Comparative Children's Literature

Author(s): EMER O'SULLIVAN

Source: PMLA , January 2011, Vol. 126, No. 1 (January 2011), pp. 189-196
Published by: Modern Language Association

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41414091

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12 6.1 J

theories and

methodologies

Comparative
Children's Literature

THE MOST STRIKING CHANGE IN CHILDREN'S CULTURE, INCLUDING

CHILDREN'S LITERATURE, OVER THE LAST FEW DECADES HAS BEEN ITS EMER O'SULLIVAN

commercialization and globalization (O'Sullivan, Comparative Chil-

dren's Literature 149-52). The children's book industry in the United
States, the leading market, is increasingly dominated by a handful
of large media conglomerates whose publishing operations are small
sections of their entertainment businesses. As a consequence, as Dan-
iel Hade observes, "the mass marketplace selects which books will
survive, and thus the children's book becomes less a cultural and in-
tellectual object and more an entertainment looking for mass appeal"
(511). The influence of these multimedia giants is immense: manu-
facturing mass-produced goods for children, they sell their products
beyond the borders of individual countries, further changing and
globalizing what were once regionally contained children's cultures.
As a discipline that engages with phenomena that transcend cultural
and linguistic borders and also with specific social, literary, and lin-
guistic contexts, comparative children's literature is a natural site in
which to tease out the implications of these recent developments.
A challenge for comparative children's literature is therefore ad-
dressing and analyzing the globalization of children's literature and
its concomitant "glocalization," which exists in the dialectic between
global phenomenon and uniformity, on the one hand, and the re-
surgence of the local, on the other (Loriggio). Anna Katrina Gutier-
rez begins to address this challenge when she explores the relation
EMER O'SULLIVAN is professor of English
between glocalization and the formation of national identity in
literature at Leuphana University in Lüne-

picture-book retellings of four Philippine fairy tales from Severino burg, Germany. Her book Kinderliterarische
Reyes's series Mga Kwento ni Lola Basyang 'Tales of Grandmother
Komparatistik (Winter, 2000) was awarded

Basyang.' She shows how the tales carry on a tradition of appropria-the biennial International Research Society
for Children's Literature Award; an English-
tion and re-creation as the retellings transform them from postcolo-
language version, Comparative Children's
nial texts to giocai texts that give voice to the giocai Filipino child. Literature (Routledge, 2005), won the Chil-
What is comparative children's literature and when did it be-
dren's Literature Association Book Award.

gin? In 1932 a leading figure in the field of comparative studies,

She is the author of Historical Dictionary of

Paul Hazard, professor at the Collège de France and later member

Children's Literature (Scarecrow, 2010).

i © 2 0 1 1 BY THE MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA j I89

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 190 Comparative Children's Literature [ PM LA
«Л

♦Ï of the Académie française, published a book the vocabularies they need to read the world
M on children's literature at a time when this into which they venture; overtly or latently re-
0

