Machining Science: Jigs & Fixtures

II Jai Sri Gurudev II
Sri Adichunchanagiri Shikshana Trust®
SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

BGS Health & Education City, Dr. Vishnuvardhan Road, Kengeri, Bengaluru – 560060
MACHINING
SCIENCE
JIGS & FIXTURES
21ME42
Faculty Name : Uday M

Designation : Assistant Professor
2022-2023
TABLE OF
CONTENT
VISION , MISSION
PO'S, PSO'S & PEO'S
BLOOMS TAXONOMY
OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES
COURSE SYLLABUS
LECTURE NOTES
VISION
MISSION
Vision of the Institute

To become a recognized technical education center with global
perspective.
Mission of the Institute

To provide learning opportunities that fosters students ethical
values, intelligent development in science & technology and
social responsibility so that they become sensible and
contributing members of the society.
Vision of the Department

• To become a center of excellence and a platform in diversified
fields for the aspirants in Mechanical Engineering.
Mission of the Department

• To impart comprehensive education in the field of mechanical
engineering to produce highly accomplished graduates
• To endow high profile technical & soft skill trainings to foster
professionalism and ethical values among students
• To inculcate innovative thinking among students through
projects and research work
02.
Program Specific Outcomes (PSO’s)
PSO1: Apply the Knowledge & Skill of Mechanical Engineering on Design,

Manufacturing and Thermal platforms to address the real life problem of
the society.
PSO2: Design and implement new ideas with the help of CAD/CAM and
Industrial Automation tools.
Program Educational Objectives (PEO’s)

PEO-1: Progress their career as a professional in mechanical engineering
and interdisciplinary fields.
PEO-2: Become successful entrepreneur with social responsibilities and
ethical values.
PEO-3: Pursue higher education and involve in research of allied areas in
mechanical engineering.
BLOOMS
TAXANOMY
03.
COURSE
OBJECTIVE
04.
Course objectives
To know the various subtractive machining processes in industries.

To calculate the values of various forces involved in the machining
operations.
To understand and determine tool wear and tool life of different
machining processes.
To know various non-conventional machining and hybrid machining
processes.
To know the design of jigs and fixtures for various industrial/
machining members.
Course outcomes
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
Demonstrate the Conventional CNC machines and advanced

manufacturing process operations
Determine tool life, cutting force, and economy of the machining
process.
Analyze the influence of various parameters on machine tools'
performance.
Select the appropriate machine tools and process, the Jigs, and
fixtures for various applications.
05
SYLLABUS
MODULE 1:
Introduction to Machining Processes and Machine Tools: Subtractive manufacturing processes
and classifications.
Construction, specification operations of machine tools:– Lathe, Shaping, Milling, Drilling,
Grinding Machine.
Introduction to CNC machines: CNC Lathe, Milling, Drilling, Machine Center.
MODULE 2:
Mechanics of Metal Cutting: Single point turning tool geometry (SPTT) influences the chip
formation mechanisms of the Orthogonal and Oblique cutting process. Cutting Force Analysis
(Orthogonal Cutting):Analysis of machining forces and power requirement, ‘Merchant’s model of
Orthogonal Cutting and Theory of Lee & Shaffer’ Chip Velocity, Velocity relationships (simple
numerical); the influence of cutting temperature on machinability. CuttingFluids: Characteristics
of Cutting fluids, Selections, and applying methods of cutting fluids.
MODULE 3:
Machinability and Tool Life Process of cutting tool failure wears and time relationship, tool wear
index, feed marks, the effect of tool wear on the machined surface, surface finish, machinability,
machinability index/rating, tool life & variables affecting tool life, tool materials. Finishing
Process: Importance of surface finishing processes, Grinding, Abrasive Flow Machining, Honing.
Sanding, Abrasive blasting, Polishing, Lapping. Surface Finishing and Protection: Powder Coating,
Liquid Coating, Electroplating, Galvanizing, Anodizing.
MODULE 4:
Advanced Machining Process; Importance and classification of advanced machining process;
Process principal, process parameters, and application of: - Abrasive Jet Machining (AJW), Water
Jet Machining (WJM), Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM); Ultrasonic Machining
(USM);Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM); Wire Electrical Discharge Machining (WEDM); Electro
Chemical Machining (ECM). Laser Beam Machining (LBM), Electron Beam Machining (EBM), and
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM). Hybrid Machining Process: Importance of hybrid machining
process; Process principal, process parameters, and application of: - Electrochemical Discharge
Machining (ECDM), Ultrasonic Assisted Electric Discharge Machining (UAEDM), Electrochemical
Discharge Grinding (EDG), Powder Assisted Electric Discharge Machining (PAEDM).
MODULE 5:
Jigs and Fixtures: Importance of jigs and fixtures; the difference between jigs and fixtures; types
of jigs and fixtures; essential features of jigs and fixtures, Materials used. Factors to be considered
for the design of Jigs and Fixtures; Jigs: Template, Plate, Channel, Diameter, Leaf, Rung, Box,
Fixtures: Turning, Milling, Broaching, Grinding, Boring, Indexing, Tapping, Duplex, Welding, and
Assembly fixtures.
MACHINING SCIENCE AND JIGS & FIXTURES 21ME42
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups and they are primary
manufacturing processes and secondary manufacturing processes. The former ones provide basic
shape and size to the material as per designer‟s requirement. Casting, forming, powder
metallurgy are such processes to name a few. Secondary manufacturing processes provide the
final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface characteristics etc. Material
removal processes are mainly the secondary manufacturing processes. Material removal
processes once again can be divided into mainly two groups and they are “Conventional
Machining Processes” and “Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes”. Examples of
conventional machining processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping, broaching, slotting,
grinding etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Water Jet
and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro discharge Machining (EDM) are
some of the Non-Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes.
1.2 History of Non-Traditional processes
Although, the non-conventional machining processes have created a revolution in the field of
machining technology by the development of idea of various processes were initiated as early as
in nineteen- twenties in USSR.
1920 The initiation was first made by Gussev towards the end of 1920 in USSR. He suggested a
method of machining by combination of Chemical and mechanical means. His work is basis for
all Electro Chemical processes known today.
1941 Burgess, American Scientist had demonstrated the possibility of ECM process by drawing
a sharp contrast between the mechanical and electrolyte methods in metal removal
1942 The idea of Ultrasonic machining was invented by Balamuth at the He invented at the time
of investigation of dispersion of solids in Liquids with the help of a vibrating magne-tostrictive
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 10

nickel tube However, the origination of the process was made by Rosenberg
1943 DM was developed by B R Lazarenko and N I Lazarenko in USSR. They first developed
the idea of spark erosion machining. In the early nineteen-sixties, the idea of Ultrasonic
machining began to to develop widely in USSR and basis of this development was laid on
extensive investigation that took place in the mechanism of ultrasonic machining and in the
design of Magneto-strictive transducers, converters and wave guides.
1950 The basis of laser machining was established by the process which Which were developed
by Basov, Prokhorov and Fabrikanth in USSR in 1950.
1950 Electro chemical Grinding has practically been developed in about 1950.
1960 The concept of whirling jet machining was innovated.
1.3 Classification of NTM processes
Classification of NTM processes is carried out depending on the nature of energy used for
material removal.
1. Mechanical Processes
It is characterized by the fact that the material removal is due to the application of
mechanical energy in the form of high frequency vibrations or kinetic energy of an
abrasive jet.
a) Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
b) Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
c) Water Jet Machining (WJM)
d) Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
2. Electrochemical Processes
It is based on electro-chemical dissolution of materials by an electrolyte under the
influence of an externally applied electrical potential.

a) Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

b) Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
c) Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)
d) Chemical Machining(CM)
3. Electro-Thermal Processes
The material is removed due to controlled, localized heating of the work piece. It result
into material removal by melting and evaporation.
The source of heat generation in such cases can be widely different.
a) Electro-discharge machining (EDM)
b) Laser Jet Machining (LJM)
c) Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
d) Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
e) Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
1.4 Comparison between conventional and Non-conventional machining

process selection.
Sl Conventional Process Non Conventional Process
No.
The cutting tool and work piece arealways in
There is no physical contact betweenthe tool
physical contact withrelative motion with
1 and work piece, In some nontraditional
eachother,which results in friction and
process toolwear exists.
toolwear.
NTM can machine difficult to cut andhard to
Material removal rate is limited cut materials
2
bymechanical properties of workmaterial. liketitanium,ceramics,nimonics,SST,composi
tes,sem-conductingmaterials
Relative motion between the tooland work is
typically rotary orreciprocating. Thus the Many NTM are capable of
3
shape ofwork is limited to circular or producingcomplex 3D shapes and cavities
flatshapes.
Machining of small cavities, slits
Machining of small cavities , slits ,blind andProduction of non-circular, micro
4
holes or through holes aredifficult sized,large aspect ratio, shallentry
angleholes are easy using NTM

Nontraditional processes requiresexpensive

Use relative simple and
tools and equipment as wellas skilled labour,
5 inexpensivemachinery and readily
whichincrease theproduction cost
availablecutting tools
significantly
6 Capital cost and maintenance cost islow Capital cost and maintenance cost ishigh
Mechanics of Material removal of someof
7 Traditional processes are wellestablished andphysics of processis well understood
NTMprocess are still under research
Most NTM uses energy in direct form for
Conventional process
example: laser, Electron beam inits direct
8 mostlyusesmechanical
forms are used in LBM andEBM
energy
respectively.
Surface finish and tolerances High surface finish(up to
9 arelimited bymachining 0.1micron)andtolerances (25
inaccuracies Microns)can beachieved
10 High metal removal rate. Low material removal rate.
1.5 NTM process selection

The correct selection of the non-traditional machining methods must be based on the following
aspects.
 Physical parameters of the process
 Shape to be machined.
 Process capability
 Economics of the processes
 Physical parameters of the process

The physical parameters of the different NTM are given in the Table 1.0 which indicates that
PAM and ECM require high power for fast machining. EBM and LBM require high voltages and
require careful handling of equipment. EDM and USM require medium power . EBM can be
used in vacuum and PAM uses oxygen and hydrogen gas.

 Shape to be machined.
The different shapes can be machined by NTM. EBM and LBM are used for micro drilling
and cutting. USM and EDM are useful for cavity sinking and standard hole drilling. ECM is
useful for fine hole drilling and contour machining. PAM can be used for cutting and AJM is
useful for shallow pocketing.
 Process capability
EDM which achieves higher accuracy has the lowest specific power requirement.ECM
can machine faster and has a low thermal surface damage depth. USM and AJM have
very material removal rates combined with high tool wear and are used nonmetal cutting.
LBM and EBM, due to their high penetration depth can be used for micro drilling, sheet
cutting and welding. CHM is used for manufacture of PCM and other shallow
components.
 Economics of the processes

Economic factors include costs related to capital investment, tooling & fixtures, power
requirement and other expenses incurred for machining process.AJM, USM, PAM
require very low capital investment. Tooling cost are high for EDM & ECM process.
Power consumption is very low for USM and LBM process
1.6 Advantages
• It provides high accuracy and surface finish.
• No physical tool is used hence, no tool wear occur.
• They do not generate chips or generate microscopic chips.
• These are quieter in operation.
• It can be easily automated.
• It can machine any complex shape.
1.7Disadvantages
• High initial or setup cost.
• High skilled labor is required.
• Lower metal removal rate.
• More power required for machining.

