Sangam school of excellence

2023-2024
Chemistry Project
on
“chemistry in everyday life”

Submitted to:- mrs. Niddhi laddha

Submitted by:- raghvendra singh
Acknowledgemet
I would like to express my special
thanks of gratitude to my teacher
Mrs. Niddhi laddha as well as our
principal MS MADHU NAGPAL
who gave me the golden
opportunity of this wonderful project
on the topic CHEMISTRY IN
EVERYDAY LIFE which also
helped me in doing a lot of research
and I came to know abhout so many
new things. I am really thankful to
them.
Certificate
This to certify that MR RAGHVENDRA
SINGH of class 12th science 2023-2024
Sangam School Of Excellence has completed
his project under my supervision.
He has taken proper care and shown at most
sincerity in completion of this project.
I certify that this project is up to my
expectation and as per CBSE guideline.

Principal Signature

Internal Signature:-
External Signature:-
 CONTENTS
1) Introduction
2) Classification of Drugs
3) How do drugs extract with
targets.
4) Therapeutic Action of different
classes of drugs
(a) Antacids
(b) Antihistamine
(c) Neurologically active drugs
(d) Antimicrobials
(e) Antfertility drug
5) Chemical in food
 INTRODUCTION
What are drugs?
Drugs are chemical substances of molecular mass (100-500u). These interact with
the molecular target to produce a biological response. When the biological
response is therapeutic and useful, these chemical are called medicines and are
used in diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
(a) On the basis of pharmacological effect
This classification is based on pharmacological effect of the drugs. It is useful
for doctors because it provides them the whole range of drugs available for the
treatment of a particular type of problem. For example. Analgesics have pain
killing effect, antiseptics kill or arrest the growth of microorganisms.

(b)On the basis of drug action

It is based on the action of a drug on a particular biochemical process. For
example, all antihistamines inhibit the action of the compound. Histamine
which cause inflammation in the body. There are various ways in which action
of histamines can be blocked.

(c) On the basis of chemical structure

It is based on the chemical structure of the drug. Drugs classified in this way
share common structural features and often have similar pharmacological
activity. For example, sulphonamides have common structural feature, given
below.
 Structural feature of sulphonamides
(d)On the basis of molecular targets
Drugs usually interact with biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
and nucleic acids, these are called target molecules or drug targets.

DRUG-TARGET INTERACTION

Macromolecules of biological origin perform various functions in the body, for

example, proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in the body are
called enzymes. Those which are crucial to communication system in the body are
called receptors.

Enzymes as Drug Targets

(a) Catalytic action of enzymes
(i) The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate for a chemical
reaction. Active sites of enzymes hold the substrate molecule in a suitable
position, so that it can be attached by the reagent effectively. Substrates bind
to the active site of the enzyme through a variety of interactions such as
ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding, van der waals interaction or dipole-dipole
interaction as shown in fig. Below.
 (a) Enzyme (b) Substrate (c) Enzyme holding substrate

(ii) The second function of an enzyme is to provide functional groups that will
attack the substrate and carry out chemical reaction.
(b) Drug-enzyme interaction
These can block the binding site of the enzyme and prevent the binding of
substrate, or can inhibit the catalytic activity of the enzyme. Such drugs are
called enzyme inhibitors.
(i) Drugs complete with natural substrate for their attachment on the active sites
of enzymes. Such drugs are called competitive inhibitors.

(ii) Some drugs do not bind to the enzyme’s active site. These bind to a different
site of enzyme which is called allosteric site. This binding of inhibitor at
allosteric site changes the share of the active site in such a way the substrate
can not recognise it.
 Non-competitive inhibitor changes the active site of enzyme
after binding at allosteric site.
RECEPTOR AS DRUG TARGETS :

Fig. Receptor protein embedded in the cell membrane, the active site of the
receptor opens on the outside region of the cell
 (a) Receptor receiving chemical messenger

(b) Shape of the receptor changed after attachment of messenger

(c) Receptor regains structure after removal of chemical messenger.

Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs

ANTIHISTAMINES
Histamine is a potent vasodilator. It has various functions. It contracts the smooth
muscles in the bronchi and gut and relaxes other muscles. Such as those in the
walls of fine blood vessels. Histamine is also responsible for the nasal congestion
associated with common cold and allergic response to pollen.
Synthetic drugs, brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (seldane), act as
antihistamines. They interfere with the natural action of histamine by competing
with histamine for binding sites of receptor where histamine exerts its effect.

