TYPES OF CRACKS IN

BUILDINGS AND MEASURES FOR

RECTIFICATION
MMBC VIII 18ARC8.2
TYPES OF CRACKS
• CONSTRUCTION MOVEMENT 1.Form work movement
2.Subgrade movement

HARSHITH M REDDY
 FORM WORK
MOVEMENT

• if there is movement of the formwork after the concrete has

• started to stiffen but before it has gained enough
• strength to support its own weight, cracks may form. This type of
cracking has no set pattern.

• To avoid cracking from formwork movement, formwork must be:

• sufficiently strong and rigid to support the weight of the concrete

without excessive deflections; and
• left in place until the concrete has gained sufficient strength to
support itself.
SUBGRADE MOVEMENT

• The foundation of the pavement structure is known as

subgrade. Preparation of subgrade consists of all operations
before the pavement structure is placed over it and compacted.
The subgrade may be situated on an embankment, by excavation,
or at the existing ground surface. In all the above cases, Site
Clearance Clearing Grubbing Operation should be done before
starting the pavement structure construction. After that, the
grading operation is started as per the design and drawing of the
highway plan and profile. Subgrade performance depends on two
corresponding factors, which are as follows.

• Load bearing capacity: Compaction, moisture content, and soil

type usually affect subgrade load bearing capacity.
• Volume changes: When exposed to excessive moisture or
freezing conditions, most soils undergo volume changes, affecting
subgrade performance.
 3. Plastic shrinkage
4. Plastic Settlement
PLASTIC

HEMANTH KUMAR CM
PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKS ​

• Plastic shrinkage cracks appear in the surface of

fresh concrete soon after it is placed and while it is
still plastic.
• These cracks appear mostly on horizontal
surfaces. They are usually parallel to each other on
the order of 1 to 3 feet apart, relatively shallow, and
generally do not intersect the perimeter of the slab.
• Plastic shrinkage cracking is highly likely to occur
when high evaporation rates cause the concrete
surface to dry out before it has set.
• Plastic shrinkage cracks are unsightly but rarely
impair the strength or durability of concrete floors
and pavements.
• The development of these cracks can be
minimized if appropriate measures are taken prior to
and during placing and finishing concrete.
 WHY PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKS OCCUR
• Plastic shrinkage cracks are caused by a rapid loss of water from the
surface of concrete before it has set.
• The critical condition exists when the rate of evaporation of surface
moisture exceeds the rate at which rising bleed water can replace it.
• Water receding below the concrete surface forms menisci between the
fine particles of cement and aggregate causing a tensile force to develop
in the surface layers.
• If the concrete surface has started to set and has developed sufficient
tensile strength to resist the tensile forces, cracks do not form.
• If the surface dries very rapidly, the concrete may still be plastic, and
cracks do not develop at that time; but plastic cracks will surely form as
soon as the concrete stiffens a little more.
• Synthetic fiber reinforcement incorporated in the concrete mixture can
help resist the tension when concrete is very weak.

Conditions that cause high evaporation rates from

the concrete surface, and thereby increase the
possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking, include:
• Wind velocity in excess of 5 mph
• Low relative humidity
• High ambient and/or concrete temperatures
 HOW TO MINIMIZE PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKING
Attempts to eliminate plastic shrinkage cracking by modifying the composition to affect
bleeding characteristics of a concrete mixture have not been found to be consistently
effective. To reduce the potential for plastic shrinkage cracking, it is important to
recognize ahead of time, before placement, when weather conditions conducive to
plastic shrinkage cracking will exist. Precautions can then be taken to minimize its
occurrence.
• When adverse conditions exist, erect temporary windbreaks to reduce the wind
velocity over the surface of the concrete and, if possible, provide sunshades to control
the surface temperature of the slab. If conditions are critical, schedule placement to
begin in the later afternoon or early evening. However, in very hot conditions, early
morning placement can afford better control on concrete temperatures.
• In the very hot and dry periods, use fog sprays to discharge a fine mist upwind and
into the air above the concrete. Fog sprays reduce the rate of evaporation from the
concrete surface and should be continued until suitable curing materials can be
applied.
• Start curing the concrete as soon as possible. Spray the surface with liquid membrane
curing compound or cover the surface with wet burlap and keep it continuously moist
for a minimum of 3 days.
• Consider using synthetic fibers (ASTM C 1116) to resist plastic shrinkage cracking.
• Accelerate the setting time of concrete and avoid large temperature differences
between concrete and air temperatures.
 PLASTIC SETTLEMENT CRACKING
• Cracks caused when the settlement of fresh concrete is restrained by reinforcement or
formwork.
• Plastic settlement cracks can form in young concrete, within the first few hours after
placing.
• As water moves upward through the mixture, the denser constituents move
downward.
• This downward movement may be obstructed by the top layer of reinforcement or by
the shuttering.
• The plastic concrete may arch over the top of individual reinforcing bars, bringing the
surface into tension.
• Cracks may develop at regular spacing and usually follow the line of the uppermost
bars, giving a series of parallel cracks; there may also be shorter cracks at right angles
over the bars running in the opposite direction.
• It is sometimes possible for plastic settlement cracks to form on a vertical face where
reinforcement has restricted the free flow of concrete within the formwork.
• In such cases it is possible that the cracks are formed between the lines of the
reinforcement.
• The concrete can also be supported by the shuttering, causing restraint to the concrete
in connected members.
• This typically happens at mushroom-heads on columns but can also occur at other Plastic settlement cracks above the main rebars
(highlighted by the orange lines)
locations, such as under spacer blocks.
• Cracks at mushroom heads of columns are generally horizontal.
• They are also typically 1 mm wide and can cross the full section.
 6. Premature Freezing
• FROST DAMAGE 7. Scaling, crazing

