Python The Complete Manual The essential handbook for Python usersMARA AD hi hR Rae PARADA OD AAAAAAAAAMAA A A AAAAMAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAMAAAMAAA A AAAAAMAAAMAAA A he AAAAAMAAAAAAA A AAAAAAALAAAAA 4 db AAAAAMAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAA A 4 AAAAMAAAA A AAAAMAA A he er 4AAA 4A 4AMAA 4A AAhA sa AAA A AAAAdAhd badd ddWelcome to Python The Complete Manual Python is a versatile language and its rise in popularity is certainly no surprise Its similarity to everyday language has made ita perfect companion for the Raspberry Pi, which is often a first step into practical programming. But don't be fooled by its beginner-riendly credentials - Python has plenty of more advanced functions. In this new edition, you wil earn how to program in Python, discover amazing projects to improve your understanding, and find ways to Use Python to enhance your experience of computing, Youll also create fun projects including programming a Space Invaders clone and teaching your Raspberry Pi to multi-task. Let's get coding!Python The Complete Manual Future PLE Quay House, The Ambury ath, BAL ILA, Eaitorat Compiles by Aiden Dalby & Adam Markiewicz ead of Arta Design Greg Whitaker Esitrial rectordon Whit Managing Drector Grainne MeKenna Photography ‘All copyrights and trademarsaare recognised and respacteck Advertising edt packs are avalableon request ‘Commercial Director Clare Dove Intemational Head of Pint Licensing Rachel Shaw Teensingeafuturenetcom Circulation ood of Nevstrade Tm Mathers Production Hood of Production Mark Constance Preducton Project Manager Matthew Eglinton Aasertsing Production Manager Joanne Crosby Digital Editions Controller Jason Hudson Prosuction Managers Keely Miler, Nola Cokely, ‘Vivienne Calvert, Fran Twentyman Distributed by Marketer, Church Place Canary Wharf Landon, EU SHU ‘ewvimarketorcecouk Tet C203 787 9001 Python The Complete Manual Fifteenth Edtion (CMBS6SS) FUTURE Connectors Wide foee 26 Make web apps Master this starter project Build an app for Android Take your appson the move 50 Python tips Aselection of handy tips Work with Python 50 58 64 72 Replace your shell Say goodbye to Bash Scientific computing Discover NumPy’s power Python for system admins How to tweak your settings Scrape Wikipedia Start using Beautiful Soup Create with Python 80 Tictactoewith Kivy Programa simple game 86 MakeaPongclone Enhance your game skills aa | 88 Programa Space Invaders clone Have fun with Pivaders 94 Space Invaders clone 2 Continue making Pivaders Get started with On 8 Masterdass Discover the basics of Python Use Python with Pi 100 106 no 14 120 Using Python on Pi Optimise your code Use Python in Minecraft Produce fantastic creations Handle multiple task Learn to multi-task with your Raspberry Pi Create a Pi-powered virtual reality setup Use Python-VRZero Find and check your phone Discover andlog Bluetooth devicesPython is a great programming language for both beginners and experts. It is designed with code readability in mind, making it an excellent choice for beginners who are still getting used to various programming concepts. The language is popular and has plenty of libraries available, allowing programmers to get a lot done with relatively little code. You can make all Kinds of applications in Python: you could use the Pygame frarnework to write simple 2D games, you could use the GTK libraries to create a windowed application, or you could try something a little ore ambitious lke an app such as creating one using Python's ; Bluetooth and Input libraries to capture the input from a USB keyboard and ~ relay the input events to an Android phone. A For this tutorial we're going to be using Python 2 since that is the A version that is most likely to be installed on your Linux distribution, 4 Inthe following tutorials, you'l leam how to create popular games using @ { te SN Pythi Well also sh how to add sound and Alt. a oN ees fell also show you how to add sound and Al to o¢9 Se I ma og,Get started with Python Getting startedHello World Let's get stuck in, and what better way than with the programmer's bestfriend, the Hello World’ application! Start by opening a terminal. its current working directory will be your home directory. I's probably a good idea to make a directory for the files that well be creating in this tutorial, rather than having then loose in your home directory. You can create a directory called Python using the command mkdir Python, Youtl then want to change into that directory using the command cd Python, The next step isto create an empty file using the command ‘touch’ followed by