Chapter 21

Practical Career Counseling

Applications of the
Happenstance Learning Theory
John D. Krumboltz
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

I have been asked to explain how practical career counselors might more effectively engage in their
counselor actions can be derived from the happen- professional activities. Let’s anticipate the kinds of
stance learning theory (HLT; Krumboltz, 2009). The questions, problems, or concerns that clients bring
HLT is something of a rebellion against traditional to counselors.
counseling theories, although the influence of
chance events has certainly been described by others
“WHAT SHOULD I DO WITH MY LIFE?”
(Ariely, 2008; Bandura, 1982; Betsworth & Hansen,
1996; Scott & Hatalla, 1990). What are the big ideas In recent months, I have been receiving e-mails from
from the HLT? people previously unknown to me and living in a
variety of places around the world, such as Thai-
■■ First, it argues that career counselors should not
land, Ireland, Japan, and China. They say that they
be helping clients make a decision about what
have read about me and heard that I was an expert
their future occupation should be because the
on telling people what they should do with their
future is virtually impossible to predict in this
lives. I have never claimed this skill, and so I was
complex world.
puzzled as to where they got this idea. Finally, I
■■ Second, career counselors should instead be
tracked it down to an article written by Jennifer
helping their clients take constructive actions
­Turliuk in 2012 and published in Forbes magazine.
now to explore their world.
Her article was titled “How I Figured Out What I
■■ Third, these explorations should yield skills,
Wanted to Do With My Life.”
knowledge, and contacts that might well be use-
In her article, she included this sentence: “One of
ful in ways that cannot initially be predicted.
the most important conversations I had was with
■■ Fourth, career counselors should insist on get-
John Krumboltz, an international career expert who
ting fast feedback from their clients about the ini-
teaches career coaching at Stanford” (Turliuk, 2012,
tial results of their exploratory actions, perhaps
para. 8; I do teach a course called Career and Per-
via a quick e-mail.
sonal Counseling, but I do not use the term career
■■ Fifth, career counselors should follow up with
coaching). She added, “He advocated an idea that
each client to encourage new or continuing
stuck with me: testing out the different career expe-
actions to explore the client’s world.
riences I was interested in, in the most low commit-
■■ Sixth, career counselors should save all client
ment way that I could for each option” (para. 8).
communications as evidence of the effectiveness
What I was doing was brainstorming with her a
of alternative learning experiences.
­variety of possible actions that she could take now
The HLT is a beginning point, but it seems to to explore options. I do not remember now all the
need some further explanation as to how career specifics of these action steps, but she grabbed on to

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/14439-021
APA Handbook of Career Intervention: Vol. 2. Applications, P. J. Hartung, M. L. Savickas, and W. B. Walsh (Editors-in-Chief )
283
Copyright © 2015 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
 John D. Krumboltz

the big idea. She wrote about visiting various start- kind words about my video. However, the way to
ups and talking with key people at each one, even really learn is to go to the real action!!! Start your
“shadowing” the CEO at one of them. Here are a internship. Do the best you can with each client.
couple of e-mail exchanges based on the Forbes Make mistakes. Learn from them. Ask for advice.
­article (names are fictitious to preserve privacy): Try to do better the next time. Make more mis-
takes. Keep learning from your own actions. You
Alex: My name is Alex, and I came by your name are the best teacher for you! John
in an article appearing in Forbes magazine titled
Let’s consider further the general expectation
“How I Figured Out What I Wanted to Do With
that students should declare their future occupa-
My Life.” In this article, you are referenced as an
tional aspiration at an early age. My parents had that
international career expert who teaches career
expectation for me. “What do you want to be when
coaching at Stanford. Currently I am 63 years of
you grow up?” they asked me about once a month. I
age and unable to determine what I would pas-
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

