CHAPTER

Oil and Water

Separation*
INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the concepts, theory, and sizing equations for
the separation of two immiscible liquid phases (in this case, normally
crude oil and produced water). The separator design concepts that have
been presented in Chapter 4 relate to the two-phase separation of liquid
and gas and are applicable to the separation of gas that takes place in
three-phase separators, gas scrubbers, and any other device in which gas
is separated from a liquid phase.
When oil and water are mixed with some intensity and then allowed to
settle, a layer of relatively clean free water will appear at the bottom. The
growth of this water layer with time will follow a curve as shown in Fig-
ure 5-1. After a period of time, ranging anywhere from three minutes to
thirty minutes, the change in the water height will be negligible. The
water fraction, obtained from gravity settling, is called "free water." It is
normally beneficial to separate the free water before attempting to treat
the remaining oil and emulsion layers.
"Three-phase separator" and "free-water knockout" are terms that are
used to describe pressure vessels that are designed to separate and remove

*Reviewed for the 1998 edition by Mary E. Thro of Paragon Engineering Services, Inc.

135
136 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities
 Oil and Water Separation 137

Figure 5-2. Horizontal three-phase separator schematic.

fluid enters the separator and hits an inlet diverter. This sudden change in
momentum does the initial gross separation of liquid and vapor as dis-
cussed in Chapter 4. In most designs, the inlet diverter contains a down-
comer that directs the liquid flow below the oil/water interface.
This forces the inlet mixture of oil and water to mix with the water
continuous phase in the bottom of the vessel and rise through the
oil/water interface. This process is called "water-washing," and it pro-
motes the coalescence of water droplets which are entrained in the oil
continuous phase. The inlet diverter assures that little gas is carried with
the liquid, and the water wash assures that the liquid does not fall on top
of the gas/oil or oil/water interface, mixing the liquid retained in the ves-
sel and making control of the oil/water interface difficult.
The liquid collecting section of the vessel provides sufficient time so
that the oil and emulsion form a layer or "oil pad" at the top. The free
water settles to the bottom. Figure 5-2 illustrates a typical horizontal sep-
arator with an interface controller and weir. The weir maintains the oil
level and the level controller maintains the water level. The oil is
skimmed over the weir. The level of the oil downstream of the weir is
controlled by a level controller that operates the oil dump valve.
The produced water flows from a nozzle in the vessel located
upstream of the oil weir. An interface level controller senses the height of
the oil/water interface. The controller sends a signal to the water dump
138 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

valve thus allowing the correct amount of water to leave the vessel so
that the oil/water interface is maintained at the design height.
The gas flows horizontally and out through a mist extractor to a pres-
sure control valve that maintains constant vessel pressure. The level of
the gas/oil interface can vary from half the diameter to 75% of the diam-
eter depending on the relative importance of liquid/gas separation. The
most common configuration is half full, and this is used for the design
equations in this section. Similar equations can be developed for other
interface levels.
Figure 5-3 shows an alternate configuration known as a "bucket and
weir" design. This design eliminates the need for a liquid interface con-
troller. Both the oil and water flow over weirs where level control is
accomplished by a simple displacer float. The oil overflows the oil weir
into an oil bucket where its level is controlled by a level controller that
operates the oil dump valve. The water flows under the oil bucket and
then over a water weir. The level downstream of this weir is controlled
by a level controller that operates the water dump valve.
The height of the oil weir controls the liquid level in the vessel. The
difference in height of the oil and water weirs controls the thickness of the
oil pad due to specific gravity differences. It is critical to the operation of
the vessel that the water weir height be sufficiently below the oil weir
height so that the oil pad thickness provides sufficient oil retention time. If

Figure 5-3. Bucket and weir design.

 Oil and Water Separation 139

the water weir is too low and the difference in specific gravity is not as
great as anticipated, then the oil pad could grow in thickness to a point
where oil will be swept under the oil box and out the water outlet. Nor-
mally, either the oil or the water weir is made adjustable so that changes
in oil/water specific gravities or flow rates can be accommodated.
To obtain a desired oil pad height, the water weir should be set a dis-
tance below the oil weir, which is calculated by:

where Ah = distance below the oil weir, in.