• It is not economical for bulk production.
1.8Applications
Some of the applications of NTM are given below:

Ultrasonic and Abrasive Jet Machining
2.1 Principle:
Ultrasonic machining is based on the principle that , when a tool vibrating at a very high
frequency is brought closer to the workpiece with abrasive particles between them, the vibrating
energy of the tool can propel the abrasive particle to strike the workpiece with a great velocity.
The impact of the abrasive particle fractures the hard work surface resulting in the removal of
material from workpiece.
2.2 Need for Ultrasonic Machining

• USM is primarily targeted for the machining of hard and brittle materials (dielectric or
conductive) such as boron carbide, ceramics, titanium carbides, rubies, quartz etc. USM
is a versatile machining process as far as properties of materials are concerned. This
process can effectively machine all materials whether they are electrically conductive or
insulator.
• For an effective cutting operation, the following parameters need to be carefully
considered:
• The machining tool must be selected to be highly wear resistant, such as high-carbon
steels.
• The abrasives (25-60 μm in dia.) in the (water-based, up to 40% solid volume) slurry
Includes: Boron carbide, silicon carbide and aluminum oxide.

2.3 USM Equipment:

Ultrasonic Machining consists of :
• High Power sine wave generator
• Magneto-strictive Transducer
• Tool Holder
• Tool
High Power sine wave generator:

 This unit converts low frequency (60 Hz) electrical power to high frequency (20kHz)
electrical power.
Transducer
 The high frequency electrical signal is transmitted to traducer which converts it into
high frequency low amplitude vibration. Essentially transducer converts electrical
energy to mechanical vibration. There are two types of transducer used
 Piezo electric transducer
 Magneto-strictive transducer.

Tool Holder:
 The tool holder holds and connects the tool to the transducer. It virtually transmits
the energy and in some cases, amplifies the amplitude of vibration. Material of tool
should have good acoustic properties, high resistance to fatigue cracking.
 Commonly used tool holders are Monel, titanium, stainless steel. Tool holders are
more expensive, demand higher operatingcost
Tool:
 Tools are made of relatively ductile materials like Brass, Stainless steel or Mild steel
so that Tool wear rate (TWR) can be minimized. The value of ratio of TWR and
MRR depends on kind of abrasive, work material and tool materials.
Abrasive slurry:
The most common abrasives are Boron Carbide (B4C), Silicon Carbide (SiC), Corrundum
(Al2O3), Diamond and Boron silicarbide. B4C is the best and most efficient among the rest but
it is expensive. SiC is used on glass, germanium and most ceramics. Cutting time with SiC is
about 20-40% more than that with B4C. Diamond dust is used only for cutting daimond and
rubies. Water is the most commonly used fluid although other liquids such as benzene, glycerol
and oils are also used.
2.4. Construction and working of USM
 ItconsistofUltrasonicgeneratorand transducer, tool holder,tool, Abrasive slurry and it‟s

feed mechanism, and tool feed mechanism.
 Concentrator/ tool holder is tool cone which made from titanium or SS.
 Tool is attached to base of concentrator by mean of silver brazing orscrews. Tool is

shaped as approximate mirror image of cavity desired.
 The gap between tool and work is about 0.02 to 0.1 mm.
 Abrasive slurry is mixture of abrasive grains and carrier fluid which is provided between
tool and work-piece. Generally water is used as carrier fluid.

Working:
 Theultrasonictransducerconvertselectrical energy intoultrasonicwaves or vibrations

using magneto-strictive effects.
 Tool vibrates longitudinally at 20 to 30 kHz with amplitude 0.02 mmpressed on the work
surface with light force.
 Concentrators increasetheamplitudeofvibrationinordertogive required force amplitude

ratio.
 The abrasive particle in form of abrasive slurry is continuous circulate between tool and
work. The tool performs hampering action on abrasive particles.
 The vibration of tool tip accelerates the abrasive particles at high rate and it imparts the
necessary force for cutting action.
 The tool is gradually moved down by means of tool feed mechanism to maintain constant
gap.

2.5. Tool Feed Mechanism
 The position „A‟ indicates the instant the tool face touches the abrasive grain.
 The period of movement from „A‟ to „B‟ represents the impact.
 The indentations, caused by the grain on the tool and the work surface at the extreme
bottom position of the tool from the position „A‟ to position „B‟ is „h‟ (the total
indentation).
 Different types of feed mechanism are shown in figure.
Tool feed mechanism:
• For accurate working, tool feed mechanism must be precise and sensitive. Fig a, b, c, d
shows the principles of different types of feed systems.
• In the system shown in figure (a) and (b), Counter weights are used, the force being the
difference between the weight of the head and that of the counter weight attached through
a pulley or lever system.
• The force is adjusted through the weights. Though simple, such a system is insensitive
and inconvenient to adjust.

• Fig (c) shows a compact spring- loaded system which is quite sensitive.For high rating
machines, pneumatic or hydraulic systems (fig d) may be used.
The feed mechanism of an ultrasonic machine must perform the following functions:
• Bring the tool very slowly close to the work piece
• Provide adequate cutting force and sustain this during cutting
• Decrease the force at a specified depth
• Overrun a small distance to ensure the required hole size at aexit
• Return the tool

The horn or concentrator can be of different shape like
• Tapered or conical
• Exponential
• Stepped
Machining of tapered or stepped horn is much easier as compared to the exponential one.
Figure shows different horns used in USM
2.6.Mechanism of material removal
The reasons for material removal in an USM process are believed to be:
1. The hammering of the abrasive particles on the work surface by the tool.
2. The impact of free abrasive particles on the work surface.
3. The erosion due to cavitation.
4. The chemical action associated with the fluid used.
Material removal due to throwing and hammering is significant and MR due to cavitations and
chemical erosion can be ignored. Abrasive particles are assumed to be spherical in shape having
diameter dg. Abrasive particles move under high frequency vibrating tool. There are two possibilities
whenthe tool hit the particle.
If the size of the particle is small and gap between the tool and work is large, then particle will
be thrown by tool to hit the work piece.

If the size of the particle is large and gap between tool and work is small, then particle is
hammered over the work surface.
2.7. Process parameters in USM
 Amplitude and frequency of vibrations of the tool

The MRR or cutting rates increases with increase in both amplitude and vibration of the
tool. The amplitude and frequency of vibration determines the velocity of the abrasive
particles at the interface between the tool and workpiece. At large amplitudes, the kinetic
energy rises, this inturn enhances the mechanical chipping action& increase MRR. But
increasing the amplitude tends to increase the surface roughness. The frequency and
amplitude of vibration ranges from 15-30kHz and 25-100µm respectively.
 Slurry (Abrasive-water mixture)

The improved flow of slurry results in an enhanced machining rate. In practice, a
volumetric concentration of about 30 to 35%nof abrasive is recommended. A change in
concentration occurs during machining because of the abrasive dust. Metal removal rate
increases with increase in slurry concentration. The machining rate reaches to an
optimum value with 30% slurry concentration.

 Tool & work material

The tool must withstand the vibrations, it should not fail or wear quickly. The harder the
tool material the faster its wear rate will be, thereby leading to unfavorable metal removal
rate and surface finish on the workpiece. Tough malleable material gives satisfactory
results.
2.8 Process capability

1. Can Machine work piece harder than 40 HRC to 60 HRC like carbides, ceramics, tungsten
glass that cannot be machined by conventional methods
2. Tolerance range 7 micron to 25 microns
3. Holes up to 76 micron have been drilledhole depth upto 51mm have been achieved easily.
Hole depth of 152mm deep is achieved by special flushing techniques.
4. Aspect ratio 40:1 has been achieved
5. Linear material removal rate -0.025 to 25mm/min
6. Surface finish -0.25 micron to 0.75 micron
7. Non directional surface texture is possible compared to conventional grinding
8. Radial over cut may be as low as 1.5 to 4 times the mean abrasive grain size.
2.9 Applications
1. Machining of cavities in electrically non-conductive ceramics
2. Used to machine fragile components in which otherwise the scrap rate is high
3. Used for multistep processing for fabricating silicon nitride (Si3N4) turbine blades
4. Large number of holes of small diameter. 930 holes with 0.32mm has been reported (
Benedict, 1973) using hypodermic needles
5. Used for machining hard, brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.

6. Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions.
7. Used in machining of dies for wire drawing, punching and blanking operations
8. USM can perform machining operations like drilling, grinding and milling operations on all
materials which can be treated suitably with abrasives.
9. USM has been used for piercing of dies and for parting off and blankingoperations.
10. USM enables a dentist to drill a hole of any shape on teeth without any pain
11. Ferrites and steel parts , precision mineral stones can be machined using USM
12. USM can be used to cut industrial diamonds
13. USM is used for grinding Quartz, Glass, and ceramics
14. Cutting holes with curved or spiral centre lines and cutting threads in glass and mineral or
metallo-ceramics
2.10 Advantages
1. It can be used machine hard, brittle, fragile and non-conductive material
2. No heat is generated in work, therefore no significant changes in physical structure of work

material
3. Non-metal (because of the poor electrical conductivity) that cannot be machined by EDM and
ECM can very well be machined by USM.
4. It is burr less and distortion less processes.
5. It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies like EDM,ECG,ECM.
2.11 Disadvantages
1. Low Metal removal rate
2. It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is restricted.
3. Tool wear rate is high due to abrasive particles. Tools made from brass, tungsten carbide, MS
or tool steel will wear from the action of abrasive grit with a ratio that ranges from 1:1 to 200:1
4. USM can be used only when the hardness of work is more than 45 HRC.

Abrasive Jet Machining
2.12 Definition
In abrasive jet machining, a focused stream of abrasive particles, carried by high pressure air or
gas is made to impinge on the work surface through a nozzle and the work material is made to
impinge on the work surface through a nozzle and work material is removed by erosion by high
velocity abrasive particles.
2.13Working principle
In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the workmaterial at
a high velocity. The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air. Thehigh velocity
stream of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of thecarrier gas or air to its
kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. The nozzle directs theabrasive jet in a controlled
manner onto the work material, so that the distance betweenthe nozzle and the work piece and
the impingement angle can be set desirably. The highvelocity abrasive particles remove the
material by micro-cutting action as well as brittlefracture of the work material.
2.14 Abrasive Jet Machining Equipment
In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material at
a high velocity. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro-cutting action
as well as brittle fracture of the work material.

