PCI TM 101 4th Edition 4th Printing

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/
INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II

TRAINING MANUAL
TM-101
Fourth Edition
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Phone: 312-786-0300 I Fax: 312-621-1114 I www.pci.org
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 1 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Quality Control Technician/Inspector Level I & II Training Manual,
TM-101
Copyright © 2013
by Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
Fourth Edition, Fourth Printing
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof may not be
reproduced in any form without the expressed written permission of
the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 2 10/2/14 11:02 AM

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword/Dedication.................................................................................................................................................................. VI
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. VII – VIII
Definitions ................................................................................................................................................................ IX – XV
Chapter 1
Quality System...........................................................................................................................................1 – 18
1.1 Objective...................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Plant Quality Assurance Program............................................................................................................1
1.2.1 General............................................................................................................................................1
1.2.2 Documented Procedures.................................................................................................................2
1.3 Personnel..................................................................................................................................................3
1.3.1 General............................................................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Engineering.....................................................................................................................................4
1.3.3 Drafting...........................................................................................................................................4
1.3.4 Production.......................................................................................................................................4
1.3.5 Quality Control................................................................................................................................4
1.4 Design Responsibilities............................................................................................................................4
1.4.1 General............................................................................................................................................4
1.4.2 Shop Drawings................................................................................................................................4
1.4.3 Development of Shop Drawings.....................................................................................................5
1.5 Project Samples......................................................................................................................................12
1.5.1 General..........................................................................................................................................12
1.5.2 Size and Shape..............................................................................................................................12
1.5.3 Identification..................................................................................................................................12
1.5.4 Visual Mock-Ups and Initial Production Approval of Finishes....................................................12
Review Questions..............................................................................................................................................14
Chapter 2
Production Practices.............................................................................................................................. 19 – 33
2.1 General Objectives and Safety...............................................................................................................19
2.1.1 General..........................................................................................................................................19
2.1.2 Plant Safety...................................................................................................................................19
2.2 Production and Curing Facilities............................................................................................................19
2.2.1 Area Requirements........................................................................................................................19
2.2.2 Form Fabrication...........................................................................................................................19
2.2.3 Storage of Release Agents and Other Chemicals..........................................................................19
2.2.4 Hardware Fabrication and Storage................................................................................................19
2.2.5 Concrete Handling and Consolidation Equipment.......................................................................21
2.2.6 Curing and Finishing Areas...........................................................................................................21
2.2.7 Product Handling Equipment........................................................................................................21
2.2.8 Storage Area for Finished Products..............................................................................................21
2.3 Welding...................................................................................................................................................22
2.3.1 Welding of Structural Steel...........................................................................................................22
2.3.2 Welding of Reinforcement............................................................................................................22
2.3.3 Stud Welding.................................................................................................................................23
2.4 Forms and Molds....................................................................................................................................23
2.4.1 Materials and Construction...........................................................................................................23
2.4.2 Verification and Maintainance.......................................................................................................23
2.5 Hardware Installation.............................................................................................................................24
2.6 Product Identification.............................................................................................................................25
2.7 Product Handling....................................................................................................................................25
2.7.1 General..........................................................................................................................................25
2.7.2 Stripping........................................................................................................................................26
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION I
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.7.3 Yard Storage..................................................................................................................................26

2.7.4 Loading for Shipment...................................................................................................................27
2.8 Surface Finishes.....................................................................................................................................27
2.8.1 General..........................................................................................................................................27
2.8.2 As-Cast Formed Surface Finishes.................................................................................................27
2.8.3 Exposed or Visible Unformed Surface Finishes...........................................................................27
2.8.4 Applied Coatings...........................................................................................................................27
2.8.5 Surface Finishes............................................................................................................................27
2.9 Repairs....................................................................................................................................................29
2.10 Acceptability of Appearance..................................................................................................................29
2.11 Sealers and Clear Surface Coatings.......................................................................................................29
Chapter 3
Raw Materials and Accessories............................................................................................................. 35 – 48
General..............................................................................................................................................................35
3.1 Concrete Materials.................................................................................................................................35
3.1.1 General..........................................................................................................................................35
3.1.2 Cementitious Materials.................................................................................................................35
3.1.3 Fine Aggregate..............................................................................................................................36
3.1.4 Course Aggregates.........................................................................................................................36
3.1.5 Aggregates for Lightweight Concrete...........................................................................................37
3.1.6 Mixing Water.................................................................................................................................37
3.1.7 Admixtures....................................................................................................................................38
3.1.8 Curing Materials............................................................................................................................39
3.2 Reinforcment and Hardware..................................................................................................................39
3.2.1 Reinforcing Steel...........................................................................................................................39
3.2.2 Prestressing Materials...................................................................................................................41
3.2.3 Hardware and Miscellaneous Materials........................................................................................42
3.2.4 Handling and Lifting Devices.......................................................................................................42
3.3 Insulation................................................................................................................................................43
3.4 Welding Electrodes................................................................................................................................43
3.5 Headed Studs..........................................................................................................................................43
Chapter 4
Concrete and Curing.............................................................................................................................. 49 – 68
General..............................................................................................................................................................49
4.1 Mixture Proportioning............................................................................................................................49
4.1.1 General..........................................................................................................................................49
4.1.2 Qualification of New Concrete Mixtures......................................................................................49
4.1.3 Specified Concrete Strength..........................................................................................................49
4.1.4 Statistical Concrete Strength Considerations................................................................................50
4.1.5 Proportioning to Ensure Concrete Durability...............................................................................50
4.1.6 Special Consideration for Air Entrainment...................................................................................50
4.1.7 Compatibility of Face and Backup Mixtures................................................................................50
4.1.8 Proportioning for Appearance of Concrete Surfaces....................................................................51
4.1.9 Mixture Proportioning for Concrete Made with Structural Lightweight Aggregate....................51
4.1.10 Proportioning for Concrete Workability.....................................................................................51
4.1.10.1 Self-Consolidating Concrete.........................................................................................51
4.1.11 Water–Cementitious Materials Ratio..........................................................................................51
4.1.12 Effects of Admixtures.................................................................................................................52
4.2 Storage and Handling of Concrete Materials.........................................................................................52
4.2.1 General..........................................................................................................................................52
4.2.2 Storage and Handling of Aggregates............................................................................................52
4.2.3 Storage and Handling of Cement..................................................................................................52
4.2.4 Storage and Handling of Admixtures and Pigments.....................................................................52
4.3 Batch Plant.............................................................................................................................................53
4.3.1 Batching Equipment Tolerances...................................................................................................53
4.3.2 Scale Requirements.......................................................................................................................53
II QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.3.3 Requirements for Water-Measuring Equipment...........................................................................53

4.3.4 Requirements for Batchers and Mixing Plants.............................................................................53
4.3.4.1 General............................................................................................................................53
4.3.4.2 Requirements for Concrete Mixers.................................................................................53
4.3.4.3 Mixer Requirements........................................................................................................53
4.3.4.4 Maintenance Requirements for Concrete Mixers...........................................................53
4.4 Concrete Transportation Equipment......................................................................................................54
4.4.1 General..........................................................................................................................................54
4.4.2 Requirements for Concrete-Agitating Delivery Equipment.........................................................54
4.5 Placing and Handling Equipment..........................................................................................................54
4.6 Batching and Mixing Operations...........................................................................................................54
4.6.1 General..........................................................................................................................................54
4.6.2 Batching of Aggregates.................................................................................................................54
4.6.3 Batching of Cement.......................................................................................................................57
4.6.4 Batching of Water..........................................................................................................................57
4.6.5 Batching of Admixtures................................................................................................................57
4.6.6 Mixing of Concrete.......................................................................................................................57
4.6.6.1 General............................................................................................................................57
4.6.6.2 Methods of Concrete Mixing..........................................................................................58
4.6.6.3 Mixing Time and Concrete Uniformity..........................................................................58
4.6.6.4 Mixing Time – Stationary Mixers...................................................................................58
4.6.6.5 Mixing Time – Shrink Mixing........................................................................................58
4.6.6.6 Mixing Time – Truck Mixing.........................................................................................58
4.6.6.7 Special Batching and Mixing Requirements for Lightweight Aggregates.....................58
4.6.6.8 Cold-Weather Mixing......................................................................................................58
4.6.6.9 Hot-Weather Mixing.......................................................................................................59
4.7 Requirements for Transporting and Placing of Concrete......................................................................59
4.7.1 General..........................................................................................................................................59
4.7.2 Transporting and Placing Concrete...............................................................................................59
4.7.3 Preventing Aggregate Segregation................................................................................................59
4.7.4 Preparation of the Form/Mold.......................................................................................................59
4.7.5 Placing Concrete under Severe-Weather Conditions....................................................................59
4.7.6 Placing Concrete in Wet and Rainy Conditions............................................................................59
4.7.7 Placing Concrete in Hot or Windy Conditions.............................................................................59
4.7.8 Placing Concrete in Cold-Weather Conditions.............................................................................60
4.7.9 Placing Facing Concrete...............................................................................................................60
4.7.10 Placing Backup Concrete............................................................................................................60
4.8 Consolidation of Concrete......................................................................................................................60
4.8.1 General..........................................................................................................................................60
4.8.2 Consolidation of Lightweight Concrete........................................................................................60
4.8.3 Consolidation of Face and Backup Mixtures................................................................................60
4.8.4 Use of Internal Vibrators...............................................................................................................60
4.8.5 Use of External Form Vibrators....................................................................................................61
4.8.6 Use of Surface Vibrators...............................................................................................................61
4.8.7 Use of Vibrating Tables.................................................................................................................61
4.9 Requirements for Curing Concrete........................................................................................................61
4.9.1 General..........................................................................................................................................61
4.9.2 Curing Temperature Requirements...............................................................................................61
4.9.3 Curing to Attain Specified Stripping or Release Strength............................................................62
4.9.4 Monitoring of Concrete Curing Temperatures..............................................................................62
4.10 Accelerated Curing of Concrete.............................................................................................................62
4.10.1 General........................................................................................................................................62
4.10.2 Curing with Live Steam..............................................................................................................63
4.10.3 Curing with Radiant Heat and Moisture.....................................................................................63
4.11 Curing by Moisture Retention without Supplemental Heat..................................................................63
4.11.1 General........................................................................................................................................63
4.11.2 Moisture Retention Enclosures...................................................................................................64
4.11.3 Curing with Membrane Curing Compound................................................................................64
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION III
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 5
Reinforcement and Prestressing........................................................................................................... 69 – 93
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................69
5.1 Reinforcing Steel....................................................................................................................................69
5.1.1 General..........................................................................................................................................69
5.1.2 Storage of Reinforcing Steel.........................................................................................................70
5.1.3 Fabrication of Reinforcing Steel...................................................................................................71
5.1.4 Installation of Reinforcing Steel...................................................................................................72
5.2 Tensioning .............................................................................................................................................72
5.2.1 General Tensioning Requirements................................................................................................72
5.2.2 Tensioning of Tendons..................................................................................................................73
5.2.3 Methods of Force Measurement...................................................................................................74
5.2.4 Gauging Systems...........................................................................................................................74
5.2.5 Control of Jacking Force...............................................................................................................75
5.2.6 Wire Failure in Strands or Tendons...............................................................................................76
5.2.7 Calibration Records for Jacking Equipment.................................................................................76
5.3 Pretensioning..........................................................................................................................................76
5.3.1 Storage of Prestressing Steel.........................................................................................................76
5.3.2 General..........................................................................................................................................77
5.3.3 Strand Surfaces..............................................................................................................................77
5.3.4 Stringing of Strands.......................................................................................................................77
5.3.5 Strand Chucks and Splice Chucks................................................................................................77
5.3.6 Strand Splices................................................................................................................................78
5.3.7 Strand Position..............................................................................................................................78
5.3.8 Spacing of Strands.........................................................................................................................78
5.3.9 Initial Tensioning...........................................................................................................................78
5.3.10 Measurement of Elongation........................................................................................................79
5.3.11 Elongation Calculation and Corrections.....................................................................................79
5.3.12 Force Corrections........................................................................................................................83
5.3.13 Final Tensioning of Straight Strands...........................................................................................83
5.3.14 Final Tensioning of Harped Strands............................................................................................83
5.3.15 Equal Distribution of Force in Harped Strands...........................................................................83
5.3.16 Strand Debonding........................................................................................................................84
5.3.17 Detensioning...............................................................................................................................84
5.3.18 Detensioning of Harped Strand...................................................................................................85
5.3.19 Detensioning of Dry-Cast, Machine-Cast Products....................................................................85
5.3.20 Protection of Strand Ends and Anchorages.................................................................................86
5.4 Post-Tensioning of Plant-Produced Products.........................................................................................86
5.4.1 General..........................................................................................................................................86
5.4.2 Details and Positions for Ducts.....................................................................................................87
5.4.3 Friction in Ducts............................................................................................................................87
5.4.4 Tensioning.....................................................................................................................................87
5.4.5 Anchorages....................................................................................................................................87
5.4.6 Grouting........................................................................................................................................88
5.4.7 Sealing of Anchorages...................................................................................................................88
Chapter 6
Quality Control..................................................................................................................................... 95 – 106
6.1. Inspection...............................................................................................................................................95
6.1.1 Necessity for Inspection................................................................................................................95
6.1.2 Scope of Inspection.......................................................................................................................95
6.1.3 Prepour Inspection........................................................................................................................96
6.1.4 Post-Pour Inspection.....................................................................................................................97
6.2 Testing....................................................................................................................................................99
6.2.1 General..........................................................................................................................................99
6.2.2 Acceptance Testing of Materials...................................................................................................99
6.2.3 Production Testing.......................................................................................................................100
IV QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.3 Records.................................................................................................................................................102
6.3.1 Record Keeping...........................................................................................................................102
6.3.2 Suppliers' Test Reports................................................................................................................103
6.3.3 Tensioning Records.....................................................................................................................103
6.3.4 Concrete Records........................................................................................................................103
6.3.5 Calibration Records for Equipment............................................................................................103
6.3.6 Inspection Reports.......................................................................................................................103
6.4 Laboratory Facilities............................................................................................................................103
6.4.1 General........................................................................................................................................103
6.4.2 Quality Control Testing Equipment............................................................................................103
6.4.3 Test Equipment Operating Instructions.......................................................................................104
Review Questions............................................................................................................................................105
Chapter 7
Product Tolerances............................................................................................................................. 107 – 110
7.1 Requirements for Finished Product......................................................................................................107
7.1.1 General........................................................................................................................................107
7.1.2 Product Tolerances......................................................................................................................108
Review Questions............................................................................................................................................110
Appendix A Reference Literature............................................................................................................................. A-1 – A-5