h0 = desired oil pad height, in.
p0 = oil density, lb/ft3
pw = water density, lb/ft3
This equation neglects the height of the oil and water flowing over the
weir and presents a view of the levels when there is no inflow. A large
inflow of oil will cause the top of the oil pad to rise; the oil pad will thus
get thicker, and the oil bucket must be deep enough so that oil does not
flow under it. Similarly, a large inflow of water will cause the level of
water flowing over the water weir to rise, and there will be a large flow of
oil from the oil pad over the oil weir until a new hw is established. These
dynamic effects can be minimized by making the weirs as long as possible.
Derivation of Equation 5-1
p is in lb/ft3, h is in inches. Setting the pressures at Point "A" in Figure
5-4 equal,

Interface control has the advantage of being easily adjustable to handle

unexpected changes in oil or water specific gravity or flow rates. Howev-
er, in heavy oil applications or where large amounts of emulsion or paraf-
140 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

fin are anticipated it may be difficult to sense interface level. In such a

case bucket and weir control is recommended.
In some areas of the world, the term "free-water knockout" is reserved
for a vessel which processes an inlet liquid stream with little entrained
gas and makes no attempt to separate the gas from the oil. Such a vessel
has only an oil outlet and a water outlet (no separate gas outlet), as
shown in Figure 5-5. It should be clear that the principles of operation of
such a vessel are the same as those described above.
Vertical Separators

Figure 5-6 shows a typical configuration for a vertical three-phase sep-

arator. Flow enters the vessel through the side as in the horizontal separa-
tor, the inlet diverter separates the bulk of the gas. A downcomer is

Figure 5-4. Determination of oil pad height.

Figure 5-5. Free-water knockout (FWKO).

 Oil and Water Separation 141

Figure 5-6. Vertical three-phase separator schematic.

required to transmit the liquid through the oil-gas interface so as not to

disturb the oil skimming action taking place. A chimney is needed to
equalize gas pressure between the lower section and the gas section.
The spreader or downcomer outlet is located at the oil-water interface.
From this point as the oil rises any free water trapped within the oil phase
separates out. The water droplets flow countercurrent to the oil. Similar-
ly, the water flows downward and oil droplets trapped in the water phase
tend to rise countercurrent to the water flow.
Sometimes a cone bottom three-phase separator is used. This is a
design that would be used if sand production was anticipated to be a
major problem. The cone is normally at an angle to the horizontal of
between 45° and 60°. Produced sand may have a tendency to stick to
steel at 45°. If a cone is installed it could be part of the pressure contain-
ing walls of the vessel, or for structural reasons, it could be installed
internal to the vessel cylinder. In such a case, a gas equalizing line must
be installed to assure that the vapor behind the cone is always in pressure
equilibrium with the vapor space.
142 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

Figure 5-7 shows the three different methods of control that are often
used on vertical separators.
The first is strictly level control. A regular displacer float is used to
control the gas-oil interface and regulate a control valve dumping oil
from the oil section. An interface float is used to control the oil-water
interface and regulate a water outlet control valve. Because no internal
baffling or weirs are used, this system is the easiest to fabricate and han-
dles sand and solids production best.
The second method shown uses a weir to control the gas-oil interface
level at a constant position. This results in a better separation of water
from the oil as all the oil must rise to the height of the oil weir before
exiting the vessel. Its disadvantages are that the oil box takes up vessel
volume and costs money to fabricate. In addition, sediment and solids
could collect in the oil box and be difficult to drain, and a separate low
level shut-down may be required to guard against the oil dump valve fail-
ing to open.
The third method uses two weirs, which eliminates the need for an
interface float. Interface level is controlled by the height of the external
water weir relative to the oil weir or outlet height. This is similar to the
bucket and weir design of horizontal separators. The advantage of this
system is that it eliminates the interface level control. The disadvantage
is that it requires additional external piping and space.
Horizontal vs. Vertical Selection

The benefits of each type of design were described earlier. As in two-

phase separation, it is also true for three-phase separation that the flow

Figure 5-7. Liquid level control schemes.

 Oil and Water Separation 143

geometry in a horizontal vessel is more favorable from a process stand-

point. However, there may be non-process reasons to select a vertical
vessel for a specific application.