OM DESHPANDE
FROST DAMAGE
Frost damage of early-age concrete is particularly harmful for
the concrete mechanical resistance because the ice volume
expansion causes micro-cracks in the concrete structures,
and as a consequence it lowers the compressive strength of
concrete.
The frost resistance of concrete is the property that concrete
resist the role of freeze-thaw cycles without damage when it
suffers frost in the saturated state.

PREMEATURE FREEZING-Concrete is composed of cement,

water, aggregates (such as sand and gravel), and often
various additives. When concrete is exposed to low
temperatures, the water within it can freeze, leading to
potential problems. The freezing of water in concrete can
cause expansion and generate internal pressure, which can
result in cracking, reduced strength, and other durability
issues.
Proper precautions need to be taken when placing and curing concrete in cold weather
conditions to avoid the negative effects of freezing. Some common practices include:
1.Using heated materials: Heated aggregates and water can be used to mix the concrete,
raising its initial temperature and helping to counteract the effects of freezing.
2.Insulating measures: Insulating blankets or hay bales can be placed around freshly
poured concrete to provide thermal protection and prevent rapid heat loss.
3.Enclosure and heating: Enclosing the concrete placement area and providing heat
through external sources, such as heaters or insulated enclosures, can help maintain the
required temperature for proper curing.
4.Chemical admixtures: Certain admixtures, such as accelerators or antifreeze agents, can
be added to the concrete mix to lower its freezing point and improve its resistance to
freezing.
Concrete scaling is the flaking or peeling of a hardened
concrete surface. It is caused due to hydraulic pressures
caused by the expansion of water from repeated freeze-
thaw cycles within the concrete. The expansive forces
caused by the formation of ice and deicing chemicals
increase both the saturation of the concrete and the
number of freeze-thaw cycles causing light, medium to very
severe distress in concrete. It might start with small patches,
which can merge to create exposed large areas, leading to
aggregate popping out and spalling.

https://constrofacilitator.com/causes-preventive-and-repair-methods-for-concrete-scaling/
Causes of concrete scaling
•The use of non-air-entrained or less entrained air agents in
concrete mix
•Use of inadequate amount of calcium or sodium chloride
deicing salt with lower strength concrete
•Using concrete with low strength or high water
cementitious ratio
•Finishing work executed with bleed water at the top of the
surface
•Improper finishing of concrete slab
•Early or accelerated drying of the exposed concrete surface
•Lack of inadequate curing and protection
•Exposure of new concrete to freezing and thawing before it
has been adequately cured
•Exposure to aggressive/corrosive salts and fertilizers
•Inadequate use of supplementary cementitious materials
•Choosing improper curing methods
•The use of deicing chemicals in new concrete increases the
amount of scaling
•Accelerated drying of concrete

https://constrofacilitator.com/causes-preventive-and-repair-methods-for-concrete-scaling/
Prevention Measures for concrete scaling
•Use a proper concrete mix with durable and well-graded aggregates and a low water-cementitious
ratio
•Concrete exposed to freezing and thawing cycles must be air-entrained
•Do not perform any finishing operation with water present on the surface and also initial screeding
should be done followed by bull-floating
•Properly slope the concrete surface to drain water away from the slab
•Provide proper curing by using a liquid membrane curing compound or by covering the surface of the
newly placed slab with wet burlap
•Apply a commercially available silane or siloxane-based breathable, penetrating concrete sealer
specifically designed for concrete slabs
•Do not use a jitterbug or vibrating screed with high slump concrete
•Prevent the addition of water when concrete is troweled or floated
•Curing should be done properly and it should be done at least for 7 days and done according to the no
of days required
•Provide curing using a liquid membrane compound which increases the strength of the concrete
•Avoid using salts such as calcium, magnesium, or sodium chloride on newly placed concrete
•Finishing should be done properly
•Protect newly placed concrete from severe environmental conditions
•Make the concrete dry before the sealer application

https://constrofacilitator.com/causes-preventive-and-repair-methods-for-concrete-scaling/
Crazing in concrete floors is the development of random cracks or fissures on the
surface of concrete caused by shrinkage of the surface layer. It is a result of conditions
and curing methods at the point the concrete is laid or even the way it is finished.