A schematic layout of AJM is shown above. The gas stream is then passed to thenozzle through a
connecting hose. The velocity of the abrasive stream ejected through the nozzle is generally of
the order of 330 m/sec.
Abrasive jet Machining consists of
1. Gas propulsion system
2. Abrasive feeder
3. Machining Chamber
4. AJM Nozzle
5. Abrasives
Gas Propulsion System
Supplies clean and dry air. Air, Nitrogen and carbon dioxide to propel the abrasive particles. Gas
may be supplied either from a compressor or a cylinder. In case of a compressor, air filter cum
drier should be used to avoid water or oil contamination of abrasive powder. Gas should be non-
toxic, cheap, easily available. It should not excessively spread when discharged from nozzle into
atmosphere. The propellant consumption is of order of 0.008 m3/min at a nozzle pressure of 5bar
and abrasiveflow rate varies from 2 to 4 gm/min for fine machining and 10 to 20 gm/min
forcutting operation.
Abrasive Feeder.

Required quantity of abrasive particles is supplied by abrasive feeder. The filleted propellant is
fed into the mixing chamber where in abrasive particles are fed through a sieve. The sieve is
made to vibrate at 50-60 Hz and mixing ratio is controlled by the amplitude of vibration of sieve.
The particles are propelled by carrier gas to a mixing chamber. Air abrasive mixture moves
further to nozzle. The nozzle imparts high velocity to mixture which is directed at work piece
surface.
Machining chamber
It is well closed so that concentration of abrasive particles around the working chamber does not
reach to the harmful limits. Machining chamber is equipped with vacuum dust collector. Special
consideration should be given to dust collection system if the toxic material (like beryllium) are
being machined.
AJM nozzle
AJM nozzle is usually made of tungsten carbide or sapphire ( usually life – 300 hours for
sapphire , 20 to 30 hours for WC) which has resistance to wear. The nozzle is made of either
circular or rectangular cross section and head can be head can be straight, or at a right angle. It is
so designed that loss of pressure due to the bends, friction etc is minimum possible. With
increase in wear of a nozzle, the divergence ofjet stream increases resulting in more stray cutting
and high inaccuracy.
2.15 Process parameters

For successful utilization of AJM process, it is necessary to analyze the following process
criteria.
1. Abrasive flow rate and velocity
Increase in the flow rate of abrasive, increases the metal removal rate, because more
abrasive particles are available for cutting. However, when the flow rate exceeds
14g/min, the abrasive velocity decreases, thereby reducing the metal removal rate. For
the erosion of the worksurface by the abrasives, the minimum jet velocity is found to be
150m/sec. The jet velocity is a function of the nozzle pressure, nozzle design, abrasive
grain size and the mean number of abrasives per unit volume of the carrier gas.
2. Nozzle tip distance (NTD) or standoff distance (SOD)

 The nozzle tip distance (NTD) or the standoff distance is a criticalparameter in AJM.

 The NTD not only affects the MRR from the work surface but also the shape and size of
the cavity produced.
 As shown in the figure below, when the NTD increases, the velocity of the abrasive
particles impinging on the work surface increases due to their acceleration after they
leave the nozzle. This increases the MRR.
 With a further increase in the NTD, the velocity reduces due to the drag of the
atmosphere which initially checks the increase in MRR and then decreases it.
3. Abrasive grain size

The size of the abrasive grain ranges from 10-15µm. An abrasive with large particle size
removes material faster from the worksurface than with small particle sizes. Coarse
grains are recommended for cutting, while fine grain abrasive for polishing, deburring etc
4. Nozzle design
The nozzle is one of the most vital elements controlling the process characteristics.
 The nozzle material should be hard to avoid any significant wear due to the flowing
abrasive. [Normally WC (avg. life: 12-30 hrs.) or Sapphire (Appr. = 300 hrs.) are used]
 For a normal operation the cross-sectional area of the orifice can be eithercircular or
rectangular and between 0.05- 0.2mm2 .
However, Process criteria are generally influenced by the process parameters as enumerated
below:
 Abrasives
a) material – Al2CO3SiC Glass beads Crushed glass Sodium bi carbonate
a) shape –irregular/regular

b) Size – 10 to 50microns
c) Mass flow – 2-20gm/min
 CarrierGas
a) Composition – Air, CO2,N2
b) Density – 1.3kg/m3
c) Velocity - 500 to 700m/s
d) Pressure - 2 to 10bar
e) Flow rate - 5 to 30 microns

 AbrasiveJet
a) Velocity - 100 to 300m/s
b) Mixing ratio – Volume flow rate of abrasives/Volume flow rate ofgas
c) Standoff distance – SOD- 0.5 to15mm.
d) Impingement angle – 60 to 90deg
 Nozzle
a) Material –WC/Sapphire
b) Diameter – 0.2 to 0.8 mm
c) Life – 300 hours for sapphire, 20 to 30 hours forWC
2.16Applications
1. This is used for abrading and frosting glass more economically as

compared to etching or grinding.
2. Cleaning of metallic smears on ceramics, oxides on metals, resistive coatingetc.
3. AJM is useful in manufacture of electronic devices, drilling of glass

wafers, de burring of plastics, making of nylon and Teflon parts
permanent marking on rubber stencils, cutting titaniumfoils

4. Deflating small castings, engraving registration numbers on toughened

glass used for car windows.
5. Used for cutting thin fragile components like germanium, siliconetc.
6. Register treaming can be done very easily and micro module fabrication for
electrical contact, semiconductor processing can also be doneeffectively.
7. Used for drilling, cutting, deburring etching and polishing of hard and
brittlematerials.
8. Most suitable for machining brittle and heat sensitive materials like
glass, quartz, sapphire, mica, ceramics germanium , silicon andgallium.
9. It is also good method for deburring small hole like in hypodermic
needles and for small, milled slots in hard metalliccomponents.
2.17Advantages of AJM
1. High surface finish can be obtained depending upon the grainsizes.

2. Depth of damage is low ( around2.5microns).
3. It provides cool cutting action, so it can machine delicate and heat
sensitivematerial.
4. Process is free from chatter and vibration as there is no contact between the
tool andwork piece.
5. Capital cost is low and it is easy to operate and maintainAJM.
6. Thin sections of hard brittle materials like germanium, mica, silicon, glass
and ceramics can bemachined.
7. It has the capability of cutting holes of intricate shape in hardmaterials.
2.18Disadvantages of AJM
1. Limited capacity due to low MRR. MRR for glass is 40gm/minute
2. Abrasives may get embedded in the work surface, especially

while machining soft material like elastomers or softplastics.
3. The accuracy of cutting is hampered by tapering of hole due to
unavoidable flaring of abrasivejet.

4. Stray cutting is difficult toavoid
5. A dust collection system is a basic requirement to prevent

atmospheric pollution and healthhazards.
6. Nozzle life is limited (300hours)
7. Abrasive powders cannot be reused as the sharp edges are worn

and smaller particles can clog thenozzle.
8. Short standoff distances when used for cutting, damages the

nozzle.
2.19 Machining characteristics

Following are the AJM process criteria.
1. Material removal rate
2. Geometry and surface finish of work piece
3. wear rate of the nozzle
Process criteria are generally influenced by the process parameters.
The characteristics of above process parameters on process criteria are as follows:
1. Effect of abrasive flow rate and grain size on MRR
It is clear from the figure that at aparticular pressure MRR increase with increase of
abrasive flow rate and is influenced by size of abrasive particles. But after reaching
optimum value, MRR decreases with further increase of abrasive flow rate. This is
because Mass flow rate of gas decreases with increase of abrasive flow rate and
hence mixing ratio increases causing a decrease in material removal rate because of
decreasing energy available for erosion.

2. Effect of exit gas velocity and abrasive particle density
The velocity of carrier gas conveying the abrasiveparticles changes considerably with the change
of abrasive particle density as indicated in figure. The exit velocity of gas can be increased to
critical velocity when the internal gas pressure is nearly twice the pressure at exit of nozzle for
the abrasive particle density is zero. If the density ofabrasive particles is gradually increased exit
velocity will go on decreasing for the same pressure condition. It is due to fact that Kinetic
energy of gas is utilized for transporting the abrasive particle.
3. Effect of mixing ratio on MRR

Increased mass flow rate of abrasive will result in a decreased velocity of fluid and will
therebydecreasesthe available energy for erosion and ultimately the MRR. It is convenient to
explain to this fact by term MIXING RATIO.
4. Effect of Nozzle pressure on MRR

The abrasive flow rate can be increased by increasing the flow rate of the carrier gas. This is only
possible by increasing the internal gas pressure as shown in the figure. As the internal gas
pressure increases abrasive mass flow rate increase and thus MRR increases. As a matter of fact,
the material removal ratewill increase with the increase in gas pressureKinetic energy of the
abrasive particles is responsible for the removal of material by erosion process. The abrasive
must impinge on the work surface with minimum velocity for machining glass by SIC particle is
found to be around 150m/s.

Electro Chemical Machining (ECM) &Chemical Machining
3.1 Introduction& Principle
Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is a non-traditional machining (NTM) process belonging to

electrochemical category. Fig. 1 schematically shows the basic principle of
ECM.Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a metal-removal process based on the principle
ofreverse electroplating (Faraday‟s Law of electrolysis). In this process, particles travel from
the anodic material(workpiece) toward the cathodic material (machining tool). A current of
electrolyte fluidcarries away the deplated material before it has a chance to reach the machining
tool. Thecavity produced is the female mating image of the tool shape.

3.2 Elements of ECM process:

The elements of ECM process include:
a) Cathode tool having shape similar tothat desired in the workpiece metal.
b) Anode workpiece which is a good conductor of electricity.
c) DC power source of sufficient capacity so that high current densities be maintained
between the tool and the workpiece.
d) Electrolyte is a liquid that carries electric current and act complete the circuit between
the tool and the workpiece. The electrolyte is a salt solution like sodium chloride or
sodium nitrate mixed in water and acts as a current carrier.
3.3 ECM Equipment.
The explanation is as follows.

Fixture:The fixture is used to hold the table firmly.
Table:The table is used to hold the work piece properly.
Workpiece:It is the material on which machining is carried out to remove the material
from the surface of the workpiece. Here, the workpiece acts as an anode.