the filename. Our expert used the command touch hello_world py. The final and most important part of setting up the files making it executable. This allows us to run code inside the hello_ world,py fle. We do this with the command chmod +x hello_world py. Now that we have our file set up, we can go ahead and open it up in nano, or alternatively any text editor of your choice. Geciit is a great editor with syntax highlighting support that should be available on any distribution. Youll be able to install it using your package manager if you don't have it already, I Ciianetian-taptop ~18 mkdir Python [liam@liam-laptop ~]$ cd Python/ I Cliam@liam-laptop Python]$ touch hello_world.py [Liam@liam-laptop PythoniJ$ chmod +x hello_world.py I Criametiam-taptop Pythons nano hello_world.py ur Hello World program is very simple, it only needs two lines, The fist line begins with a‘shebang’ (the symbol #! ~ also knownGet started with Python Getting started as a hashbang) followed by the path to the Python interpreter. The program loader uses this line to work out what the rest of the lines need to be interpreted with. If youre running this in an IDE like IDLE, you don't necessarily need to do this. “The code that is actually read by the Python interpreters only a single line. Were passing the value Hello World to the print function by placing it in brackets immediately after we've called the print function. Hello World is enclosed in quotation marks to indicate that it is a literal value and should not be interpreted as source code. As we would expect, the print function in Python prints any value that gets passed toit from the console. You can save the changes you've just made to the file in nano using the key combination Ctrl+O, followed by Enter. Use Ctr}+X to exit nano. H usr/bin/env python2 H printcHelto World”) You can run the Hello World program by prefixing its filename with / —in this case youd type: Shello_world py I Cliam@liam-laptop Python]$ ./hello_world.py B tetto World Variables and data types A variable s @ name in source code that is associated with an area in memory that you can use to store data, which isthen called upon throughout the code. The data can be one of many types, including: Ter Cesc Float Rees eer eed Corse ey Sc aS cl Wo Br) ‘A variable is associated with an area in memory that you can use to store data”Getting started Get started with Python ‘As well as these main data types, there are sequence types (technically, asstring isa sequence type but is so commonly used we've classed it asa main data type) ited Ceres cubeeicce en Pen eee cen es Cece cis ees tuple would be used for something like a co-ordinate, containing an xand y value stored as a single variable, whereas a list is typicelly used to store larger collections, The data stored in a tuple is immutable because you aren't able to change values of individual elements in a tuple. However, you can do so ina list. It will also be useful to know about Python’ dictionary type. A dictionary is a mapped data type. It stores data in key-value pairs. This means that you access values stored in the dictionary using that value's corresponding key, which i cfferent to how you would do it with alist. In a list, you would access an element of the ist using that element's index (a number representing where the element s placed in the list). Let’s work on a program we can use to demonstrate how to use variables and different data types. I's worth noting at this point that you don't always have to specify data types in Python, Feel free to create this file in any editor you like. Everything will work just fine as long as you remember to make the file executable. Were going to call cours variables py. Interpreted vs compiled languages ted to machine oRtaaan: Te) aero clFull code listing The following line creates an integer variable called hello_int with the # value of 21, Notice how itdoesn't need to goin uotatton marks The same principals true of Boolean values We create a tuple in the following way And alistin this way You could also create the same lstin the following way Get started with Python Getting started #V/usr/bin/env python2 4#We create a variable by writing the name of the variable we want followed# by an equals sign, which is followed by the value we want to store in thee variable. For example, the following line creates a variable called hello_str, containing the string Hello World, hello_str = “Hello World” hello_int = 21 hello_bool = True hello_tuple = (21, 32) hello_list = [“Hello,”, “this”, “is”, “a”, List") 4 This list now contains 5 strings. Notice that there are no spaces# between