices
for these products, but as time went on, they were able to produce some of the
goods at a fraction of the cost. Additionally, the East India Company also aimed
to create a fashion industry in England by exploiting the fashion of the East Indies.
For example, As part of their strategy, the East India Company encouraged
English artists and printers to study and adopt Indian and Japanese woodblock
printing methods using multiple colors and delicate brushwork. This fostered the

66
Anthony Farrington, Trading Places: The East India Company and Asia, 1600-1834, (London, The British
Library Publishing Division, 2002), p. 92.
67
William Pettigrew and Mahesh Gopalan, The East India Company, 1600-1857: Essays on Anglo-Indian
Connection (New York: Routledge, 2016), 3.
growth of mass-produced wallpaper and fashionable hangings depicting scenery,
flowers, birds, and butterflies. Chinoiserie, Rococo and Neoclassical designs grew
popular among middle-class households aspiring to higher society standards. The
company also aimed to test and improve open sea navigation, and gain a better
understanding of the ocean and general geography of the East Indies.

The Dutch East India Company, created in 1602, also aimed to control trade
in the region by merging several companies. Both companies primarily traded
cloth and spices. Initially, they had trade as their main goal, but over time, they
began to focus on building an empire and learning about other cultures, religion
and ideas. This shift in focus was also a result of the engagement of English East
India Company in South Asia which expanded beyond trade to a two-way
dissemination of knowledge, ideas, institutions, social practices, languages,
religion and dietary practices. As competition and bitterness between the English
East India Company and the Dutch East India Company increased, the two
companies actively sought to intrude on each other's trade, resulting in significant
damage. This interference led to a war between the two companies. In 1620, the
Dutch established the colony of Batavia (present day Jakarta) in Indonesia,
effectively cutting off the English access to spices through traditional trading
routes. 68 In response, the English formed an alliance with the Mughals, who
controlled much of present-day India, in order to gain a foothold in the region.
The Mughals granted the English a license to trade in Bengal, which allowed them
to establish factories (trading posts) along the coast and enter into the lucrative
textile trade. As tensions between the Dutch and English grew, they engaged in
several naval battles and skirmishes. One notable incident was the Amboyna
Massacre of 162369, when ten English factors (company officials) were accused
of conspiring against the Dutch government and executed. This event exacerbated

68
Panikkar, Kavalam Madhava. “Batavia”. Oxford University Press, 1928.
Bassett, D. K. “The ‘Amboyna Massacre’ of 1623.” Journal of Southeast Asian History, vol. 1, no. 2,
69

Cambridge UP, 1960, pp. 1–19.

relations between the two companies and resulted in a breakdown of diplomatic
relations.70 The Anglo-Dutch Wars eventually culminated in open hostilities, with
the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654) fought mainly in the Atlantic, while the
Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) took place in various locations across
Europe and Asia. These wars weakened both companies, but also marked the
emergence of England as a major power in international commerce and politics.
After the war, trade between the two companies came to an end and the English
East India Company continued its presence in India and gradually expanded its
influence through political maneuvering and military conquests.

The English East India Company decided to stick to the textile trade and stay
away from the Dutch. Not everyone in England supported trade with the East
Indies. Pamphleteer John Cary argued that trade that did not export English
products or manufacture and did not supply the country with necessary items to
promote manufacturing or carry on trade abroad, and did not encourage
navigation was not beneficial to England:

"...if no Commodities were imported into this Nation but those which could be made
use of amongst ourselves, we should soon feel the want of many Things absolutely
necessary for us either in our ordinary Trades or Occupations, or else for Luxury or
Conveniency; without which Life itself would become burdensome and insupportable.
Neither would our Navigation nor our Manufacturers thrive under such Circumstances."
(p. 4). 71