0 branch of literature hardly existed as far as

flecting dominant social and cultural norms,
"U
0 academic criticism was concerned. Les livres ,it passes down information, beliefs, and cus-
JZ
+* les enfants et les hommes is a plea for the toms, and it is the branch of literature read
Ф
E right of children to imaginative, nondidac- and shared by the greatest number of mem-
"U tic books, and Hazard combined his regard bers of most communities. As a sanctioned
с
m for literary education with an account of thelocation of intergenerational communication
<л
history of European traditions in children's about group belonging, children's literature is
Ü
о
literature.1 Although he identified key areas a reservoir for the collective memory of na-
JE
of interest in cross-linguistic, cross-cultural,tional, regional, or ethnic groups. Thus, it is
4-»
and transhistorical aspects of children's lit- a particularly relevant and exciting object of
erature, Hazard s study did not succeed in es-inquiry for comparative literature.
tablishing it as a legitimate object of research Comparative children's literature ques-
among comparatists. tions the system of children's literature, its
Children's literature has transcended structure of communication and the eco-
nomic, social, and cultural conditions that
linguistic borders since books specifically
intended for young readers were first allow
pro- it to develop. What is characteristic,
distinctive,
duced in eighteenth-century Europe, and it and exclusive to individual chil-
has evolved from international rather than dren's literatures, as well as what they have in
national paradigms, so research should not common, only emerges when different tradi-
be limited to "geographically internal texts
tions confront each other. Comparative chil-
dren's
and . . . those responsible for their produc- literature examines forms of literature
tion" (Bouckaert-Ghesquière 93). However, from different areas and their various cultural
and educational functions. Like mainstream
despite its reputation as a discipline that
lives by constantly questioning and refor- comparative literature, it considers phenom-
mulating itself,2 by adopting methods and ena that cross the borders of a particular lit-
subjects developed in other disciplines, and
erature and places them in their linguistic,
sociocultural, and literary contexts. It ad-
by extending its field to include literatures
usually banished to the periphery of culturaldresses intercultural phenomena, such as
contact and transfer between literatures and
discussion, comparative literature has, in the
main, ignored children's literature.3 the representation of images of self and others
If contemporary comparative literature is
in the literature of a given language.
"a method of approaching literature . . . that I would like to give a brief outline of the
foregrounds the role of the reader but whichemerging field of comparative children's lit-
is always mindful of the historical context inerature by sketching nine key areas of the
which the act of writing and the act of reading discipline proposed in my Comparative Chil-
take place" (Bassnett 7) or an "intellectual anddren's Literature. Not all these areas have
institutional space not where literatures [are]received the same amount of scholarly atten-
tion; indeed some of them are no more than
actually compared, but rather where experi-
desiderata. But by naming the kinds of areas
mental thinking relevant for the futures of the
humanities [can] take place" (Gumbrecht 401),that can be mined and questions that can be
asked, I hope to illustrate how rich a seam
then it cannot afford to ignore a key field of
comparative children's literature is and how
cultural production that formulates a culture's
identity for the following generations. Chil-
many stimulating areas are still awaiting seri-
dren's literature provides young readers withous scholarly attention.

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 12 6.1 J Emer O'Sullivan 191
Contact and Transfer Studies
Theory of Children's Literature 7
Ф
О
Children's literature differsContact
from andother
transfer kinds
studies examines all aç

л
forms of cultural
of literature in two key respects. First,exchange
it is aamong children'sV»
literatures
body of literature that belongs from different countries, lan- ш
simultaneously
з
to the field of literature and the and
guages, field of educa-
cultures- contact, transfer (by a
translation,
tion: "Children's fiction belongs adaptation,
firmly or otherwise), recep-3
within
ф
tion, multilateral
the domain of cultural practices which influences,
exist and so on. It asks,H"
У
0
for instance,
for the purpose of socializing how a translated
their target au- (and adapted) a

dience" (Stephens 8). This aspect

novel such as is
Theparticu-
Swiss Family Robinson can 0

0
be marketed
larly relevant when studying how and sold as a classic in Britain
children's (¡fê

literature is transferred. When the norms when the original has long been forgotten in ЯГ
&

German-speaking countries, discusses why

and values reflected in a target text conflict
Enid Blyton's adventures are usually trans-
with those of a target audience, the text may
be domesticated or adapted to conform to ferred onto target cultural settings (French,
the target norms. The "negerkung" 'negro Spanish) in their translated versions, or tries
king' in Astrid Lindgren's Pippi Längstrumpto
, explain the belated acceptance of nonsense
for instance, was transformed into a "can- as a literary form for children, evident in the
nibal king" in the United States translation
differing ways Alice's Adventures in Wonder-
land was translated into German from 1869
because, as the editor commented, "It is fa-
tal for us to refer to color of skin in a book" to the present.4 An urgent matter for scru-
(Surmatz 242). If the conflict in norms is too tiny is the direction of the flow of cultural
great, nontranslation may result. products, the trade balance of translations
Second, the communication in children's of children's literature - which literatures are

literature is fundamentally asymmetrical. translated and which aren't- and the deter-