Appendix B Slump-Flow Test and Visual Stability Index (VSI) Test Method........................................................ B-1 – B-3
Appendix C Sample Record Forms.......................................................................................................................... C-1 – C-9
Appendix D Answers to Review Questions............................................................................................................ D-1 – D-16
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION V
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FOREWORD / DEDICATION
Foreword
This is the fourth edition of the Quality Control Technician/Inspector Level I & II Training Manual published by the Precast/
Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) and known as TM-101. The first edition was published in 1987. It was the initial baseline
for training for the original personnel certification program for plant quality control personnel, which was called the Technician/
Inspector Certification Program. Personnel certification began in 1984, with the first Level I Certification awarded at the begin-
ning of 1985.
Members of the PCI Personnel Training and Certification Committee wrote this manual and members of the Quality Personnel
Training Committee edited the fourth edition. Committee members writing the original manual and editing subsequent editions
were:
Kevin Anderson* Edwin A. McDougle*
Jason Blase* Alex Morales, M.Ed.**
David G. Buesing* Gary E. Oakes
Patrick Carlin, PE** Michael Paris, PE**
T. Henry Clark* Joseph M. Roche*
Mostafa M Gad Alla, Sr.** Dino J. Scalia
Venkatesh S. Iyer* Keith Wallis*
David S. Jablonsky* Gary N. Wildung,* chair
Ordean F. Johnson, chair* Brian R. Williamson*
Brian Lee Lawrence Mike Wolff**
*
Member of the original Revision Committee
**
Member of the second Revision Committee
Dedication
This manual is dedicated to Dino Scalia, who died suddenly in 2001. Dino was the first chair of the Personnel Training and
Certification Committee and was the driving force behind the original Quality Control Technician/Inspector Certification Pro-
gram. He was an active participant and a motivator for our committee, and his contributions to this manual were invaluable. He
will be missed.
VI QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction PCI Certification Programs
TM-101, Fourth Edition PCI has three certification programs:
• Plant Certification
Layout and organization of this manual • Plant Quality Personnel Certification
• Erector Qualification & Certification
This training manual is intended to assist persons as they
work to understand and implement the requirements of the
Plant certification began in 1967 with 36 U.S. plants certified in
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) Plant Certifi-
one general category. At the time of publication of this edition of
cation Quality Control Programs. Those requirements are
TM-101, there were approximately 280 precasting plants certified
defined by standards and explained by commentary in the
by PCI in the Untied States, Canada, and Mexico.
plant quality control manuals PCI MNL-117, Manual for
PCI Plant Certification is available in four different product
Quality Control for Plants and Production of Architectural
groups:
Precast Concrete Products, and PCI MNL-116, Manual for
Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Pre-
Group A – Architectural Products*
cast Concrete Products. This training manual is designed to
Group B – Bridge Products
explain how to implement the requirements of the plant qual-
Group C – Commercial Products
ity control programs and further explain what they mean.
Group G – Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (GFRC)
This manual is also designed as a self-study guide for per-
Products
sons preparing to take the Level I and Level II Plant Quality *
ubgroups BA and CA address bridge and commercial products with architectural
S
Personnel Certification examinations. finishes, respectively
• Level I Certification covers basic material that should A more complete description of all groups and categories is
be understood by all quality control personnel. available from PCI.
• Level II Certification covers Level I material and also The mandatory requirements for PCI Plant Certification are
more advanced concepts that should be understood by contained in separate manuals:
experienced quality control personnel, especially those
at structural plants. All of the information tested exclu- • Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production
sively at Level II is identified throughout this text by of Structural Precast Concrete Products, PCI MNL-116
double lines to the right of the text (as shown here). • Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of
Architectural Precast Concrete Products, PCI MNL-117
Review questions are included at the end of each chapter to • Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production
assist in understanding the material and preparing for both of of Glass-Fiber-Rein-forced Concrete Products, PCI
the certification examinations. These questions are identified MNL-130
for Level I and Level II. Answers and solutions to all of the
review questions are in Appendix D. This training manual relates to the requirements contained
in the structural (MNL-116) and architectural (MNL-117)
NEW FOR THE FOURTH EDITION quality control manuals only. The production and quality con-
trol of GFRC, which is covered in PCI MNL-130, is beyond
In this latest edition of TM-101, this training manual aligns
the scope of this manual.
itself with the updated plant certification manuals, MNL-116
Training of quality control personnel employed by or work-
and MNL-117. The chapter and section numbers in this text
ing with precasting plants has always been an important part
match the chapter and section numbers in the plant certifica-
of the PCI Plant Certification Program. PCI member plants
tion manuals.
are required to employ at least one person at the plant who is
certified by the Plant Quality Personnel Certification Program.
In addition Level I and Level II personnel certification
requirements align with the various PCI plant certification
• For plants that do not prestress, at least one individual
categories that require training. We have reorganized the
performing quality control functions shall be certified
material that is classified Level I and Level II, moving all of
as Level I in the PCI Plant Quality Personnel Certifica-
the prestressing information in Chapter 5 of this manual into
tion (PQPC) program.
Level II. As a result, you will not find any prestressing calcu-
• For plants that prestress, at least one individual per-
lations or definitions on any Level I exam.
forming quality control functions shall be certified as
Level II in the PQPC program.
This does not change any current PCI certification - if you
• At least one individual involved in the testing of fresh
are already Level I certified, then you are still a qualified PCI
concrete (or directing such tests) shall maintain a cur-
Level I Quality Control Technician. Level I technicians are
rent ACI Concrete Field Testing Technician, Grade I
still required to understand concrete and conventional rein-
Certification or approved equivalent certification.
forcement. We will add prestressing at Level II.
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION VII
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INTRODUCTION
Plant Quality Personnel Certification Field Certification

This program began in 1985 when PCI created the Techni- PCI's field certification program began in 1999 and has
cian/Inspector Certification Program, with one level of cer- grown to a program that certifies the capability of precast con-
tification. A second level of certification was added in 1987, crete erectors. Each member company must have all of its pri-
and Level III certification was added in 1995. This manual is mary erection crews audited twice a year by a PCI-Certified
for Levels I and II certifications only. The training manual for Field Auditor. A PCI-Certified Company Auditor also audits
Level III is a separate document, TM-103. each company’s quality and safety records once a year. Con-
A detailed listing of requirements for PCI Plant Quality tact PCI for more information about this program.
Personnel Certification is contained in section 28 of the PCI
Policies and Procedures Manual. The following is a summary
of some of the requirements.
• Level I requires a candidate to have at least six months

of experience in a precasting plant, pass a timed exami-
nation with a score of 70% or higher, and be certified
by ACI as a Field Testing Technician, Grade I. Certifi-
cation is valid for five years from the date of the PCI
Level I Certification examination.
• Level II requires a candidate to have at least one year
of experience in a precasting plant, pass a timed exami-
nation with a score of 70% or higher, hold a current
PCI Level I Certification, and be certified by ACI as a
Field Testing Technician, Grade I. Certification is valid
for five years from the date of the PCI Level II Certifi-
cation examination.
• Level III requires a candidate to have at least two
years experience in a precasting plant, attend a Level
III Training School, pass a timed examination with a
score of 70% or higher, and hold a current PCI Level
II Certification. Certification is valid for life, with re-
registration required every five years.
ACI Certification
The ACI Field Testing Technician Grade I Certifica-
tion must be obtained from an ACI local chapter or affiliate
organization. Some state departments of transportation and
other organizations have equivalent or similar programs that
may be acceptable. Certification requires passing a written
test and a practical field test covering the following ASTM
Standards:
• ASTM C31 Standard Practice for Making and Curing

Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
• ASTM C138 Standard Test Method for Density (Unit
Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of
Concrete
• ASTM C143 Standard Test Method for Slump of
Hydraulic-Cement Concrete
• ASTM C172 Standard Method of Sampling Freshly
Mixed Concrete
• ASTM C173 Standard Test Method for Air Content of
Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method
• ASTM C231 Standard Test Method for Air Content of
Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
• ASTM C1064 Standard Test Method for Temperature
of Freshly Mixed Hydraulic-Cement Concrete
VIII QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
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DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS
Abutment – A stationary anchorage system that is inde- Assembly Drawings – See Hardware Details.
pendent of bed or casting mold, used to withstand tensioning
loads with various strand patterns; the structure against which Backup Mixture – The concrete cast into the mold after the
the tendons are stressed and anchored. face mixture has been placed and consolidated.
Accelerated Curing – The intentional addition of heat to Bed – Usually a permanent part of the plant infrastructure
the concrete environment to expedite curing. For the sys- that may include abutments for prestressing and a form for
tems described in this manual, all curing is at atmospheric casting.
pressure.
Bleed Water – The water that rises to the surface of freshly
Admixture – A material other than water, aggregates, placed conventional or self-consolidating concrete.
hydraulic cement, and fiber reinforcement used as an ingredi-
ent in concrete, mortar, or grout and added to the batch imme- Blocking – (1) Materials used for keeping concrete ele-
diately before or during its mixing to modify the properties of ments from touching each other or other materials during stor-
the fresh or hardened concrete. age and transportation. (2) The condition in which pieces of
coarse aggregate combine to form elements large enough to
Aggregate – Granular material, such as sand, gravel, and obstruct the flow of the fresh concrete between the reinforcing
crushed stone, used with a cementing medium to form a steel or other obstructions in the concrete formwork.
hydraulic-cement concrete or mortar.
Bond Breaker – A substance placed on a material to pre-
Aggregate Aspect Ratio – The ratio of length to width vent it from bonding to the concrete or between a face mate-
of individual pieces of coarse aggregate. This ratio some- rial, such as natural stone, and the concrete backup.
times affects the characteristics of conventional and self-
consolidating concretes. Bonded Tendon – Prestressing tendon that is bonded
to concrete either directly or through end anchorage and
Aggregate, Structural Lightweight – Aggregate with a grouting.
dry, loose density of 70 lb/ft3 (1120 kg/m3) or less.
Bonding Agent – A substance used to increase the bond
Air-Entraining Admixture – A chemical added to the con- between an existing piece of concrete and a subsequent appli-
crete for the purpose of providing minute bubbles of air (gen- cation of concrete, such as a patch.
erally smaller than 1 mm) in the concrete during mixing to
improve the durability of concrete exposed to cyclical freez- Bowing – An overall out-of-planeness condition where two
ing and thawing in the presence of moisture. parallel edges of the panel are in the same plane and the por-
tion of the panel between the edges is out of plane.
Ambient Temperature – The temperature of the air sur-
rounding the forms and molds into which concrete is to be Bull Float – A tool comprising a large, flat, rectangu-
cast, or of the air surrounding an element during casting. lar piece of wood, aluminum, or magnesium that is usu-
ally 8 in. (200 mm) wide and 42 in. (1070 mm) to 60 in.
Anchorage – The means by which the prestressing force (1520 mm) long, and that has a handle 4 ft (1220 mm) to
is permanently transmitted from the prestressing steel to the 16 ft (4880 mm) in length used to smooth the unformed sur-
concrete. In post-tensioning applications, a mechanical device faces of freshly placed concrete.
comprising all components required to anchor the prestressing
steel and transmit the prestressing force to the concrete. Bugholes – Small holes on formed concrete surfaces
formed by air or water bubbles, sometimes called blowholes.
Architectural Precast Concrete – A precast concrete
product with a specified standard of uniform appearance, sur- Bundled Strand – Strands that are grouped together in a
face details, color, and texture. Tolerances for architectural bundle to concentrate the prestressing force. Bundled strand
precast concrete products are generally more stringent than are in contact with each other and must be splayed out to the
for structural products. end of the member to allow bond to develop with each strand
from the end to the bundle point.
Architectural Precast Concrete Trim Units – Wet-cast
concrete products with a high standard of finish quality and Bundling – The practice of placing several parallel ele-
of relatively small size that can be installed with equipment of ments of reinforcement in contact with each other.
limited capacity. Includes units such as sills, lintels, coping,
cornices, quoins, medallions, bollards, benches, planters, and
pavers.
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION IX
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DEFINITIONS
Calibration – The testing of a system by loading to deter- Curing – The maintenance of humidity and temperature of
mine accuracy as checked against a National Bureau of Stan- freshly placed concrete during some defined period follow-
dards certified load cell or proving ring. ing placing, casting, or finishing to ensure satisfactory hydra-
Camber – The deflection that occurs in prestressed concrete tion of the cementitious materials and proper hardening of the
elements due to the net bending resulting from application of concrete; where the curing temperature remains in the normal
a prestressing force (not including dimensional inaccuracies). environmental range (generally between 50 ºF [10 ºC] and
90 ºF [32 ºC]), use the term normal curing; where the curing
Certification – Assurance by a competent third-party orga- temperature is increased to a higher range (generally between
nization, operating with objective criteria and that is not sub- 90 ºF [32 ºC] and 150 ºF [66 ºC], use the term accelerated
ject to undue influences from the manufacturer or purchaser or curing.
to financial considerations, that elements are consistently pro-
duced in conformity with specification. It not only proclaims Deflected Strand – Strand that is deflected from a straight-
compliance of a product with a specification, but also that line position in a member to enhance the moment-resisting
the manufacturer’s quality control arrangements have been capacity of the member. Deflected strand may be spaced apart
approved and that a continuing audit is carried out. or bundled together. If bundled at a point, the strand must
be splayed out from the bundle to the end of the member to
Clearance – Interface space (distance) between two items. develop bond on each strand.
Clearance is normally specified to allow for the effects of
product and erection tolerances and for anticipated movement, Detensioning of Strand or Wire – The transfer of strand or
such as deflection, volume-change movement, and the like. wire tension from the bed anchorage to the concrete.
Clear Distance – The least distance between the surface of Detensioning Strength – The strength of the concrete
the reinforcement and the referenced surface. The referenced cast on a particular line at the time the prestressing force is
surface may be the form, adjacent reinforcement, embed- transferred.
ments, concrete surface, or other surfaces.
Dimensions – The following are several different catego-
Coarse Aggregate – Aggregate predominately retained on ries of dimensions relevant to precast concrete fabrication.
the U.S. Standard no. 4 sieve; that portion of an aggregate Actual dimensions – The measured dimensions of the pre-
retained on the no. 4 sieve. cast concrete member after casting.
Basic dimensions – The dimensions shown on the contract
Compaction – The process whereby the volume of the con- drawings or called for in the specifications; also called the
crete is reduced to the minimum practical space by the reduc- nominal dimension.
tion of voids usually obtained through vibration, tamping, or Working dimensions – The planned dimension of the precast
a combination of both. concrete member obtained from its basic dimensions, joint or
clearance dimensions, and other adjustments. For example, a
Connection – Device for the attachment of precast concrete double-tee with a basic dimension of 8 ft 0 in. (2438 mm)
units to each other, to the building, or to the structure. and a joint width of 1 in. (25 mm) on both sides would have a
working dimension of 7 ft 11 in. (2413 mm).
Consolidation – The process of inducing a closer arrange-
ment of the solid particles in freshly mixed concrete or mor- Draft – The taper given to features of a mold or form to
tar during placement by vibration, centrifugation, rodding, allow the precast concrete piece to be removed from the mold
tamping, or some combination of these actions. In self- or form without damage.
consolidating concrete, consolidation occurs by gravity flow
of the material. Dry-Mix Concrete – Concrete designed with low water-
cement ratios and slumps; often referred to as zero slump con-
Cover – The distance between the surface of the reinforce- crete.
ment and the nearest concrete surface.
Dunnage – Materials used for keeping concrete elements
Covermeter – See R-meter. from touching each other or other materials during storage
and transportation.
Crazing – A network of visible, fine, hairline cracks in ran-
dom directions breaking the exposed face of a panel into areas Dynamometer – A device that will measure the tension
ranging from 1/4 in. to 3 in. (6 mm to 75 mm) across. applied to it when connected between two tensile forces.
Creep – The time-dependent dimensional change, usually Elastic Shortening – The shortening of a member that
shortening or camber change, that takes place as a result of occurs immediately after the application of the prestressing
sustained compression loading and for prestress force on con- force.
crete elements.
X QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
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DEFINITIONS
Elongation – Increase in length of the prestressing steel Grout – A mixture of cementitious materials and water,
(strand) under the applied prestressing force. with or without sand or admixtures.
Erection Drawings – Drawings that show the relationship Hardware – Items used in connecting precast con-
of the precast concrete members and their connections in the crete units or attaching or accommodating adjacent materi-
erected structure and provide information necessary to prop- als or equipment. Hardware is normally divided into three
erly erect and connect the various members. categories:
Contractor’s hardware – Items to be placed on or in the
Exposed-Aggregate Concrete – Concrete manufactured structure in order to receive the precast concrete units, such as
so that the aggregate protrudes from the face of the member. anchor bolts, angles, or plates with suitable anchors.
Plant hardware – Items to be embedded in the concrete units
Face Mixture – The concrete at the exposed face of a unit themselves, either for connections and precast concrete erec-
used for specific appearance purposes. tor’s work, or for other trades, such as mechanical, plumbing,
glazing, miscellaneous iron, masonry, or roofing trades.
Fine Aggregate – Aggregate passing the 3/8 in. (10 mm) Erection hardware – All loose hardware necessary for the
sieve and almost entirely passing the no. 4 sieve and pre- installation of the precast concrete units.
dominately retained on the no. 200 sieve; or that portion of an
aggregate passing the no. 4 sieve and predominately retained Hardware Details – Drawings that are used for the fabri-
on the no. 200 sieve. cation or procurement of hardware that is used either in the
production of the precast concrete member or in its erection
Fineness Modulus – See Section 6.2.3 of this training and connection; also called assembly drawings.
manual.
Harped Strand – Strand partially tensioned in the lowest
Flatness – The degree to which a surface approximates a position along the length of the member and subsequently
plane; see Smoothness. lifted or harped at the ends of a member to enhance the
moment capacity at the center of the member. This can reduce
Flowability – The ability of fresh concrete to flow in a the applied stresses at the end of the member by reducing the
confined or unconfined form of any shape, reinforced or not, total amount of prestress necessary to resist the applied load.
under gravity and/or external forces and assuming the shape
of its container. Heat of Hydration – Heat generated by the chemical reac-
tion of the cementious materials and water in the concrete.
Fly Ash – A finely divided residue with pozzolanic proper-
ties that results from the combustion of ground or powdered High-Range Water-Reducing Admixture – An additive to
coal and is transported by flue gasses. the concrete that is capable of producing large water reduction
or great flowability without undue set retardation and without
Form – The container or surface against which fresh con- requiring the addition of water.
crete is cast to give it a desired shape; sometimes used inter-
changeably with mold. (The term mold is used in this manual Homogeneous Mixture – A uniform concrete used
for custom‑made forms for specific jobs, while form is used throughout a precast concrete element.
for standard forms or forms of standard cross section.)
Honeycomb – Stony or void areas in concrete due to
Formed Surface – A concrete surface that has been cast incomplete consolidation or paste leakage from the form; may
against a formwork. vary in size from small to large.
Form-Release Agent – A substance applied to the form or Initial Prestress – The stress (force) in the prestressing ten-
mold for the purpose of preventing bond between the form or don immediately after transferring the prestressing force to
mold and the concrete placed in it. the concrete.
Friction Loss – In post-tensioning applications, the stress Initial Set – The point at which the concrete mixture
(force) loss in a prestressing tendon resulting from friction reaches a strength of 500 psi. (3.45 MPa) as determined by
created between the strand and sheathing due to curvature or ASTM C403; see Preset Time.
wobble in the tendon profile during stressing.
Initial Strand Slippage – Slippage of strand into concrete
Gap-Graded Concrete – A mixture with one or a range at ends of products when the bed is initially detensioned.
of normal aggregate sizes eliminated, and/or with a heavier
concentration of certain aggregate sizes over and above stan- Jacking Force – The maximum temporary force exerted
dard gradation limits. It is used to obtain a specific exposed- by the jack while introducing the prestressing force into the
aggregate finish. strand.
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION XI
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DEFINITIONS
Jaws –See Wedges. Master Gauge – A pressure gauge that has a minimum
diameter of 8 in. and is calibrated every six months, used to
Jig – A template or device to align parts of an assembly, check and/or monitor production gauges.
usually for preassembling reinforcing steel and hardware Master Mold – A mold that allows a maximum number of
cages, with a minimum of measurement to attain consistent casts per project; units cast in such molds need not be identi-
accuracy from one cage to the next. cal, provided the changes in the units can be simply accom-
plished as pre-engineered mold modifications.
J-Ring Test – Test used to determine the passing ability of
self-consolidating concrete, or the degree to which the passage Matrix – The portion of the concrete containing only the
of concrete through the bars of the J-ring apparatus is restricted. cement and fine aggregates.
K-Test – Test of filling ability using a box shaped like the Metakaolin – Mineral admixture sometimes used to
bottom half of a concrete I-girder, with a series of obstacles increase the powder content of concrete; also used to reduce
simulating reinforcing bars or prestressing strands. The side efflorescence.
of the box is made of acrylic glass to allow visual assessment
of filling ability. Miter – An edge that has been beveled to an angle other
than 90 degrees.
Laitance – Residue of weak and non-durable material con-
sisting of cement, fine aggregate, or impurities brought to the Modulus of Elasticity – Ratio of normal stress to corre-
surface of fresh concrete by bleed water. sponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses within the
elastic limit of the material.
L-Box Test – Test of horizontal and confined flowability of
self-consolidating concrete. Mold – The container or surface against which fresh con-
crete is cast to give it a desired shape; sometimes used inter-
Lifting Frame (or beam) – A rigging device designed to changeably with form. (The term mold is used in this manual
provide two or more lifting points of a precast concrete ele- for custom‑made forms for specific jobs, while form is used
ment with a predictable load distribution and prearranged for standard forms or forms of standard cross section.)
direction of pulling force during lifting.
Mortar Halo – A concentration of mortar that can form at
Lightweight Structural Concrete – Structural concrete the perimeter of the slump-flow patty. The width of this halo
made with lightweight aggregate with an air-dry density of is one of the parameters evaluated in the visual stability index
the concrete in the range of 90 lb/ft3 (1440 kg/m3) to 115 lb/ft3 test used to judge the stability of fresh self-consolidating
(1840 kg/m3) and a 28-day compressive strength of more than concretes.
2500 psi. (17 MPa).
Pattern or Positive – A replica of all or part of the precast
Load Cell – Sensitive, electrically operated strain gauges concrete element sometimes used for forming the molds in
attached to a calibrated cell to provide direct readings of com- concrete or plastic.
pressive loads applied to the cell.
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking – Short cracks, often varying
Loss of Prestress – The reduction of the prestressing force in width along their length, that occur in the surface of fresh
resulting from the combined effects of the prestressing steel, concrete soon after it is placed and while it is still plastic.
creep and shrinkage in the concrete, and elastic deformation.
Post-Tensioning – A method of prestressing concrete
Low-Relaxation Strand – Strand produced in accordance whereby the tendon is kept from bonding to the fresh (wet)
with ASTM A416 (supplement) that has relaxation loss lim- concrete, then elongated and anchored directly against the
ited by its method of manufacture. hardened concrete, imparting stresses through end bearing.
Post-tensioning tendons can either be unbonded (in a grease-
Lubricate – To coat with a substance for the purpose of filled sleeve) or bonded (encased in a duct that is grouted after
decreasing friction. the tendon is stressed).
Machine-Cast Products – Products cast by one or more Precast Specialty Engineer – The person or firm who
machines specifically designed for the purpose. Slipform and designs precast concrete members for specified loads and who
extrusion machines are types of equipment used to make solid may also direct the preparation of the precast concrete shop
or hollow-core slabs. drawings.
Mark Number – The individual identifying mark assigned Preset Time – The time after mixing required to reach ini-
to each precast concrete unit, designating its position in the tial set (500 psi. [3.45 MPa]); see Initial Set.
building.
XII QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
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DEFINITIONS
Pretensioning – A method of prestressing concrete Reveal – Groove in a panel face generally used to create
whereby the tendons are elongated and then anchored before a desired architectural effect; the depth of exposure of the
the concrete in the member is cast around the tendons. The coarse aggregate in the matrix after production of an exposed-
tendons are then released when the concrete is strong enough aggregate finish.
to receive the forces transferred from the tendon to the cured
concrete through bond. Once the prestress force is transferred R-Meter – An electronic device used to locate and deter-
to the concrete member, the member will shorten and possibly mine the size of reinforcement in hardened concrete.
camber.
Rustication – A groove in a panel face for architectural
Production Drawings – A set of instructions in the form of appearance; see also Reveal.
diagrams and text that contains all of the information neces-
sary for the manufacturer to produce the unit. Sandwich Wall Panel – A prefabricated panel, which is a
layered composite, formed by attaching two wythes or skins
Proving Ring – An elastic, alloy-steel ring used to calibrate of concrete separated by an insulating core.
or measure loads. A dial indicator inside the ring measures
deflection under load, and calibration curves enable direct Scabbing – A finish defect in which parts of the form face,
determination of the load. Standard high-capacity rings, certi- including release agent, adhere to the concrete. Some prob-
fied by the National Bureau of Standards and accurate to 0.1 able causes are an excessively rough form face, inadequate
of 1%, are used to calibrate mechanical-force-measuring sys- application of release agent, or delayed stripping.
tems.
Scouring – Irregular, eroded areas or channels with exposed
Quality – The appearance, strength, and durability that is stone or sand particles. Some probable causes of this finish
appropriate for the specified product, its particular applica- defect are excessively wet concrete, insufficient fines, water in
tion, and its expected performance requirements. The totality the form when placing the concrete, poor vibration practices,
of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its and low temperature when placing the concrete.
ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
Sealer – A clear chemical compound that may be applied
Quality Assurance – All those planned or systematic to the surface of precast concrete units for the purpose of
actions necessary to ensure that the final product or service improving weathering qualities or reducing water.
will satisfy given requirements for quality and perform its
intended function. Segregation – The tendency for the coarse particles to sep-
arate from the finer particles during handling. In concrete, the
Quality Control – Those actions related to the physical coarse aggregate and drier materials remain behind and the
characteristics of the materials, processes, and services, which mortar and wetter material flow ahead. This can also occur
provide a means to measure and control the characteristics of in a vertical direction when wet concrete is over-vibrated or
manufactured elements to predetermined, quantitative criteria. dropped vertically into the forms, the mortar and wetter mate-
rial rise to the top. In aggregate, the coarse particles roll to the
Quality System Manual – A plant-specific manual docu- outside edges of the stockpile.
menting every item of the quality assurance program. It must
conform to the PCI guidelines for its development. Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC) – A highly workable
concrete that can flow through densely reinforced or geomet-
Quirk Miter – A corner formed by two chamfered mem- rically complex structural elements under its own weight and
bers to eliminate sharp corners and ease alignment. adequately fill voids without segregation or excessive bleed-
ing and without the need for vibration.
Relaxation – The loss of stress in a prestressed steel strand
that occurs over time due to the realignment of the steel prop- Self-Stressing Form – A form provided with suitable end
erties while the strand is under stress. bulkheads and sufficient cross-sectional strength to resist the
total prestressing force.
Retarder – An admixture that delays the setting of cement
paste and, therefore, of concrete. Settlement – The condition in which the aggregates in self-
consolidating concrete tend to sink to the bottom of the form,
Retempering – The addition of water or admixture and resulting in non-homogeneous concrete.
remixing of concrete that has started to stiffen in order to
make it more workable. Setup – The process of preparing molds or forms for cast-
ing, including installation of materials (reinforcement and
Return – A projection that angles away from the main face hardware) prior to the actual placing of concrete.
of plane of view.
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION XIII
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DEFINITIONS
Sheathing – A covering that forms an enclosure around Strand Anchor – A device for holding a strand under ten-
the prestressing steel to avoid temporary or permanent bond sion, sometimes called a strand chuck or vise.
between the prestressing steel and the surrounding concrete.
Strand Chuck – A device for holding a strand under ten-
Shop Drawings – Collective term used for erection draw- sion, generally consisting of a barrel, grooved jaws with an
ings, production drawings, and hardware details; diagrams O-ring pulling them together, and a spring-equipped cap.
of precast concrete members and their connecting hardware,
developed from information in the contract documents. They Strand Seating – The amount of movement by a tensioned
show information needed for both field assembly (erection) strand into an anchorage chuck and its jaws as it is released
and manufacture (production) of the precast concrete units. from a tensioning ram and seated into the chuck under loading
from initial to final tension.
Shrinkage – The volume change in precast concrete units
caused by drying, normally occurring during the hardening Strand Slippage – Slippage of strand into the end of the
process of concrete. product due to loss of bond with concrete.
Silica Fume – A fine, pozzolanic material composed mostly Strand Splice – A mechanical method of connecting
of amorphous silica; a byproduct of the production of elemen- two lengths of strand together that will sustain the breaking
tal silicone or ferrosilica alloys. This fine, inorganic material strength of the strand.
can be added to concrete to modify its mechanical and flowing
properties. Strand Stressing – Applying a specified force to a strand
or tendon measured with a gauge and confirmed by measuring
Slump Flow – Test method used to measure the unconfined the strand elongation.
flow and judge the stability of self-consolidating concrete.
Strand Stringing – Installation of strands in a bed through
Slump-Flow Spread – The numerical value in inches the abutments and headers.
of flow determined as the average diameter of the circular
deposit of self-consolidating concrete at the conclusion of the Stripping – The process of removing a precast concrete
slump-flow test. element from the form in which it was cast.
Smoothness – The absence of local irregularity or roughness. Strongback (Stiffback) – A steel or wooden member
attached to a panel for the purpose of adding stiffness during
Specially Finished Structural Precast Concrete – A handling, shipping, and erection.
product fabricated using forms and techniques common to
the production of structural elements and defined in PCI’s Structural Precast Concrete – Precast concrete mem-
MNL-116, and having specified surface finishes that require bers that are intended to support external structural loads
uniformity and detailing more demanding than the require- in addition to their own weight. They are fabricated using
ments of MNL-116. These surface-finish requirements should methods that are optimized to economically produce mem-
be clearly specified and the ability to attain them should be bers with specified structural properties. Appearance require-
verified with appropriate samples and mock-ups. ments for these members are secondary to their structural
requirements.
Spreader Beam – A frame of steel channels or beams
attached to the back of a panel prior to stripping for the pur- Superplasticizer – See High-Range Water‑Reducing
pose of evenly distributing loads to inserts and for lifting the Admixture.
panel about its center of gravity.
Surface Retarder – A material used to retard or prevent the
Stability – The ability of self-consolidating concrete to hardening of the cement paste on a concrete surface to facili-
remain homogeneous in composition by resisting actions that tate removal of this paste after curing. This is primarily used
make the constituents separate from the mass during trans- to produce an exposed-aggregate finish.
port, placement, and after placement.
Sweep – A global variation in member horizontal align-
Stickiness – The property of concrete that causes it to ment. This can sometimes be caused by horizontally eccen-
adhere to finishing tools and other surfaces with which it tric prestress in narrow members or by temperature gradients
comes in contact. through the element section.
Strand – A group of wires laid helically over a central-core

