Molecular Biology

(Part 1)

Ranim Mira
 The nucleus contains the cell’s DNA (genome)
RNA is synthesized in the nucleus and exported
to the cytoplasm
Nucleus replication

Cytoplasm
DNA

transcription

RNA (mRNA)

translation

Proteins
1
 DNA Replication
• Cell division involving mitosis produces 2 daughter cells that are genetically
identical to each other and genetically identical to the parent cell
• Remember that for this to happen, DNA in the parent cell must be replicated
(copied) before the cell divides – this process occurs during Interphase in the
cell cycle.
 Storage of DNA
• In eukaryotic cells (animals, plants, fungi) DNA is stored in the nucleus, which is separated
from the rest of the cell by a semipermeable membrane
• The DNA is only organized into chromosomes during cell replication.
• Between replications, the DNA is stored in a compact ball called chromatin, and is wrapped
around proteins called histones to form nucleosomes
 The Gene
• A gene is a unit of inheritance
• Carries the information for a: -polypeptide -structural RNA
molecule
• Genes contain most of the information necessary for
living cells to survive and reproduce.
• In most organisms, genes are made of DNA, where the
particular DNA sequence determines the function of the
gene.
• A gene is transcribed (copied) from DNA into RNA, which
can either be non-coding (ncRNA) with a direct function, or
an intermediate messenger (mRNA) that is then translated
into protein.
 Gene Structure
• The structures of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic genes involve several nested
sequence elements.
• Each element has a specific function in the multi-step process of gene expression.
• The sequences and lengths of these elements vary, but the same general functions are
present in most genes.
• Regulatory sequences are located at the extremities of genes. These sequence regions
can either be next to the transcribed region (the promoter) or separated by many
kilobases (enhancers and silencers).
• The promoter is located at the 5' end of the gene and is composed of (a core
promoter sequence & a proximal promoter sequence). The core promoter marks
the start site for transcription by binding RNA polymerase while the proximal
promoter region binds transcription factors that modify the affinity of the core
promoter for RNA polymerase
• Enhancers and silencers may be distantly located from the gene. The binding of
different transcription factors, therefore, regulates the rate of transcription initiation at
different times and in different cells.
• The open reading frame (ORF) of a gene is therefore usually represented as an
arrow indicating the direction in which the sense strand is read. Only the region
between the start and stop codons encodes the final protein product.
• The untranslated regions (UTRs) contain further regulatory sequences. The 3' UTR
contains a terminator sequence, which marks the endpoint for transcription and
releases the RNA polymerase. The 5’ UTR binds the ribosome, which translates the
protein-coding region into a string of amino acids that fold to form the final protein
product. In the case of genes for non-coding RNAs, the RNA is not translated but
instead folds to be directly functional.
 Gene Structure
• The structure of eukaryotic genes includes features not
found in prokaryotes. Most of these relate to post-  Repressor proteins bound to the operator sequence
transcriptional modification of pre-mRNAs to physically obstructs the RNA polymerase enzyme,
produce mature mRNA ready for translation into protein preventing transcription.
which include:  Riboswitches are another important regulatory sequence
 transcripts are typically subdivided into exon & intron commonly present in prokaryotic UTRs.
regions. Exon regions are retained in the final mature
mRNA molecule, while intron regions are spliced out
(excised) during post-transcriptional processing
 Eukaryotic post-transcriptional processing also adds a 5' cap
to the start of the mRNA and a poly-adenosine tail to the
end of the mRNA.
While
• The most obvious difference of the prokaryotic genes:
 ORFs are often grouped into a polycistronic operon under
the control of a shared set of regulatory sequences.
 The operator sequence next to the promoter is the main
regulatory element in prokaryotes.
 Each ORF typically has its own ribosome binding site
(RBS) so that ribosomes simultaneously translate ORFs on
the same mRNA.
 Gene Structure