Causes for concrete crazing

Improper curing – When the evaporation rate from the concrete surface is
higher than the moisture gain from curing, the crazing cracks occur in concrete.
This occurs due to direct sunlight, low humidity, or drying winds. Even the
delayed application of curing will permit rapid drying of the surface and crazing.
Intermittent curing – Making the concrete dry for some time is called
intermittent curing. During the process of making the concrete wet, the surface
tries to absorb water inside and makes the crazing appear on the surface.
Excessive floating – Too wet a mix, excessive floating, the use of a jitterbug or
any other procedures which will depress the coarse aggregate and produce an
excessive concentration of cement paste and fines at the surface.
Inappropriate finishing – Finishing while there is bleed water on the surface or
the use of a steel trowel because the smooth surface of the trowel brings up too
much water and cement fines. Use of a bull float or darby while bleed water on
the surface will produce a high water-cement ratio weak surface layer which will
be susceptible to crazing.
Sprinkling cement on the surface, to dry up the bleed water, is a frequent cause
of crazing surfaces. This concentrates fines on the surface.
https://constrofacilitator.com/what-is-concrete-crazing-and-how-can-we-avoid-it/
Excess water-cement ratio – Excessive water leads to crazing. After the concrete
has been placed, excess water settles at the top which moves the cement
particle creating a thin layer on the surface. It gets dried and causes craze.
Excessive vibration – Too much vibration on the concrete makes the blue metal
settle down and let the cement slurry to the top which causes crazing.
Carbonation – Carbonation is a chemical reaction between cement and carbon
dioxide or carbon monoxide from unvented heaters. In such instances, the
surface will be soft and will dust as well.
Poor workmanship – Using more hand trowels actions while placing the concrete
leads to the improper settlement of concrete and raises cement paste to the
surface and makes water bleed leading to crazing.

Prevention measures for concrete crazing

•Don’t allow the labor to disturb the concrete by hand trowels.
•Start curing the concrete as soon as possible. The surface should be kept wet by either
flooding the surface with water or, covering the surface with damp burlap and keeping it
continuously moist for a minimum of 3 days or, spraying the surface with a liquid membrane
curing compound. Curing retains the moisture required for proper combinations of cement
and water.
•Use moderate slump 80 to 100 mm, air-entrained concrete. Higher slumps can be used
providing the mixture is designed to produce the required strength without excessive
bleeding and/or segregation.
https://constrofacilitator.com/what-is-concrete-crazing-and-how-can-we-avoid-it/
VOLUME 8. Drying Shrinkage
9. Thermal Change
INSTABILITY 10. Creep

VENUGOPAL TG
 VOLUME INSTABILITY OF CONCRETE
• THERE ARE SO MANY TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF CEMENT, THAT IT FEELS LIKE IT’S ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE TO UNDERSTAND
WHICH TYPE WILL FULFILL YOUR NEED.
• BUT MORE IMPORTANTLY, ONE DOES NOT KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CEMENT ANDCONCRETE.
• CEMENT IS THE PRODUCT YOU BUY FROM THE MARKET AND IT IS MIXED WITH SAND AND WATER TO PRODUCE
CONCRETE. THIS CONCRETE IS WHAT IS ACTUALLY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF YOUR HOME.
• DURING THE PROCESS OF CEMENT TURNING INTO CONCRETE, THE CONCRETE MIXTURE EXHIBITS MANY PHYSICAL AND
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. ONE SUCH PROPERTY IS THAT OF EXPANSION OR THE VOLUME INSTABILITY OF CONCRETE.
• THERE CAN BE MANY REASONS FOR THIS, INCLUDING PRESENCE OF HIGH INACTIVE FREE LIME, REACTIONS DUE TO
EXCESS GYPSUM IN CEMENT ETC.
• DRYING SHRINKAGE
• IS DEFINED AS THE CONTRACTING OF A HARDENED CONCRETE MIXTURE DUE TO THE LOSS OF CAPILLARY WATER. THIS
SHRINKAGE CAUSES AN INCREASE IN TENSILE STRESS, WHICH MAY LEAD TO CRACKING, INTERNAL WARPING, AND EXTERNAL
DEFLECTION, BEFORE THE CONCRETE IS SUBJECTED TO ANY KIND OF LOADING.
• CEMENT CONCRETE UNDERGOES DRYING SHRINKAGE OR HYDRAL VOLUME CHANGE AS THE CONCRETE AGES. THE HYDRAL
VOLUME CHANGE IN CONCRETE IS VERY IMPORTANT TO THE ENGINEER IN THE DESIGN OF A STRUCTURE. DRYING SHRINKAGE
CAN OCCUR IN SLABS, BEAMS, COLUMNS, BEARING WALLS, PRESTRESSED MEMBERS, TANKS, AND FOUNDATIONS.DRYING
SHRINKAGE IS DEPENDENT UPON SEVERAL FACTORS.
• THESE FACTORS INCLUDE THE PROPERTIES OF THE COMPONENTS, PROPORTIONS OF THE COMPONENTS, MIXING MANNER,
AMOUNT OF MOISTURE WHILE CURING, DRY ENVIRONMENT, AND MEMBER SIZE.
• CONCRETE CURED UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS WILL UNDERGO SOME VOLUMETRIC CHANGE. DRYING SHRINKAGE HAPPENS
MOSTLY BECAUSE OF THE REDUCTION OF CAPILLARY WATER BY EVAPORATION AND THE WATER IN THE CEMENT PASTE.
• THE HIGHER AMOUNT OF WATER IN THE FRESH CONCRETE, THE GREATER THE DRYING SHRINKAGE AFFECTS. THE SHRINKAGE
POTENTIAL OF A PARTICULAR CONCRETE IS INFLUENCED BY THE AMOUNT OF MIXING, THE ELAPSED TIME AFTER THE
ADDITION OF WATER, TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATION, SLUMPING, PLACEMENT, AND CURING.