wire. A seven-wire strand is made of six outer wires laid over
a single wire core.
XIV QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
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DEFINITIONS
Tendon – A high-strength steel element consisting of one Visual Stability Index (VSI) Rating – A test involving the
or more wires, strands, or bars, or a bundle of such elements, visual assessment of the slump-flow patty to evaluate several
used to impart prestressing forces to the concrete. In post- parameters as an indication of the stability of a self-consoli-
tensioning applications, it includes a complete assembly con- dating concrete.
sisting of anchorages, prestressing steel (strand), corrosion-
inhibiting coating, and sheathing. Warping – Twisting of a member, resulting in overall out-
of-plane curvature of surfaces characterized by non-parallel
Tolerance – Specified, permissible variations from stated edges.
requirements, such as dimensions, location, alignment,
strength, and air entrainment. Water to Cementitious Material Ratio (w/cm) – The
Product tolerances – those variations in dimensions relating ratio of the weight of free water in the concrete mixture to the
to individual precast concrete members. weight of cementitious material.
Erection tolerances – those variations in dimensions
required for acceptable matching of precast concrete mem- Wedge (Jaws) – Piece of tapered metal with teeth that
bers after erection. bites into the prestressing steel (strand) during transfer of the
Interfacing tolerances – those variations in dimensions prestressing force. The teeth are beveled to ensure gradual
associated with other materials in contact with or in close development of the tendon force over the length of the wedge.
proximity to precast concrete. These are standard internal portions of a strand chuck assem-
bly.
Transfer – The act of transferring stress (force) in pre-
stressing tendons from jacks or the pretensioning bed to the Wedge Set – The relative movement of the wedges into the
concrete member. anchorage cavity during the transfer of the prestressing force
to the anchorage.
Transfer Strength – The minimum concrete strength spec-
ified for the individual concrete elements before the prestress- Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) – The detailed
ing force may be transferred to them; also called detensioning methods and practices including all joint welding procedures
strength or release strength. involved in the production of a weldment.
U-Box Test – A U-shaped filling apparatus composed of Wet-Mix Concrete – Concrete designed for typical water-
two separate compartments used to measure the filling and cement ratios, slumps, and handling and consolidation
passing ability of self-consolidating concrete. methods.
Unbonded Tendon – A tendon in which the prestressing Workability – The ease with which a given set of materials
steel (strand) is prevented from bonding to the concrete. When can be mixed into concrete and subsequently handled, trans-
unbonded tendons are used, prestressing force is permanently ported, placed, and finished with a minimum loss of homo-
transferred to the concrete by only the anchorages. geneity.
Variation – The difference between the actual and the basic

dimension. Variations may be either negative (less) or positive
(greater).
Veneered Construction – The attachment of other materi-

als, such as natural stone or clay products, to a concrete panel.
V-Funnel – A consistency-testing device used to provide

a measurement of self-consolidating concrete flowability by
determining the time for a measured amount of concrete to
flow through a funnel of specific size and shape.
Viscosity – The measure of flowability of fresh concrete.
Viscosity-Modifying Admixture – A material that, when

added to concrete, changes the viscosity and improves the sta-
bility of the mixture at a constant fluidity.
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION XV
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QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
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QUALITY SYSTEM CHAPTER 1
Chapter 1 – Quality System 8. Proper positioning of all embedded items