Tool:With the help of the tool, material removal takes place in the workpiece. Here, the
tool acts as a cathode.
Electrolyte:The electrolyte acts as a medium for the flow of ions and leads to the
removal of material from the surface of workpiece.
Pump:It pumps the electrolyte from the sump to all the parts of the system.
Filter:It removes the impurities present in the electrolyte which is being pumped to the
system or work region.
Pressure gauge:It is used to check the pressure of the electrolyte coming from the pump
via a filter to the work region.
Flow meter:It is used to measure the discharge or mass flow rate of the fluid(electrolyte).
Feed Unit:To give the feed to the tool, servomotor is used such that whenever material
removal takes place from the workpiece, the servomotor gives the necessary amount of
feed to the tool.
Power Supply:The power supply is to be given to the machine to work properly. Here
+ve supply is given to the workpiece(acts as an anode) and the -ve supply is given to the
tool(acts as a cathode).
3.4 Working principle :

The electrolyte is pumped to the work region by the pump via a filter, pressure gauge,
flow meter and finally, it enters into the work region from the passage.When the Power
supply is given, an optimum gap is maintained between the tool and workpiece because
of Faraday's laws of electrolysis, the ions have started displacing from the workpiece and
trying to deposit over the tool.Before the ions are depositing on the tool, the electrolyte
present between tool and workpiece is pumped out. Then, the ions also moving along
with electrolyte without depositing on the tool.From the above, the mechanism of
material removal is Ion displacement and because there is no disturbance taking place in
the tool, the same tool can be used for producing an infinite number of components.
Hence, we can say that the wear ratio of the tool is infinity(because of no tool wear)

3.5Chemistry of ECM Process

During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the electrodes i.e. at the anode or
workpiece and at the cathode or the tool along with within the electrolyte. Let us take an
example of machining of low carbon steel which is primarily a ferrous alloy mainly
containing iron. For electrochemical machining of steel, generally a neutral salt solution
of sodium chloride (NaCl) is taken as the electrolyte. The electrolyte and water undergoes
ionic dissociation as shown below as potential difference is applied
NaCl ↔ Na+ + Cl-
H2O ↔ H+ + (OH)-
As the potential difference is applied between the work piece (anode) and the tool
(cathode), the positive ions move towards the tool and negative ions move towards the
workpiece. Thus the hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the cathode (tool) and
from hydrogen gas as:
2H+ + 2e- = H2↑ at cathode
Similarly, the iron atoms will come out of the anode (work piece) as:
Fe = Fe++ + 2e
Within the electrolyte iron ions would combine with chloride ions to form iron chloride
and similarly sodium ions would combine with hydroxyl ions to form sodium hydroxide
Na+ + OH- = NaOH
In practice FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 would form and get precipitated in the form of sludge. In
this manner it can be noted that the work piece gets gradually machined and gets
precipitated as the sludge. Moreover there is not coating on the tool, only hydrogen gas
evolves at the tool or cathode. Figure depicts the electro-chemical reactions
schematically. As the material removal takes place due to atomic level dissociation, the
machined surface is of excellent surface finish and stress free.

3.6Process parameters
Parameters that affect the metal removal rate and surface finish in ECM are
Current Density
During ECM, a high value of direct current ( may be as high as 40000 A) and a low value of
electric potential ( in range of 5-25 V) across IEG ( Interelectrode gap) is desirable. The highest
current density achieved so far is around 20,000 A/cm2. Hence , with the help of a rectifier and a
transformer, three phase AC is converted to a low voltage, high current DC.
At low current density, MRR is small.
Power supply Type – DC
Voltage – 30V
Current - 40000A
Current Density – 500 A/Cm2
Tool feed rate
The tool feed rate is directly proportional to current density. If the feed rate is increased, the
electrical resistance of tool- work gap reduces to allow more current to flow resulting in high
MRR & also the surface finish and accuracy is improved.
Gap between workpiece and tool
The tool and the workpiece are positioned as close together to encourage efficient electric
transmission. Small gap results in high current densities and hence more metal removal rate. The
gap size may vary from 0.25 to 0.76mm.
Velocity of electrolyte flow
Electrolyte flow may be between 15-60 m/sec. if the electrolyte flow is too slow the heat and by
product of the electrolyte reaction build in the gap causing non uniform metal removal. Too high
velocity causes cavitation and non-uniform metal removal.

Type of electrolyte, its concentration & temperature.
The type of electrolyte selected depends on the tool and workpiece material. For instance,
sodium chloride is cheap and possesses good conductivity. However, it is corrosive and hence
cannot be used on tungsten carbide or molybdenum materials. Sodium nitrate is also popular due
to its less corrosive nature. But it does not produce a good surface as that of sodium chloride and
it is expensive, it is preferred for machining aluminum and copper.
Electrolyte temperature seriously affects the overcut. The power in the electrolytic reaction gives
rise to an increase in the temperature of the electrolyte. The heat must be carried away from the
cutting area so as to maintain stable and steady conditions. Low temperature of electrolyte is
conductive to better surface finish and tolerance.
3.7Electrolyte flow arrangement in ECM
Proper electrolyte circulation is essential for accurate machining in ECM and to this there is a
need for sufficient electrolyte to flow between the tool and the workpiece in order
• To carry away the heat and the products of machining

• To assist the machining process at the required feed rate, producing a satisfactory
surface finish
• Cavitation, stagnation and vortex formation should be avoided since these leads to bad
surface finish
• There should be no sharp corners in the flow path. All corners in the flow path should
have a radius.
The figure shows the divergent flow application of electrolyte, where in the electrolyte flow from
inside of the tool, then around the cutting edges and up through the machining hole. This method
is simple inexpensive and works satisfactorily.

The second method is the convergent flow as shown in figure. The flow of electrolyte is
reversed, it is admitted through a chamber called dam to pressurize the area outside the work and
the tool. Such method of flow results in uniform and predictable side overcut, improves surface
finish, reduces possibility of arcing, and eliminates undesirable machining due to stray current
and cleaner operation condition.
Material removal rate, MRR, in ECM
MRR = C .I. h (cm3/min)
C: specific (material) removal rate (e.g., 0.2052 cm3/amp-min for nickel); I: current(amp);
h: current efficiency (90–100%).
The rates at which metal can electrochemically remove are in proportion to the current
passedthrough the electrolyte and the elapsed time for that operation. Many factors other than
Currentinfluence the rate of machining. These involve electrolyte type, rate of electrolyte flow,
andsome other process conditions.
3.8Advantages
ECM offers impressive and long-lasting advantages.
1. ECM can machine highly complicated and curved surfaces in a singlepass.
2. A single tool can be used to machine many pieces withoutany loss in its shape and size.
Theoretically tool life is high.

3. Machinability of the work material is independent of its physical andmechanical properties.

The process is capable of machining metals andalloys irrespective of their strength and hardness.
4. Machined surfaces are stress and burr free having good surface finish
5. It yields low scrap, almost automatic operation, low overall machiningtime, and reduced
inventory expenses.
6. There is no thermal damage and burr free surface can be produced.
3.9 Disadvantages
1. High capital cost of equipment
2. Design and tooling system is complex
3. Hydrogen liberation at the tool surface may cause hydrogen embrittlement of the surface.
4. Spark damage may become sometimes problematic
5. Fatigue properties of the machined surface may reduce as compared toconventional techniques
(by 20%)
6. Non-conductive material cannot be machined.
7. Blind holes cannot be machined in solid block in one stage
8. Corrosion and rust of ECM machine can be hazard
9. Space and floor area requirement are also higher than for conventional machining methods.
Some additional problems related to machine tool requirements such as power supply, electrolyte
handling and tool feed servo.
3.10 Applications
1. ECM can be used to make disc for turbine rotor blades made up of HSTR alloys
2. ECM can be used for slotting very thin-walled collets
3. ECM can be used for copying of internal and external surfaces, cutting of curvilinear slots,
machining of intricate patterns, production of long curved profiles, machining of gears and chain

sprockets, production of integrally bladed nozzle for use in diesel locomotives, production of
satellite rings and connecting rods, machining of thin large diameter diaphragms.
4. ECM principle has be employed for performing a number of machining operations namely,
turning, trepanning, broaching, grinding, fine hole drilling, die sinking, piercing, deburring,
plunge cutting etc.
5. ECM can also be used to generate internal profile of internal cams.
3.11 Electrochemical Honing

Electrochemical Honing is a process in which material is removed with help of electrical energy,
chemical energy, and honing process. In an ECH process, a DC Power Supply is used of which
the tool act as the cathode and the workpiece act as anode.The pressurized electrolyte is injected
to the area being cut at a set temperature. The feed rate is same as the rate of liquefaction of the
material or the rate of conversion of material into a liquid state.In this process, the gap between
the tool and the workpiece varies between 80-800 micrometers (.003 in. and .030 in.).
As electrons cross the gap, material from the workpiece is dissolved as the tool forms the desired
shapein workpiece. The metal hydroxide formed during the process is carried away by the
electrolytic fluid.
Honing Tool:
The honing tool is composed of abrasive grains that are bound together with an adhesive.
Generally hone grains are irregular shaped and about 10 to 50 micrometers in diameter ( 300 to
1500 mesh grit).Smoother surface is produced if small grain sizes are used.

Honing tools are more friable as compared to grinding wheel so they conform to the shape of the
workpiece as they wear in.
Working of Electrochemical Honing
In electrochemical honing, electrolyte like sodium chloride, sodium nitrate are used.
The workpiece used in the electrochemical machining is a cylinderical workpiece which has to
be cleaned from inside using electrochemical honing process.At first, the abrasive tool is inserted
into the cylindrical workpiece.The abrasive tool which is inserted into the workpiece rotates
inside it as well as have up and down reciprocator motion.Electrolyte is supplied to this process
inside the cylindrical workpiece using a nozzle.In this process, the workpiece acts as anode and
the tool acts as cathode. In this process, a constant DC current is supplied.The metal part of the
tool apart from the stone is conductive, this metal part reacts with the electrolyte. Due to the
reaction, material starts removing from the internal part of the workpiece and a surface finish is
obtained in the inside surface of the cylindrical workpiece. The final finish is given by the
abrasive tool or the honing stone.As the abrasive tool is an insulator so it will be only used in
rubbing.The final finish provided by the abrasive tool is very neat and of high quality.
3.12Advantages of Electrochemical Honing:-

1. In this process, no heat is produced.
2. Another advantage is that we do not have to do the shaping process after the
electrochemical honing process as both surface finish and shaping is done in the same
process.
3. For hard materials, traditional process of machining are not applicable but by using
electrochemical honing hard or tough material can also be machined.
4. Very low tolerance is obtained in this process.
5. This process also results in deburring and no stress is developed as a result of this
process.
3.13 Disadvantages of Electrochemical Honing:-
1. The cost of the eqipments used in this process is high.

2. It is only applicable to hard materials.
3. This process can be carried out by skilled labour only.

3.14 Applications:
1. ECH is widely used in power generation andpower chemicals industries.

2. It is used in gear teeth error correction.
3. It is used in increasing life span of the roller, gears, sleeves, dies, gears and internal
cylinders.
4. It is also used in processing different materials like carbide, titanium, alloys,Titanium
alloys, etc
3.15Electrochemical grinding:
Electrochemical grinding is a process that removes electrically conductive material by

grinding with a negatively charged abrasive grinding wheel, an electrolyte fluid, and a
positively charged workpiece. Materials removed from the workpiece stay in the electrolyte
fluid. Electrochemical grinding is like electrochemical machining but uses a wheel instead of
a tool shaped like the contour of the workpiece.
Process:
The electrochemical grinding process combines traditional electrochemical machining and

grinding processes to remove material from a workpiece. A grinding wheel is used as a
cutting tool as a cathode and the workpiece is an anode. During the process, electrolytic fluid,
typically sodium nitrate, is pumped into the space between the workpiece and the grinding
wheel. Other electrolytes used include sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, and sodium
chloride. This electrolytic fluid will cause electrochemical reactions to occur at the
workpiece surface which oxidize the surface, thereby removing material. Because of the
oxidation which occurs, layers of oxide films will form on the workpiece surface, and these
need to be removed by the grinding wheel. A couple schematics of the process are provided
below.