“Whereas all these things [foreign goods] coming into our Market must first pass thro’
our Custom Houses, and there make returns proportionable to the Value of what they
bring; And we may then purchase them at our own Leisure, store them away safe from
Accidents and Loss by Seafaring, before any other Country can so much as see ‘em…
If all Merchants will secure themselves in this manner rather than run headlong
blindfolded into purchases at Home, they will after this experience know what Benefit
redounds to their Country by keeping up Manufactories, Shipping and Navigation."
(Cary, p. 7). 72

70
Foster, William. “The Dutch East India Company: Its History and Results”. Elibron Classics, 2006.
71
Cary, John. "An Essay on the State of England." London, p. 4-7 , 1719. Print.
72
Ibid.
 However, as time passed, the mindset began to change, and more and more
people viewed trade with the East Indies as positive, citing the profits produced
by the East India Company and the jumpstart provided for manufacturing at lower
costs. Additionally, trade with the East Indies provided opportunities for cultural
growth and learning about other countries' governments, societies, and cultures.
The East India Company eventually became the most dominant trading power in
the 17th and 18th centuries and played a significant role in launching British
imperialism. 73

The Company’s first goal as mentioned was to establish factories and

commercial activities to gain profit and compete with the already well established
Dutch East India Company and the Portuguese. The EIC was primarily interested
in the trade of spices and pepper in the early years, James Lancaster established
the first factory at Bantam and sent commercial missions to the Moluccas. The
factory played a remarkable role for twenty years, located as it was in a great port
city on Java’s west tip, it is considered to be the Company’s first residence
overseas. Another trade transit point was also established in 1608. The EIC
eventually controlled trade in Asia, gaining full authority in all trading issues on
behalf of the English government. The Spice Islands north-east of Indonesia
became the company’s main market. Bantam was already a trade center and one
of the largest cities in Asia in the seventeenth century. It attracted many merchants
from the Arabian Peninsula, China and Japan. As the prices of pepper and spices
were so much cheaper there than in the other regions, James Lancaster selected
Bantam to be the location of their first factory in 1602. As a result, it became more
and more involved in the Intra-Asian trade networks.74

73
James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India. Macmillan UK, 2022. pp. 35–37.
74
D.K. Bassett, ‘The Factory of the English East India Company at Bantam, 1602-1682’ (Unpublished
PhD Dissertation, University of London, 1955), p. 4.
 The Company had outposts, sometimes occupied only briefly as the Ambon
Island, Aden, St Helena and most importantly the Sumatran port of Aceh. It was
a strategic bridge between the Bay of Bengal and the China Sea and therefore a
significant trade center for pepper.75 However, according to Anne Lindsey the
British colony in Sumatra was not very successful as a long term project in the
eighteenth century as the Company had massive spendings on civil servants and
soldiers and only maintained the colony to prevent the Dutch monopoly over the
pepper trade.76 To better compete with the Dutch and Portuguese, the EIC was
encouraged to enter regional trading network by establishing more factories in
East Asia, especially after spice and pepper witnessed a great price fall due to the
increased supply from other competitors. The Company quickly focused on India
by establishing numerous trading posts in the three main cities along the coast of
the Indian Ocean: Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

75
Borton, Henry, “The London East India Company’s First Expeditions,” Mariner’s Mirror, XVIII, Vol. 4, 1932,
pp. 382-404.
76
Lindsey, Anne, The private trade of the British in West Sumatra 1735-1770, Department of History, The
University of Hull.
 Glory

Travel Criticism

Travel writing criticism is the examination of travel narratives, looking at their