9. Proper proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete
10. Proper handling, placing, consolidating, and finishing
1.1 Objective of concrete
Quality control is a process of inspection, testing, and mea- 11. Appropriately controlled concrete-curing procedures
surement that ensures that precast concrete members are pro- 12. Proper procedures for detensioning strands in preten-
duced in accordance with project requirements and specifica- sioned members
tions and plant standards. A plant’s quality assurance program 13. Proper stripping procedures
defines the quality control process. 14. Inspection for conformance with appearance standards
Product quality must be consistent with the requirements of and other dimensional requirements.
the established precaster’s contract and project specifications. 15. Implementation of appropriate correction of non-
Quality control inspection and testing must be applied con- conformance items
sistently and uniformly to all precast concrete manufacturing 16. Proper procedures for handling, storage, transporta-
operations. tion, and erection
A quality control program is the set of actions and proce- 17. Complete records of inspections, testing, and equip-
dures by which top management’s commitment to quality is ment calibration
implemented. The quality control program should be used as 1.2.1 General
a tool for management to monitor the quality of its products.
This program establishes a system of checks and balances for The PCI quality control manuals (MNL-116, MNL-117,
monitoring materials, operations, and products. Quality con- and MNL-130) require each plant to have a written plant
trol personnel are not directly involved in manufacturing the quality system manual (QSM). The QSM must clearly define
products. Both the quality control program and the quality specific production tasks and personnel responsibilities to
control personnel should be a normal part of plant operations. ensure uniformity in both plant operations and training for
all employees. Highly varied tasks subject to human error or
1.2 Plant Quality Assurance Program mistakes in judgment should be eliminated. The QSM should
require regular meetings between quality control and produc-
A quality assurance program includes the rules and pro- tion personnel to review information gathered during the qual-
cedures used to evaluate materials, procedures, and products ity control inspections. The goal is to identify and ensure the
for their conformance to plant and project standards. The PCI correction of improper production practices and equipment
quality control manuals establish a basic set of requirements that need repair in order to achieve the required standard of
for a plant’s quality assurance program. quality.
The following items, as a minimum, must be included in
Bridge and Commercial Products the plant QSM:
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of
Precast and Prestressed Concrete Products, PCI MNL-116 • Management commitment to quality
A quality assurance program is effective when
Architectural Concrete Products the management of the precasting plant is commit-
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of ted to providing its customers with a quality prod-
Architectural Precast Concrete Products, PCI MNL-117 uct. If plant management consistently demonstrates
its intention to manufacture quality products, plant
Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (GFRC) Products personnel will accept the quality assurance program
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of as a basic work requirement.
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Products, PCI MNL-130 A quality policy statement should focus and direct
the quality system toward definite goals, giving the
The following list summarizes some of the most important plant’s personnel the motivation to develop and con-
quality control items: sistently implement the system. To the customers, the
objectives are an expression to assure them that the
1. Commitment of management to quality and implemen- plant will provide products that meet their needs.
tation of a quality control program
2. Qualified personnel for all stages of design, produc- • Organizational structure and relationships, respon-
tion, and inspection sibilities, and qualifications of key personnel
3. Testing and inspection of all materials used To produce quality products, all personnel must
4. Accurate, clear, and complete shop drawings understand their responsibilities and their relation-
5. Monitoring product dimensions for specified tolerances ship within the entire plant team. This ensures that
6. Accurate strand-tensioning procedures for prestressed all requirements are met, and that each manufactur-
products ing activity is performed in proper sequence and
7. Correct size and positioning of reinforcing bars and according to accepted procedures.
prestressing steel • Management review of the quality assurance pro-
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION 1
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 1 10/2/14 11:02 AM

CHAPTER 1 QUALITY SYSTEM
gram at regular intervals and uniform interpretation of instructions for

The quality assurance program must be reviewed manufacturing and handling
at regular intervals, not exceeding one year. The Shop drawings that present essential data in a con-
review should ensure the continuing suitability and sistent manner will reduce the production and erec-
effectiveness of the program and should include tion time for the precast concrete product by limiting
appropriate consideration of non‑conformances, cor- the confusion and possible human errors associated
rective actions, and customer complaints. As new with interpreting the drawings.
products and processes are introduced, or old pro-
cesses do not yield satisfactory results, the program Procedures for circulation of project-specific
•
must be updated. requirements to production and quality control
personnel for review
• A plant layout that notes allocation of areas, ser-
Each project has special and unique requirements.
vices, machinery, and equipment in the plant
These requirements are defined by the project specifi-
facilities
cations and other contractual documents. Procedures
A drawing showing the plant layout defines the
should be established that ensure that relevant per-
relationship of facilities and equipment for proper
sonnel are aware of the specific project requirements.
and effective production planning.
Guide for Developing a Plant Quality System Man-
• Purchasing procedures for quality control com- ual is included in Appendices A of MNL-116 and
pliance that include project specification review MNL-117. This outline is a suggested format for a
for specific requirements QSM. Preparation Guidelines for a Quality Systems
All materials used in the manufacture of precast Manual, PCI MNL-111, is a separate manual describ-
concrete must conform to the project specifications. ing in detail how to write and use a QSM. The follow-
Those employees responsible for materials pur- ing outline is a summary of these requirements:
chased must be aware of the specifications relating
to that material and any additional requirements for I. Management Responsibility
testing, inspection, or certification of the materials. A. Quality policy statement
B. Organization and personnel
• Identification of training needs and provisions C. Management review of the quality assurance
for training personnel in quality assurance program
requirements II. Quality System
Adequate training in all procedures is neces- III. Document Control
sary for proper performance. Personnel cannot be IV. Purchasing
expected to build quality precast concrete products V. Product Identification and Traceability
without understanding the methods necessary to VI. Process Control
achieve the plant’s quality goals. VII. Inspection and Testing
A. Receiving inspection and testing
• Control, calibration, and maintenance of neces- B. In-process inspection and testing
sary inspection, measuring, and test apparatus C. Final inspection
All equipment must be in satisfactory condition D. Inspection and test records
and properly calibrated to function properly. Even if VIII. Inspection, Measuring, and Test Equipment
correct methods are used with faulty equipment, the IX. Inspection and Test Status
results of tests or inspections will be in error. This is X. Control of Nonconforming Products
necessary to ensure that quality products are deliv- XI. Corrective Action
ered to the customer. XII. Handling, Storage, and Loading/Delivery
A. General
• Uniform methods for reporting, reviewing, and B. Handling
maintaining records C. Storage
Each precast concrete unit must be identified using D. Loading/Delivery
a marking system that ties the unit to the specific set XIII. Quality Records
of applicable quality control records. Quality con- XIV. Internal Quality Audits
trol records provide complete manufacturing data XV. Training
for each precast concrete element. In the event that
1.2.2 Documented Procedures
a non-conformance is discovered, the specific man-
ufacturing data for that piece must be available for As a minimum, written records should be available that
analysis and evaluation. verify that the following items have been addressed for each
project:
• Standards for shop drawings to ensure accuracy
2 QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 2 10/2/14 11:02 AM

General information 1.3 Personnel

1. Verification that material supplied by a vendor con-
forms to the project specifications. Material suppliers 1.3.1 General
should be required to supply the plant with written cer-
Each plant must have qualified personnel to perform the
tification that verifies the material and quality.
functions of product design, drafting, production, and qual-
2. The frequency and sampling method used to ver-
ity control, as discussed in the introduction of this training
ify that vendor-supplied materials meet project
manual. The manufacture of precast concrete requires special-
specifications.
ized technical knowledge and experience. All plants should
3. Verification that plant equipment is in good working
consider having a Level III PQPC on their staff.
condition. Ensuring that equipment is calibrated at the
Responsibilities should be clearly defined and the relation-
appropriate frequency with complete documentation
ships should be established between management, engineer-
provided by the calibration agency.
ing, quality control, and production. The relationship may be
4. The preparation and evaluation of mixture proportions
described referencing the organizational chart illustrated in
for desired properties.
Figure 1.1.
5. Checking and approval of shop tickets.
Prepour inspection
6. Inspection of beds and forms prior to concrete
placement.
7. Inspection of the fabrication and installation of rein-
forcement and hardware, cast-in items, blockouts, and
surface features.
8. Verification that non-conformances identified are
corrected.
9. Inspection and recording of tensioning operations. ORGANIZATIONAL CHART
Concrete operations
GENERAL
10.
Inspection of batching, mixing, conveying, placing, MANAGER
consolidating, finishing, and curing concrete.
11.
Sampling and testing materials including cylinder
strength, slump, air content, density, aggregate-free
surface moisture, and aggregate gradations.
SALES &
PRODUCTION MARKETING ENGINEERING
Stripping and post-pour inspection
12. Inspection of detensioning and stripping procedures.
13. Verification that non-conformances are identified and
corrected.
14. Inspection of repairs and a review of handling, storing, QUALITY CONTROL
and loading of finished products. MANAGER
15. Final inspection of finished products prior to shipment.
Monitoring dimensions, camber, blockouts, embed-
ments, and finishes. Check the weight of the product
for handling and transport capabilities of the plant.
MATERIAL PRODUCTION PRODUCT
16. Required repair procedures for non-compliances. CONTROL CONTROL CONTROL
Record keeping
Laboratory Set-Up Product
17. Utilization of a record-keeping system for the pro- supervisor inspectors inspectors
cedures outlined previously to establish evidence of
proper manufacturing and monitoring. Laboratory Concrete Erection
technicians technicians inspectors
Items identified in this list are developed further in other

parts of this manual. Fig. 1.1 - Organizational Chart
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 3 10/2/14 11:02 AM

1.3.2 Engineering with shop drawings, approved samples, and project

requirements
Plants must have available the services of a licensed profes-
• Identifying and communicating non-conformances
sional engineer who is experienced in the design of precast
and providing follow-up inspections to ensure cor-
concrete. This engineer can be on the plant’s staff or an inde-
rection of non-conformances.
pendent engineer hired to design a specific project. In addition
• Preparing and maintaining complete quality control
to the design of precast concrete structures and products, the
records
engineer must prescribe or approve methods and procedures
for tensioning strands, computation and measurement of
Production personnel may be involved in some quality
strand elongations, camber and deflections, compensation for
control activities, but should not provide the quality audit
tensioning variables, and any other items related to prestress-
or review of production practices where they are directly
ing that may affect the quality of the product.
involved. As an example, an individual responsible for tying
1.3.3 Drafting the steel should not perform the prepour inspection of the
reinforcing cage. The inspection should provide an indepen-
Drawings must be of sufficient clarity and completeness
dent review of the quality of the setup.
to minimize the possibility of errors during manufacturing
Quality control personnel should observe and report any
and erection. Personnel preparing drawings should be expe-
changes in plant equipment, working conditions, weather, or
rienced, competent, and thoroughly familiar with industry
other items that have the potential for affecting the quality of
drawing standards.
the products in accordance with the reporting requirements of
1.3.4 Production the plant QSM.
Production personnel have the responsibility of super-
1.4 Design Responsibilities
vising all operations involved in the manufacture of prod-
ucts to ensure compliance with production drawings and
1.4.1 General
established plant standards. Production personnel should
be qualified to: The responsibilities of the architect/engineer and the precast
concrete manufacturer are subject to the contractual agree-
• determine and specify methods, facilities, and equipment with the owner. Based on this agreement, the manufac-
ment for use in production, including requirements turer may be required to supply project samples, engineering
for self-consolidating concrete (SCC); design, shop drawings, and/or manufacturing and installation
• receive, check, and store incoming materials, and procedures. The precast concrete design engineer is respon-
maintain inventory control; and sible for the design of all products for production, handling,
• direct fabrication of reinforcement, forms, and molds and known erection stresses. The design of precast concrete
in accordance with the production drawings, plant members in the completed structure is usually the responsibil-
standards, and production schedules. ity of the precast concrete engineer but may be the engineer-
of-record. The design of foundations and other non-precast
1.3.5 Quality Control
concrete elements is usually the responsibility of the engineer-
The quality control function in a precasting plant is to ensure of-record. The assignment of design responsibility must be
that the following activities are performed in accordance with clearly defined by contract.
the plant’s quality assurance program and at a frequency ade-
1.4.2 Shop Drawings
quate to meet the quality objectives. Personnel shall be trained
to perform these activities: The manufacturer is required to prepare and submit shop
drawings as required for approval. Understanding these docu-
• Inspecting and verifying the accuracy of dimensions
ments and the information contained in them is critical to all
and condition of forms
phases of production and quality control. Without a working
• Inspecting concrete batching, mixing, material han-
knowledge of shop drawings, plant personnel cannot control
dling, placing, consolidating, and curing procedures,
quality. The primary function of precast concrete shop draw-
including those for SCC
ings, including production and erection drawings, is the trans-
• Verifying the proper fabrication and placement of
lation of information from the precast design, the contract
reinforcement, and quantity and location of cast‑in
drawings and specifications into usable information for the
items
manufacture, handling, and erection of the precast concrete
• Inspecting stressing operations to ensure confor-
units. Additionally, these documents are sent to the designer
mance with specified procedures
or specifier so that those individuals may review the docu-
• Preparing or evaluating mixture proportions
ments and confirm that the products to be fabricated will be
• Taking representative test samples and performing
produced in accordance with the design concept.
all required testing
• Verifying that product handling and storage proce-
dures are followed
• Inspecting all finished products for conformance
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 4 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Shop-drawing categories
Plan
view
Erection drawings
Erection drawings show an overall layout of products for
a particular area, such as an elevation layout for architectural
units or a plan layout for structural units. Included with the iew
Elev dv
erection drawings are details or sections for those drawings ation En
that depict the units as they are fitted together at specific points.
These details show how the precast concrete units connect to
Overall
depth
each other as well as to other building components that are
manufactured or produced by other contractors on a job.
Production drawings (piece drawings or shop tickets) Overall length
Individual production drawings are prepared to detail the Object line