Schematic of electrochemical grindingElectrochemical Grinding Schematic
Abrasive materials, either diamond or aluminum oxide, are bonded to the grinding wheel,
which allows the wheel to remove the oxide layers on the workpiece surface by abrasive
action. Appropriate materials used for electrolyte fluid and the grinding wheel abrasives are
summarized in the table below.
3.16 Advantages
• No thermal damage to workpiece
• Elimination of grinding burn
• Absence of work hardening
• Long-lasting wheels – less truing
• Higher MRR
• Single pass grinding - reduced cost of grinding

• Absence of burrs on the finished surface
• Improved surface finish with no grinding scratches
• Reduced pressure of work against the wheel – no distortion.
3.17 Limitations
• High capital cost / Higher cost of grinding wheel;
• Corrosive environment
• High preventive maintenance cost
• Tolerance achieved are low;
• Difficult to optimize due to the complexity of the process;
• Non-conductive materials cannot be machined
• Not economical for soft materials – noncompetitive removal rates compared to conventional
methods for readily machinable metals
• Requires disposal and filtering of electrolytes
3.18 Applications
• Single largest use for ECG is in the manufacturing and remanufacturing of turbine blades and
vanes for aircraft turbine engines
• Grinding of tungsten carbide tool inserts
• Re-profiling worn locomotive traction motor gears
• Burr-free sharpening of hypodermic needles
• Grinding of surgical needles, other thin wall tubes, and fragile parts
• Machining of fragile or very hard and tough material – honeycomb, thin walled tubes and skins
• High MRR‟s when grinding hard, tough, stringy, work-hardenable or heat sensitive materials

Chemical Machining
3.19 Introduction
A material removal process to produce shape/ pattern on material (metal, glass, plastics,
etc) by means of chemical etching (the etching medium is called etchant - acid, alkali)
usually through a pattern of holes/apertures in adherent etch- resistant stencil
(maskant/resist, photoresist).
Working Principle of CHM

The main working principle of chemical machining is chemical etching. The part of the
workpiece whose material is to be removed, is brought into the contact of chemical
called enchant. The metal is removed by the chemical attack of enchant. The method of
making contact of metal with the enchant is masking. The portion of workpiece where
no material is to be removed, is mashed before chemical etching.
3.20 Process Details of CHM

Following steps are normally followed in the process of CHM :
Cleaning
The first step of the process is a cleaning of workpiece, this is required to ensure that
material will be removed uniformly from the surfaces to be processed.
Masking
Masking is similar to masking action is any machining operation. This is the action of
selecting material that is to be removed and another that is not to be removed. The
material which is not to be removed is applied with a protective coating called maskant.
This is made of a materials are neoprene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene or any other

polymer. Thinkers of maskent is maintained upto 0.125 mm. The portion of workpiece
having no application of maskent is etched during the process of etching.
Etching
In this step the material is finally removed. The workpiece is immersed in the enchant
where the material of workpiece having no protective coating is removed by the
chemical action of enchant. Enchant is selected depending on the workpiece material
and rate of material removal; and surface finish required. There is a necessity to ensure
that maskant and enchant should be chemically in active. Common enchants are H2SO4,
FeCL3, HNO3. Selection of enchant also affects MRR. As in CHM process, MRR is
indicated as penetration rates (mm/min).
Demasking
After the process is completed demasking is done. Demasking is an act of removing
maskent after machining.
3.21Elements of Chemical Machining:
Maskants:
Maskants are generally used to protect parts of the workpiece where CD action is not
needed. Synthetic or rubber base materials are frequently used. Table below shows the
different maskants and etchants for several materials together with the etch rate and etch
factor. Maskants should, however, possess the following properties:
1. Be tough enough to withstand handling
2. Adhere well to the workpiece surface
3. Scribe easily
4. Be inert to the chemical reagent used
5. Be able to withstand the heat generated by etching
6. Be removed easily and inexpensively after etching
Etchants:
Etchants (see below Table) are acid or alkaline solutions maintained within a controlled
range of chemical composition and temperature. Their main technical goals are to
achieve the following:

1. Good surface finish

2. Uniformity of metal removal
3. Control of selective and intergranular attack
4. Control of hydrogen absorption in the case of titanium alloys
5. Maintenance of personal safety
6. Best price and reliability for the materials to be used in the construction of the process
tank
7. Maintenance of air quality and avoidance of possible environmental Problems
3.22 Types of Chemical Machining Process:

1. Chemical milling:
In chemical milling, shallow cavities are produced on plates, sheets, forgings and
extrusions. The two key materials used in chemical milling process are etchant and
maskant. Etchants are acid or alkaline solutions maintained within controlled ranges
of chemical composition and temperature. Maskants are specially designed
elastomeric products that are hand strippable and chemically resistant to the harsh
etchants.
Steps in chemical milling
1.Workpiece pre cleaning process:

The workpiece material must be cleaned in the beginning of chemical machining
process. The cleaning operation is carried out to remove the oil, grease, dust, rust or
any substance from the surface of material. A good cleaning process produces a

good adhesion of the masking material. There are two cleaning methods: mechanical
and chemical methods. The most widely used cleaning process is chemical method
due to less damages occurred comparing to mechanical one. Ultrasonic cleaning
machine is applied with using special cleaning solution and heating is beneficial
during the cleaning process.
2.Masking and Scribing mask:
Masking involves covering the portions of the workpiece metal where material is not
to be removed by the chemical action of the etchant. The selected masking material
should be readily strippable mask, which is chemically impregnable and adherent
enough to stand chemical abrasion during etching. Scribing mask is guided by
templates to expose the areas that receive chemical machining process. The selection
of mask depends on the size of the workpiece material, the number of parts to be
produced, and the desired detail geometry. Silkscreen masks are preferred for
shallow cuts requiring close dimensional tolerances.
3.Etching:
This step is the most important stage to produce the required component from the
sheet material. This stage is carried out by immerse type etching machine. The
workpiece material is immersed into selected etchant and the uncovered areas were
machined. This process is generally carried out in elevated temperatures which are
depended on the etched material. Then the etched workpiece is rinsed to clean
etchant from machined surface.
4. Cleaning masking material:
Final step is to remove masking material from etched part. The inspections of the
dimensions and surface quality are completed before packaging the finished part.
2. Chemical Blanking Process:

Chemical blanking is a process of producing apart from thin sheet metal by
chemically etching the periphery of the desired shape. The material is removed by
chemical dissolution. Chemical blanking is used for parts that are otherwise
typically produced by mechanical blanking presses from thin plates and foil
material. With mechanical presses, vibrations, backlash, and part distortion will
make smaller parts difficult to produce.

Steps of chemical blanking:
Chemical blanking process has several steps for producing machine parts. These are given
below:
1.Workpiece pre cleaning process:

The surface of the workpiece metal is cleaned thoroughly, degreased and pickled by
acid and alkalis. Pre cleaning is of utmost importance in order to remove oil, grease,
dirt, rust or any foreign substance forthe work surface so as to produce a good
adhesion of the masking material. The material is allowed to dry.
2.Masking:
Masking involves covering the portions of the workpiece metal where material is not
to be removed by the chemical action of the etchant. Refer figure 3(a). A suitable
maskant, say a polymer, rubber, or any other material is selected based on the
workpiece material. The maskant is applied on the work surface by various methods
like dip, brush, spray, roller, electro-coating, and as well as adhesive tapes.
3.Etching:
Removal of material from the workpiece take place by etching process. The
workpiece metal is either sprayed continuously with a selected etchant like ferric
chloride on those portions where the material is to removed, or immersed in a tank
of agitated etchant, where the etchant chemically attack those portions not masked.
Erosion of the work material take place both inward and laterally from the
exposed(unmasked) surface as shown in figure3(b) to (d). The work material is
converted in to metallic salt, which is the dissolved and carried away in the etchant
solution. There are two application of material through etching. Immersion type and
Spray type. With the immersion type, the part is immersed in the corrosive liquid,
and the liquid is constantly stirred. Air injection is the widely used stirring method.
4.Demasking:
When etching is completed, the mask is removed either through mechanical or
chemical means Any etchant on the material is also removed with a wash or
clear,coldwater. A deoxidizing bath may also be required to remove the oxide films
left on the surface of the work material.

3.23 Application:
It is mostly used in aircraft industry. This process is best suited for production of printed circuits
, where the basic connections of the circuit consist of thin metal strips attached to a insulating
board faced with a thin layer of copper . Besides, it remove metal from a portion of entire surface
of formed or irregularly shaped parts such as forging casting, extrusions or formed wrought
stock. The surface finish obtained in this process is in the range of 0.5 to 2 microns. One of the
major applications of chemical milling and blanking is in the manufacture.
3.24 Advantages of CHM process are listed below:
a) Low tooling cost.

b) Multiple machining can be done on a workpiece simultaneously.
c) No application of force so on risk of damage to delicate or low strength
workpiece.
d) Complicated shapes/patterns can be machined.
e) Machining of hard and brittle material is possible.
3.25 Disadvantages and Limitations of CHM
a) Slower process, very low MRR so high cost of operation.

b) Small thickness of metal can be removed.
c) Sharp corners cannot be prepared.
d) Requires skilled operators.

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) & Plasma Arc Machining

(PAM)
4.1 Introduction
It is also known as spark erosion machining or spark machining. Material of workpiece removed
due to erosion caused by electric spark. Working principle is described below.
Working Principle of Electric Discharge Machining
Electric discharge machining process is carried out in presence of dielectric fluid which creates
path for discharge. When potential difference is created across the two surfaces of die electric
fluid, it gets ionized. An electric spark/discharge is generated across the two terminals. The
potential difference is developed by a pulsating direct current power supply connected across the
two terminals. One of the terminal is positive terminal given to workpiece and tool is made
negative terminal. Two third of the total heat generated is generated at positive terminal so
workpiece is generally given positive polarity. The discharge develops at the location where two
terminals are very close. So tool helps in focusing the discharge or intensity of generated heat at
the point of metal removal. Application of focused heat raise the temperature of workpiece
locally at a point, this way two metal is melted and evaporated.
4.2 Electric Discharge Machining Process Details
The working principle and process of EDM is explained with the help of line diagram in Figure.
The process details and components are explained below serially.

Base and Container
A container of non-conducting, transparent material is used for carrying out EDM. The container
is filled with dielectric solution. A base to keep workpiece is installed at the bottom of container.
The base is made of conducting material and given positive polarity.
Power generator:
In EDM process electrical energy in the form of short duration impulses are to be supplied at the
machining gap between the tool and workpiece.
Different power generators are used in EDM and some are listed below:
• Resistance-capacitance type (RC type) Relaxation generator

• Rotary impulse type generator
• Electronic pulse generator
• Hybrid EDM generator
Resistance-capacitance type (RC type) Relaxation generator
In RC type generator, the capacitor is charged from a DC source. As long as the voltage in the
capacitor is not reaching the breakdown voltage of the dielectric medium under the prevailing
machining condition, capacitor would continue to charge. Once the breakdown voltage is
reached the capacitor would start discharging and a spark would be established between the tool
and workpiece leading to machining. Such discharging would continue as long as the spark can
be sustained. Once the voltage becomes too low to sustain the spark, the charging of the
capacitor would continue.