never knew how to answer. Yes, I thought it would

sionately like to do with the rest of my life. The
be fun to ride on the side of a fire truck. But that
reason I am writing you is to ask for guidance to
answer did not please my parents. Finally, when I
enable me to find this passion within. Attached is
was 12 years old, I thought I must decide. So what
my résumé highlighting what I have previously
did I know how to do? I did play first base for a Lit-
accomplished. This process of self-discovery
tle League baseball precursor team. So I decided, “I
would benefit from any guidance from you.
will play first base for the Chicago Cubs.” But the
John Krumboltz: Hi Alex—No one can tell you what
baseball season lasted only during the spring and
you should do for the rest of your life. Only YOU
summer months. So what was I going to do the rest
can make things happen. But you must take
of the year? My elementary school was starting a
action. You learn best from your own actions,
band, and I had chosen to play the clarinet. So my
not advice from someone else. You have a lot of
career decision for the remaining months of each
good experience. Call up someone you used to
year was “I will play first chair clarinet in the New
work with just to chat. Listen to them. Tell them
York Philharmonic Orchestra.”
about yourself. Do it!!! My ideas are in a couple
of books: Luck Is No Accident; Fail Fast, Fail Are you surprised that neither of my career
Often. Both available through Amazon.com. John decisions was achieved? No? Then your doubts are
Rachel: Dr. Krumboltz, I just watched your video well founded. Our baseball team, which was lim-
“Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy With Dr. John ited to scrawny 12-year-olds, somehow got sched-
Krumboltz” (Krumboltz, 1997) and I was so uled to play a team whose pitcher, Lefty, was 16
impressed by the way that you demonstrate CBT years old. Lefty was 6 feet 3 inches tall. When I
in one session. You did a wonderful job answer- came up to bat, I waved my bat threateningly, but
ing the questions, too. I am a clinical psychology Lefty did not seem to notice. He wound up and
student who just finished the program, and I am pitched the first ball, which headed straight for my
looking for an internship place. I am trying to head at 90 miles per hour. I ducked down into the
learn more before I go to the real action. I am dirt, looked up, and saw the ball curve over the
watching all the videos possible, but my question plate for a called strike. At that moment, my career
is what else would you recommend to a student, decision changed. I was not going to risk my life to
if he or she did not have enough practice? I feel be a baseball player. How can you tell a curve ball
that I did not have enough practice during my from a fast ball? I did not know, and I did not want
training. I really would appreciate your sugges- to learn.
tions. Thank you. Rachel My musical career also had a short life. When the
John Krumboltz: Hi Rachel—No one ever gets enough band director found out that I could not detect
practice. I keep learning more every day, but when my clarinet was a half-tone flat, my self-image
there is always more to learn. I appreciate your as a competent musician moved rapidly downward.

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 Practical Career Counseling Applications of the Happenstance Learning Theory