literary and cultural aspects as well as their portrayal of other cultures and places.
Often, this criticism focuses on the ways in which travel writers have influenced
or represented the world, often with an eye to social issues. Explorers were
motivated by a strong desire for recognition and prestige, which they sought to
attain through their narratives. Their accounts were meticulously crafted to
highlight their achievements and make a lasting impression on their
contemporaries and future generations. Travel accounts served as a form of self-
promotion, aiming to inspire awe and admiration. Explorers aimed to immortalize
their remarkable accomplishments, accentuating their bravery and victories
through embellished and romanticized tales of daring exploits and monumental
battles. In "Medusa's Mirrors: Travel Writing and the Expansion of Europe" by
Ian McLoughlin, he analyzes the relationship between travel writing and Europe's
expansion into new territories during the 18th and 19th centuries. McLoughlin
argues that travelogues helped shape public opinion regarding colonies and other
lands under European control, creating a sense of entitlement to resources and
cultural superiority and often portrays other cultures in a way that is not always
accurate or fair. Travel writers often exoticize and stereotype people and cultures
they meet, which can have a negative impact on how people see them, which was
a reason why travel writings was criticized for its role in the colonial project as
these writings helped create an imaginary picture of the colonized people as being
very different, and needing help.
 Applying travel writing criticism to the narratives of Fitch and Lancaster will
demonstrate how they construct and negotiate cultural differences and power
dynamics in the colonial encounter. The travel narratives of Fitch and Lancaster
reflect the cultural assumptions and biases of the time period. For example, Fitch
describes the Indian people as "barbarous" and "idolaters," which reflects the
Eurocentric worldview that was prevalent among the British during this time. This
language reinforces the idea that the English were superior to the Indians and that
they needed to civilize them. Similarly, Lancaster's narrative is filled with
negative portrayals of the Indian people, including descriptions of their "filthy"
living conditions and "degraded" customs. The travelers’ narratives show that
they have a lot of knowledge about Indian culture and religion. They've seen a lot
of different religious traditions and descriptions of them are really interesting. For
example, Fitch describes the Hindu temples and rituals in great detail, while the
Lancaster discusses the Muslim call to prayer and circumcision. This suggests that
the authors are interested in learning more about Indian culture and religion. One
may argues that Fitch and Lancaster's writings in India are full of inaccuracies and
exaggerations. They make things sound much more dangerous and difficult than
they actually really are to make their journey sounds more heroic. Also, they often
simplify and generalize the complex social and cultural realities of India, relying
on hearsay instead of direct observation. Another possible criticism for their
accounts can added for not having much empathy or understanding for the Indian
people and culture. They often didn't appreciate the complexity and diversity of
Indian society, and judged it according to Western standards while focusing
mainly on the economic and commercial aspects of their travels.
The Pursuit of Glory

Edward Said's critique of Imperialism in "Culture and Imperialism" 77 examines

power dynamics and stereotypes in Western cultural representations of the East.
He argues that these accounts played a crucial role in justifying and sustaining
imperialist ambitions. Said criticizes the reduction of different cultures to
simplistic, exotic or inferior stereotypes, thereby perpetuating the dominance of
the West over the East. Said's concept of Orientalism was discussed at length in
his earlier works, emphasizing the construction of a dual relationship between
East and West. In Orientalist narratives, the East is often portrayed as exotic,
backward, and in need of Western intervention. Travel narratives influenced by
this Orientalist perspective reinforce narratives of Western supremacy and
legitimate imperial expansion that seeks not only economic and political
dominance but also cultural hegemony. The celebration of exploration and
conquest in travelogues became a tool for asserting cultural superiority and
justifying imperial control. The explorers hoped to cement their place in history
while advancing the goals of the empire. Travelogue also intersects with cultural
imperialism in complex ways. Explorers sought recognition and admiration for
their exploits, while their narratives perpetuated power imbalances and supported
imperial ideologies.

James Lancaster and Ralph Fitch both incorporated self-glorification elements

into their travel accounts from their journeys to the East Indies. In his account,
Lancaster described several episodes where he exaggerated his own
accomplishments and bravery. One instance occurred when he claimed to have
singlehandedly defeated a fleet of pirates attacking his ship near Sumatra, and
other dangerous encounters with locals:

77
Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. Alfred A. Knopf, 1994.
 "We were met by great multitudes both horse and foot...their weapons being bows,
arrows, swords, and spears; we gave each other good cheer with our eyes." 78

"The people hereabout us did continually assault us, coming so near us sometimes that
we had almost killed their men..." 79