Production, publication, and marketing by au- mining factors. Seventy to ninety percent of
thors and publishing houses; the part played books available to reading children in non-
by critics, librarians, booksellers, and teachers European and non-American cultures are by
as intermediaries- at every stage of literary European or American authors, but children's
communication we find adults acting for chil- books by non-European and non-American
dren. The asymmetry of communication also authors rarely cross the linguistic, political,
emerges when an implied (adult) author ad- and cultural divide to partake in the West-
dresses an implied (child) reader and accounts ern market; translations account for no more
for other forms of address- single (to the child than one to two percent of children's books in
reader alone), dual, and multiple, which can Britain and the United States. Culture-specific
include implicit adult readers and child readers attitudes toward foreign literature ("Our chil-
at different stages. A general theory that forms dren won't understand that") are only one of
the basis of comparative children's literature many determining factors that hinder trans-
has to examine how children's literature tries lation in the dominant anglophone cultures;
to bridge the distance between adult and child economics is the predominant one.
in terms of their command of language, their Critical interest in translation is buoy-
experience of the world, and their position in ant today, with such issues as ideological
society by adapting language, subject-matter, differences and censorship (Craig; Thomson-
and formal and thematic features to corre- Wohlgemuth), cultural context adaptations
spond to the children's stage of development (Wunderlich and Morrissey), the status of
translators (Lathey, Role), and translating
and the repertory of skills they have acquired.

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 192 Comparative Children's Literature J PM LA
i/i
Ф the visual (van Meerbergen) at the center of Intertextuality Studies
ю
attention.5 The single modern author whose Some of the earliest children's books were ad-
2
о international reception has been most inten-
"Ü aptations of existing ones for adults - for ex-
0 sively investigated is without doubt Lindgren,
Л ample, Robinson Crusoe and Gullivers Travels.
<H
because of the significance of her influence
Ф
Children's literature has from its inception
E on children's literature, especially in postwar
been an intertextual literature of adaptations
"С Europe (Surmatz).
с
fi
and retellings (Stephens and McCallum).
«л Retellings, parodies, and simple, subtle, and
Ф
Т
Comparative Poetics complex forms of interaction between litera-
о
tures from different languages and cultures
ф
£
The poetics of children's literature addresses
«и
the aesthetic dimension of this branch of lit- are among the subjects of intertextuality
studies. They include analyses of instances of
erature. Comparative poetics concerns itself
marked intertextuality, in which the links be-
with the aesthetic development of children's
tween pretext and intertext are explicit, such
literature and with changes in its forms and
as Kirsten Boie's collection of episodic tales
functions in different cultures. A fitting sub-
ject is, for instance, how (and why) the begin-
Wir Kinder aus dem Möwenweg , an homage
nings of the new, complex, literary children's to Lindgren's Alla vi barn i Bullerbyn. Boie's
literature, which embraces techniques com- title echoes the German title of Lindgren's
book, Wir Kinder aus Bullerbü , and Boie aims
mon to the psychological novel, can be traced
back to the end of the 1950s in England, the to capture the spirit, style, and structure of
1960s in Sweden, and around 1970 in Ger- Lindgren's original while replacing the envi-
ronment and social conditions of rural Swe-
many (Nikolajeva), and why this form has
taken longer to be accepted and produced in den at the beginning of the twentieth century
other children's literatures. Narrative meth- with the setting of urban Germany at the
ods, structural features (motifs and themes, beginning of the twenty-first. Some other in-
such as the treatment of death in children's stances of intertextuality are not as easily de-
literature across time and cultures), and aes- tectable; an interesting example is Christoph
thetic categories like humor are further po- Heins Das Wildpferd unterm Kachelofen: Ein
tential areas of investigation in this relatively schönes dickes Buch von Jakob Borg und seinen
underdeveloped field. A model to be emu- Freunden , a novel published in East Germany
lated is Peter Grotzer's comprehensive study in 1984 about toys that come to life in tales
of adolescence in canonical English, Ger- shared by a man and a boy in a framework
man, French, and American literature (James story. It echoes A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh
Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, in structure, elements of plot, characteriza-
Robert Musil's Die Verwirrungen des Zöglings tion, and themes of friendship and imagina-
Törless , Herman Hesse's Unterm Rad , Jean- tion. An intertextual investigation shows how
Paul Sartre's L'enfance d'un chef J. D. Salin- these resonances underline the central differ-
ger's The Catcher in the Rye , and others), in ences: the treatment of childhood as utopia
which Grotzer examines how the concepts of and the status of imagination in both works.6
youth and youthfulness are translated into
literary characters, probes their metaphorical
Intermediality Studies
function, and uses the concept of the second
birth to explore themes of revolt and confor- Comparative literature has always concerned
mity, showing how it is an essential step in itself with studying and comparing different
individual emancipation. cultural codes (in, e.g., the visual arts, dance,

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 126.1 ] Emer O'Sullivan 193
i«*
music, cinema, the theater).
image ofChildren's
Canada in German litera-
culture, which y

ture and children's culture are

Martina even
Seifert more
identified as one dis-
of a wilder-
ft
0
•t

tinguished by their intermediality ness inhabited by menthanand boys.