Elevation Centerline
of stem
internal reinforcement in a particular unit. They also show
embedded items and connection assemblies, which corre-
spond to the installation and the handling of these units. Pro-
Overall width
End View
duction drawings show the exact shape of the precast concrete
element with all of its related dimensions. These individual
production drawings are not usually submitted to the customer
for review.
Dimension line showing overall length Hidden lines
Assembly drawings (hardware drawings, plate details, of stem
and embed drawings) Plan View
Assembly drawings depict special embedments manufac-

tured for use within a product. An example of a special assem- Fig. 1.2 - Product Drawing
bly is a weld plate with headed studs to anchor the plate into
the concrete section. An assembly drawing would be made to
govern its manufacture. Beam bearings, corbels for columns,
ment. To illustrate this process, the following examples show
and other areas require special assemblies. Typically, these
how drawings are used for communication.
special assemblies are detailed for a particular job. On occa-
sion, the assembly used is a standard one used in a number of Drawing views
jobs by a particular plant. In any case, there should be a draw-
The double-tee is one of the standard structural products
ing of that assembly depicting how it is to be manufactured;
produced in precasting plants. A perspective of the product
of what materials it is to be made; and how it is to be joined,
is shown at the upper portion of Fig. 1.2. This perspective is
welded, or bolted together to make up the full unit.
helpful to depict the product, but direct views from different
In preparing shop drawings, the detailer should check how
sides are the clearest way to define most products.
the unit interfaces with adjacent materials to avoid possible
These views are drawn as if the viewer was standing directly
problems in the field when erection is underway. Any prob-
perpendicular to one side of the object. For example, the plan
lem, which can be avoided in the shop-drawing phase, can
view is the object as seen from above, while an elevation is
save significant money by avoiding expensive field repairs or
seen from the side. To show what happens on other sides, dif-
modifications. Good shop drawings help to reduce both cost
ferent views are drawn of the object as well as using different
and time required in the manufacture and erection of precast
lines on one view to describe what is present on other sides
concrete elements. Detailers are responsible to identify poten-
of the object. As an example of other types of lines, the plan
tial conflicts and resolve them rather than passing them on
view in Fig. 1.2 should be examined. Four dashed lines, called
for field resolution. Shop drawings provide a basis for quality
hidden lines, run left to right on the plan view. These dashed
control review and the production control of precast concrete
lines represent what is happening on the side opposite from
units.
that which is being viewed. For this double-tee, the dashed
Details and Detailing of Concrete Reinforcement (ACI 315)
lines represent the two stems of the double-tee.
is recommended as references for the preparation of shop
Another way of conveying information is by drawing views
drawings:
from several sides. The end view at the right end of the double-
tee shows the stems on the product. (This shows the purpose
1.4.3 Development of Shop Drawings for the hidden lines shown in the plan view.) In this way, the
hidden lines of the plan view and the stems shown in the end
In order to understand shop drawings, it is imperative to see
view provide descriptive communication about how a prod-
them as a tool of communication. Drawings of a product must
uct looks. Two types of information are needed to accurately
convey the same meaning to all people who look at the docu-
define the shape of the object.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 5 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Side View
End View
A
Rear Elevation
Plan View
Fig. 1.3 - Plan & End Views
Form
finish
Form
finish
As an example of similar plan views for dissimilar products,
Finish · B
Finish · A
compare the plan view in Fig. 1.3 with the plan view in Fig. Draft Chamfer Draft Chamfer
1.2.
Section · A Section · B
The plan view in Fig. 1.3 appears identical to the plan view
of the double-tee in Fig. 1.2. The panel is defined with four
solid lines and hidden lines drawn left to right across the plan.
These lines are the same as those on the plan of the double-tee Bar size and
spacing
but, when used with the end view, they signify the boundaries
of a recess rather than a projected stem, as in the case of the
double-tee.
The use of views from several sides of a product shows the
nature and definition of that product. A simple product can
Section · C
Fig. 1.5 - Architectural Panel

Rear
eleva
tion
be depicted with perhaps only two views. As the complex-

ity of the product increases or more variations from side to
side occur, more views are necessary to accurately define the
product.
Side view
The member in Fig. 1.4 is an architectural precast concrete

Fron
t elev
ation window panel that would be used as the exterior skin for a
building. The panel has different finish requirements on the
Finish surface
Finish · C two largest sides, and two views are shown to define that dif-
ference. The finish variation can be depicted by separate views
or by other means, such as sections. Hidden lines on the front
Overall height
Side View
view depict the continuous corbel, or ledge, on the back of

the panel.
Sections
Another drafting descriptive technique is the section. Sec-
tions depict information for a product or assembly that does
Rear Elevation Dimensions to not show up well in a plan, front, rear, or side view. The term
window openings
cutting a section is used because we imagine slicing the object
Finish · A where the section mark is located and looking at the object in
the direction the arrow is pointing. Sections are cut at a given
Finish · B point and show the conditions at that point. The example in
Fig. 1.5 is an architectural concrete panel with three sections
Finish · A
(A, B, and C) cut on the rear view. The arrow on the section
symbol points in the direction that the section is viewed. The
Overall length section details the panel as it would appear at that slice.
Sections A and B in Fig. 1.5 are similar in that they show
Front Elevation
the edge shape of the panel at the cut point. The edge has
some special shaping that would not show up well on the rear
Fig. 1.4 - Architectural Window Panel view. This shaping is called draft on the side and chamfer at
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 6 10/2/14 11:02 AM

65'-9" 2
1'-0"
4" 32'-0"
1
/2" 1
/2" 32'-0" 4"
P·2 P·2 P·2

R·1 R·1
R·1 R·1
P·1 P·1 P·1

R·1 R·1
8 spaces at 8'-0" = 64'-0"

R·1 R·1
1 1
1
Elevation
3'-0
R·2 2 R·1
10'-0 3'-0
2'-8
R·1 R·3
2'-8 3'-0
2'-0 20'-0
R·1 R·1
R·1 R·1
Plan Piece
mark
Section · 1 Section · 2
Section · 1 Section · 2
Fig. 1.7 - Section Views
Fig. 1.6 - Erection Drawing (Note: " = inch; ' = foot.) marks on section 1 show the direction in which the section is
viewed. The placement of the section marks on the plan and
the direction of the arrows are important in that they show that
the finished surface. Draft allows a product to be pulled from
the exterior walls on the left and right are the same.
its mold if the mold is fixed. Products without a draft would
Section 2 shows the double-tees bearing on a beam at the
generally have side forms removed before stripping the panel.
interior of the building. Support is provided by a beam rather
The chamfer shown is often used to prevent spalling of cast
than a wall, as is the case on the exterior. The support beam
edges. The importance of these items in this example is only
has projecting ledges that support the double-tees. The dou-
to provide information, which is more clearly presented in a
ble-tees have dapped ends to bear on the beam ledges.
section. Draft and chamfer are not always present.
Each of the 16 double-tees in Fig. 1.6 has a piece mark.
Sections are also used to define internal reinforcing steel.
There are 14 mark R-1 members, 1 mark R-2, and 1 mark R-3.
Reinforcing steel may be confusing if it is all shown on the
The piece mark identifies each member and shows its location
overall view. Section C shows the reinforcing bars in the cor-
and orientation in the building.
bel. The bar size and spacing can be called out in this section
The double-tees will be erected with their marked ends located
to more clearly show the reinforcing-steel layout.
as shown on the plan. The R-1 members have dapped ends oppo-
Sample erection drawing (floor plan) site the piece marks. The R-2 and R-3 members have different
size openings in addition to the dapped ends. In other pieces,
The erection drawing in Fig. 1.6 uses several of the tech-
internal differences in the reinforcing or connections may not
niques discussed previously. Note the hidden lines used to
be visible, but they require that the members be located with the
define the stems of the double-tee, which are on the opposite
piece mark as shown on the erection drawings.
side of the plan view of the members, as well as the bearing
It is very important to mark the pieces as shown on the pro-
walls and ledges below the double-tees. The actual conditions
duction drawings. The quality control inspectors must confirm
of the bearing walls and ledges are further defined by sections
the accuracy of the mark number and its location. The mark
on the erection plan.
number should be both legible and durable.
Section 1 of Fig. 1.6 shows the double-tee bearing on a
masonry wall along the left and right edges of the building. Sample erection drawing (wall elevation)
It also shows the stems of the double-tee to be square. The
Figure 1.7 is a second example of an erection drawing. It is
arrow shown on the plan at the left points upward, while the
an elevation showing a wall of precast concrete window pan-
arrow on the right side of section 1 points down. The arrow
els. It is drawn looking at the panels from the outside.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 7 10/2/14 11:02 AM

31/4"
To top
of strand
408 bars each end
Strand at
harp
7'-113/4"
R·1
Strand at
end
Mesh 6 × 6 - W2.9 × W2.9

6" 4" 2"
401 bars 6'-0" 10'-0" 10'-0" 6'-0" 2" 1'-6"

each side
32'-0"
End View
Plan View
2'-0" 28'-0" 2'-0" Lift and dunnage

each stem
Mk. P·2 at
Mk. P·1 at
each stem
5"
5'-0" Mesh 6 × 6 - W2.9 × W2.9 5'-0" 7"
each stem, each end
16'-0"
Elevation View
Bill of Materials
Concrete – 5000 PSI mix # 2A16 Mesh 6 × 6 - W2.9 ×W2.9 - 3@10-0, 1@3-6
MK 401 bars – 6 Mesh 6 × 6 - W2.9 ×W2.9 - 4@1-6, 1@5-0
MK 408 bars – 2 Strand – 6-1/2"ø 270K stress to 28.91K
MK P-1 assembly – 2 Release strength of concrete – 3500 PSI
MK P-2 assembly – 2 Camber at release – 1/2"
28-day strength – 5000 PSI Camber at erection – 1"
Weight 12,000 lbs
Concrete volume: 3.04 CY
Fig. 1.8 - Production Drawing (Note: " = inch; ' = foot; MK = Mark)
Six panels are shown in the elevation, three with mark P-1 have a projected ledge, or haunch, that rests on the structure’s
and three with mark P-2. The two types of panels are different edge beam. The top connection of panel P-2 is the same as the
and those differences are shown in section 1 and section 2 just top connection for P-1.
below the elevation. The P-1 panels are the first story of a two-
Production drawings
story building. These panels bear on a ledge of a grade beam
and are connected to the beam at the second floor by an angle In both of the previous examples of erection drawings, the
shown in the top of the section. combination of individual pieces to make the completed floor
The P-2 panels are the second-story panels and differ from or wall has been illustrated. The erection drawings are instruc-
the P-1 panels in their support on the building. The P-2 units tions for the assembly or installation of individual pieces or
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 8 10/2/14 11:02 AM