How then is it that I am now a professor of edu- Counselor: How about asking your dad what occupa-
cation and psychology—and the only faculty mem- tion he is in right now and ask him whether he
ber at Stanford University who holds that title? That had decided on that occupation when he was a
is a long story, filled with failures and successes in a high school senior. Get him to tell you the whole
wide variety of unexpected historical contexts that story of how he got into his present job. Ask your
could never be repeated. If you really want to know, mom too. Take notes on what they say. Then let’s
buy me a glass of orange juice someday and I will get together next week and explore what a next
tell you the whole story. In the meantime, let’s tell step might be for you. OK?
our clients that there is no way we can predict what
We live in a world where there is a general
they should do with their lives. They have to experi-
expectation that young people should declare a
ment with many alternatives.
future career goal and then enter a path to achieve
it. Too bad the world is not organized that way! In
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“HOW CAN I PLEASE MY PARENTS AND my travels around the world speaking to groups of
TEACHERS?” career counselors, I do a little bit of informal
research myself. I say, “How many of you had
Clients often have unrealistic expectations about decided to become a career counselor when you
what career counselors are expected to accomplish. were 18 years old?” Maybe one or two counselors
There are some things we can do one on one. There out of 100 would give an affirmative answer. I would
are other things that our professional organizations question them further:
can do.
A potential client comes to see you. He says, “I Counselor: Exactly what had you decided?
am a high school senior. My parents are bugging me. Client: I knew by 18 that I wanted to work in a job
They want me to be successful. They want me to where I would be helping other people.
decide on what occupation I should enter after I Counselor: Could you name a job where you are not
graduate. Could you please tell me?” How would helping other people?
you reply? Now, for 100 years career counselors fol-
Of course, there are no such jobs. Every job
lowing the lead of Frank Parsons have attempted to
requires that you help somebody. Nobody pays you
answer requests such as this by providing a list of
money to be unhelpful.
occupational titles that seem to match various inter-
So the bottom-line finding for career counselors
ests and abilities of each client. So the Strong Inter-
is this: If we career counselors did not decide at age
est Inventory, for example, matches the self-reported
18 to become career counselors, why should we be
interests of each client with the self-reported inter-
expected to name the future occupation of a client
ests of some 200 people who were happily working
who is that age? We should not. Predicting the
in each of a number of different occupations. A high
future should be the task of mystics and fortune tell-
degree of similarity is thought to indicate occupa-
ers, not career counselors. So we should become
tions in which the client might be happily employed.
more active in public relations activities to counter
How would a career counselor applying the HLT
unrealistic expectations.
reply to this request? Among a million possible ways
I recently participated in a symposium about pre-
of responding, the career counselor might say,
vention in career counseling at the American Psy-
Counselor: If I knew what occupation you should chological Association annual convention. My
enter, I would sure tell you. But I don’t have the question was “What is it that needs to be pre-
slightest idea. And I sense that you are unhappy vented?” My answer to my own question is that we
about the way your parents are pressuring you to should be reducing the number of people who
declare now what you will do in the future. I won- believe that careers have to be planned in advance.
der if you would be up for doing a little research? But what should we do? It is not enough that we
Client: What do you mean? refuse to answer this predict-my-future question one

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 John D. Krumboltz

client at a time. The career counseling profession improve their skills will likely be sought. We need
through its various organizations should launch a to educate the public about the kinds of actions that
campaign to educate students, parents, and teachers will benefit each person.
about the absurdity of demanding the name of a
future occupation. The world is changing fast. New
“HOW CAN I GET PEOPLE TO BE
occupations are being created every day.
IMPRESSED WITH THE PRESTIGE OF MY
Other kinds of career assessment may be more
OCCUPATION?”
valuable. Krumboltz and Vosvick (1996) reported
their experiences using the Career Beliefs Inventory, There seems to be a pecking order of occupations.
an empirically based tool that identifies beliefs and In recent years, digital jobs seem to have risen in
assumptions clients have found troublesome. The popularity. Being a doctor or a lawyer used to be
Career Beliefs Inventory is currently available online among the most prestigious occupations. Now,
(http://www.mindgarden.com/products/cbi.htm). names such as Steve Jobs, Donald Dell, and Bill
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

However, these beliefs and assumptions are not Gates seem to represent the kind of work that is
associated with any specific occupations. most recognized and admired. Yet, some of the
A broader goal for clients should be the target. most important work in the world is performed by
Asking clients to describe what makes their cur- unknown people who are competent, knowledge-
rent life satisfying is one approach. “What could able, and responsible. If your plumbing springs a
you do to make your life even more satisfying?” leak in the middle of the night, do you call Micro-
Advocate open mindedness rather than decisive- soft or Apple? No, you call a plumber who knows
ness. Normalize unplanned events and seek them how to fix it. There are many crucial jobs in the
out. Brainstorm with clients on possible actions world that have very little to do with data handling.
they could take to create beneficial unplanned Yet we depend on them to do their work compe-
events (Krumboltz, 1998a). tently and promptly. And we don’t ask which
Personal counseling and career counseling are ­college they attended!
intertwined. One’s personal life (love, marriage, Still, there seems to be more prestige associated
health, exercise) has a big impact on one’s career. with some occupations than others. I have referred
Foster and Krumboltz (1997) reported on an experi- to this as occupationism because there is some simi-
ment involving single men between the ages of 28 larity to the prejudice associated with sexism or
and 48 who felt anxious around single women in ­racism (Krumboltz, 1992). Members of high-prestige
social situations. The experimental group was occupations have more success in getting loans, get-
enrolled in a daylong workshop after “practice ting quick responses from government officials, and
­dating” and at a second party afterward displayed having their children get favored attention from
significantly higher levels of competent social inter- their teachers.
action with women. Competent social interaction is Another form of occupationism is the practice of
an important skill in most work situations, too, so professional courtesy. Members of certain occupa-
there is no point in making a sharp distinction tions receive free or markedly reduced charges for
between career and personal counseling. services or products. We have made great progress
The HLT is built on the proposition that career in reducing discrimination based on racism and sex-
paths are based on unpredictable happenstance ism. However, occupationism still rides high.
events based partly on our own actions and partly Suggesting that occupational choices should be
on the actions of millions of other people each doing based on the alleged prestige of an occupation pro-
what he or she thinks is best at that moment. We do duces potential unhappiness. Parents often strive to
not know how many employees will be needed by convince their children to enter high-prestige occu-
Google, Facebook, or Hewlett Packard, nor do we pations. A profound mismatch between parents’
know what qualifications will be sought. We do wishes and their child’s ambitions can produce
know that applicants who continue taking steps to ­conflict and great sadness.