adultShe found
literature and adult culture. In children's that the feminized, small-town world of Anne
</>

literature and culture, there is a synergistic

of Green Gables "simply did not represent what 3
CL
relation between stories and characters that German publishers were looking for when
3
originally appear in print and the forms into importing Canadian literature" (235). The ft
rt»

which they are subsequently transformed images of a particular country in the target 2Г
О
across media boundaries: film, video, DVD, literature play a decisive part in determining &
О
audio adaptations, text-based toys and com- which books from that country are selected о
w
modities (e.g., china and clothing displaying and translated and how they are marketed.
ft

book characters), computer programs, and Image studies also examines aesthetic и

theme parks. Intermediality in children's lit- aspects of the representation of foreigners,

erature studies goes beyond examining the demonstrating how authors bring stereotypes
forms and consequences of changes among into play to confirm or contradict readers'
media to observe and criticize the way the expectations, how they omit them in places
new media impacts texts for children, both where they are expected, or how they subvert
thematically and on the formal and aesthetic them in a playful manner. The extratextual
plane. Multimedia phenomena represent a function of national stereotypes - such as
new challenge to children's literature studies, the propagandistic portrayal of village life
and critics are asking whether tie-ins actually in Alsace, with its cast of good Alsations and
change the way children read (Mackey). French and bad Germans, in the pre-World
War I picture books by Hansi7 - and the con-
sistency and change in representations of spe-
Image Studies
cific groups over a period of time and through
Image studies, or imagology, is tradition- changing historical conditions are further
ally concerned with intercultural relations in objects of image studies.8 Ent-Fernungen , by
terms of mutual perceptions, images and self- Gina Weinkauff and Martina Seifert, is the
images, and their representation in literature. most comprehensive and detailed study of the
It investigates "the complex links between lit- representation of other nationalities and cul-
erary discourse, on the one hand, and national tural transfer in children's literature to date;
identity constructs, on the other" (Leerssen it examines German children's literature pub-
270). Image studies might analyze culture- lished from 1945 to 2000.
specific topographies in children's literature
(e.g., the Alps, the garden, the forest, or the
Comparative Genre Studies
outback [Tabbert]); images of home and how
cultural, national, or regional identity is linked Comparative genre studies addresses how
with landscape (Rutschmann); or even how genres - such as the school story, girls' books,
national image constructs may act as a filter in or the adventure novel - develop in the con-
the translation process. In spite of its striking text of national and international traditions.
popularity in most countries, the Canadian For example, it could be said that fantasy,
classic Anne of Green Gables , by L. M. Mont- which has become one of the key genres of
gomery, was not translated into German until children's literature, was founded in Germany
the mid-1980s, and the translation was based with E. T. A. Hoffmann's Nußknacker und
on the film version. The reason why it was vir- Mäusekönigbut that its subsequent develop-
tually ignored until then is linked with the ment took place in other countries (Ewers).

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 194 Comparative Children's Literature [ PM LA
ф Hans Christian Andersen initially carried the they arose and developed. While the articles
О
legacy of fantasy from German Romanticism on countries and regions in Peter Hunt's In-
о to the field of children's literature in Denmark ternational Companion Encyclopedia of Chil-
"Ü
о in the early nineteenth century. Then the tra- dren s Literature provide an excellent starting
JZ
dition of fantasy reached new heights in mid- point for comparison, their organization is
ф

s nineteenth-century England with the works not such that the information may be easily
"О of George MacDonald and Lewis Carroll and, compared. A major problem in compara-
с
п somewhat later, E. Nesbit. Works from the tive historiography arises from the degree to
«л
ф golden age of English fantasy began to be re- which the history of children's literature is
*Z
ceived in Sweden and from there finally reen- documented in individual countries or lin-
о
v
X
guistic areas and the manner of its organiza-
tered Germany, its country of origin, through
«м
the 1949 German translation of Lindgren's tion. It may be organized according to genres,
Pippi Längstrump. This led, for the first time themes, authors, or historical periods or writ-
since the Romantic era, to a favorable climate ten from the disciplinary perspective of liter-
for the reception and creation of fantasy for ary history, educational history, the history
children in Germany and later encouraged a of the book, or library studies. These perspec-
boom in this genre by German authors such tives, in turn, may reflect the state of research
as Michael Ende and Cornelia Funke. in different countries.