VESSEL INTERNALS

Most of the vessel internals are discussed in Chapter 4. Two common

internals not discussed are coalescing plates and sand jets. It is possible
to use various plate or pipe coalescer designs to aid in the coalescing of
oil droplets in the water and water droplets in the oil.
Coalescing Plates

The installation of coalescing plates in the liquid section will cause

the size of the water droplets entrained in the oil phase to increase,
making gravity settling of these drops to the oil-water interface easier.
Thus, the use of coalescing plates or the use of free-flow turbulent coa-
lescers (SP Packs), which are both described in Chapter 7, will often
lead to the ability to handle a given flow rate in a smaller vessel. How-
ever, because of the potential for plugging with sand, paraffin, or corro-
sion products, the use of coalescing plates should be discouraged,
except for instances where the savings in vessel size and weight are
large enough to justify the potential increase in operating costs and
decrease in availability.
Sand Jets and Drains

In horizontal three-phase separators, one worry is the accumulation of

sand and solids at the bottom of the vessel. If allowed to build up, these
solids upset the separator operations by taking up vessel volume. Gener-
ally, the solids settle to the bottom and become well packed.
To remove the solids, sand drains are opened in a controlled manner,
and then high-pressure fluid, usually produced water, is pumped through
the jets to agitate the solids and flush them down the drains. The sand jets
are normally designed with a 20 ft/s jet tip velocity and aimed in such a
manner to give good coverage of the vessel bottom.
To prevent the settled sand from clogging the sand drains, sand pans or
sand troughs are used to cover the outlets. These are inverted troughs
with slotted side openings.
144 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

EMULSIONS

Emulsions can be particularly troublesome in the operation of three-

phase separators. Over a period of time an accumulation of emulsified
materials and/or other impurities usually will form at the interface of the
water and oil phases. In addition to adverse effects on the liquid level con-
trol, this accumulation will also decrease the effective oil or water retention
time in the separator, with a resultant decrease in water-oil separation effi-
ciency. Addition of chemicals and/or heat often minimizes this difficulty.
Frequently, it is possible to appreciably lower the settling time neces-
sary for water-oil separation by either the application of heat in the liquid
section of the separator or the addition of de-emulsifying chemicals. The
treating of emulsions is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.

THEORY
Gas Separation

The concepts and equations pertaining to two-phase separation

described in Chapter 4 are equally valid for three-phase separation.
Oil/Water Settling

It can be shown that flow around settling oil drops in water or water
drops in oil is laminar and thus Stokes' Law governs. The terminal drop
velocity is:

where V t = terminal settling velocity, ft/s

AS.G. = difference in specific gravity relative to water between
the oil and the water phases
d m = drop size, micron
(i = viscosity of continuous phase, cp
Water Droplet Size in Oil

It is difficult to predict the water droplet size that must be settled out
of the oil phase to coincide with the rather loose definition of "free oil."
Unless laboratory or nearby field data are available, good results have
 Oil and Water Separation 145

been obtained by sizing the oil pad such that water droplets 500 microns
and larger settle out. If this criteria is met, the emulsion to be treated by
downstream equipment should contain less than 5% to 10% water with-
out an excessive chemical treatment program.
Oil Droplet Size in Water

From Equation 5-2 it can be seen that the separation of oil droplets from
the water is easier than the separation of water droplets from the oil. The
oil's viscosity is on the order of 50 to 20 times that of water. The primary
purpose of three-phase separation is to prepare the oil for further treating.
Field experience indicates that oil content in the produced water from a
three-phase separator, sized for water removal from oil, can be expected to
be between a few hundred and 2,000 mg/1. This water will require further
treating and is discussed later. Sizing for oil droplet removal from the
water phase does not appear to be a meaningful criterion.
Retention Time

A certain amount of oil storage is required to assure that the oil reach-
es equilibrium and flashed gas is liberated. An additional amount of stor-
age is required to assure that the free water has time to coalesce into
droplet sizes sufficient to fall in accordance with Equation 5-2. It is com-
mon to use retention times ranging from three minutes to thirty minutes
depending upon laboratory or field data. If this information is not avail-
able, an oil retention time of ten minutes is suggested for design.
Similarly, a certain amount of water storage is required to assure that
most of the large droplets of oil entrained in the water have sufficient time
to coalesce and rise to the oil-water interface. It is common to use retention
times for the water phase ranging from three minutes to thirty minutes
depending upon laboratory or field data. If this information is not avail-
able, a water retention time of ten minutes is recommended for design.
The retention time for both the maximum oil rate and the maximum
water rate should be calculated, unless laboratory data indicate that it is
unnecessary to take this conservative design approach.