Rotary Impulse Generator:
The relaxation circuit for spark generation, though

simple, has certain disadvantages. Of these, an
important disadvantage is that the mrr is not high.
For increasing the removal rate, an impulse generator
is used for spark generation. Figure shows the
schematic diagram of such a system. The capacitor is
charged through the diode during the first half cycle.
During the following half cycle, the sum of the
voltages generated by the generator and the charged
capacitor is applied to the work-tool gap. The
operating frequency is the frequency of the sine wave
generation which depends on the motor speed.
Though the mrr is higher, such a system does not produce a good surface finish.
Controlled Pulse Circuits:

In the two systems we have discussed, there is no
provision for an automatic prevention of the current flow
when a short circuit is developed. To achieve such an
automatic control, a vacuum tube (or a transistor) is used
as the switching device. This system is known as a
controlled pulse circuit. Figure 6.60 schematically shows
such a system. During sparking, the current which flows
through the gap comes from the capacitor.When the
current flows through the gap, the Valve Tube (VT) is
biased to cut off and behaves like an infinite resistance.
The bias control is done through an Electronic Control (EC). As soon as the current in the gap
ceases, the conductivity of the tube increases, allowing the flow of current to charge the
capacitor for the next cycle.
The circuit can be simplified and the operating stability improved if the flow of current is
allowed cyclically with an imposed frequency. This can be done by controlling the bias with the

help of an oscillator. In this case, the capacitor is not needed. Figure shows such a circuit, using
a transistor.
Tool
Tool is given negative polarity. It is made of electrically conducting material line brass, copper
or tungeten. The tool material selected should be easy to machine, high wear resistant. Tool is
made slightly under size for inside machining and over sized for cut side machining. Tool is
designed and manufactured according to the geometry to be machined.
Dielectric Solution
Dielectric solution is a liquid which should be electrically conductive. This solution provides two
main functions, firstly it drive away the chips and prevents their sticking to workpiece and tool.
It enhance the intensity of discharge after getting ionized and so accelerates metal removal rate.
Functions of Dielectric fluid: Essential functions of a dielectric fluid used in EDM process are:
a) Remain electrically non-conductive until the required breakdown voltage is attained,
i.e., it should possess high dielectric strength.
b) When once the breakdown voltage is reached it should breakdown electrically instantly.
c) Deionize the spark gap, i.e., quench the spark rapidly after the discharge has occurred.
d) Carry away the metal particles removed from the arc gap.
e) Act as a good cooling medium.
Desirable Properties of dielectric fluid: In order to act as a good dielectric medium and meet
the various functions the fluid is required to possess the following properties:
a) High electric strength for proper insulation.
b) High flash and fire point to prevent fire hazards.
c) Low viscosity and good wetting properties
d) Chemically neutral to prevent corrosion.
e) Non-toxic in nature.
f) Low decomposition rate for long life.
g) Low cost
h) Good quenching properties

The dielectric fluid must be filtered before reuse so that the metal removed from the
workpiece and tool electrode is separated so that the performance is not affected during the
process.Flushing of dielectric:
Flushing refers to proper circulation of dielectric fluid at the gap between the work and
electrode tool in EDM. The efficiency of the cutting process to a great extent depends on the
flushing of dielectric fluid. Good flushing is essential to achieve good machining conditions in
EDM
Power Supply
A DC power supply is used, 50 V to 450 V is applied. Due to ionization of dielectric solution an

electrical breakdown occurs. The electric discharge so caused directly impinges on the surface of
workpiece. It takes only a few micro seconds to complete the cycle and remove the material. The
circuit cam be adjusted for auto off after pre-decided time interval.
The different methods of circulation of dielectric fluid for flushing in EDMare:

a) Pressure dielectric flow
b) Reverse dielectric flow
c) Vacuum dielectric flow
d) Vibration flush cut
Pressure flow types is a widely used method used for flushing dielectric fluid in EDM. The
fluid is forced through holes in the electrode to pass through the gap between the tool and the
work. The fluid under pressure flushes out the solid particles and cools the work and tool
electrode. In the electrode hole, a needle-like work material will be left off as shown in the
figure. This is to be removed afterwards to get a clean machined surface.
Reverse dielectric flow allows the flow of the fluid from outside the electrode tool from

bottom. With the pressure dielectric flow and reverse dielectric flow there will be a taper
formed at the mouth of the cavity formed as shown in the figure.
Vacuum dielectric flow flushing produces straight holes as shown in the figure. Vacuum is
created using a vacuum pump to draw the fluid around the tool electrode which passes through
a central hole. This method will also leave a central needle-like work material which is to be
removed afterwards to have a clean surface.
In vibratory type of fluid flushing tool is vibrated to provide flushing action to the dielectric
fluid. This method is used for very small tools that cannot accommodate a fluid passage for the
flow of the dielectric fluid. This method is useful for deep hole drilling of small diameter.
Tool Feed Mechanism
In case of EDM, feeding the tool means controlling gap between workpiece and the tool. This
gap is maintained and controlled with the help of servo mechanism. To maintain a constant gap
throughout the operation tool is moved towards the machining zone very slowly. The movement
speed is towards the machining zone very slowly. The movement speed is maintained by the help
of gear and rack and pinion arrangement. The servo system senses the change in gap due to metal
removal and immediately corrects it by moving the tool accordingly. The spark gap normally
varies from 0.005 mm to 0.50 mm.
Workpiece and Machined Geometry
The important point for workpiece is that any material which is electrical conductor can be
machined through this process, whatever be the hardness of the same. The geometry which is to
be machined into the workpiece decides the shape and size of the tool.
Electrode Material:
The selection of the electrode material depends on the:
(i) Material removal rate,
(ii) Wear ratio,
(iii) Ease of shaping the electrode,
(iv) Cost.

The most commonly used electrode materials are brass, copper, graphite, A1 alloys, copper-
tungsten alloys, and silver-tungsten alloys.
The methods used for making the electrodes are:

(i) Conventional machining (used for copper, brass, Cu-W alloys, Ag-W alloys, and graphite),
(ii) Casting (used for Zn base die casting alloy, Zn-Sn alloys, and Al alloys),
(iii) Metal spraying,
(iv) Press forming.
Flow holes are normally provided for the circulation of the dielectric, and these holes should be
as large as possible for rough cuts to allow large flow rates at a low pressure.
4.3 EDM process parameters:
a) Influence of spark frequency:

The effect of decreasing the current and increasing its frequency results in improved
surface finish in view of the small crater size as shown in figure, this is because the
energy available for metal removal during a given period is shared by many sparks. The
corresponding crater size is reduced.
b) Influence of current:
The amount of material removed, and the surface finish obtained depends on the current
in the discharged spark. The figure shows the influence of current on metal removal. It is
clear from the figure that as the current increases each and individual spark removes a
large crater of material from the workpiece. Since the depth of crater defines the surface
finish, a larger crater results in poor surface finish.

c) Spark gap
Typical gap between the tool and the workpiece ranges from 0.01- 0.05mm. The smaller
the gap, the closer the accuracy with good surface finish. However efficient flushing
becomes difficult to achieve with small gaps.
4.4 Wire EDM

EDM, primarily, exists commercially in the form of die-sinking machines and wire
cutting machines (Wire EDM). The concept of wire EDM is shown in Figure In this
process, a slowly moving wire travels along a prescribed path and removes material from
the work piece. Wire EDM uses electro-thermal mechanisms to cut electrically
conductive materials. The material is removed by a series of discrete discharges between
the wire electrode and the work piece in the presence of dielectric fluid, which creates a
path for each discharge as the fluid becomes ionized in the gap. The area where discharge
takes place is heated to extremely high temperature, so that the surface is melted and
removed.
The removed particles are flushed away by the flowing dielectric fluids. The wire EDM
process can cut intricate components for the electric and aerospace industries. This non-
traditional machining process is widely used to pattern tool steel for die manufacturing.

The wires for wire EDM is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum. Zinc or brass
coated wires are also used extensively in this process. The wire used in this process
should possess high tensile strength and good electrical conductivity. Wire EDM can also
employ to cut cylindrical objects with high precision. The sparked eroded extrusion dies
are presented in Figure.This process is usually used in conjunction with CNC and will
only work when a part is to be cut completely through. The melting temperature of the
parts to be machined is an important parameter for this process rather than strength or
hardness. The surface quality and MRR of the machined surface by wire EDM will
depend on different machining parameters such as applied peak current, and wire
materials.
4.5 Electrical discharge grinding

In this process, a rotating electrically conductive metallic wheel is used which is known
as grinding wheel. The grinding wheel used in this process, having no any abrasive
particles and rotates its horizontal axis. Due to the similarities of process with
conventional grinding and material is removed due to the electrical discharge, it is known
as electrical discharge grinding
(EDG).

In this process, the spark is generated between rotating wheel and work piece. The
rotating wheel and workpiece both are separated by dielectric fluid and during machining
both (workpiece and wheel) are continuously dipped into dielectric fluid. The dielectric
fluids are mainly Kerosene oil, Paraffin oil, Transformer oil or de-ionized water. The
main purpose of dielectric is to make a conductive channel during ionization when
suitable breakdown voltage is applied. The servo control mechanism utilized to maintain
the constant gap between workpiece and wheel in range of 0.013-0.075 mm.
4.6 Application of Electric Discharge Machining
This process is highly economical for machining of very hard material as tool wear is
independent of hardness of workpiece material. It is very useful in tool manufacturing. It
is also used for broach making, making holes with straight or curved axes, and for
making complicated cavities which cannot be produced by conventional machining
operations. EDM is widely used for die making as complex cavities are to be made in the
die making. However, it is capable to do all operations that can be done by conventional
machining.
4.7 Advantages of EDM
(a) This process is very much economical for machining very hard material.
(b) Maintains high degree of dimensional accuracy so it is recommended for tool and die
making.
(c) Complicated geometries can be produced which are very difficult otherwise.
(d) Highly delicate sections and weak materials can also be processed without nay risk of their
distortion, because in this process tool never applies direct pressure on the workpiece.
(e) Fine holes can be drilled easily and accurately.
(f) Appreciably high value of MRRR can be achieved as compared to other non-conventional
machining processes.

4.8 Disadvantages and Limitations of EDM Process
There are some limitations of EDM process as listed below :
(a) This process cannot be applied on very large sized workpieces as size of workpiece is
constrained by the size of set up.
(b) Electrically non-conducting materials cannot be processed by EDM.
(c) Due to the application of very high temperature at the machining zone, there are chances of
distortion of workpiece in case of this sections.
(d) EDM process is not capable to produce sharp corners.
(e) MRR achieved in EDM process is considerably lower than the MRR in case of conventional
machining process so it cannot be taken as an alternative to conventional machining processes at
all.