Another instance involved him boasting about his prowess as a marksman,

claiming that he could shoot more accurately than any other man alive. This type
of self-aggrandizement helped reinforce Lancaster's image as an intrepid
adventurer and added excitement to his already captivating tales of Asian lands
and cultures. 80 Fitch was not as focused on self-promotion as Lancaster, but in
some cases he still paints himself in a positive light. One such moment came when
he recounted a dispute he had with a group of Japanese officials. Despite being
outnumbered, Fitch refused to bow to their demands and stood up for himself,
even threatening personal attacks if necessary. While the outcome of the situation
wasn't explicitly mentioned to us, it still portrayed Fitch as a brave and confident
figure, able to stand his ground in dangerous situations. This way of portraying
himself helps cement Fitch’s reputation as an intrepid traveler who deserves
admiration and respect.

78
Foster, William. Early Travels in India, 1583-1619, oxford, p. 386. 1921
79
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation. P.
292, 1890.
80
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics and Discoveries of the English Nation, p. 187,
1598.
 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the study of the early travel narratives to the East Indies focusing
on James Lancaster and Ralph Fitch’s account delivers valuable details of the
representational nature of India as well as the complex dynamics between these
two travelers. Through an analysis of different themes and aspects in these
narrative, a holistic understanding has been provided for the multifaceted nature
of these accounts.

As discussed in the first section, the early English presence in India laid the
historical foundation for the subsequent travel narratives in the East Indies, even
though their explorations were late compared to their European counterparts at
this time. The exploration of early travels East Indies especially the voyage of
Fitch and Lancaster offered insights into the adventurous spirit as well as curiosity
that swayed them into undertaking such journeys. Contextualizing these travel
narratives consequently revealed that they were not isolated accounts but had
several influences from various historical, cultural and political factors.
Analysis of the representation of India in these narratives revealed the proper
representational techniques used by the authors to portray the Indians and their
Europeans counterpart, and was often assumed by religious and nationalistic
ideologies. In many ways, through these narratives, the authors built an English
identity which differentiated them from the Indians while at the same time
presenting India from an English perspective. These representational binaries
furthermore involve a dialogic nature as interactions and clearly depicted between
the English and Indians, thereby proving that there was negotiation of cultural
difference.
 The second part of the essay delved into the three overarching motives of God,
gold and glory that motivated the British in their interactions with India. Under
the theme of God, religion played a significant role, influencing the perceptions
of both the English and Indians. The portrayals of Indians and Europeans in
relation to their religious beliefs showcased the complexities of religious
encounters in these narratives. Moreover, the construction of English identity was
deeply intertwined with religion. The pursuit of gold, explored under the second
motive, involved a discussion of geography, climate, and commerce. The
geographical and climatic descriptions in the travel narratives contributed to the
understanding of India as an exotic and diverse land. Additionally, the economic
aspects of trade and commerce in the narratives highlighted the economic interests
of the British in India. Finally, the pursuit of glory was analyzed through an
examination of travel criticism, the purpose of travel narratives, and the desire for
recognition and fame. The critical engagement with travel narratives served as a
means to reflect upon and evaluate the experiences and observations of the
authors. It also shed light on the motivations behind writing these narratives,
which were often driven by a desire for personal glory and the creation of the
British Empire.

The representation of India in early travel narratives to the East Indies, as

exemplified by James Lancaster and Ralph Fitch, offers valuable insights into the
cultural, religious, economic and political dynamics between the English and
Indians during the early modern period. By examining the origins of the English
presence in India, the contextualization of the travel narratives and the
representational techniques employed, this essay has demonstrated the
complexity and intricacies of these narratives. Furthermore, the exploration of the
motives of God, gold and glory has provided a deeper understanding of the
underlying motivations behind these travel narratives. Overall, the study of these
early travel narratives enriches our understanding of the historical and cultural
interactions between India and the British Empire, and their lasting impact on
perceptions and representations.
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