SEPARATOR SIZING

The guidelines presented here can be used for initial sizing determina-
tions. They are meant to complement and not replace operating experi-
146 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

ences. Determination of the type and size separator must be made on an

individual basis. All the functions and requirements should be considered
including the likely uncertainties in design flow rates and properties. For
this reason, there is no substitute for good engineering evaluations of
each separator by the design engineer. The "trade off between design
size and details and uncertainties in design parameters should not be left
to manufacturer recommendations or rules of thumb.
Horizontal Separators

For sizing a horizontal three-phase separator it is necessary to specify

a vessel diameter and a seam-to-seam vessel length. The gas capacity and
retention time considerations establish certain acceptable combinations
of diameter and length. The need to settle 500-micron water droplets
from the oil establishes a maximum diameter.

Gas Capacity
The gas capacity constraints provide the following formula, discussed
in Chapter 4:

where d = vessel inside diameter, in.

Leff = vessel effective length, ft
T = operating temperature, °R
Z = gas compressibility
Qg = gas flow rate, MMscfd
p = operating pressure, psia
pg = density of gas, lb/ft3
pi = density of liquid, lb/ft3
CD = drag coefficient
dm = liquid drop to be separated, microns

Retention Time

Retention time constraints give another equation that provides accept-

able combinations of d and Leff.
 Oil and Water Separation 147

where Qw = water flow rate, bpd

(tr)w - water retention time, min
Q0 = oil flow rate, bpd
(tj.)0 = oil retention time, min
Derivation of Equation 5-4
t is in S, Vol in ft3, Q in ft3/s, D in ft, d in inches, Leff in ft

A 0 , A w , and Aj are cross - sectional areas of oil, water, and liquid.

148 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

Settling Equation

The requirement that 500-micron water droplets be capable of settling

out of the oil pad establishes a maximum oil pad thickness given by the
following formula:

This is the maximum thickness the oil pad can be and still allow the
water droplets to settle out in time (tj.)0.

For a given oil retention time and a given water retention time the
maximum oil pad thickness constraint establishes a maximum diameter
in accordance with the following procedure:
1. Compute (h0)max.
2. Calculate the fraction of the vessel cross-sectional area occupied by
the water phase. This is given by:
 Oil and Water Separation 149

Derivation of Equation 5-7 '

2 3
A0 and Aw are in ft , Q in ft /s, t in s, Leff in ft.

3. From Figure 5-8 determine the coefficient (3.

4. Calculate dj^ from:

Any combination of d and Leff that satisfies all three of Equations 5-3,
5-4, and 5-5 will meet the necessary criteria.

Figure 5-8. Coefficient "|3" for a cylinder

half filled with liquid.
150 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

Seam-to-Seam Length and Slenderness Ratios

The seam-to-seam length can be estimated from the effective length

using the same formulas as for two-phase separators. Where the gas
capacity governs, the slenderness ratio should be limited to less than 4 or
5 to prevent re-entrainment of liquid at the gas-liquid interface. If the
separator sizing is based on liquid capacity a higher slenderness ratio is
acceptable. There is the possibility of generating internal waves at the
oil-water interface. Unless a more elaborate study is performed, it is rec-
ommended that slenderness ratios of less than 4 be chosen. Most com-
mon horizontal three-phase separators have slenderness ratios between 3
and 5.

Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Horizontal

Separators

1. Select a (tr)0 and a (tj.)w.

2. Calculate (h0)max. Use 500-micron droplet if no other information is
available.

3. Calculate AW/A:

4. Determine lyd from curve.

5. Calculate dmax.

Note: dmax depends on Q0, Qw, (t^, and (tr)w

6. Calculate combinations of d, Leff for d less than dmax that satisfy the
gas capacity constraint. Use 100-micron droplet if no other informa-
tion is available.
 Oil and Water Separation 151

7. Calculate combinations of d, Leff for d less than dmax that satisfy the
oil and water retention time constraints.

8. Estimate seam-to-seam length:

9. Select reasonable diameter and length. Slenderness ratios (12 Lss/d)

on the order of 3 to 5 are common.
For separators other than 50% full of liquid, equations can be derived
similarly, using the actual oil and water areas. The equations are derived
using the same principles.
Vertical Separators

As with vertical two-phase separators, a minimum diameter must be

maintained to assure adequate gas capacity. In addition, vertical three-
phase separators must maintain a minimum diameter to allow the 500-
micron water droplets to settle. The height of the three-phase separator is
determined from retention time considerations.