elements. Production drawings are needed to further define drawing before production. The setup crew and the quality
these individual pieces to show how they are made. control inspector must have a correct copy of the drawing to
Figure 1.8 is a simplified example of a production draw- perform their tasks.
ing. The drawing details one of the R-1 double-tees shown in Figure 1.9 is another example of a production drawing
Figure 1.6. This production drawing shows more information showing an architectural concrete wall panel with the mark
than the erection drawing. Producers and detailers have differ- P-2 from the wall elevation shown in Figure 1.7.
ent standards for the various items shown on the production Products should be detailed as they will appear in the cast-
drawings. This example is intended to illustrate some of the ing form. Figure 1.9 shows the rear view of an architectural
items that should be included. concrete panel, also called the top-in-form view. Architectural
Each view shows information about the double-tee. concrete panels such as this P-2 example are generally cast
The plan view (sometimes called the top-in-form view) with the exposed surface down in the form for a more uni-
shows how the double-tee looks when viewed from the top form finish on the exposed surface. All dimensions necessary
and includes: to form the panel are shown. Dimensions of embeds and rein-
forcing bars are also shown on the plan. Concrete cover over
• dimensions for length and width; the bars is dimensioned as 2 in. (50 mm) from the side of the
• hidden lines for the stems; mold.
• hidden lines for the dapped ends; By showing the rear of the panel as the top-in-form view, it
• mark number placement; is much easier for workers to relate the information presented
• end reinforcement (mark [MK] 408 bars); on the drawing to the form being prepared. Checking the form
• flange side bars (mark [MK] 401 bars); and and the reinforcement is also simplified. If the panel is drawn
• flange mesh (welded-wire reinforcement). as a front view, workers would be constantly trying to relate
reinforcement and form control to a reverse image of the panel
The side view of the double tee shows: as they see it in the form.
The bill of materials lists the type and quantity of embeds
• dimensions for location of lifting loops and dunnage and reinforcing steel as well as concrete mixture and strength
supports; information.
• dimensions for dapped end;
• mark number and location of bearing plates at each • The mark number and quantity of each embed is shown.
end; and • The mark number and quantity of each reinforcing bar
• dashed lines showing strands. is shown.
• Mixture proportions for the facing mixture should be
The end view shows how the double-tee looks from the end identified to relate to an approved sample. Uniform
and includes: appearance and texture of architectural concrete fin-
ishes are extremely important, and care must be taken
• dimensions for overall width and depth; to catalog the ingredients and finish characteristics of
• dimensions for thickness of flange; and each facing sample.
• dimensions for strand position at end of stem and cen- • Backup concrete is noted as standard 5000 psi (34 MPa)
ter of span. concrete. A strength of 2500 psi (17 MPa) is shown
as the minimum strength required for the panel to be
The bill of materials shows additional information needed stripped from the mold and handled.
to make the double-tee and includes:
Assembly drawings
• concrete mixture number; The next category of shop drawings is the drawing for the
• concrete strength at release (detensioning of strands); prefabricated assemblies to be used in the precast concrete prod-
• concrete strength at 28 days; ucts. The location of these assemblies is shown on the produc-
• mark number and quantity of each embedded item; tion drawing, but the detail of how the assembly is manufactured
• mark number and quantity of all reinforcement; is shown on the assembly drawing. Figure 1.10 is an example of
• quantity and grade of prestressing strand with final a weld plate assembly marked P-1. The assembly P-1 is shown
desired force; as the bearing plate in the dapped end of the double-tee in Fig-
• anticipated camber at release of prestress; and ure 1.8. The plate is placed on the dap form, and the bars are
• anticipated camber at time of erection anchored into the concrete. This plate distributes the load of the
• panel weight. double-tee bearing to the supporting beam.
The assembly drawing must define the size of each element
All of the information shown on the production drawing is used and the requirements for welds in the assembly, includ-
important for the proper manufacture of the double-tee. The ing:
engineering department must check the drawing for accuracy • plate size, thickness, grade, and orientation
before issuing it for production. The production department • reinforcing bar size, length, bends, grade, and location
and the quality control department should also check the • weld type, size, length, and location.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 9 10/2/14 11:02 AM

15'-0"
2'-9" 4'-0" 1'-6" 4'-0" 2'-9"
MK 508 each face
MK 407 each face

3'-0" L·2 L·2 3'-0"
L·2 & P·3

1'-6" P·3 P·3 1'-6"
2" 14" 16" 14" 2"

1'-9"
4'-0"
11/2"
and back of corbel

MK 508 in face
Space at 9"
each face
MK 305
12'-0"
2" 9" 11" 9" 2" 2" 7"7" 2" 2 9" 11" 9" 2"
4'-0"
MK 304
at 9"
2"
11/2"
2'-0" 1'-0"
4'-0"
L·2 1'-9"
2" 12"
MK 506 each face
MK 306 each face
MK 509 each face
Rear Plan View
Bill of Materials Concrete

Bar MK Quantity Facing – Mix 86-04-07-12
304 21 Backup – Standard 5000
305 24 Release strength – 2500 PSI
306 10 28-day strength – 5000 PSI
Weight = 11,520 lbs
407 6
506 8
508 12
509 14
Insert L-2 – 4
Plate P-3 – 2
Fig. 1.9 - Production Drawing (Note: " = inch; ' = foot.)
The welding of the reinforcing bars is a critical part of this ence line. Figure 1.12 shows some typical types of
assembly. The weld symbol on this assembly shows a 1/4 in. weld symbols.
(6 mm) flare bevel weld, 4 in. (100 mm) long, on both sides • The size of the weld is shown to the left of the weld
of the bar. This symbol must be understood by the welder as symbol.
well as the quality control inspector. In order to understand the • The arrow line extends from the reference line and
weld requirements, it is necessary to know welding symbols. points to the location of the weld on the element.
• The flag, which extends upward from the junction of
Welding symbols
the arrow line and the reference line, indicates a field
Figure 1.11 shows the standard notation for information weld. A field weld is any welding done at some point
used in a welding symbol. other than the original weld shop. The flag always
• The reference line is always horizontal and is read left points to the right. For precast concrete elements, this
to right. usually refers to welds made in the field at the point of
• The weld symbol is the central element on the refer- erection.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 10 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Flag denoting field weld
Flag denoting field weld

Circle at joint
F
indicating weld C
Circle at joint
indicating weld of size and type s
F
Contour
of size and type shown all around Weld symbol
symbol
shown all around the element Weld symbol other side
the element other side from arrow
from arrow
T
S(E) Weld symbol S(E) Weld
L@P symbol L@P
near side near side
at arrow
5" at Tail
arrow
(omitted when Ta
5"
reference is (o
Reference line not used) re
2'-6" Reference line no
Weld plate
1
/4" 4"
assembly 1
/4" 4" Arrow connects reference line
to arrow side of joint
PL·1/2" × 9" × 1'-6"
A·36 Arrow connects reference line
6"
to arrow side of joint
2 · No.5 × 3'-0" Generic Welding Symbol
A · 6.15 (40)
6" 1"
Welding note:
Notes: Generic Welding Symbol
Preheating to 200º F Always read symbol from left to right
9" L = length of weld
required for plate
and bars if material P = pitch of welds (center to center spacing of intermittent welds)
temperatures are less than 32-F Notes:
F = finish symbol
(E) = effective throat, when specified
Always read symbol from left to right
S = size of weld or depth of penetration
L = length of weld
Fig. 1.10 - (Weld Plate Assembly. Note: " = inch; ' = foot.) T = notes or reference
P = pitch of welds (center to center spacing of intermittent welds)
Weld symbols & examples:
finish symbol
F = Symbol
Fig. 1.11 - Welding
(E) = effective throat, when specified
• A circle around the junction of the arrow line and the Fillet
S
S = size of weld or depth of penetration
reference line indicates the weld is to be made all the Bevel
T = notes or reference
S
way around the surfaces where the arrow points.
Weld
Flare V symbols & examples:
S
• The tail is only used when special notes are needed,
such as a preheat. Flare · Bevel
S
Fillet
S
Square
S
The six different types of welds shown in Figure 1.12 are Bevel
S
S
the ones most commonly used in precast concrete assemblies. Plug

Flare V
S
The weld symbol is shown on the left and a drawing of how
the weld looks is shown on the right.
Flare · Bevel
S
Figure 1.13 shows the welding symbol for a simple fillet
weld. This is the most common type of weld used. Square
S
This fillet-welding symbol includes all of the information
S
needed to make the weld. Plug
• Size of weld shown as 3/16 in. (3 mm)

• Type of weld shown as a fillet Fig. 1.12 - Weld Types
• Length of weld shown as 4 in. (100 mm)
• Arrow points to location of weld on the assembly
• Location of weld symbol below the reference line Weld symbol
locates the weld on the arrow side of the joint (opposite Side
of arrow)
The placement of the welding symbol above or below the 3

/16" 4"
reference lines determines the location of the weld at the joint. 3
/16" 4"
Length of weld
Figure 1.14 shows different locations of the welding symbol
and how that affects the position of the welds at the joint. Weld symbol Shown for opposite side
(arrow side) weld when different
• If the weld symbol is shown below the reference line, from near side weld
Size of weld
the weld is made at the joint where the arrow points.
• If the weld symbol is shown above the reference line, Arrow to location of weld
the weld is made on the side of the joint opposite where
the arrow points. Fig. 1.13 - Simple fillet weld welding symbol
• If the weld symbol is shown on both sides of the refer-
ence line, the weld is made on both sides of the joint
where the arrow points.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 11 10/2/14 11:02 AM

OTHER SIDE OTHER SIDE

ARROW SIDE ARROW SIDE
OTHER SIDE ARROW SIDE OTHER SIDE ARROW SIDE
OTHER SIDE OTHER SIDE

ARROW SIDE ARROW SIDE
ARROW SIDE OTHER SIDE ARROW SIDE OTHER SIDE
OTHER SIDE
ARROW SIDE
ARROW SIDE OTHER SIDE

OTHER SIDE ARROW SIDE
OTHER SIDE
ARROW SIDE
Fig. 1.14 - Typical weld joint and symbol layout Fig. 1.15 - Visual Mock-ups
1.5 Project Samples 1.5.4 Visual Mock-ups and Initial Production

Approval of Finishes
1.5.1 General
Larger samples are required to give an accurate presentation
Samples should be made for review and approval by the of the color and texture that are expected in the final product.
architect and/or customer for acceptance of the color and tex-
ture when special finishes are used or when required by the • Final selection mock-ups should have the same
project specifications. Sample approval should be received in thickness as the actual product and should be large
writing prior to the start of panel production. Plant finishers enough to represent the variations of color and texture
and quality control inspectors should compare the finish and anticipated.
texture of the production panels with those of the approved • In surfaces with formed details such as reveals and tex-
sample. Samples for finish approval should be made using tured liners, the mock-up size must be large enough to
production techniques similar to those that will be used to cast show these details in full scale.
the panels. • Mock-ups for units with curved or other complex
If the panel finish does not match the approved sample(s), shapes should be made accordingly. The mock-up
the concrete’s mixture proportions should be adjusted, the should reflect the anticipated finish of the curved sur-
placement and consolidation procedures should be modified, face that may not be apparent on a flat sample.
or the finishing process should be altered until the finishes • The final approved mock-up should include the range
match the approved sample(s). Quality control inspectors of finish variations expected in production units. This
must report any significant discrepancies to management for will allow for approval of a mock-up that is representa-
review and resolution. tive of the actual production finish.
1.5.2 Size and Shape • A mock-up showing corner details, joints, windows, or
other complex details may be required.
The size and shape of the initial finish samples will vary
according to the type of finish and project details. Small sam- If the job specifications require that the mock-up be kept
ples are generally useful only for initial color selection. Finish at the jobsite, an additional approved mock-up should be cast
appearance is affected by the production methods, and this for use by finishing and quality control personnel to evalu-
is difficult to represent in a small, thin sample. Figure 1.15 ate production units. Mock-ups should be stored outdoors and
shows a display rack of many different initial finish samples viewed at a distance consistent with the viewing distance on
(12 in. × 12 in. [305 mm x 305 mm]). the structure, but not less than 20 ft. (6 m). Lighting for view-
1.5.3 Identification ing the mock-up should be similar to the lighting of the fin-
ished project.
All samples must be clearly identified for reference. The Care must be taken when batching the small volumes of
sample identification mark should be referenced in approval concrete used for samples and mock-up to match the propor-
documents and finish notes on the drawings. Documentation tions of the production concrete. Final samples and mock-
should include detailed notes on mixture proportions, material ups should be produced from a full-sized batch (minimum 1/2
sources, and production techniques used. cubic yard [2/5 cubic meter]) and mixed in the same mixer that
will be used for product manufacture.
Variations in materials can significantly change the con-
crete’s color and appearance. Approval samples should be
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 12 10/2/14 11:02 AM

made from the same aggregates that will be used during

production.
A set of samples or mock-up units should be made to show
the anticipated range and variations in color and texture that
will be present in the actual production units. This range
should extend from the lightest to the darkest color and from
the lightest to deepest texture, as applicable. The acceptability
of repair techniques for chips, spalls, or other surface blem-
ishes should also be established with these samples.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 13 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Chapter 1 Review Questions