these strings so if you were to join them up so make a sentence # you'd have to add a space between each element. hello_list = list. hello_list.append(“Hello,”) hello_list.append(“this") hello_list.append(“is") hello_list.append(“a") hello_list.append("list”) ww r ) following lines use the appendt function ofthe ist type toad elements tothe list This way of using af list sit really very useful when working with stings you know ofin advance, butit canbe useful when working with dynamic data such as user input. Thislist, will overwrite the firstlist without any waning ¢Getting started Get started with Python We might as well as wet are using the same variable name as the create dictionary previous lst while we're at it Notice how weve hello_dict = { “first_name” : “Liam”, aligned the colons “last_name” below to make the “Fraser”, code tidy “eye_colour” : “Blue” } # Let's access some elements inside our collectionst Well start by changing the value of the last string in our hello_list and# add an. exclamation mark to the end. The"list’string is the Sth element # in the list. However, indexes in Python are zero-based, which means the # first element has an index of 0 Notice that there - print(hello_list(4]) pes nae cee hello_list{4] += * exclamation marks ee ¥ The above line is the same as print the element hello_list[4] = hello_list[4] + “!” print(hello_list[4]) Remember = that tuples are print(strhello_tuplefa)) immutable, — We can't change the value of those elements although we Uke we just did with the list can access the # Notice the use of the str function above to elements of them explicitly convert the integer tke so # value inside the tuple toa string before printing it Let's create a sentence using - the data in our __| print(hello_dict["first_name"] +""+ hello_ hello_dict dict(“last_name"] +"has" + hello_dictl"eye_colour’} +" eyes”) Amuch tidier way Cf doing this would = Betouse Pythons print(“(0}{1}has {2} eyes“formatthello_ sting formatter [| dictt’first_name"], hello_dict("last_name"), hello_dict{*eye_colour')))Get started with Python Getting started Indentation in detail tation SCCM ec eae ir ae Tener ne editor Control structures In programming, a control structure is any kind of statement that can change the path that the code execution takes. For example, a control structure that decided to end the program if a number was less than 5 would look something like this: #1/usr/bin/env python2 import sys # Used for the sys.exit function int_condition = 5 if int_condition < 6: sys.exit(“int_condition must be >= 6") else: print(“int_condition was >= 6 - continuing”) The path that the cade takes will depend on the value of the integer int_condition. The code in the ‘i’ block will only be executed if the condition is true. The import statement is used to load the Python system library; the latter provides the exit function, allowing you to exit the program, printing an error message. Notice that indentation (in this case four spaces per indent) is used to indicate Sea which statement a block of code belongs to. 'f' statements are probably the most commonly used control structures. Other control “The path the code takes will depend on the value of the integer int_condition’Getting started Get started with Python structures include: the following items, which you should be aware of when using Python: For statements, which allow you to iterate over items in collections, or to repeat a piece of code again a certain number of times; = While statements, a loop that continues while the condition istrue. Wete going to write a program that accepts user input from the ser to demonstrate haw control structures work Wete calling tt constructpy. The for loop is using a local copy of the current value, which means any changes inside the loop won't make any changes affecting the list. On the other hand however, the ‘while’ loop is directly accessing elements in the list, so you could change the list there should you want to do so. We wil talk about variable scope in some more detail later on in the article. The output from the above program is as follows: [liamélian-Laptop Python]$ ./ construct.py How many integers? acd You must enter an integer (liamélian-Laptop Python]$ ./ construct.py How many integers? 