Plasma Arc Machining
4.9 Introduction
When the temperature of a gas is raised to about 2000°C, the gas molecules become dissociated
into separate atoms. At higher temperatures,30,000°C, these atoms become ionized. The gas in
this stage is termed plasma. Machining by plasma was adopted in the early 1950s as an
alternative method for oxy-gas flame cutting of stainless steel, aluminum, and other nonferrous
metals. During that time, the process limitations regarding the low cutting speed, poor machining
quality, and the unreliable equipment were clear. Recently machining of both metallic and
nonconductive materials has become much more attractive. An important feature of plasma beam
machining (PBM) is that it is the only fabricating method that works faster in stainless steel than
it does in mild steel.
4.10 Principle
When heated to elevated temperatures, gases turn into a distinctly different type of matter, which
is plasma. When gases are heated by an applied electric field, an igniter supplies the initial
electrons, which accelerate in the field before colliding and ionizing the atoms. The free
electrons, in turn, get accelerated and cause further ionization and heating of the gases. The
avalanche continues till a steady state is obtained in which the rate of production of the free
charges is balanced by recombination and loss of the free charges to the walls and electrodes.
The actual heating of the gas takes place due to the energy liberated when free ions and electrons
recombine into atoms or when atoms recombine into molecules.
4.11 Working Principle of PAM
In this process gases are heated and charged to plasma state. Plasma state is the superheated and
electrically ionized gases at approximately 5000oC. These gases are directed on the workpiece in
the form of high velocity stream. Working principle and process details are shown in below
Figure.

4.12 Process Details of PAM
Details of PAM are described below.
Plasma Gun
Gases are used to create plasma like, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen or mixture of these gases. The
plasma gun consists of a tungsten electrode fitted in the chamber. The electrode is given negative
polarity and nozzle of the gun is given positive polarity. Supply of gases is maintained into the
gun. A strong arc is established between the two terminals anode and cathode. There is a
collision between molecules of gas and electrons of the established arc. As a result of this
collision gas molecules get ionized and heat is evolved. This hot and ionized gas called plasma is
directed to the workpiece with high velocity. The established arc is controlled by the supply rate
of gases.
Power Supply and Terminals
Power supply (DC) is used to develop two terminals in the plasma gun. A tungsten electrode is
inserted to the gun and made cathode and nozzle of the gun is made anode. Heavy potential
difference is applied across the electrodes to develop plasma state of gases.
Cooling Mechanism
As we know that hot gases continuously come out of nozzle so there are chances of its
overheating. A water jacket is used to surround the nozzle to avoid its overheating.

Tooling
There is no direct visible tool used in PAM. Focused spray of ho0t, plasma state gases works as a
cutting tool.
Workpiece
Workpiece of different materials can be processed by PAM process. These materials are
aluminum, magnesium, stainless steels and carbon and alloy steels. All those materials which can
be processed by LBM can also be processed by PAM process.
4.13 Working Operation:
At first, when a D.C power is supplied to the circuit, a strong arc is produced between the
cathode ( electrode ) and the anode (nozzle).After that, gas is supplied to the chamber. This gas
can be hydrogen, nitrogen, argon or mixture of these gases chosen according to the metal to be
worked.
The gas used in the process is heated using the arc produced between the cathode and the anode.
This gas is heated to very high temperatures from 11000 °C to 28000 °C.
As the arc comes into contact with the gas, there is a collision between the electron of the arc and
the molecules of the gas and the molecules of the gas will dissociate into separate atoms.
Due to the high high temperature generated from the arc, electrons from some atoms will be
displaced and atoms are ionized ( electrically charged ) and the gas turns into plasma. As the gas
is ionized, a large amount of thermal energy is liberated.
After the gas is ionized, this high temperature ionized gas is directed towards the workpiece with
high velocity. The electric arc has some other benefits like it increases the temperature of ionized
gas, makes the beam almost parallel, and increases the velocity of the gas.
As the plasma jet reaches the workpiece, the plasma melts the workpiece and the high-velocity
gas blows away the molten metal.In this way, plasm arc machining is used to remove material
from the workpiece.
4.14 Material removal rate

During PBM absorbing the heat energy from the plasma jet directed to the workpiece
activates metal removal. The plasma torch blows the molten and evaporated metal away as a
fine spray or vapor. The resulting cutting rates and hence the machinability depend on the
workpiece being machined as well as the type of the cutting and shielding gases that
determine the maximumtemperature transfer rates. The maximum machining speed, as an
index of machinability for dual gas plasma of carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum, is
shown in below Figures shows the power consumption factor needed in plasma beam rough
turning of some alloys. A low factor indicates either low energy required or high removal
rates. The machining speed is found to decrease with increasing the thickness of the metal or
the cut width in case of beveling. As the power is increased, the efficient removal of melted
metal is found to need a corresponding rise in the gas flow rate. During plasma machining of
12-mm-thick steel plate using 220 kW the machining speed is 2500 mm/min, which is 5
times greater than that for oxy-gas cutting.
4.15 PAM parameters
1. Torch -workpiece distance (stand-off) and current

Stand off distance and current vary for different materials and with different thickness as
shown in table. With an increase in thickness of a particular workpiece material the
current and torch work distance must also be increased. As the stand off distance
increases, the arc diverges and spread over a wide area leading to low thermal intensity of
plasma arc.
Sl. No. Material Thickness(mm) SOD(mm) Current(A)

13 6 400
1 Titanium
25 10 550
2 Copper 13 6 400
3 Copper/nickel 25 10 550
4 Cast Iron 16 6 400

2. Gas flow rate:

The thicker the workpiece material the greater should be the gas flow rate. However thick
work materials require increased current. The gas flow must be set according to the
current level and the nozzle bore diameter. If the gas flow is too low for the current level
or the current level too high for the nozzle bore diameter, the arc will break down
forming two arcs in series: electrode to nozzle and nozzle to workpiece. The effect of
double arcing is usually catastrophic with the nozzle melting. The gas flow ratesbetween
0.4-5.6m3/hr.
3. Cutting speed
The amount of heat energy transferred by the plasma can be controlled by the surface
cutting speed. If the speed is too high, then the upper edge of the contact face come closer
to the plasma jet and receives amount of heat resulting in greater metal removal rate. A
kerf is produced being very wide on the top and narrow downwards, like a V-shaped
cross section.The surface finish is also not satisfactory with high speeds.
4.16 Plasma Torch Design
• The plasma torch is a device, depending on its design, which allows the creation and control of
the plasma for welding or cutting processes.
• The torch consists of non-consumable electrode of 2 % tungsten and a converging anode

nozzle.
• The electrodes are separated by an insulator
• For vortex stabilization, gas is fed tangentially through an inlet in the insulator.
• For sheath stabilization, the gas is fed through small ports around cathode
Factors to be considered.
 The torch is designed to have maximum thermal output

 This not only increases the efficiency, but also increases the life of the electrode as this
ensures minimum corrosion of the electrode.

The parameters that affect the performance of torch are cathode size, its taper near gap,
convergence of the nozzle, nozzle orifice diameter, orifice length, electrode gap and cooling of
electrode,
The following factors must be considered while designing the torch
1. Large current requires large orifice diameter cathode, orifice length and electrode gap
2. At larger voltage, the taper angle at cathode tip must be higher
3. To avoid turbulence the cathode tip is rounded off
4. Non transferred arc use long throat lengths, while transferred arc modes use minimum orifice
length
5. Alignment between cathode and anode is very critical for better accuracy
6. The cathode tip should be the nearest point to the anode
7. The insulator should be kept away from the arc zone and it should be properly provided
8. Cooling should be optimum, as too much cooling may lead to cracks
9. Oxygen is detrimental to the cathode.
4.17 Accuracy and surface quality
The edges of the workpieces cut by PBM are often beveled. McGeough (1988) reported that the
right side of the plasma arc relative to the cutting direction produces a square edge to within ±3°.
The left-hand edge is beveled to about 15° due to the clockwise swirling of the machining gas.
Owing to the high rate of heat transfer the depth of fused metal extends to about 0.18 mm below
the cut surface. The high machining speed does not allow the heat to penetrate more than a few
microns from the edges of the cut which produces little or no distortion in the cut workpiece.
The cut edge of the material tends to be harder than the base material. A further heat-affected
zone (HAZ) of thickness 0.25 to 1.12 mm has been reported. Additionally, due to the rapid
cooling, cracks may arise beyond the heat-affected zone to 1.6 mm. A clean, smooth surface is

produced by PBM. Large tolerances of ±1.6 mm can be achieved. Finish cuts are, therefore,
required when narrow tolerances are required.
4.18 Safety precautions

• Machine the heat affected zone (0.75-5 mm).
• Regulate gas pressure (approx. 1-1.4 MPa).
• Maintain constant distance between torch and work piece.
• High labor safety (i.e. goggles, gloves, etc…).
• Proper training for operators.
• Protection against glare, spatter, and noise from the plasma.

4.19 Applications of PAM
The chief application of this process is profile cutting as controlling movement of spray focus
point is easy in case of PAM process. This is also recommended for smaller machining of
difficult to machining materials.
4.20 Advantages of PAM Process
Advantages of PAM are given below:
i. It gives faster production rate.
ii. Very hard and brittle metals can be machined.
iii. Small cavities can be machined with good dimensional accuracy.
4.21 Disadvantages of PAM Process

i. Its initial cost is very high.
ii. The process requires over safety precautions which further enhance the initial cost of the
setup.
iii. Some of the workpiece materials are very much prone to metallurgical changes on excessive
heating so this fact imposes limitations to this process.
iv. It is uneconomical for bigger cavities to be machined.