eukaryotic genes Prokaryotic genes

. .
 The Gene-Protein Connection
• DNA contains the instructions for the building of proteins through the assembly
of RNA molecules Transcription and Translation.
• Therefore, the DNA serves as a template to ensure the proper sequence of
amino acids.
Location of Protein Synthesis:
• Prokaryotic cells: replication, transcription, and translation all occur in the
cytoplasm (remember there is no nucleus), at approximately the same time.
• In Eukaryotic cells, where DNA is located inside the nucleus, these processes
are separated by location and times.
• Replication & transcription occur in the nucleus
• Translation occurs in the cytoplasm
 Nucleic Acids
• Genetic material of all known organisms
• DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
• RNA: ribonucleic acid (e.g., some
viruses)
• Consist of chemically linked sequences
of nucleotides
• Nitrogenous base
• Pentose- 5-carbon sugar (ribose
or deoxyribose)
• Phosphate group
• The sequence of bases provides the
genetic information
 Nucleic Acids/ Bases
Two types of bases
• Purines are fused five- and six-membered rings
• Adenine A DNA RNA
• Guanine G DNA RNA
• Pyrimidines are six-membered rings
• Cytosine C DNA RNA
• Thymine T DNA
• Uracil U RNA

Base-pairing: hydrogen bonds are relatively weak bonds compared to covalent bonds, it
can form between a pyrimidine and a purine.
Watson-Crick base-pairing rules
•A T
•G C
 DNA
• The DNA model was developed by Watson
and Crick in 1953.
• They received a Nobel prize in 1962 for
their work.
• The model looks like a twisted ladder –
double helix.
• X-ray diffraction photograph of the DNA
double helix
Deoxyribonucleotides found in DNA

dA dG dT dC
 Unusual structures of DNA
• There are major non-B-DNA structures have been described (Z-DNA, triplex DNA, G-
quadruplexes and cruciform DNA) which are stabilized by unconstrained negative supercoiling
and due to additional hydrogen bonds and can be formed under physiological conditions.
• The four-stranded nucleic acid structures called G-quadruplexes (G4s) and possess a high
degree of plasticity compared to the double-stranded canonical arrangement. Unique properties
include polymorphism, robustness and fast folding. These translate into biological functions of
importance to disease and ageing – G4s are abundant in the telomere as well as oncogenes and
may be important in virus life cycles.
• Bent DNA: Adenine base is rigid and when replaced by other bases due to photochemical
damage, anti-tumor drugs or mispairing of bases.
 DNA Replication
• DNA Helix: In general, DNA is double-
stranded (ds), it takes the form of a right-
handed helix with approximately 10 base
pairs per turn of the helix.
• Two strands of the DNA double helix are
antiparallel & complementary to each
other.
• A nucleic acid polymer has a free 5’-
phosphate group at one end and a free 3’-OH
group at the other end
• The sequence is read from the free 5’-end
using the letters of the bases
• This example reads
5’—A—C—G—T—3’
Nucleases
• Nucleases are enzymes that are known to cleave
phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids. They are
an important tool in DNA repair & molecular
cloning. On the basis of the locus (Site) of their
activity, nucleases are divided into
endonucleases and exonucleases.
• Endonuclease is found only in prokaryotes
while exonuclease is found in both eukaryotes
and prokaryotes. It is found only in prokaryotes. It is found in both eukaryotes
and prokaryotes.
 Nucleases
Restriction Enzymes: are specific endonucleases, which recognize specific short sequences of DNA and
cleave the DNA at or near the recognition sequence. Recognition sequences: usually 4 or 6 bases but there
are some that are 5, 8, or longer
• Recognition sequences are palindromes
Palindrome: sequence of DNA that is the same when one strand is read from left to right or the other strand
is read from right to left– consists of adjacent inverted repeats.
• Example of a palindrome:
GAATTC
CTTAAG
Restriction enzymes are isolated from bacteria, derive names from the bacteria.
 Genus- first letter capitalized
 Species- second and third letters (small case)
 Additional letters from “strains”
Example: EcoRI
• E Escherichia
• Co coli
• R R strain
• I Roman number, first enzyme discovered from Escherichia coli R
 Hybridization vs Denaturation
• Nucleic acid hybridization (Annealing) is the formation of a duplex between two
complementary sequences using hydrogen bonds.
• Intermolecular hybridization: between two polynucleotide chains which have complementary
bases
• DNA-DNA
• DNA-RNA
• RNA-RNA
While,
DNA denaturation is a process of separating
dsDNA into single strands by either physical or
chemical agents like: Heat, UV light, high pressure,
sonication and surface action. Acids, alkalis, heavy
metals, DMSO, NaOH, guanidine detergents,
And urea.
 DNA Replication
Purpose: cells need to make a copy of DNA before dividing so each
daughter cell has a complete copy of genetic information
3 proposed Models of Replication
 DNA Replication
Meselson and Stahl Experiment
Replication of DNA
Semi-Conservative Model
• base pairing allows each strand to
serve as a template for a new strand
• new strand is 1/2 parent template &
1/2 new DNA
DNA Replication
 DNA Replication
Large team of enzymes coordinates replication which needs the participation of more
than 20 enzymes & proteins called DNA replicase system or replisomes.
 DNA Synthesis (Replication)
.
DNA Synthesis (Replication)
DNA Synthesis (Replication)
 DNA Synthesis (Replication)
.