DRYING SHRINKAGE CAN BE CONTROLLED BY:

1.USING LOW HEAT CEMENT OR PPC
2.ADDING LIME TO OPC
3.USING LIME PLASTER INSTEAD OF CEMENT PLASTER
4.CURING BY HIGH PRESSURE STEAM CURING METHOD
THERMAL CHANGE​
• TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE WITHIN A CONCRETE STRUCTURE MAY BE CAUSED BY PORTIONS OF
THE STRUCTURE LOSING HEAT OF HYDRATION AT DIFFERENT RATES OR BY THE WEATHER
CONDITIONS COOLING OR HEATING ONE PORTION OF THE STRUCTURE TO A DIFFERENT DEGREE
OR AT A DIFFERENT RATE THAN ANOTHER PORTION OF THE STRUCTURE.
• THESE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES RESULT IN DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME CHANGE, LEADING TO
CRACKS. THIS IS NORMALLY ASSOCIATED WITH MASS CONCRETE INCLUDING LARGE AND
THICKER SECTIONS OF COLUMN, PIERS, BEAMS, FOOTINGS AND SLABS. TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENTIAL DUE TO CHANGES IN THE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE CAN AFFECT ANY STRUCTURE.
• THE TEMPERATURE GRADIENT MAY BE CAUSED BY EITHER THE CENTRE OF THE CONCRETE
HEATING UP MORE THAN THE OUTSIDE DUE TO THE LIBERATION OF HEAT DURING CEMENT
HYDRATION OR MORE RAPID COOLING OF THE EXTERIOR RELATIVE TO THE INTERIOR. BOTH
CASES RESULT IN TENSILE STRESSES ON THE EXTERIOR AND, IF THE TENSILE STRENGTH IS
EXCEEDED, CRACKING WILL OCCUR.

• PREVENTIVE MEASURES:

• REDUCING MAXIMUM INTERNAL TEMPERATURE.

• DELAYING THE ONSET OF COOLING.
• INCREASING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
• REDUCING THE CONCRETE TEMPERATURE AT PLACEMENT UP TO SAY 32 0 C.
• USING LOW HEAT OF HYDRATION CEMENT OR USING FLY ASH REPLACEMENT OF PART OF
CEMENT.
• KEEPING STEEL FORMWORK WARM BY AIR HEATING DURING WINTER.
• USE OF THERMALLY INSULATING MATERIAL AS FORMWORK.
• KEEPING INSULATING FORMWORK FOR LONGER DURATION.
• LOW GRADE OF CEMENT, OPC 33 GRADE IS THE BEST.
• CEMENT WITH HIGH C2S CONTENT.
CREEP​​ IN CONCRETE
• CREEP OF CONCRETE IS THE PERMANENT DEFORMATION REPORTED IN A PART OF A STRUCTURE
DUE TO THE SUSTAINED LOAD FOR A LONG TIME.
• CREEP INDICATES THAT STRAIN IN THE STRUCTURE CONTINUOUSLY INCREASES, BUT STRESS
REMAINS CONSTANT. CREEP IN A STRUCTURE WILL DEPEND ON THE STRUCTURAL MATERIAL,
LOADING QUANTITY, LOADING DURATION, ETC. CREEP IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES WILL BE LESSER
THAN IN STEEL STRUCTURES.
• CREEP DEFORMATION GENERALLY OCCURS IN 3 STAGES.
• THESE STAGES ARE CALLED PRIMARY CREEP, SECONDARY CREEP AND TERTIARY CREEP. IN THE
PRIMARY STAGE, CONCRETE CREEP STARTS RAPIDLY, AND THE RATE DECREASES WITH TIME. IN THE
SECONDARY STAGE, CREEP GENERALLY OCCURS AT A CONSTANT RATE. AND IN THE TERTIARY STAGE,
CREEP STARTS AT AN INCREASING RATE UNTIL THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER BREAKS DOWN.
MEASUREMENT OF CREEP OF CONCRETE
• CREEP IS USUALLY DETERMINED BY MEASURING THE CHANGE WITH TIME IN THE STRAIN
OF A SPECIMEN SUBJECTED TO CONSTANT STRESS AND STORED UNDER APPROPRIATE
CONDITIONS. A TYPICAL TESTING DEVICE IS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE BELOW.
• THE SPRING ENSURES THAT THE LOAD IS SENSIBLY CONSTANT IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT
THE SPECIMEN CONTRACTS WITH TIME. UNDER SUCH CONDITIONS, CREEP CONTINUES
FOR A VERY LONG TIME, BUT THE RATE OF CREEP DECREASES WITH TIME.
FACTORS AFFECTING CREEP OF CONCRETE
AS WE DISCUSSED, CREEP IS THE PERMANENT DEFORMATION CAUSED BY SUSTAINED LOADING. SO BASED ON THE CAUSE OF THE CREEP OF
CONCRETE, IT WILL DEPEND ON SEVERAL FACTORS. THESE FACTORS GOVERN THE QUALITY OF THE CONCRETE MATERIAL. THESE FACTORS INCLUDE
THE TIME DEPENDING LOADING FACTORS AND PARAMETERS RELATED TO MANUFACTURING CONCRETE MATERIAL. HERE A FEW FACTORS ARE LISTED
BELOW ON WHICH THE CREEP OF CONCRETE DEPENDS.
TYPE OF CEMENT USED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE MATERIAL
•QUANTITY OF CEMENT USED IN THE CONCRETE
•SIZE AND SHAPE OF THE CONCRETE MATERIAL
•AMOUNT OF THE REINFORCING BARS
•SURFACE-TO-VOLUME RATIO
•THE HUMIDITY OF THE SURROUNDING ATMOSPHERE
 11. Design Load / Over Load
12. Design / Subgrade
• STRUCTURAL / DESIGN
13. Fatigue