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 Practical Career Counseling Applications of the Happenstance Learning Theory

“I HAVE TO GRADUATE FROM COLLEGE principles of the HLT is that learning is taking place
TO BE SUCCESSFUL. WHICH COLLEGE all the time on the basis of each person’s own
SHOULD I ATTEND?” actions. Unfortunately, the U.S. educational system
does not fully engage students in participating in
There is a common assumption today that everyone
their own education. If you go into a typical college
should go to college. We read about high schools
classroom to observe how learning is taking place,
that demand that every student promise to get
you see a professor standing in front of a large group
admitted to some college. There is an unstated
of students talking at them for 50 minutes. Most of
assumption that a college education guarantees a
the students are taking notes on what the professor
prosperous future. That assumption is based on mis-
is saying, but they cannot write as fast as the profes-
taken interpretations of statistical data. It is true
sor is speaking. Some may be surreptitiously record-
that, on average, college graduates earn more money
ing the lecture electronically, but they will have to
than high school graduates, but that statistical dif-
spend another 50 minutes listening to the recording.
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

ference is not necessarily because the college educa-

Why are the students taking notes? There are going
tion created it. Correlation is not causation. The
to be a mid-term exam and a final exam on which
average difference could well be due to the fact that
the students must answer questions about what the
those who attend college tend to come from wealth-
professor said during the 50-minute lectures. It is a
ier families than those who do not attend college.
general policy that good grades are given to those
In fact, many college graduates are unem-
student who correctly answer more of the questions.
ployed, and many PhD holders are also unem-
Students usually want good grades. It is assumed
ployed or teaching part-time courses if the
that future employers and graduate schools will use
enrollment figures are satisfactory. There are no
good grades as a basis for admitting or hiring an
guarantees in life. Many students become encum-
applicant, but how many employers even look at the
bered with a giant load of financial debt to finish a
transcript?! Employers want to know what the
college degree that cannot be converted into a pay-
applicants have actually done. What have they built?
ing job. We ought to stop preaching that everyone
What leadership and teamwork activities have they
should go to college. We should preach that every-
initiated? What can they do now?
one should be constantly exploring alternatives for
Students should not be placed in competition
living a satisfying life.
with each other to get the highest grades. Students
I have advocated that career counseling achieve
should be encouraged to cooperate with each other
the following goals: (a) Help people create satisfying
in solving problems—helping each other to find suc-
lives for themselves; (b) develop open mindedness,
cessful solutions. The goal should be to help every
not decisiveness; (c) deal with personal, social, and
student learn useful skills. Everyone can succeed,
family concerns because they interact with career
because everyone can improve on their own past
problems; (d) see unplanned events as an inevitable
performance. Improvement should be the goal, not
and desirable aspect of everyone’s career; (e) teach
comparison with the performance of other students.
clients to create potentially beneficial chance events;
Does this mean that there should be no college
and (f) use increased learning and life satisfaction as
lectures? Not necessarily. A well-crafted lecture can
the desired outcome measures of career counseling
be inspiring and motivating, but students’ success
(Krumboltz, 1998b).
should be judged by what they do in the real world.
The TED lectures on the Internet are generally
inspiring and useful. Listeners need not get an
“WILL LISTENING TO BRILLIANT
above-average grade on a subsequent examination to
LECTURES TEACH ME HOW TO BE
benefit. Listeners who are happy with them recom-
SUCCESSFUL?”
mend them to their friends. TED makes a public
Lectures have long been the principal method for record of how many people listen to each lecture
teaching college courses. One of the fundamental and what comments they make.