• DNA A protein: It binds to specific nucleotide sequences

(AT-rich regions) at the origin of replication, making the
first separation, it needs ATP.
• Unwind DNA: Topoisomerase or gyrase unwinds the coiled
strands of DNA helicase enzyme, unwinds part of DNA helix
• stabilized by single-stranded binding proteins (SSB), DNA Helicase
PREVENTS DNA MOLECULE FROM CLOSING!
DNA Gyrase: type II topoisomerase found in bacteria which can introduce negative
supercoils into relaxed circular DNA using ATP
DNA Synthesis (Replication)
HOLD OPEN: Single-Strand Binding proteins (SSBs)
keep strands separated
DNA Synthesis (Replication)

.
DNA Synthesis (Replication)

.
 DNA polymerases

• Eukaryotic cells contain • In prokaryotes, three main types of

five DNA polymerases: α, β, γ, δ, and ε. polymerases are known: DNA pol I,
• Polymerase γ is located DNA pol II, and DNA pol III.
in mitochondria and is responsible for • DNA pol III is the enzyme required
replication of mitochondrial DNA. for DNA synthesis.
• The other four enzymes are located in • DNA pol I and DNA pol II are
the nucleus and are therefore candidates for primarily required for repair.
involvement in nuclear DNA replication.
Polymerases α, δ, and ε are most active in
dividing cells, suggesting that they
function in replication. In contrast,
polymerase β is active in nondividing and
dividing cells, suggesting that it may
function primarily in the repair of DNA
damage.
DNA Synthesis (Replication)

. DNA
lagging strand
DNA polymerase III
polymerase I
3’
ligase primase
Okazaki 5’
5’ fragments
3’ 5’ SSB

3’
helicase
DNA
polymerase III
5’
leading strand
3’

SSB = single-stranded binding proteins

 Okazaki
DNA Synthesis (Replication)

Limits of DNA polymerase III

 can only build onto 3 end of
5
an existing DNA strand

3 5
3
5
3 5 5
 3

Lagging strand
ligase
growing 3
replication fork
5
Leading strand

Lagging strand
3
 5

3
DNA polymerase III
 Okazaki fragments
 joined by ligase Leading strand
 “spot welder” enzyme  continuous synthesis
 DNA Synthesis (Replication)
RNA primer is added
 built by primase
 serves as starter sequence for DNA polymerase III

HOWEVER short segments called Okazaki fragments

are made because it can only go in a 5 3 direction

5

3 5 3
5
3
3 5

growing 3 primase
replication fork DNA polymerase III
5

RNA 5

3
DNA Synthesis (Replication)
PROOFREAD:
DNA Polymerase I proofreads new
strands and backtracks to correct errors

• Replacement of RNA primer by DNA

Is done by DNA polymerase I
 DNA Synthesis (Replication)
Replacing RNA primers with DNA
NEXT DNA polymerase I
 removes sections of RNA primer and DNA polymerase I
replaces with DNA nucleotides 5