ROHAN M JOSHI
 DESIGN LOAD / OVER
LOAD
• Cracking due to the design loads can consider as
structural cracks and they can be avoided at the
design phase if attended on the design correctly.
• Estimation of design loads shall be done correctly in
order to have a safe and economical structure.
• Overestimation will increase the safety structure.
Problem
• An overload failure can occur at any time, with a
peak of the (random) load process exceeding the
instantaneous capacity of the structure.
• Hence, under random loading the problems of crack
propagation and overload fracture cannot always be
isolated

https://gharpedia.com/blog/building-collapse-due-overloading/
Possible causes
•The negligence of the workers during the construction
stage (storing of the excessive amount of building
materials like cement, sand, bricks, steel bars, etc. at one
place on the floor of the building).
•The heavy machineries like the crane, hoist, etc. are
placed on the floor for lifting the building materials.

In such cases, if the load is excessive then it will affect the

stability of the building and building may collapse partially
or totally.

https://gharpedia.com/blog/building-collapse-due-overloading/
Repair

NORMALLY BUILDING SHOULD NOT THE BUILDING SHOULD BE THE AMOUNT OF LOADS, THE IT IS ADVISABLE TO CONCERN
BE SUBJECTED TO MORE LOAD PROPERLY RESTRAINED AND DURATION THAT THE LOAD THE STRUCTURAL
THAN DESIGN. IF THE BUILDING IS BRACED BEFORE THE OVERLOADS APPLIED, AND THE PLACEMENT OF ENGINEER BEFORE STORING OF
SUBJECTED TO ANY LOAD WHICH IS ARE APPLIED. LOAD SHOULD BE MANAGED FOR HEAVY MATERIALS OR
MORE THAN THE DESIGNED ONE, IT THE SAFETY OF THE BUILDING AT MACHINERIES AT ONE PLACE IN THE
IS LIKELY TO FAIL EITHER THE TIME OF CONSTRUCTION. BUILDING
IMMEDIATELY OR OVER A PERIOD
OF TIME.

https://gharpedia.com/blog/building-collapse-due-overloading/
12. Design /
Subgrade
• Subgrade Settlement (or
Expansion) – Resulting from poor
soil conditions or changes in soil
moisture content.
 POSSIBLE CAUSE

• Subgrade and subbase are the foundation of a concrete slab

and play critical role in its performance.
• According to the ACI Code, the subgrade is a compacted
and improved natural soil or brought infill whereas subbase
is a layer of gravel placed on the top of the subgrade.
• Both subgrade and subbase shall be constructed according
to design requirement so as to offer the expected
performance.
• They must be well drained, dry at the time of concrete
placement, and provide uniform support for the weight of
the slab and anything placed on the slab.
• If a floor slab is constructed on unstable subgrade or
subbase, then the concrete placed may get wasted during
construction and concrete slab is highly likely to suffer from
settlement after construction.
• Therefore, substantial cautions shall be practiced while
subgrade and subbase are place

https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/pavement-management/pavement-distresses/fatigue-cracking/
 13. Fatigue

Figure 1: Fatigue cracking

as a result of frost action

Series of interconnected cracks In thin pavements, cracking This is commonly referred to as After repeated loading, the
caused by fatigue failure of the initiates at the bottom of the “bottom-up” or “classical” longitudinal cracks connect
HMA surface (or stabilized HMA layer where the tensile fatigue cracking. In thick forming many-sided sharp-
base) under repeated traffic stress is the highest then pavements, the cracks most angled pieces that develop into
loading. propagates to the surface as likely initiate from the top in a pattern resembling the back
one or more longitudinal
cracks.
areas of high localized tensile
stresses resulting from tire-
of an alligator or crocodile.
Figure 2: Very severely
pavement interaction and fatigued cracked pavement
asphalt binder aging (top-down
cracking).

Problem
Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture
infiltration, roughness, may further deteriorate to a
pothole

Figure 3: Fatigue cracking

https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/pavement-management/pavement-distresses/fatigue-cracking/ from a lack of edge support
Possible Causes​ Repair
• Inadequate structural support, which can be caused by a
myriad of things. A few of the more common ones A fatigue cracked pavement should be investigated to determine the root
are listed here:​ cause of failure. Any investigation should involve digging a pit or coring
the pavement to determine the pavement’s structural makeup as well as
• Decrease in pavement load supporting characteristics​ determining whether or not subsurface moisture is a contributing factor.
•Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support (e.g., poor Once the characteristic alligator pattern is apparent, repair by crack
drainage or spring thaw resulting in a less stiff base).​ sealing is generally ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls into one
of two categories:
•STRIPPING on the bottom of the HMA layer (the
stripped portion contributes little to pavement strength so • Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade
the effective HMA thickness decreases)​ support. Remove the cracked pavement area then dig out and replace
the area of poor subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if
•Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads than necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.
anticipated in design)​
• Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural
•Inadequate structural design​ failure. Place an HMA overlay over the entire pavement surface. This
•Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)​ overlay must be strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated
loading because the underlying fatigue cracked pavement most likely
contributes little or no strength

https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/pavement-management/pavement-distresses/fatigue-cracking/
 14. AAR/ASR/DEF
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL 15. Steel Corrosion
16. Freeze-Thaw Cycling