NEUROLOGICALLY ACTIVE DRUGS.

(a) Tranquilizers
Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds used for the treatment of stress,
and mild or even severe mental diseases. These relieve anxiety, stress, irritability
or excitement by inducing a sense of well-being. They form an essential
component of sleeping pills. There are various types of tranquilizers. They function
by different mechanisms.
Some tranquilizers namely, chlordiazepoxide and meprobamate are relatively mild
tranquilizers suitable for relieving tension. Equanil is used in controlling
depression and hypertension.

(b) Analgesics
Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing impairment of consciousness,
mental confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some other disturbances or
nervous system. These are classified as follows :
(i) Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics
(ii) Narcotic drugs
(i) Non –narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics : Aspirine and paracetamol
belongs to the class of non-narcotic analgesics. Aspirine is the most familiar
example. Aspirine inhibits the synthesis of chemicals known as
prostaglandins which stimulate inflammation in the tissue and cause pain.
 These drugs are effective in relieving skeletal pain such as that due to
arthritis. These drugs have many other effects such as reducing fever
(antipyretic) and preventing platelet coagulation. Because of its anti blood
clotting action, aspirine finds use in prevention of heart attacks.
(ii) Narcotic Analgesics : Morphine and many of its homologues, when
administered in medicinal diseases, relieve pain and produce sleep. In
poisonous doses, these produce stupor, coma, convulsions and ultimately
death. Morphine narcotics are sometimes referred to as opiates, since they
are obtained from the opium poppy.
These analgesics are chiefy used for the relief of postoperative pain, cardiac
pain and pains of terminal cancer and in child birth.

ANTIMICROBIALS
(a) Antibiotics
Antibiotics are used as drugs to treat infections because of their low toxicity for
humans and animals. Initially antibiotics were classified as chemical substances
produced by microorganisim (bacteria, fungi and molds) that inhibit the growth or
even destroy microorganism.
 The structures of salvarsan, prontosil azodya and sulphapyridine showing
structural similarity.

Antibiotics have either cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory0 effect on

microbes. A few examples of the two types of antibiotics are as follows :
Bactericidal Bacteriostatic
Penicillin Erythromycin
Aminoglycosides Tetracycline
Ofloxacin Chloramphenicol
The range of bacteria or other microorganism that are affected by a certain
antibiotic is expressed as its spectrum of action. Antibiotics which kill or inhibit a
wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are said to be Broad
spectrum Antibiotics. Those effective mainly against Gram-positive or Gram-
negative bacteria are narrow spectrum antibiotics. If effective against a single
organism or disease, they are referred to as limited spectrum antibiotics. Penicillin
G has a narrow spectrum. Ampicillin and Amoxycillin are synthetic modifications
of penicillins.
Chloramphenicol, isolated in 1947, is a broad spectrum antibiotic.
(b) Antiseptics and disinfectants

Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemicals which either kill or prevent the
growth of microorganism.

Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts, ulcers and
diseased skil surfaces. Examples are furacine, soframicine, etc. These are not
ingestes like antibiotics. Commonly used antiseptic dettol is a mixture of
chloroxylenol and terpineol. Bithionol (the compound is also called bithional) is
added to soaps to impart antiseptic properties. Iodine is a powerful antiseptic. Its 2-
3 percent solution in alcohol water mixture is known as tincture of iodine.
Iodoform is also used an antiseptic for wounds. Boric acid is dilute aqueous
solution is weak antiseptic for eyes.

Disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects such as floors, drainage system,

instruments etc. Same substances can act as an antiseptic as well as disinfectant by
varying the concentration. 0.2 percent solution of phenolis an antiseptic while its
one percent solution is disinfectant.

Chlorine in the concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm in aqueous solution and sulphur
dioxide in very low concentrations, are disinfectants.

ANTIFERTILITY DRUGS

Antibiotic revolution has provided long and healthy life to people. The life
expectancy has almost doubled. The increased population has caused many social
problems in terms of food resources, environmental issues, employment.