3

3
5 ligase
growing 3
replication fork
5

RNA 5

3

STRANDS ARE GLUED

TOGETHER BY DNA LIGASE
DNA Synthesis (Replication)
Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases
DNA Synthesis (Replication)
Telomeres are repetitive regions at the very ends of
chromosomes are called, and they're found in a wide
range of eukaryotic species, from human beings to
unicellular protists. Telomeres act as caps that protect the
internal regions of the chromosomes, and they're worn
down a small amount in each round of DNA.
 Telomeres
• The DNA at the very end of the chromosome cannot be fully
copied in each round of replication, resulting in a slow,
gradual shortening of the chromosome.
• Over multiple rounds of cell division, the chromosome will
get shorter and shorter as this process repeats.
• To prevent the loss of genes as chromosome ends wear down,
the tips of eukaryotic chromosomes have specialized DNA
“caps” called telomeres. Telomeres consist of hundreds or
thousands of repeats of the same short DNA sequence, which
varies between organisms but is 5'-TTAGGG-3' in humans
and other mammals.
• The process of growing old. In biology, senescence is a
process by which a cell ages and permanently stops dividing
but does not die. Over time, large numbers of old (or
senescent) cells can build up in tissues throughout the body.
These cells remain active and can release harmful substances
that may cause inflammation and damage to nearby healthy
cells. Senescence may play a role in the development of
cancer and other diseases
 Telomeres
• Some cells have the ability to reverse telomere shortening by
expressing telomerase, an enzyme that extends the telomeres
of chromosomes. Telomerase is an RNA-dependent DNA
polymerase, meaning an enzyme that can make DNA using
RNA as a template.
• The enzyme binds to a special RNA molecule that contains a
sequence complementary to the telomeric repeat. It extends
(adds nucleotides to) the overhanging strand of the telomere
DNA using this complementary RNA as a template.
• Telomerase is not usually active in most somatic cells (cells
of the body), but it’s active in germ cells (the cells that make
sperm and eggs) and some adult stem cells. These are cell
types that need to undergo many divisions, or, in the case of
germ cells, give rise to a new organism with its telomeric
“clock” reset^55start superscript, 5, end superscript.
• Interestingly, many cancer cells have shortened telomeres,
and telomerase is active in these cells. If telomerase could be
inhibited by drugs as part of cancer therapy, their excess
division (and thus, the growth of the cancerous tumor) could
potentially be stopped.
Difference between prokaryotic & Eukaryotic DNA replication
DNA Damage
DNA Damage & Repair
 DNA Damage & Repair
Xeroderma pigmentosa (XP)
Drugs affecting DNA Replication
Antibiotics
Drugs affecting DNA Replication
Antibiotics
Drugs affecting DNA Replication
Anti-cancer
 Test your understanding
• 1. During replication, Okazaki fragments elongate • 6. Termination of replication is triggered by
• (a) leading strand towards the replication fork (b) lagging strand towards the replication fork • (a) DNA polymerase (b) Helicase
• (c) leading strand away from the replication fork (d) lagging strand away from the replication • (c) SSB (d) Tus protein
fork
• 2. Which of the following enzymes separates the two strands of DNA during replication?
• 7. DNA polymerase synthesizes
• (a) Gyrase (b) Topoisomerase
• (a) DNA in 5’-3’ direction (b) DNA in 3’-5’ direction
• (c) Helicase (d) DNA polymerase
• (c) mRNA in 3’-5’ direction (d) mRNA in 5’-3’ direction

• 3. DNA replication is
• 8. Association of histones H1 with nucleosome shows
• (a) conservative (b) conservative and discontinuous
• (a) the occurrence of transcription (b) the occurrence of replication
• (c) semi-conservative and discontinuous (d) semi-conservative and semi-
discontinuous • (c) exposed DNA double helix (d) the condensation of DNA into chromatin fibre
• 9. The 3’ – 5’ phosphodiester linkage joins

• 4. Which of the following is used in DNA replication studies? • (a) two DNA strands (b) two nucleotides

• (a) Neurospora crassa (b) Drosophila melanogaster • (c) a nitrogenous base with pentose sugar (d) two nucleosides

• (c) Escherichia coli (d) Pneumococcus

• 10. The fragments of DNA are joined together by which of the following enzymes?

• 5. Which of the following helps in opening of DNA double helix in front of replication fork? • (a) Endonuclease (b) DNA polymerase

• (a) topoisomerase (b) DNA polymerase-I • (c) Primase (d) Ligase

• (c) DNA gyrase (d) DNA ligase

 Test your understanding
• 11. Eukaryotes differ from prokaryote in mechanism of DNA replication due to • 15. Which of the following enzymes remove supercoiling in replicating DNA ahead of
___________ the replication fork?
a) Use of DNA primer rather than RNA primer a) DNA polymerases b) Helicases
b) Different enzyme for synthesis of lagging and leading strand c) Primases d) Topoisomerases
c) Discontinuous rather than semi-discontinuous replication
d) Unidirectional rather than semi-discontinuous replication • 16. DNA unwinding is done by ____________

• 12. Which of the following is true about DNA polymerase? • a) Ligase b) Helicase

• a) It can synthesize DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction • c) Topoisomerase d) Exonuclease

• b) It can synthesize DNA in the 3’ to 5’ direction • 17. Which of the following enzymes is the principal replication enzyme in E. coli?