VARUN S VENKAT
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL IN CONCRETE
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES PLAY A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN THE PERFORMANCE AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE. HERE ARE SOME KEY PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ASPECTS
THAT ARE IMPORTANT IN CONCRETE:
• WATER-CEMENT RATIO: THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO IS A CRITICAL PARAMETER THAT AFFECTS THE STRENGTH, WORKABILITY, AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE. THE
RATIO DETERMINES THE AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED FOR THE CEMENT TO CHEMICALLY REACT AND FORM HYDRATION PRODUCTS. A LOWER WATER-CEMENT
RATIO GENERALLY LEADS TO HIGHER STRENGTH AND DURABILITY, BUT IT MAY AFFECT WORKABILITY.
• HYDRATION: HYDRATION IS THE CHEMICAL REACTION BETWEEN CEMENT AND WATER, WHICH RESULTS IN THE FORMATION OF CEMENTITIOUS COMPOUNDS,
MAINLY CALCIUM SILICATE HYDRATES (C-S-H). THE HYDRATION PROCESS IS EXOTHERMIC AND LEADS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF STRENGTH AND HARDNESS IN
CONCRETE OVER TIME. THE RATE OF HYDRATION AND THE RESULTING MICROSTRUCTURE SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCE THE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE.
• PORE STRUCTURE: THE PORE STRUCTURE IN CONCRETE PLAYS A VITAL ROLE IN ITS DURABILITY. IT AFFECTS PROPERTIES SUCH AS PERMEABILI TY, MOISTURE
TRANSPORT, FREEZE-THAW RESISTANCE, AND CARBONATION RESISTANCE. THE SIZE, DISTRIBUTION, AND CONNECTIVITY OF PORES ARE INFLUENCED BY FACTORS
LIKE WATER-CEMENT RATIO, CURING CONDITIONS, AND SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS.
• CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES: CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES ARE OFTEN ADDED TO CONCRETE TO MODIFY ITS PROPERTIES. THESE ADMIXTURES INCLUDE WATER REDUCERS,
ACCELERATORS, RETARDERS, AIR-ENTRAINING AGENTS, AND SUPERPLASTICIZERS. THEY CAN AFFECT THE WORKABILITY, SETTING TIME, STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT,
AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE THROUGH VARIOUS CHEMICAL MECHANISMS.
ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION (AAR) IS A PHYSICO-CHEMICAL REACTION THAT CAN OCCUR IN CONCRETE
BETWEEN THE ALKALIS PRESENT IN THE CEMENT AND CERTAIN TYPES OF REACTIVE MINERALS OR AGGREGATES. IT IS A
MAJOR DURABILITY CONCERN FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES.
THERE ARE TWO MAIN TYPES OF AAR:
• ALKALI-SILICA REACTION (ASR): ASR OCCURS WHEN REACTIVE SILICA IN AGGREGATES (SUCH AS CERTAIN TYPES OF
CHERT, OPAL, OR VOLCANIC GLASS) REACTS WITH THE ALKALIS (SODIUM AND POTASSIUM) FROM THE CEMENT
PORE SOLUTION. THIS REACTION FORMS A GEL-LIKE SUBSTANCE, WHICH ABSORBS WATER AND SWELLS, EXERTING
PRESSURE ON THE SURROUNDING CONCRETE. OVER TIME, THIS CAN LEAD TO CRACKING, EXPANSION, AND
DETERIORATION OF THE CONCRETE.
• ALKALI-CARBONATE REACTION (ACR): ACR OCCURS WHEN CERTAIN CARBONATE ROCKS OR AGGREGATES
CONTAINING DOLOMITE OR CALCITE COME INTO CONTACT WITH THE ALKALIS FROM THE CEMENT. THIS REACTION
LEADS TO THE FORMATION OF A GEL-LIKE SUBSTANCE SIMILAR TO ASR, CAUSING EXPANSION AND DAMAGE TO THE
CONCRETE.
BOTH ASR AND ACR CAN RESULT IN CONCRETE CRACKING, REDUCED STRENGTH, INCREASED PERMEABILITY, AND
DECREASED DURABILITY. THESE REACTIONS ARE INFLUENCED BY FACTORS SUCH AS THE TYPE AND REACTIVITY OF
AGGREGATES, ALKALI CONTENT IN THE CEMENT, MOISTURE AVAILABILITY, AND TEMPERATURE.
TO MITIGATE ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTIONS, THE FOLLOWING MEASURES CAN BE TAKEN:​
• SELECTION OF AGGREGATES: USING NON-REACTIVE OR LOW-REACTIVE AGGREGATES CAN HELP MINIMIZE THE RISK OF AAR. AGGREGATES WITH A HISTORY