Norethindrone is an example of synthetic progesterone derivative most widely

used as antifertility drug. The estrogen derivative which is used as antifertility
drug. The estrogen derivative which is used in combination with progesterone
derivative is ethynylestradiol (Novestrol).

CHEMICAL IN FOOD

Chemicals are added to food for (i) their preservation, (ii) enhancing their appeal,
and (ill) adding nutritive value in them. Main categories of food additives are as
follows:

(i) Food colours

(ii) Flavours and sweeteners

(iii) Fat emulsifiers and stabilising agents

(iv) Flour improvers- antistaling agents and bleaches (v) A1)tioxidants

(vi) Preservatives

(vii) Nutritional supplements such as minerals, vitamins and amino acids,

Except for chemicals of category (vii), none of the above additives have
nutritive value. These are added either to increase the shelf life of stored food or
for cosmetic purposes. In this Section we will discuss only sweeteners and food
preservatives .

ARTIFICIAL SWEETENING AGENTS

Natural sweeteners. e.g., sucrose add to calorie intake and therefore -many people
prefer to use artificial sweeteners. Ortho-sulphobenzimide, also called saccharin. is
the first popular artificial sweetening agent. It has been used as a sweetening agent
ever since it was discovered in 1879. It is about 550 times as sweet as cane sugar.
It is excreted from the body in urine unchanged. It appears to be entirely inert and
harmless hen taken. Its use is of great value to diabetic persons and people who
need to control intake of calories. Some other commonly marketed artificial
sweeteners are given in Table below.

Artificial Structure formula Sweetness value

Sweetener in comparison to
cane sugar
Aspartame 100

Saccharin 550

Sucrolose 600

Alitame 2000

Aspartame is the most successful and widely used artificial sweetener. It is

roughly 100 times as sweet as cane sugar. It is methyl ester of dipeptide formed
from aspartic acid and phenylalanine. Use of aspartame is limited to cold foods and
soft drinks because it is unstable at cooking temperature.

Alitame is high potency sweetener, although it is more stable than aspartame, the
control of sweetness of food is difficult while using it.
Sucrolose is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its appearance and taste are like
sugar. It is stable at cooking temperature. It does not provide calories.

FOOD PRESERVATIVES

Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth. The most
commonly used preservatives include table salt, sugar, vegetable oils and sodium
benzoate, C6H5COONa. Sodium benzoate is used in limited quantities and is
metabolised in the body. Salts of sorbic acid and propanoic acid are also used as
preservatives.

CLEANING AGENTS

Two types of detergents are used as cleansing agenst. These are soaps and
synthetic detergents. These improve cleansing properties of water. These help in
removal of fats which bind other materials to the fabric or skin.

Soaps
Soaps used for cleaning purpose are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty
acids, e.g. stearic, oleic and palmitic acids. Soaps containing sodium salts are
formed by heating fat (i.e. glyceryl ester of fatty acid) with aqueous sodium
hydroxide solution. This reaction is known as saponification.

SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS

Synthetic detergents are mainly classified into three categories:

(i) Anionic detergents (ii) Cationic detergents and (iii) Non-ionic detergents
(i) Antionic Detergents: Anionic detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long
chain alcohols or hydrocarbons. Alkyl hydrogensulphates formed by treating
long chain alcohols with concentrated sulphuric acid are neutralised with alkali
to form anionic detergents. Similarly alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by
neutralising alkyl benzene sulphonic acids with alkali.

In anionic detergents, the anionic part of the molecule is involved in the

cleansing action. Sodium salts of alkyl benzene sui phonates are an important class
of anionic detergents. They are mostly used for household work. Anionic
detergents are al 0 used in toothpastes.

(ii)Cationic Detergents: Cationic detergents

are quarternary ammonium salts of
amines with acetates, chlorides or
bromides as anions. Cationic part
possess a long hydrocarbon chain and a
 positive charge on nitrogen atom. Hence, these are called cationic detergents.
Cetyl trimethylammonium bromide is a popular cationic detergent and is used
in hair conditioners.
Cationic detergents have germicidal properties and are expensive. therefore,
these are of limited use.

(iii) Non-ionic Detergents: Non-ionic detergents do not contain any ion . in their
constitution. One such detergent is formed when stearic acid reacts with
polyethyleneglycol.