• c) It can synthesize mRNA in the 3’ to 5’ direction • a) DNA polymerase I b) DNA polymerase II

• d) It can synthesize mRNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction • c) DNA polymerase III d) None of the mentioned

• 13. What is the reaction in DNA replication catalyzed by DNA ligase? • 18. Which of the following form is predominantly expressed in cells?

• a) Addition of new nucleotides to the leading strand • a) B- Helix b) A-Helix

• b) Addition of new nucleotide to the lagging strand • c) E-Helix d) Z-Helix

• c) Formation of a phosphodiester bond between the 3’-OH of one Okazaki fragment • 19. The Chargaff rules state that the number of purines and pyrimidines are equal
and the 5’-phosphate of the next on the lagging strand (A+G = T + C) in any double-stranded DNA molecule. Watson and Crick later solved
the structure of DNA and nitrogen base pairings.
• d) Base pairing of the template and the newly formed DNA strand
• Which of the following base-pairing rule is true?
• 14. Which of the following reactions is required for proofreading during DNA
replication by DNA polymerase III? • a) Adenine pairs with Guanine and Thymine pairs with Cytosine

• a) 5’ to 3’ exonuclease activity • b) Adenine pairs with Thymine and Guanine pairs with Cytosine

• b) 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity • c) Adenine pairs with Cytosine and Guanine pairs with Thymine

• c) 3’ to 5’ endonuclease activity • d) DNA base pairing is nonspecific

• d) 5’ to 3’ endonuclease activity
 Test your understanding
• 20. The DNA replication occurs in a semi-conservative manner which means: • 24. As the two strands of the double helix are separated, the positive supercoiling
a) Two daughter cells with one consisting of double-helical parent DNA, others have newly interferes with the further unwinding of DNA.
synthesized DNA.
• Which of the following enzyme makes a break in a strand of DNA to release the
• b) Two daughter cells each consisting of one parental strand and one newly supercoiling and facilitate the replication to occur?
synthesized DNA. a) DnaA protein b) Single-strand binding protein
c) Two daughters cells each consisting of one-half parental and another half newly c) DNA polymerase d) Topoisomerase
synthesized DNA resulting from the crossover.
d) None of the above 25. Which of the following enzyme has a unique ability to introduce positive and
negative supercoiling of the DNA and it is the target for antibacterial agents such as
• 21. Which of the following are the characteristic feature of DNA replication? ciprofloxacin/quinolones?
a) DnaA protein b) DNA helicase
• a) DNA replication is template-directed c) DNA gyrase d) DNA polymerase
• b) DNA replication requires short RNA primers • 26. DNA replication is bidirectional and anti-parallel. Which of the statement is
FALSE regarding DNA replication?
• c) DNA replication is a highly accurate process
• a) The DNA synthesis i.e. addition of nucleotide occurs from 5'-3' position
• d) All of the Above
• b) The DNA synthesis is semi-continuous with continuous leading strand and discontinuous
lagging strand.
• 22. In prokaryotes, DNA replication begins at a single site that is rich in AT nucleotide • c) The synthesis of leading and lagging strands occurs simultaneously
sequence, where two strands unwind and separate.
• d) None of the Above
• This ATP dependent process is catalyzed by a protein known as..................................?
• a) DnaA protein b) Single-strand binding protein
• 27. The DNA polymerase is a template-directed enzyme that synthesizes a new
• c) DNA polymerase d) Topoisomerase complementary strand from a parent strand, but it requires the existing short
nucleotide sequence for its elongation.

• 23. The short strand of .......................... primer is required for the replication of DNA: Which of the following enzyme is required for the synthesis of this primer?