OF REACTIVITY SHOULD BE AVOIDED OR SUBJECTED TO APPROPRIATE TESTING TO ASSESS THEIR POTENTIAL FOR REACTION.​
• CEMENT SELECTION: USE OF LOW-ALKALI CEMENT CAN REDUCE THE ALKALI CONTENT IN THE CONCRETE AND MITIGATE THE RISK OF AAR.
ADDITIONALLY, SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS SUCH AS FLY ASH OR SLAG, WHICH HAVE LOWER ALKALI CONTENTS, CAN BE USED TO REPLACE A
PORTION OF THE CEMENT.​
• CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES: CERTAIN CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES, KNOWN AS ALKALI-REACTIVITY INHIBITORS, CAN BE USED TO MITIGATE AAR. THESE ADMIXTURES
WORK BY REDUCING THE REACTIVITY OF AGGREGATES OR ALKALIS OR BY FORMING A PROTECTIVE LAYER AROUND REACTIVE AGGREGATES.​
• PROPER CURING: ADEQUATE CURING OF CONCRETE HELPS IN REDUCING THE POTENTIAL FOR AAR. MAINTAINING A MOIST ENVIRONMENT DURING TH E
EARLY STAGES OF HYDRATION CAN MINIMIZE THE TRANSPORT OF ALKALIS AND REACTIVE ELEMENTS.​
• MONITORING AND TESTING: REGULAR TESTING AND MONITORING OF CONCRETE FOR AAR ARE ESSENTIAL, ESPECIALLY FOR CRITICAL STRUCTURES. TEST
METHODS SUCH AS THE CONCRETE PRISM TEST OR THE ACCELERATED MORTAR BAR TEST CAN BE USED TO EVALUATE THE POTENTIAL FOR AAR.​
STEEL CORROSION IS A SIGNIFICANT CONCERN IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES, AND IT CAN HAVE
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS ON THEIR STRENGTH, DURABILITY, AND STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY. SEVERAL PHYSICO-
CHEMICAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO STEEL CORROSION IN CONCRETE:
• CHLORIDE ION INGRESS: CHLORIDE IONS, COMMONLY PRESENT IN SEAWATER, DEICING SALTS, OR
CONTAMINATED ENVIRONMENTS, CAN PENETRATE THE CONCRETE COVER AND REACH THE STEEL
REINFORCEMENT. IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN AND MOISTURE, CHLORIDE IONS INITIATE CORROSION OF
THE STEEL. HIGHER CHLORIDE CONCENTRATIONS INCREASE THE LIKELIHOOD AND RATE OF CORROSION.
• CARBONATION: CARBONATION IS A CHEMICAL PROCESS WHERE CARBON DIOXIDE FROM THE
ATMOSPHERE REACTS WITH CALCIUM HYDROXIDE IN CONCRETE TO FORM CALCIUM CARBONATE.
CARBONATION REDUCES THE ALKALINITY OF CONCRETE, WHICH ACTS AS A PROTECTIVE LAYER FOR THE
STEEL REINFORCEMENT. ONCE THE PH DROPS BELOW A CERTAIN THRESHOLD (AROUND 9-9.5), THE
PASSIVE FILM ON THE STEEL CAN BE COMPROMISED, LEADING TO CORROSION.
• OXYGEN AND MOISTURE: STEEL CORROSION IN CONCRETE REQUIRES THE PRESENCE OF BOTH OXYGEN
AND MOISTURE. OXYGEN SERVES AS AN ELECTRON ACCEPTOR, AND MOISTURE ACTS AS AN ELECTROLYTE
FOR THE ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION PROCESS TO OCCUR.
• GALVANIC CORROSION: GALVANIC CORROSION CAN OCCUR WHEN DISSIMILAR METALS ARE IN CONTACT IN
THE PRESENCE OF AN ELECTROLYTE, SUCH AS CONCRETE PORE SOLUTION. WHEN STEEL REINFORCEMENT
COMES INTO CONTACT WITH OTHER METALS OR MATERIALS WITH DIFFERENT ELECTROCHEMICAL
POTENTIALS, SUCH AS STAINLESS STEEL, ALUMINUM, OR CERTAIN COATINGS, IT CAN ACCELERATE
PREVENTIVE MEASURES TO MITIGATE STEEL CORROSION IN CONCRETE INCLUDE:​
•ADEQUATE COVER: SUFFICIENT CONCRETE COVER OVER THE STEEL REINFORCEMENT HELPS PROTECT IT FROM EXPOSURE TO AGGRESSIVE SUBSTANCES, SUCH AS
CHLORIDES OR CARBON DIOXIDE.​
•PROPER CONCRETE QUALITY: GOOD QUALITY CONCRETE WITH LOW PERMEABILITY CAN REDUCE THE INGRESS OF MOISTURE, CHLORIDES, AND OTHER CORROSIVE
AGENTS.​
•CORROSION INHIBITORS: CORROSION INHIBITORS, SUCH AS CALCIUM NITRITE OR ORGANIC INHIBITORS, CAN BE ADDED TO CONCRETE TO MITIGATE THE CORROSION
PROCESS BY INHIBITING THE ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS.​
•EPOXY COATINGS AND CATHODIC PROTECTION: THE APPLICATION OF EPOXY COATINGS ON STEEL SURFACES OR THE USE OF CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS CAN