3 Please enter integer 1: t You must enter an integer Please enter integer 1: 5 Please enter integer 2: 2 Please enter integer 3: 6 Using a for loop 5 2 6 Using a while loop 5 2 6 “The ‘for’ loop uses a local copy, so changes in the loop won't affect the list”Get started with Python Getting started Full code listing ‘#1/ust/bin/env python # We're going to write a program that will ask the user to input an arbitrary # number of integers, store them ina collection, {and then demonstrate how the Henne # collection would be used with various control integers we want in thelist structures. import sys # Used for the sys.exit function target_int = raw_input(“How many integers? “) By now, the variable target_int contains a string representation of ‘# whatever the user typed. We need to try and convert that to an integer but 4 be ready to # deal with the error ifit’s not Otherwise the program will crash, try: lee io ste te) target_int = int(target_int) integers except Valuefrror: sys.exit(“You must enter an integer”) ints = listo) Ce. These are used L to keep track ofhow many L count =? oe. integers we curently haveGetting started Get started with Python ifthe above succeeds then isint will be set to true:isint True By now, the user has given up or we have alistfiled with integers. We can loop through these ina couple of ways. The fist iswith a forloop # Keep asking for an integer until we have the required number while count < target_int: new_int raw_input(“Please enter integer {0}: “.format(count + 1)) isint = False try —f new.int = int(new.int) except print(“You must enter an integer") # Only carry on if we have an integer. IF not, welllloop again # Notice below | use ==, which is different from =. The single equals isan # assignment operator whereas the double equals is a comparison operator. if isint == True: 4# Add the integer to the collection ints.append(new_int) # Increment the count by 1 count #= 1 print(“Using a for loop") for value in ints: print(str(value)) # Orwith a while loop: print(“Using a while loop”) # We already have the total above, but knowingGet started with Python Getting started the len function is very # useful total = len(ints) count = @ while count < total: print(str(intsfcount])) count += 1 More about a Python list Functions and variable scope Functions are used in programming to break processes down into smaller chunks. This often makes code much easier to read. Functions can also be reusable if designed in a certain way. Functions can have variables passed to them. Variables in Python are always passed by value, which means that a copy of the variable is passed to the function that is only valid in the scope of the function. Any changes made to the original variable inside the function will be discarded. However, functions can also return values, so this isn't an issue. Functions are defined with the keyword def, followed by the name of the function. Any variables that can be passed through are put in brackets following the function's name, Multiple variables are separated by commas. The names given to the variables in these brackets are the ones that they will have in the scope of the function, regardless of what the variable that's passed to the function is called. Let's see this in action. The output from the program opposite is as follows: “Functions are defined with the keyword def, then the name of the function”Getting started Get started with Python We are now outside of the scope of the modify_string function, as we have reduced the level of indentation ———— 7 The test string won't be changed in this code However, we ccan call the function lke this #l/ust/bin/env python? # Below is a function called modify_string, which accepts a variable # that willbe called original in the scope of the function. Anything # indented with 4 spaces Under the function definition isin the # scope. def modify_string(original): original += “ that has been modified.” # At the moment, only the local copy of this string has been modified def modify_string_return(original): original += “ that has been modified.” # However, we can return our local copy to the caller. The function ends as soon as the return statement is used, regardless of where it # is in the function, return original test_string = “This is a test string” modify_string(test_string) print(test_string) test_string = modify_string_ return(test_string) print(test_string) # The function’s return value is stored in the variable test string, # overwriting the original and therefore changing the value that i # printed, lliam@liam-laptop Python|$ /functions_and. scope.py This isa test string Thisis a test string that has been modified, Scope is an important thing to get the hang of otherwise it can get you into some bad habits. Let's write a quick program to demonstrate this. t's going to have a Boolean variable called cont, which will decide ifa number will be assigned to a variable in an if statement. However, the variable hasn't been defined anywhere