• a) DNA b) RNA • a) Primase/RNA polymerase

• c) Histone d) hnRNA • b) RNA synthase

• c) DNA synthase
• d) Helicase
 Test your understanding
• 28. DNA polymerase III holoenzyme possesses: • 33. In eukaryotes, which of the following DNA polymerase is required for mitochondrial DNA
a) polymerase activity only replication?
b) 3’→ 5’ endonuclease activity a) Pol alpha
c) 3’→ 5’ exonuclease activity and polymerase activities b) Pol beta
d) 5’→ 3’ exonuclease activity c) Pol gamma
d) Pol delta
34. Telomeres are the repetitive sequence of T's and G's that are present in the eukaryotes to protect
• 29. Which of the following statement is true regarding an enzyme DNA polymerase that catalyzes the the random cleavage from nucleases. These telomeres are synthesized by the enzyme telomerase.
elongation of complementary DNA strand?
• Which of the following are the properties of enzyme telomerase?
• a) DNA polymerase III is a highly processive enzyme. a) Telomerase is a reverse transcriptase enzyme
b) DNA polymerase III possesses 5'-3' polymerase activity required for elongation. b) Telomerase consist of an RNA sequence that serves as a template
c) DNA polymerase III possesses 3'-5' exonuclease activity important for maintaining fidelity c) After completion of each cycle, telomerase translocated to 3'end of DNA to synthesize repetitive sequence.
d) All of the above d) All of the above
30. In prokaryotes, the RNA primer from the lagging strand is removed and replaced by the DNA • 35.What is the initial mechanism for repairing nucleotide errors in DNA?
sequence.
a) Mismatch Repair b) Thymine Dimers
• This process is catalyzed by an enzyme ..................................................which possess 5'-3' exonuclease
activity and 5'-3' polymerase activity. c) DNA Polymerase Proofreading d) Nucleotide Excision Repair
• d) The linear chromosomes in eukaryotes ensure that its ends are replicated completely because
a) DNA polymerase I b) DNA polymerase II telomerase has an inbuilt RNA template that extends the 3′ end, so a primer is synthesized and
c) DNA polymerase III d) DNA polymerase IV extended, and the ends are protected.
• 31 In eukaryotes, DNA polymerase alpha is a multi-subunit enzyme with different functions. They a) True b) False
include..........................................................?
36.Which of the following is the enzyme that replaces the RNA nucleotides in a primer with DNA
• a) Elongation of the leading strand b) 3'-5' exonuclease activity nucleotides?
• c) Initiation and synthesis of RNA primer d) High processivity
a) DNA Polymerase III b) DNA Polymerase I
• 32. In eukaryotes, which of the following DNA polymerase is highly processive and required for the c) Primase d) Helicase
elongation phase of DNA replication?
37. Which of the following is not involved in the initiation of replication?
• a) Pol alpha
• b) Pol delta
a) Ligase b) DNA Gyrase
• c) Pol gamma
c) Single-Stranded Binding Protein d) Primase
• d) Pol beta
 Test your understanding
• 38. Which of the following enzymes involved in DNA replication is unique to • 43. When cell has stalled DNA replication fork, which checkpoint should be
eukaryotes? predominantly activated?
A- Helicase B- DNA Polymerase A)- M B)- Both G2/M And M
C- Ligase D- Telomerase C)- G1/S D)- G2/M
39. Which of the following would be synthesized using 5′-CAGTTCGGA-3′ as a 44. Who proposed that DNA replication is semiconservative?
template?
A)- Meselson And Stahl
A-3′-AGGCTTGAC-4′
B)- Watson And Crick
B-3′-TCCGAACTG-5′
45. When DNA replication starts
C-3′-GTCAAGCCT-5′
A)- The Leading Strand Produces Okazaki Fragments.
D-3′-CAGTTCGGA-5′
B)- The Hydrogen Bonds Between The Nucleotides Of Two Strands Break.
40. The enzyme responsible for relaxing supercoiled DNA to allow for the initiation of
replication is called __. C)- The Phosphodiester Bonds Between The Adjacent Nucleotides Break.
A- DNA gyrase or topoisomerase II B- Primase D)- The Bonds Between The Nitrogen Base And Deoxyribose Sugar Break.
C- Helicase D- SSB 46. the stage at which DNA/chromosome replication occurs is
41. Unidirectional replication of a circular DNA molecule like a plasmid that involves A)- Prophase B)- Interphase
nicking one DNA strand and displacing it while synthesizing a new strand is called __.
C)- Metaphase D)- Previous Telophase.
• rolling circle replication
47. which enzyme in DNA replication has proofreading ability
• 42. More primers are used in lagging strand synthesis than in leading strand
synthesis. A)_Ligase B)- Helicase
C)- Topoisomerase D)- DNA Polymerase E)-Peptidyl Transferase.

• True 48. definite region in DNA where replication starts is called

• False A)- Promoter Region B)- Origin Of Replication

C)- Replication Fork D)-Template Strand
References

1. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York:
Garland Science; 2002. DNA Replication Mechanisms. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26850.
2. Cooper GM. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. DNA Replication. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9940/.
THANK YOU