Comparative Historiography of Comparative History of Children's

Children's Literature Literature Studies

Comparative historiography studies the writ-The comparative history of children's litera-

ture studies is a metacritical dimension of
ing of the history of children's literature. It is
interested in the criteria according to which
comparative children's literature that involves
histories and accounts of various children's looking at the study of children's literature
literatures are produced and calls for a dis- and how its point of focus depends on where
cussion of the cultural, social, economic, it is undertaken. This study is, naturally, in-
and educational conditions necessary forfluenced by how the subject is institutionally
this literature to develop. Some recent semi-established in different cultures. In France, for
otic models of children's literature postulateinstance, children's literature was studied in
identical phases of development for children's the context of popular or paraliterature, a field
literature following similar patterns in all cul-hardly accepted as part of the academic system
tures (Shavit, Poetics) or a universal progres- in other European countries in the 1950s.9 In
sion from didactism to diversity (Nikolajeva). Germany, on the other hand, the discussion of
A comparative history of children's literature, children's literature before the 1960s was al-
however, would have to take into account the most entirely confined to the pedagogical sec-
socioeconomic and cultural conditions that tor, primarily in centers of teacher training.
The history of children's literature research
encourage or hinder development, to register
how the unique histories of postcolonial chil-
in England is one of individual scholars such
dren's literatures differ from the postulated
as F. J. Harvey Darton, whose masterly social
standard model based on northwestern Euro- and literary study Children's Books in England :
pean countries (Britain, Germany, France). Five Centuries of Social Life is still consulted
There is still no comparative history of today. However, on an institutional level, there
children's literatures from different cultures was no professorial chair for children's litera-
that takes account of the conditions in which ture studies until the end of the 1990s; for a

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 12 6.1 J Emer O'Sullivan 195
f*>
origins and
long time, children's literature the parameters ofin
featured Western
En- literatures to re- ЭГ
Ф
position itself in a planetary context.
gland-as in the United States- mainly in the 0
3. Exceptions include a flurry of interest around the *%

training of librarians. mid-1990s: the International Federation of Modern Ф

Languages and Literatures addressed the topic during

a conference in 1996 (Neubauer), and three established
5
Conclusion 6
journals- Poetics Today (Shavit, Children's Literature),
Compar(a)ison (Kümmerling-Maibauer), and New Com- 1
Children's literature studies has, in the past, tb
parison (Brown)- dedicated special issues to comparative
p*

been fond of assuming that

aspectsits international
of children's literature. More recently
X
an issue of
0
corpus has transcended cultural and Literature
CLCWeb: Comparative linguis-
and Culture was devoted
0
a

to racialized
tic borders. This too is a legacy of narratives
Hazard, for children
who(King and Streamas).
0
4. There have been more than thirty complete Ger-
coined the term "la république universelle de
ста

ÃT
man translations of Alice in Wonderland; they are ana-
l'enfance" 'the world republic of childhood'
lyzed in O'Sullivan, Kinderliterarische 296-378.
( Livres 192; Books vii), a romantic vision of
5. The comprehensive reader by Lathey ( Translation )
unlimited exchange of children's books
presents a good across
selection of important contributions.
borders and international understanding
6. Through his referencethat
to and reinterpretation of
Winnie-the-Pooh,
at times has functioned as an ideology, Hein signalsas
his a
admiration for Milne's
book as a model of children's literature. At the same time,
catchword implying that children throughout
by realigning the relationship between child and adult, he
the world are all the same. It is a romantic vi-
underscores his demand for more respect for the child.
sion of small beings who magically commune See O'Sullivan, Comparative Children's Literature 34-36.
with their counterparts in the whole world 7. Hansi is the pseudonym of Jean-Jacques Waltz.

without any of the concomitant problems 8. O'Sullivan, "Children's Literature" provides a sur-
vey of work in the area.
of language, culture, religion, or race. This
9. One of the first university chairs for children's litera-
ignores the real conditions of childhood in ture in France (at the Sorbonne) was devoted to "littérature
different parts of the world as well as the pos- populaire et enfantine" popular and children's literature.'
sibilities of children's communication across
borders with their peers. Comparative chil-
dren's literature, by examining texts in their Works Cited
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5Л
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о
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E
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"ü
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я
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О
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£
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