287
 John D. Krumboltz

“HOW CAN I GET BETTER GRADES THAN Consider any skill–let’s take high jumping as an
MY CLASSMATES?” example. How high is the bar set? Maybe it is set at
36 inches so that 50% of a class can jump over it and
Competitive grading practices guarantee that a large
the other 50% fail. But why must the bar be set at
proportion of the students will feel like failures. The
the same level for everyone? Why not find out first
grading system in schools and colleges should be
how high each person can successfully jump over a
motivating students to help each other learn. The
bar? Some may only be able to jump 14 inches. Oth-
current competitive grading system limits the num-
ers, 6 inches. Still others with disabilities, 0 inches.
ber of students who can get the best grades. Students
Why not set the goal as improvement so that each
who successfully answer more of the questions are
learner is trying to improve on his or her own previ-
given high grades, and those students who recall less
ous record? Then each learner can potentially be
of what the professor said receive lower grades. The
able to be successful part of the time. No one would
students are in competition with each other to get
need to be labeled a poor student. And the bar can
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

the highest grades. High grades are considered to be

be set so that even the best jumper fails part of the
a mark of success in college. Most students want to
time. Failures should be treated as necessary steps
be successful, but by definition only 50% of them
toward eventual successful improvement, not some-
will receive above-average grades. There is no incen-
thing that happens only to the unfortunate lower
tive here for students to help each other learn.
half of the population.
The educational system’s grading policy makes it
In the employment world, outstanding salespeo-
inevitable that only 50% of the students will be con-
ple are identified and rewarded. But selling any
sidered to be above average. An average is by defini-
product or service can be a tough job. If only the
tion the midpoint in a distribution. It causes 50% of
best one is rewarded, all the others feel like failures.
students to believe that they are incompetent
A better alternative would be to make the goal be
because they are labeled as below average.
improvement. “You sold more gizmos today than
Competitive grading sabotages good teaching, said
you sold yesterday—congratulations!”
Krumboltz and Yeh (1996). They pointed out that it
Educators worry about the dropout rate. Why do
turns teachers into students’ opponents, it justifies
students drop out of high school? The system in a
inadequate teaching methods and styles, it encour-
typical high school rewards only a minority of the
ages methods of evaluation that misdirect and inhibit
students (Ohanian, 2008). The competitive grading
student learning, it trivializes course content, and it
system clearly identifies winners and losers. We
rewards teachers for punishing students. And how
should be rewarding everyone who improves or is
much of what the professor has said will be remem-
genuinely trying to improve, but few high schools
bered after the final exam is completed? Precious lit-
do so, and the result is a high dropout rate. I cannot
tle, if the testimony of students is to be believed!
help but wonder whether the discouragement many
The HLT proposes that useful learning is best
students experience in high school produces strong
accomplished on the basis of each student’s own
lifelong feelings of hostility toward education and
actions, not on the basis of passive listening. It is
society in general (Meiners, 2007; Zimbardo, 2007).
crucial that every teacher and professor use an
Career counselors want to help their clients
accountability system that rewards genuine student
improve. The clients may want to improve, but the
attempts to improve their own past performance, to
system only rewards a few at the top. It will take a
perform actions that engage them, and to reward
radical change in thinking to change the system. But
them for their efforts to improve.
it can be done if we begin to work on it.
Every student should be rewarded for genuine
The goal of an educational institution should be
efforts to improve. Everyone can be trying to
to provide useful tasks and problems so that all stu-
improve. Schools should be defined as improvement
dents can improve in their abilities to solve them.
factories, not as competitive games with winners
Students will inevitably make mistakes in trying to
and losers.
solve many of these problems. Not to worry! ­Making