Gas Capacity
The gas capacity constraints provide the following formula discussed
in Chapter 4:
152 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

Settling
The requirement for settling water droplets from the oil requires that
the following equation must be satisfied:

Derivation of Equation 5-10

For 500-micron droplets Equation 5-10 becomes:

 Oil and Water Separation 153

Retention Time

where h0 = height of oil pad, in.

hw = height from water outlet to interface, in.
(Note that this height must be adjusted for cone bottom
vessels.)
Derivation of Equation 5-12
From two-phase separator design:

Seam-to-Seam Length and Slenderness Ratios

As in the case of a vertical two-phase separator, the seam-to-seam

length (Lss) can be approximated from the geometry once h0 and hw are
chosen. For screening purposes it can be assumed that Lss is the larger of
the two values in the following equations:

where d is the minimum diameter for gas capacity.

Any d larger than that calculated by Equation 5-9 and 5-10 and that
satisfies Equation 5-12 is acceptable. Diameter should be chosen with
slenderness ratios less than 4. Most vertical three-phase separators have
slenderness ratios on the order of 1.5 to 3 to keep within reasonable
height restrictions.
154 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase, Vertical Separators

1. Calculate minimum diameter from requirement for water droplets

to fall through oil layer. Use 500-micron droplets if no other infor-
mation is available.

2. Calculate minimum diameter from requirement for oil droplets to

fall through gas. Use 100-micron droplets if no other information is
available.

3. Choose the larger of the two as d^n-

4. Select (t,.)0 and (t,)w, and solve for h0 + hw for various d.

5. Estimate seam-to-seam length using the larger value.

6. Select a size of reasonable diameter and length. Slenderness ratios

(12 Lss/d) on the order of 1.5 to 3 are common.

EXAMPLES
Example 5-1: Sizing a Vertical Three-Phase Separator
 Oil and Water Separation 155

Solution:
1. Calculate difference in specific gravities.

2. Calculate minimum diameter to satisfy gas capacity constraint. (See

two-phase separator chapter for procedure.)

3. Calculate minimum diameter for water droplet settling.

4. Liquid retention constraint.

156 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

5. Compute combinations of d, and h0 + hw for diameters greater than

<U (Table 5-1).

Table 5-1
Vertical Three-Phase Separator Capacity
Diameter vs. Length for Retention Time Constraint
(»r)o = (tr)w= 10 minutes
d h0 + hw Us
in. in. ft |12)l,$/d
84 94.5 18.2 2.6
90 82.3 17.7 2.4
96 72.3 17.4 2.2
102 64.1 17.2 2.0

6. Compute seam-to-seam length (Table 5-1) as the larger of:

7. Compute slenderness ratio (12 Lss/d). Choices in the range of 1.5 to

3 are common (Table 5-1).
8. If necessary repeat steps 6 through 10 for various retention times
and graph as was done two-phase separators.
9. Choose a reasonable size. A 90-in. X 15-ft or a 96-in. X 12-ft 6-in.
size would be a reasonable choice.
Example 5-2: Sizing a Horizontal Three-Phase Separator

Solution:
1. Calculate difference in specific gravities.
 Oil and Water Separation 157

2. Check for gas separation. See Chapter 4 procedure.

dL eff =102

Table 5-2
Horizontal Three-Phase Separator
Diameter vs. Length for Gas Capacity Restraint

d U
in. ft

60 1.7
72 1.4
84 1.2
96 1.1

3. Calculate combinations of d and Leff for gas separation (Table 5-2).

Because of the low values for Leff, gas capacity will not govern.
4. Calculate maximum oil pad thickness.

5. Calculate maximum diameter for oil pad thickness constraint.

158 Design of OIL-HANDLING Systems and Facilities

Figure 5-9. Horizontal three-phase separator example.

 Oil and Water Separation 159

Table 5-3
Horizontal Three-Phase Separator Capacity
Diameter vs. Length for Liquid Retention Time Constraint
(»r)o = (tr)w= 10 minutes
d U Lss
in. ft ft (12)l«/d
60 31.6 42.1 8.4
72 21.9 29.2 4.9
84 16.1 21.5 3.1
96 12.3 16.4 2.1
108 9.7 13.0 1.4

6. Liquid retention constraint:

7. Compute combinations of d and Leff (Table 5-3).

8. Compute seam-to-seam length (Table 5-3).

9. Compute slenderness ratio (12 Lss/d). Choices in the range of 3 to 5

are common.
10. Graph results and choose a reasonable size that does not violate
gas capacity restraint or oil pad thickness restraint. Possible choic-
es from Figure 5-9 are 90 in. X 20 ft, 96 in. X 17 ft 6 in., and 102
in. X 15 ft.