Laser Beam & Electron Beam Machining
5.1 Introduction
Laser-beam machining is a thermal material-removal process that utilizes a high-energy,

coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and non-metallic
workpieces. Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld, and mark. LBM is particularly suitable for
making accurately placed holes. A schematic of laser beam machining is shown in below Figure.
Different types of lasers are available for manufacturing operations which are as follows:
 CO2 (pulsed or continuous wave): It is a gas laser that emits light in the infrared region.
It can provide up to 25 kW in continuous-wave mode.
 Nd:YAG: Neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet (Y3Al5O12) laser is a solid-
state laser which can deliver light through a fibre-optic cable. It can provide up to 50 kW
power in pulsed mode and 1 kW in continuous-wave mode.
5.2 Working Principle of LBM
LBM uses the light energy of a laser beam to remove material by vaporization and ablation. The
working principle and the process details (setup) are indicated in Figure 5.6. In this process the
energy of coherent light beam is focused optically for pre-decided longer period of time. The
beam is pulsed so that the released energy results in an impulse against the work surface that
does melting and evaporation. Here the way of metal removing is same as that of EDM process

but method of generation of heat is different. The application of heat is very finely focused in
case of LBM as compared to EDM.
Laser Tube and Lamp Assembly
This is the main part of LBM setup. It consists of a laser tube, a pair of reflectors, one at each
end of the tube, a flash tube or lamp, an amplification source, a power supply unit and a cooling
system. This whole setup is fitted inside a enclosure, which carries good quality reflecting
surfaces inside. In this setup the flash lamp goes to laser tube, that excites the atoms of the inside
media, which absorb the radiation of incoming light energy. This enables the light to travel to
and for between two reflecting mirrors. The partial reflecting mirror does not reflect the total
light back and apart of it goes out in the form of a coherent stream of monochromatic light. This
highly amplified stream of light is focused on the workpiece with the help of converging lens.
The converging lens is also the part of this assembly.
Workpiece
The range of workpiece material that can be machined by LBM includes high hardness and
strength materials like ceramics, glass to softer materials like plastics, rubber wood, etc. A good
workpiece material high light energy absorption power, poor reflectivity, poor thermal
conductivity, low specific heat, low melting point and low latent heat.
Cooling Mechanism
A cooling mechanism circulates coolant in the laser tube assembly to avoid its overheating in
long continuous operation.
Tool Feed Mechanism
There is no tool used in the LBM process. Focusing laser beam at a pre-decided point in the
workpiece serve the purpose of tool. As the requirement of being focused shifts during the
operation, its focus point can also be shifted gradually and accordingly by moving the
converging lens in a controlled manner. This movement of the converging lens is the tool feed
mechanism in LBM process.
Material removal

• Material removal involves a combination of melting and evaporation processes.
• The radiant energy delivered to a surface by a focused laser beam is consumed in the following
ways
1. A part is reflected and lost
2. Energy which is not reflected is used for melting
3. Relatively small part is used for evaporating the liquid metal
4. A very small part is conducted into the base metal
5. It‟s seen that all energy (10kW/cm2) does not reach the metal as some energy is lost as
spatters while travelling
5.3 Process characteristics
• The laser beam having an output energy of 20 joules with a pulse duration of 3-10 sec can
produce a peak power of 20kW.
• With a beam divergence of 0.002 radians and a spot diameter of 0.05mm, can result in a power
density of 1.2 W/cm2
• The power density is given by
D = 4P/πf2θT
Where D = power density in W/cm2

P = laser energy output, W
T = laser pulse duration, sec Page 84
θ = beam divergence, radian
f = focal length of lens
• To have a perfect machining, the following requirements have to be fulfilled
1. The radiation must penetrate and be absorbed in to the material

2. The power supplied must be greater than that which is conducted away in the form of
convection, thermal conduction, and radiation.
5.4 Applications of LBM
LBM is used to perform different machining operations like drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing
operations. It is used for drilling holes of small diameter of the order of 0.025 mm. It is used for
very thin stocks. Other applications are listed below:
i. Making complex profiles in thin and hard materials like integrated circuits and printed circuit
boards (PCBS).
ii. Machining of mechanical components of watches.
iii. Smaller machining of very hard material parts.
5.5 Advantage of laser cutting
1. No limit to cutting path as the laser point can move any path.
2. The process is stress less allowing very fragile materials to be laser cut without any support.
3. Very hard and abrasive material can be cut.
4. Sticky materials are also can be cut by this process.
5. It is a cost effective and flexible process.
6. High accuracy parts can be machined.
7. No cutting lubricants required & No tool wear
8. Narrow heat effected zone
5.6 Limitations of laser cutting
1 Uneconomic on high volumes compared to stamping
2 Limitations on thickness due to taper
3 High capital cost and maintenance cost

Electron Beam Machining
5.7 Introduction
The earliest work of material removal utilizing an electron beam was attributed to Steuerwald
who designed a prototype machine in 1947.Electron beam machining (EBM) has been used in
industry since the1960s, initially in nuclear and aerospace welding applications. Drilling small
holes, cutting, engraving, and heat treatment are a set of modern applications used in
semiconductor manufacturing as well as micromachining areas.
5.8 Principles, equipment, and operation of Electron Beam Machining
The main components of EBM installation, shown in Fig, are housed in a vacuum chamber,
evacuated to about 10–4 torr. The tungsten filament cathode is heated to about 2500 to 3000°C in
order to emit electrons. A measure of this effect is the emission current, the magnitude of which
varies between 20 and 100 mA. Corresponding current densities lie between 5 and 15 A/cm2.
Emission current depends on the cathode material, temperature, and the high voltage that is
usually about 150 kV. Such a high voltage accelerates a stream of electrons in the direction of
the workpiece. After acceleration, electrons, focused by the field, travel through a hole in the
anode. The electron beam isthen refocused by a magnetic or electronic lens system so that the
beam is directed under control toward the workpiece. The electrons the velocity (228 × 103
km/s) imparted by the acceleration voltage until they strike the workpiece, over a well-defined
area, typically 0.25 mm in diameter.
The kinetic energy of the electrons is then rapidly transmitted intoheat, causing a corresponding
rapid increase in the temperature of the workpiece, to well above its boiling point, thus causing
material removal by evaporation. With power densities of 1.55 MW/mm2 involved in EBM,
virtually all engineering materials can be machined by this machining technique. Accurate
manipulation of the workpiece coupled with the precise control of the beam is reported by
McGeough (1988) to yield a machining process that can be fully automated

5.9 Advantages Electron Beam Machining
i. Drilling is possible at high rates (up to 4000 holes per second).
ii. No difficulty is encountered with acute angles.
iii. Drilling parameters can easily be changed during machining.
iv. No limitation is imposed by workpiece hardness, ductility, and surfacereflectivity.
v. No mechanical distortion occurs to the workpiece since there is no contact.
vi. The process is capable of achieving high accuracy and repeatabilityof 0.1 mm for position of
holes and 5 percent for the hole diameter.
vii. The process produces the best surface finish compared to otherprocesses.
viii. The cost is relatively small compared to other processes used to producevery small holes.
5.10 Disadvantages Electron Beam Machining
1. High capital equipment cost

2. Long production time due to the time needed to generate a vacuum.
3. The presence of a thin recast layer
4. Need for auxiliary backing material.

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Justify the need of unconventional manufacturing process in today industries
2. Differentiate between conventional and Non-conventional manufacturing process
3. Explain how the non- conventional machining processes are classified
4. List and explain the various factors to be considered for selection of machining processes
5. Make a comparison between traditional and nontraditional machining process in terms
of cost, application, scope, machine time and limitations
1. Explain with help of a neat sketch the working principle of ultra-sonic machining process, and
also mention its advantages.
2. Explain how various process parameters influences the material removal rate in ultra-sonic
machining process
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of USM
4. Explain with graph the effect of various parameters on material removal rate in USM process
5. State and explain the working and principle of AJM
6. List the application of AJM
7. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of WJM
8. What are the different types of abrasives used in ASM
9. How does ASM differ from conventional sand blasting process
10. Which are the abrasive materials used in water jet machining
11. Explain the desired properties of abrasive material used in abrasive jet machining
12. Explain how following parameters influences the material removal rate in abrasive jet
machining process i) Nozzle tip distance ii) Velocity of abrasive iii) abrasive flow rate iv) Gas
pressure

1. With suitable sketches, explain the material removal mechanisms in electro chemical
grinding
2. Why are chemical machining and electro chemical machining considered as chip less
machining? Explain the mechanisms of metal removal on both cases and compare it with
conventional grinding process
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ECM
4. What are the factors that influences oxidation of ECM
5. Explain the principle of electro chemical grinding, with neat sketch
6. Explain with diagram, working of electro chemical grinding
7. Explain in brief the following in chemical machining processes
i. Maskants
ii. Etchants
8. With the help of neat sketches, explain the different steps involved in chemical blanking
9. Explain the principle steps involved in chemical milling to produce pockets and contours
10. List out the advantages and disadvantages of chemical machining
11. List out major applications of CHM. Further process application related to improving
the surface characteristics
12. Explain the elements of chemical machining process
1. Discuss the factors influencing the choice of electrode material in EDM
2. Explain with help of a neat sketches any two types of flushing methods used in EDM
3. Explain with help of neat sketches the mechanisms of metal removal in EDM process, and
also mention its advantages and disadvantages
4. Name some of the dielectric fluids commonly used in EDM. Name some of the tool material
used in EDM

5. What are the basic requirements of the dielectric fluid used in EDM
6. With the help of neat sketch, explain wire cut electrical discharge machining
7. With a neat sketch explain the Plasma arc machining (PAM) process and also mention its
applications
8. Which are the important considerations are to be made in the design of plasma torch
9. Mention any two advantages and disadvantages of plasma arc machining
10. Explain the basic principal of PAM &Write the application of plasma arc machining
1. With a neat sketch, explain the mechanism of metal removal in LBM process.
2. State the advantages and application of EBM
3. Explain how the electron beam is generated in EBM process
4. What are the important characteristics required for electron beam in electron beam
machining
5. List out the commonly used gasses in LBM
6. Explain with a neat sketch, EBM and list out its advantages
7. Write the application of EBM
8. What are the advantages and application of LBM

Machining Science: Jigs & Fixtures

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II Jai Sri Gurudev II

Sri Adichunchanagiri Shikshana Trust®

SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Faculty Name : Uday M

PO'S, PSO'S & PEO'S

OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES

Vision of the Institute

Mission of the Institute

Vision of the Department

Mission of the Department

Program Specific Outcomes (PSO’s)

PSO1: Apply the Knowledge & Skill of Mechanical Engineering on Design,

Program Educational Objectives (PEO’s)

To know the various subtractive machining processes in industries.

At the end of the course the student will be able to:

Demonstrate the Conventional CNC machines and advanced

1.2 History of Non-Traditional processes

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 10

1960 The concept of whirling jet machining was innovated.

1.3 Classification of NTM processes

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 11

a) Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

1.4 Comparison between conventional and Non-conventional machining

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 12

Nontraditional processes requiresexpensive

1.5 NTM process selection

 Physical parameters of the process

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 13

 Economics of the processes

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 14

• It is not economical for bulk production.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 15

Ultrasonic and Abrasive Jet Machining

2.2 Need for Ultrasonic Machining

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 16

2.3 USM Equipment:

High Power sine wave generator:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 17

2.4. Construction and working of USM

 ItconsistofUltrasonicgeneratorand transducer, tool holder,tool, Abrasive slurry and it‟s

 Tool is attached to base of concentrator by mean of silver brazing orscrews. Tool is

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 18

 Theultrasonictransducerconvertselectrical energy intoultrasonicwaves or vibrations

 Concentrators increasetheamplitudeofvibrationinordertogive required force amplitude

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 19

2.5. Tool Feed Mechanism

Tool feed mechanism:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 20

• Bring the tool very slowly close to the work piece

• Provide adequate cutting force and sustain this during cutting

• Decrease the force at a specified depth

• Overrun a small distance to ensure the required hole size at aexit

• Return the tool

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 21

The horn or concentrator can be of different shape like

Figure shows different horns used in USM

2.6.Mechanism of material removal

2. The impact of free abrasive particles on the work surface.

3. The erosion due to cavitation.