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 Practical Career Counseling Applications of the Happenstance Learning Theory

mistakes is a necessary part of the learning process. We have plenty of correlational studies that show
We can learn what does not work as well as what that grades earned in high school predict grades
does work. Making errors should not be punished by earned in college. And grades earned in college pre-
the educational system. It should be rewarded dict to a lesser degree grades earned in graduate
(Babineaux & Krumboltz, 2014)! school. Is success in the real world dependent on
I try to apply this idea in my own teaching. I no getting high grades in educational institutions? Did
longer give lectures. Instead, I give students prob- Steve Jobs, Donald Dell, and Bill Gates all get high
lems and challenges to solve. If I am teaching a grades? As a matter of fact, all three of them were
course in career counseling, I put students in teams college dropouts.
of three and ask them to counsel each other about Colleges are basically asking high schools to use
their career thoughts. I ask them to read controver- a competitive grading system so as to make their
sial articles and critique the career thoughts stimu- admission decisions easier. All educators need to
lated by them. I ask them to read what their fellow ask, “Is it my job to make someone else’s admission
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

students have written and give them feedback. I do decisions easier?” My answer is a resounding no! If
not pass judgment on what the students have writ- the more senior institution wants to know how
ten. I may provide feedback to provoke further much my students know, they will have to supply
thought, and I ask my teaching assistant to provide their own tools. In some ways, the SAT and related
additional feedback. Grades are based on whether tests give rank-ordering data if that is what the insti-
students are participating actively in all the learning tutions want to know. But their wishes are not my
activities. Those who elect not to participate do get commands. When I fill out recommendation forms
somewhat lower grades than those who participate for other institutions, I refuse to report percentile
promptly in all the activities, but there is no limit ratings because (a) I don’t collect comparative data
placed on the number of students who can get the that put students in competition with each other
top grade. and (b) I don’t form judgments about the compara-
tive worth of my students. Admission decisions for
the next institution become the sole responsibility of
“HOW CAN I GET HIGH GRADES SO I WILL
that institution.
BE ADMITTED TO THE BEST COLLEGES?”
There seems to be an assumption here that some
“HOW CAN I LEARN FROM MY OWN
colleges are better than others for everyone. There is
ACTIONS INSTEAD OF FROM PASSIVE
a prestige hierarchy among colleges, and parents
LISTENING?”
seem to want to brag about the name of the college
to which their child got admitted (Pope, 2001). My The notion of learning by doing, not just by listen-
old friend Nate Gage (now recently departed from ing, is not a new idea. Professor John Dewey at
this world) had a theory about how you should Teachers College, Columbia University, was a strong
choose a college for your children. He said, “Find and controversial advocate of having students learn
out the distribution of SAT scores at various colleges from their own actions, not just from books and lec-
and have your child apply only to colleges where tures. Unfortunately, his wisdom is being followed
your child’s SAT scores are above average.” This pol- by only a few. Old customs die hard.
icy would guarantee that your child would be above However, I did take a course on historical
average among the students at the college he or she research methods, which did require me to take rel-
attended, but it would not modify the hierarchical evant action. I was asked to answer a historical ques-
competitiveness within each college. tion: What color were Thomas Jefferson’s eyes? We
The counterargument is that colleges and gradu- had learned that at least two primary sources needed
ate schools want to know who the best students to agree before we could assert a historical truth.
have been so they know whom to admit. So, they Because of the richness of Columbia University’s
ask educators to tell them which applicants are best. libraries, I was able to assert that Thomas Jefferson