apart from in the scope ofthe if statement. Well finish off by trying to print the variable.Get started with Python Getting started ‘#Y/ust/bin/env python2 cont = False ifcont var = 1234 printivar) In the section of code above, Python will convert the integer toa string before printing it. However, it's always a good idea to expicitly convert things to strings — especially when it comes to concatenating strings together. you try to use the + operator on a string and an integer, there wil be an error because it's not explicitly clear what needs to happen. The + operator would usually add two integers together. Having said that, Python’ string formatter that we demonstrated earlier is a cleaner way of doing that. Can you see the problem? Var has only been defined in the scope of the ifstatement. This means that we geta very nasty error when we try to access var. {liameliam-laptop Python|s /scope-py Traceback (most recent call last) File*/scope.py' line 8, in print var Namefrror:name’var'is not defined fF cont is set to True, then the variable will be created and we can access itjust fine. However, ths is a bad way to do things. The correct way is to initialize the variable outside of the scope of the if statement. syusrbinlenv python2 a cont = False if cont y 2 var= 1234 ifvar =o: printivar)Getting started Seis Get started with Python The variable var is defined in a wider scope than the ifstatement, and can still be accessed by the ifstatement. Any changes made to var inside the ifstaternent are changing the variable defined in the larger scope. This example doesnt realy do anything useful apart from illustrate the potential problem, but the worst-case scenario has gone from the program crashing to printing a zero. Even that doesn't happen because we've added an extra construct to test the value of var before printing it. “Google, or any other search engine, is very helpful if you are stuck with anything, or have an error message you can't work out how to fix" eee Bee ieee eee nana aGet started with Python Getting started Coding style Its worth taking a littl time to talk about coding style. It’s simple to write tidy code, The key is consistency. For example, you should always name your variables in the same manner. It doesn't matter if you want to use camelCase or use underscores as we have. One crucial thing is to use self-documenting identifiers for variables. You shouldn't have to guess what.a variable does. The other thing that goes with this isto always comment your code. This will help anyone else who reads your code, and yourselfin the future. It’s also useful to put a brief summary at the top of a code file describing what the application does, or a part of the application ifit's made up of multiple files. Summary This article should have introduced you to the basics of programming in Python. Hopefully you are getting used to the syntax, indentation and general look and feel of a Python program. The next step is to lea how to come up with a problem that you want to solve, and break it down into small steps that you can implement in a programming language. Google, or any other search engine, is very helpful. If you are stuck with anything, or have an error message you can’t work out how to fix, stick it into Google and you should be a lot closer to solving your problem. For example, if we Google ‘play mp3 file with python, the first link takes us to a Stack Overflow thread with a bunch of useful replies. Don't be afraid to get stuck in - the real fun of programming is solving problems one manageable chunk at a time.Introducing Python — Pythonessentials Lay the foundations and build your knowledge NSM Cuno t lpi pon era edsse Mn Rur a aie syoke see) irises) Mee nenge lee iNee ie o sigu ils ge) systems (p.32) and the worldwide web (p.26). These easy 10- follow tutorials will help you to cement the Python language that you've learned, while developing a skill that is very helpful in the current technology market. Welllfinish up by giving you 50 essential Python tips (p.40) to increase your knowledge and TaPython essentialsIntroducing Python What you'll need... Python 2.7: itpsiiwwrpytbonrgitownload/ releoses27 Django version 1.4: tps eran dangopeojectcon Make web apps with Python Make web apps with Python Python provides quick and easy way to build oplications, including web apps. Find out how to it to builc ‘ure-complete web app Python is known for its simplicity and capabilities. At this point it is so advanced that there is nothing you cannot do with Python, and conqueting the web is one of the possibilities. When you are using Python for web