PROVIDE AN ADDITIONAL BARRIER AND MITIGATE CORROSION EFFECTS.​
•REGULAR MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION: REGULAR INSPECTION, MONITORING, AND MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES HELP IDENTIFY AND ADDRESS
POTENTIAL CORROSION ISSUES AT AN EARLY STAGE, ALLOWING FOR APPROPRIATE REPAIRS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES.​
BY CONSIDERING THESE FACTORS AND IMPLEMENTING PREVENTIVE MEASURES, THE RISK OF STEEL CORROSION IN CONCRETE CAN BE MINIMIZED,ENSURING THE
DURABILITY AND LONGEVITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES.​
FREEZE-THAW CYCLING IS A PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PHENOMENON THAT CAN SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT THE
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE, PARTICULARLY IN REGIONS WITH FREEZING AND THAWING CLIMATES OR IN
STRUCTURES EXPOSED TO FREEZE-THAW CONDITIONS. WHEN WATER-SATURATED CONCRETE UNDERGOES
FREEZING AND THAWING CYCLES, SEVERAL MECHANISMS COME INTO PLAY:
• WATER EXPANSION: WHEN WATER FREEZES, IT EXPANDS BY APPROXIMATELY 9%. IN CONCRETE, THIS
EXPANSION EXERTS INTERNAL PRESSURE ON THE SURROUNDING PORE STRUCTURE AND CAN CAUSE
MICROCRACKS OR DAMAGE TO THE CEMENT PASTE AND AGGREGATES.
• ICE FORMATION: DURING FREEZING, WATER IN THE PORE SPACES OF CONCRETE CAN TRANSFORM INTO ICE
CRYSTALS. THE GROWTH OF THESE CRYSTALS CAN EXERT PRESSURE ON THE SURROUNDING MATERIALS,
LEADING TO MECHANICAL STRESSES AND POTENTIAL DAMAGE.
• PORE PRESSURE: AS WATER FREEZES, IT CAN GENERATE PORE PRESSURE WITHIN THE CONCRETE DUE TO
THE VOLUME EXPANSION. THIS PRESSURE CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRACKS AND
FURTHER DETERIORATION DURING SUBSEQUENT THAWING CYCLES.
• SALT SCALING: DEICING SALTS, SUCH AS SODIUM CHLORIDE OR CALCIUM CHLORIDE, USED TO MELT ICE
AND SNOW ON ROADS OR STRUCTURES, CAN EXACERBATE THE FREEZE-THAW DAMAGE. THESE SALTS CAN
INFILTRATE THE CONCRETE AND PROMOTE FURTHER CYCLES OF FREEZE-THAW, INCREASING THE RISK OF
SCALING AND DETERIORATION.
THE CONSEQUENCES OF FREEZE-THAW CYCLING IN CONCRETE INCLUDE:​
• SURFACE SCALING: SCALING REFERS TO THE LOSS OF SURFACE MORTAR OR
CONCRETE LAYERS DUE TO FREEZE-THAW DAMAGE. IT LEADS TO A ROUGH
AND DETERIORATED APPEARANCE OF THE CONCRETE SURFACE, EXPOSING THE
AGGREGATES.​
• CRACKING: FREEZE-THAW CYCLES CAN CAUSE MICROCRACKS OR EVEN LARGER
CRACKS IN THE CONCRETE, WHICH COMPROMISES ITS STRUCTURAL
INTEGRITY, DURABILITY, AND AESTHETICS.​
TO MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF FREEZE-THAW CYCLING, THE FOLLOWING MEASURES
CAN BE EMPLOYED:​
• LOW PERMEABILITY CONCRETE: USING CONCRETE WITH LOW PERMEABILITY
HELPS MINIMIZE WATER INGRESS INTO THE MATERIAL, REDUCING THE AMOUNT
OF WATER AVAILABLE FOR FREEZING AND SUBSEQUENT DAMAGE.​
• AIR ENTRAINMENT: THE ADDITION OF AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES CREATES
MICROSCOPIC AIR BUBBLES IN THE CONCRETE, PROVIDING SPACE FOR
WATER EXPANSION DURING FREEZING. THIS CAN ENHANCE THE CONCRETE'S
RESISTANCE TO FREEZE-THAW DAMAGE.​
• PROPER DRAINAGE: ENSURING ADEQUATE DRAINAGE AND PREVENTING THE
ACCUMULATION OF WATER ON CONCRETE SURFACES HELPS MINIMIZE
EXPOSURE TO FREEZE-THAW CYCLES.​
• DEICING CHEMICALS: CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN WHEN SELECTING AND USING
DEICING CHEMICALS TO PREVENT EXCESSIVE EXPOSURE AND POTENTIAL
DAMAGE TO CONCRETE.​
• PROTECTIVE COATINGS AND SEALERS: APPLYING APPROPRIATE PROTECTIVE
COATINGS OR SEALERS ON CONCRETE SURFACES CAN PROVIDE AN ADDITIONAL
LAYER OF DEFENSE AGAINST WATER PENETRATION AND FREEZE-THAW DAMAGE.​
THANK YOU

ASHISH REDDY
HEMANTHKUMAR CM
OM DESHPANDE
SCAN TO KNOW MORE
ROHAN M JOSHI
ABOUT CRACKS IN DETAIL
VENUGOPAL TG
VARUN S VENKAT
HARSHITH M REDDY