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 John D. Krumboltz

had brown eyes. I saw a color portrait of Jefferson how the Wizard did it, but we get clues later in
showing his brown eyes, and I read a letter from one the movie.
of his relatives referring to his brown eyes. I learned So, we see Dorothy directed to “follow the yellow
more about doing research from that course than brick road” to the Emerald Castle where the Wizard
from all the other history courses I had ever taken. resides. On the road she meets the Scarecrow, whose
More recently, I have developed an interest in self-concept is that he doesn’t have a brain. He
computer applications. Krumboltz and Winzelberg doesn’t even know how to scare away the crows.
(1997) reported on the tremendous possibilities of Dorothy suggests that maybe the Wizard could give
computers aiding in career counseling. They the Scarecrow a brain, and so the two of them con-
reported experiences using computer news groups tinue down the yellow brick road together.
for learning and support, and they discussed the On the way, the Scarecrow insults the apple tree
advantages and disadvantages of using both asyn- as having worms in its apples. In anger, the apple
chronous and real-time communications by users. tree begins throwing apples at the Scarecrow, who
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Students should not be placed in competition picks them all up to provide food for himself and
with each other to get the highest grades. Students Dorothy on their trip. The moral here is that career
should be encouraged to cooperate with each other counselors should be cautious about accepting a
in solving problems—helping each other to find self-diagnosis from a client. The Scarecrow said he
successful solutions. The goal should be to help did not have a brain, but he clearly outwitted the
every student learn useful skills. Everyone can suc- apple tree to provide nourishment. Maybe the Scare-
ceed, because everyone can improve on their own crow is much wiser than his self-concept would
past performance. Improvement should be the reveal. Career counselors might well be cautious
goal—not comparison with the performance of about accepting self-concepts as a valid diagnosis.
other students. Next, they meet the Tin Man, who has no feel-
How do people decide what occupation to enter? ings because he doesn’t have a heart. Dorothy thinks
Young people are often encouraged to decide on a that the Wizard might be able to provide a heart for
future occupation so that they can then take courses the Tin Man, so now the three of them continue on
that will prepare them for the tasks in that occupa- down the yellow brick road.
tion. I was advised to take 2 years of Latin in high Then they meet the Cowardly Lion, who is afraid
school because Latin was used by doctors and of everyone and everything. Dorothy thinks the
­lawyers—two of the most prestigious occupations at Wizard could give the Cowardly Lion some courage,
that time. I did not enter either occupation, but I do so now the four of them march down the yellow
know what e pluribus unum means. brick road to the Emerald Castle where the Wizard
The famous movie “The Wizard of Oz” (Fleming, lives.
1939) provides a useful metaphor for thinking about The Wizard reluctantly allows them to enter a
the actions of a career counselor. Dorothy lives in a most impressive structure that certainly must have
black-and-white Kansas farm environment that was contributed to the Wizard’s reputation. As Dorothy
struck by a tornado. She enters the brilliantly color- begins to explain why they came, the Wizard inter-
ful Land of Oz. She wants to return home but rupts and says, “I know why you came. If you bring
doesn’t know how. The Munchkins who live in Oz me the broomstick of the Wicked Witch of the
tell her that only the wise and wonderful Wizard of West, I will grant all your requests. Now go!” The
Oz has the wisdom to guide her back to Kansas. So Cowardly Lion says, “But she might kill us first.”
we see right away that the Wizard has wonderful The Wizard shouts, “I said go!”
public relations skills. But did he attend college? We Career counselors should be cautious about their
don’t know. Somehow, he has persuaded the Munch- ability to diagnose client problems without hearing
kins to recommend him to Dorothy. How do career all the details. However, the Wizard did give them
counselors make their skills and availability known an action they were to take. However, in career
to the community? We don’t know immediately counseling it is best that an appropriate action be