development you get access to a huge catalogue of modules and community support ~ make the most of them. Web development in Python can be done in many different ways, right from using the plain old CGI modules to utilising fully groomed web frameworks, Using the latter is the most popular method of building web applications with Python, since it allows you to build applications without worrying about al that low-level implementation stuff. There are many web frameworks available for Python, such as Django, TurboGears and Web2Py, For this tutorial we will be using our current preferred option, Django. The Django Project portable and can be integrated with ‘nei ther Django sites with very tte effort. magazine issue tracker H's django adnin.py startproject ludissueTracker OT me seseeiringyfictues | Arie cectoy wl rested tocteatenew Djangoproects. _Thiswill also act as the oot of your Let's create one forourissuetracker —_—_ development web server that comes project here with Django. Under the project in Django, a projectrepresentsthe directory you wilfin the folowing site andits settings. An application,on items. theother hand, represents aspectic -_- manage.py:ython script to work with feature ofthe site ike blogging or your project tagging, The benefit ofthis approach is__ludlssueTracker: A python package thatyour Django application becomes @directory with _init__py le) forMake web apps with Python your project. This package isthe one Containing your project’ settings and configuration data ludissueTracker/settings py: Thisfile contains the configuration options for the project. ludissueTracker/urs py: Ths ile contains various URL mappings. wsgippy: An entry-point for WSG- compatible web servers to serve your project. Only useful when you are deploying your project. For this tutorial we wont be needing it, Configuring the Django project 0 Before we start working Con the application, let's configure the Django project, as per our requirements EditludlssueTrackersettings py as follows (only pars requiring modification are shown: Database Settings: We willbe Using SOLite3 as our database system here NOTE: Red text indicates new code or Updated code. ‘default’: { I “ENGINE: {jango.db, backends. slites’, ‘NAME’: ludsite. db3, Path settings Django requires an absolute path for directory settings. But we want to be able to ‘pass in the relative directory teferences. In order todo that we will add a helper Python function. Insert the following code at the top of the settings. py file: import os Hl der getabspath(x): return os,path.join(os. path.abspath(os.path. dirmane(_file_)), *) Now update the path options: ecode Bf teecate_oirs = ( sgetabspath(‘tenplates') BE septa root = getabspath(‘nedia’) Bi vepra_ur. = ‘/nedia" Now we will need to enable the ‘admin interface for our Django site, Ths is a neat feature of Django ‘which allows automatic creation of an admin interface ofthe site based con the data model. The admin interface can be used to add and manage content for a Django site Uncomment the following line BE InsTaLLeD_aPPs = ( H‘ajango.contrib.auth’, ‘django.contrib. contenttypes", ‘django. contrib. sessions’, ‘django.contrib. sites’, “django. contriib.messages' HB ‘jango.contrib, staticfiles’, “django.contrib. admin’, He # ‘django.contrib. adnindocs’, ) Creating ludissues app OB nieservewserserte primary app for oursite, called ludissues. To do that, we will use the manage py script: I python manage.py startapp “When you are using Python for web Introducing Python ludissues We will need to enable this app in the config file as well IE INSTALLED_APPS = ¢ HB ‘django.contrib.adnin’, Sudissues', ) Creating the data model OF Ressteparneve define the data model for our app. Please see the inline comments to understand what is happening here. From djangodb import models: Il We are importing the user authentication module so that we use the built I in authentication model in this app I From django.contrib.auth models import User IE & We would also create an admin interface for our app from django.contrib import admin HA tuple to hold the multi choice char fields H+ First represents the field name the second one repersents the display name TSSUE_STATUS CHOICES = ( Cnew’, ‘New’), accepted’ ’Accepted’), reviewed’ ’Reviewed’), started’ Started’), (closed’,'Closed"), development you get access to a huge catalogue of modules and support”Introducing Python [elas Issue(nodels.Model): TB # owner will be a foreign key to the User model which is already built in Django owner = models.Foreignke y(User, nul =True,blank=True) 4 multichoice with defaulting to “new status = models. CharField(nax_. length=25,choices=ISSUE_ ‘STATUS_CHOICES,default='new') summary = models. TextField() # date time field which will be set to the date time when the record is created opened_on = models. DateTineField(‘date opened’, ‘auto_now_add=True) ‘modified_on = models, DateTimeField(‘date modified’, ‘auto_now-True) def name(self): return self.sunmary. split¢"\n’,1){) IL & Admin front end for the ‘app. We are also configuring some of the He buitt in attributes for the admin interface on I & how to display the list, how it willl be sorted I # what are the search fields etc. class Issuesdmin(adnin, NodelAdmin): date hierarchy = “opened_on’ List filter = (‘status’,’owner’) list_display = Cid’,’n ‘ame’,’status','owner",nodifi ed_on’) search fields = ['description’,'status’] He register our site with ‘the Django admin interface admin.site. Make web apps with Python register(Issue, IssueAdmnin) To have the created data model reflected in the database, un the following command: $ python manage.py synedb Youll be also asked to create a superuser frit: You just installed Django’s auth system, which means you don’t have any superusers defined. Would you like to create one now? (yes/no): yes Enabling the admin site OS Tensesatey enabled, but we need to enable itn the usp fle — this contains the regex-based URL mapping from ‘model to view. Update the ur.py fle asfolows BE from django.conf.urls import patterns, include, url Il from django.contrib import admin adinin.autodiscover() B uripatterns = patterns(", unl¢r’*acinin/”, include(@dnin.site.urls), ) Starting the Django web server Djangoincludesa builtin web server whichis very handy to debug and test Ojango applications Let startit to see how our admin interface works. To stat the web server: Is python manage.py Ifyou do nothave any ertorsin your code, the server should be available ‘on port 8000. To launch the admin interface, navigate your browser to http/flocalhost800dvadmin. You wil be asked to log in here Enter the username and password thatyou created while you were syncing the database After logging in you will notice that allthe apps installed in your pioject are avalable here. We ae only interested in the Auth and Ludlssues app. You can dickthe +Add to add a record, Click the Add button next to Users and adda few users to the ste. ‘Once you have the users inside the system, you can now adda few issues tothe system Home » Ludasues Issues» Add issue Add issue Owner seas: mn ome omar Click the Add button next to sues, Here you will notice that you can enter (Owner Status and Summary for the issue. But what about the opened_on and modified_on field that we “It’s great that the owner field is automatically populated with details of the users inside the site”Make web apps with Python Introducing Python Site administration ~ Recent Actions Soe add 7Change My Actions Users acd Change None avalable Issues Aad 7Change sites add 7Change Select issue to change a defined while modeling the app? Creating the public user include(edmin.site.urls)), They are not here because thay are interface for ludissues > not supposed to be entered by the * This ensures that all the requests wil be User opened_on will automatically [At this point the admin processed by ludissues.ur ist. cevotmssetmerscresars — OZ ineraces orn bt modified_on will automaticaly set weneed a way todisplay the Creating ludissues.url tothe date time on which an issue data that we have added using - ismodified. the admin interface. But theres Another coo thing stat no public interface. Let create aia eee the onmer fields automatically itnow, iy) with the folowing content populated with all the users inside We will have'to begin by W tron django.cont-uris se oti ee import patterns, include, url ‘We have defined our Ist view to Urbspy (udissuetrackerus py laces aesneetesel| show ID name status ovner and I urtpatterns = patterns¢”, Mseceteriaes ‘modified on'in the model. You I Tissues canget to this view by navigating (7° include ludissues. tohttpr/localhost8000/admin/ urls’), + dictionary wi ludissues/ssue/ Be (r*adnins’, Il # dictionary with all theIntroducing Python objects in ludissues info = ( ‘queryset':ludissues. objects.all(), 3 If To save us writing lots of python code I # we are using the list_ detail generic view H flist detail is the name of view we are using B urtpatterns = patterns(‘django.views.generic. List detail’, I #issue-list and issue-detail are the tenplate names BE tuhich will be looked in the default tenplate directories Burts object_ List’ info,nane="issue-list"), url(r"*(P LUD Issue Tracker 1 XY" class="sel">View Issues Admin Sites/ar 1