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 Practical Career Counseling Applications of the Happenstance Learning Theory

decided on in a mutual brainstorming session, with learn from your action?” and then, “OK, what are
ideas being contributed by all participants, both cli- you going to try next?” The big idea is to convert
ents and counselors. each client into an active explorer, not for the pur-
Dorothy was captured by the Wicked Witch, and pose of deciding on a future occupation, but for the
her three companions had to save her. The Tin Man purpose of helping clients take charge of their own
shed tears over Dorothy’s dilemma (did he really lives. Their actions will inevitably produce learning
lack a heart?). The Straw Man drew up the plan for outcomes—but not necessarily what the client or
attacking the Witch’s castle (did he really lack a the counselor expected. Career development should
brain?). And the Cowardly Lion was persuaded to be a lifelong task for everyone (Watts, 1996).
lead the attack (did he really lack courage?). The
Wicked Witch was defeated, and her broomstick
A CASE EXAMPLE
was presented to the Wizard, who gave positive
reinforcement to his four clients. Sometimes in class I volunteer to conduct a career
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

The Wizard even showed that he was willing to counseling interview with a volunteer client from
refer difficult problems to other professionals. He my class. One quarter, Linda (a fictitious name)
did not know how to get Dorothy back to Kansas. ­volunteered. I asked her what she liked to do in her
He referred the case to the Good Witch of the North, spare time. She described how much she enjoyed
who instructed Dorothy to tap her heels together her artistic activities but said that art does not pay
three times, thus transporting her back to Kansas as very well, so she was going to apply to both the
she had wished. School of Medicine and the School of Law because
This wonderful movie provides an entertaining doctors and lawyers made the most money. She did
metaphor for how career counselors can engage their
clients in taking actions to solve their own problems.

“WHY DOES MY CAREER COUNSELOR

LOSE INTEREST IN ME AFTER MY
COUNSELING SESSION?”
Career counselors should insist on getting feedback
about client actions. Not only does that increase the
likelihood that clients will actually take the agreed-
on action, it also provides the counselor with valu-
able information about successful tactics.
Almost every career counseling session should
involve the client in making a commitment to take
some action and giving feedback to the counselor. I
say something like this:
Counselor: “By what day and time will you have
taken the action you have just agreed to take?”
Client: “OK, 12 noon on this next Thursday.”
Counselor: “Would you agree to send me an e-mail
by noon Thursday telling me what happened
when you took that action?”
I insist on getting action reports. I give positive
­reinforcement regardless of the outcome of the Figure 21.1. A quiet rebel. Reprinted with
action. The follow-up question is “What did you ­permission from the artist.

291
 John D. Krumboltz

not like their activities, but she wanted to be rich. I Krumboltz, J. D. (1998a). Counsellor actions needed
asked her what activities she did as an artist. She for the new career perspective. British Journal
of Guidance and Counselling, 26, 559–564.
described how she would tailor her art to the per- doi:10.1080/03069889808253865
sonalities of her clients. “Would you be willing to do
Krumboltz, J. D. (1998b). Serendipity is not serendipi-
that with someone in this class?” I asked. “Anyone tous. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 390–392.
in the class willing to be Linda’s client?” No one vol- doi:10.1037/0022-0167.45.4.390
unteered. “I will be your client if you wish,” I said. Krumboltz, J. D. (2009). The happenstance learning
She explained that she would then need to interview theory. Journal of Career Assessment, 17, 135–154.
me to figure out what kind of artistic creation would doi:10.1177/1069072708328861
fit my personality. We set up an appointment, and Krumboltz, J. D., & Vosvick, M. A. (1996). Career
she spent an hour interviewing me, asking about my assessment and the Career Beliefs Inventory.
values, preferences, and favorite activities. She diag- Journal of Career Assessment, 4, 345–361.
doi:10.1177/106907279600400401
nosed me as being “a quiet rebel.” I liked that. A
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

week later, she came in with a picture (Figure 21.1) Krumboltz, J. D., & Winzelberg, A. (1997). Technology
applied to learning and group support for career-
that showed a bird standing on top of a sign that related concerns. Career Planning and Adult
said, “No Birds.” In small print at the bottom was Development Journal, 13, 101–110.
the legend “A Quiet Rebel.” Krumboltz, J. D., & Yeh, C. J. (1996). Competitive
­grading sabotages good teaching. Phi Delta Kappan,
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