1. A commitment to quality starts where in the organization?
2. Each plant should have a written quality assurance program. What is this program called and what are the minimum
items to be addressed by it?
3. There are several categories of shop drawings. Define at least two types of shop drawings.
4.
The following shop drawing depicts an element. What volume of concrete will be needed to cast it?
Note: " = inch; ' = foot.
5'–8" (1727 mm)
6" (150 mm)

6" (150 mm)
6'–0" (1829 mm)
12'–0" (3.7 m) 3'–6" (1067 mm)
Front Elevation Side View
5. The following assembly drawing calls for two types of weld. What size and length of fillet weld is called out for this
assembly?
1/4"
(6 mm) 4" (100 mm)
3/16"
(5 mm) 1/4" 4" (100 mm)
6" (150 mm)
(6 mm)
3/16" 6" (150 mm)
(5 mm)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 14 10/2/14 11:02 AM

6. A basic weld symbol is shown. Describe the information that would be shown in the
circled area.
7. Project samples should be used for what project conditions?
8. A number of principal factors in quality control are mentioned in this chapter. Name four of these.
9. Inspection and recordkeeping should cover many areas in production. List four of the areas mentioned in this chapter.
10. The prepour inspection should address which three areas of operation in particular?
11. Post-pour inspection covers many areas that need to be checked. Name three from this chapter.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 15 10/2/14 11:02 AM

12. In the following example (not to scale), compute and fill in the missing dimension, x. Note: " = inch; ' = foot.
( )
2'-6" 9'-6" 9'-6" 9'-6" 2'-6"
(760 mm) (2900 mm) (2900 mm) (2900 mm) (760 mm)
(600 mm)
1'-117/8"
)
(2430- mm)
(460 mm) (
7'-113/4"
1'-6"
(
(965 mm)
(600 mm)
1'-117/8"
3'-2"
( )
(1700 mm)
(760 mm)
2'-6"
5'-6"
13. The following example has missing dimensions (x, y), compute and fill in the blanks. Note: " = inch; ' = foot.
( )
4'-0" 3'-10" 2'-10" 3'-10" 4'-0"
(1219 mm) (1168 mm) (864 mm) (1168 mm) (1219 mm)
2'-3" 2'-3"
(686 mm) (686 mm)
(457 mm)
(508 mm)
1'-6"
2'-6"
(3200 mm)
(2667 mm)
)
10'-6"
8'-9"
(
8" (203 mm)

1'-0" (305 mm)
( )
(508 mm)
2'-6"
3'-6" 3'-6"
(1067 mm) ( ) ( ) (1067 mm)
Equal
Spaces
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 16 10/2/14 11:02 AM

14. Is the following drawing correct? If no, identify any problems. Note: " = inch; ' = foot.
48'-6" (14,783 mm)

4'-3" 10' 10' 10' 10' 5'-5"
(1295 mm) (3048 mm) (3048 mm) (3048 mm) (3048 mm) (1651 mm)
(1219 mm) (606 mm)

1'-117/8"
(1295 mm)
4'-3"
(2508 mm)
8'-23/4"
4'-0"
1'-6"
(457 mm)
2'-6"
(606 mm)
(762 mm)
1'-117/8"
40'-6" (12,344 mm)
(1067 mm)
(762 mm)
2'-6"
3'-6"
15. Considering the elevation below, which side view shown could be correct:
A B C
Elevation Side View
Elevation
A B C
16. A plant producing architectural concrete products must have:
a. at least one Level III technician

b. at least one Level I and one Level II technician
c. at least one Level II technician
d. at least one Level I technician
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 17 10/2/14 11:02 AM

17. With what frequency should the quality assurance program be reviewed?
18. Production personnel may be involved in quality control activities in practices where they were directly involved – true
or false?
19. Which lines are used to represent what is happening on the side opposite from that which is being viewed?
a. Hidden
b. Solid
c. Center
d. Opposite
20. The flag shown on the weld symbol indicates:
a. shop-fabricated weld
b. field weld
c. critical weld
d. ground finish required
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 18 10/2/14 11:02 AM

PRODUCTION PRACTICES CHAPTER 2
Chapter 2 – P
roduction 2.2.2 Form Fabrication
Practices All prestressing beds and self-stressing forms used for pre-
stressed products must be designed by a qualified engineer.
Quality control personnel should routinely inspect beds and
2.1 General Objectives and Safety forms for any obvious signs of damage or wear, including:
2.1.1 General
• abutment movement or deformation
Plant layout and equipment types are the responsibility of • cracked welds
management and production personnel. In general, productiv- • bent plates
ity and efficiency initiatives do not affect the quality of the • offset form joints
final product. Quality products can be produced in various • loose clamps
plant layouts with many different types and ages of equip- • other cracks or damage.
ment. Facility issues, such as poorly compacted storage areas
or inconsistent concrete quality due to a faulty mixer, are con- Stressing abutments and bulkheads at the ends and between
cerns that affect quality and should be addressed. When prob- products must allow for proper positioning of prestressing
lems affecting quality are identified, they must be addressed strands. The maximum allowable prestress force for any given
in accordance with the provisions of the plant quality system. height of the prestress force above the base of the form must
A Level I quality control inspector must be aware of the be documented. An engineer or qualified technician should
plant layout and equipment, but he or she may not have suf- review the applied force and location of the force to ensure
ficient experience to make judgments in these areas. Some that the form has adequate capacity before any new setup is
issues covered in this chapter, such as those related to welding used. Many state departments of transportation require plants
and product finishes, an inspector will learn to deal with over to prove beds can resist a force above the expected design
time. A Level II quality control inspector usually has more force before a bed is certified for a given capacity.
experience than a Level I inspector and should understand Forms and molds should be inspected for any problems
welding and finishing operations and how to make judgments such as structural damage, surface imperfections, or dimen-
about plant equipment and layout. Quality control personnel sional inaccuracies. Forms and molds should be stored in a
should know how to operate testing equipment, understand manner that will prevent damage.
equipment calibration requirements, and be able to follow all 2.2.3 Storage of Release Agents and Other
testing procedures described in the QSM. Chemicals
2.1.2 Plant Safety Release agents and other chemicals should be stored in
The plant safety program is generally not the specific approved containers in designated storage areas. The areas
responsibility of the quality control personnel. Quality should conform to all of the manufacturer’s recommendations
control personnel must be aware of the plant’s safety program for temperature, fire protection, and environmental hazards.
through employee training and ongoing safety meetings. Chemicals must be readily identifiable by the manufacturer’s
Quality control personnel must observe all plant safety rules labels.
and guidelines. 2.2.4 Hardware Fabrication and Storage
2.2 Production and Curing Facilities Fabrication shops must be routinely inspected to ensure
that proper fabrication practices are used. Outside fabricators
Quality control personnel are usually not responsible for must be required, by purchase order or contract, to provide
assigning or maintaining production and curing areas, but they specified materials produced in conformance to drawings and
should be aware of the operations performed in all areas and procedures.
the equipment necessary to properly perform those tasks. Steel must be stored in designated areas and kept free of
2.2.1 Area Requirements contamination due to the environment, grease, oil, or exces-
sive wear from improper handling. Reinforcing bars must be
Raw-material storage areas should allow for proper stor- marked for proper identification. Figure 2.1 shows a reinforc-
age of all materials according to the manufacturer’s recom- ing-bar bundle with a tag attached. Every bar is marked on the
mendations. The storage areas should be organized so the end with a specific color to reference it to the mill certificate.
materials do not interfere with production. Storage areas Stainless steel can react with certain types of coatings, such
must be located and built to avoid contamination of the stored as galvanizing or electroplating. Protection or isolation from
materials. reactive sources may need to be provided.
Production areas should have enough room for workers, A periodic review of the plant welding procedure specifi-
equipment, and materials in use. The traffic lanes should be cation (WPS) and all welders’ qualifications are part of the
kept clear of materials that may be damaged by equipment weld-shop inspection performed by quality control personnel.
traffic or that may interfere with traffic flow. Welding records and stud-weld testing logs must be monitored
to ensure that welders are conducting proper testing. Quality
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 19 10/2/14 11:02 AM

CHAPTER 2 PRODUCTION PRACTICES
Absorbed moisture impairs weld quality in the following

ways:
• A small amount of absorbed moisture may cause inter-

nal porosity. Detection of this porosity requires x-ray
inspection or destructive testing. If the base metal has
high hardenability, even a small amount of moisture
can contribute to underbead cracking.
• A high amount of absorbed moisture causes visible
external porosity in addition to internal porosity.
• Hydrogen can enter the weld metal by release from
absorbed moisture on the material surface, in the weld-
ing atmosphere, or within the welding consumables
(electrodes, fluxes, and gas). When steel is held at ele-
Fig. 2.1 - Reinforcement Bar Bundle
vated temperatures and during slow cooling, the small
hydrogen atoms can escape by diffusion to the atmo-
sphere. However, rapid cooling, often associated with
control personnel must also verify that weldability of reinforc- welding, tends to trap the atoms, which will collect in
ing bars is checked and that proper preheat requirements for small voids. As more hydrogen enters these voids, the
plates and reinforcing are met. pressure builds up. If the material is ductile, the voids
Different types and grades of steel must be welded with can grow slightly and reduce the pressure. In brittle
electrodes of the proper type. The WPS must specify the type materials and materials with high residual stresses, the
of electrode, and quality control personnel should periodically growth of voids could propagate into cracks. This is
verify that proper electrodes are used. known as hydrogen cracking, underbead cracking, or
Low-hydrogen welding electrodes must be stored in her- delayed cracking.
metically sealed containers to prevent contamination until first
use. The electrodes must not be bumped, bent, or stepped on All welded assemblies must be identified according to the
because this will remove the coating and make the electrode mark numbers used on the assembly drawings. Assembly
useless. Electrodes in sealed containers can be stored indefi- inspections and records must conform to the requirements
nitely. Once opened, these electrodes must be stored in ovens of the appropriate PCI quality control manuals. Hardware
set at the recommended temperatures in accordance with and assemblies received from outside manufacturers must be
American Welding Society (AWS) standards (AWS 5.3.2.2) inspected before acceptance. Testing and material certificates
to prevent moisture absorption into the flux from ambient must be obtained from the supplier verifying that the mate-
humidity. Moisture adversely affects the covering’s ability to rial has been fabricated in conformance to the specification
stabilize the arc, displace air, and insulate the hot weld metal, requirements.
thereby reducing the quality of the weld. Low-hydrogen elec- Embedments should be checked to ensure that the follow-
trodes are permitted by code to be rebaked in the oven one ing items are correct as detailed on the drawing:
time (AWS 5.3.2.4.). Rebaking completely restores the ability
to deposit quality welds. Electrodes that become wet must be • Plate size and orientation
discarded. • Anchorage bars in correct position
• bolt, stud, or bar size
• Weld location, weld size, weld length and weld
quality
• Removal of ceramic ferrules at base of studs for inspec-
tion of welds
• Provision for securing embedment to the form
• Any required coatings have been applied
Assemblies must be checked according to the assembly

drawings, and they should be properly marked and stored after
they have been accepted by quality control personnel.
Figure 2.2 shows a pallet of double-tee bearing assemblies
stored and ready for use.
Fig. 2.2 - Double-tee Bearing Assemblies
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 20 10/2/14 11:02 AM

2.2.5 oncrete Handing and Consolidation

C
Equipment • uniform lighting that matches daylight as closely as
possible;
Sufficient concrete-placing equipment should be available
• adequate size for product handling and protection of
to deliver the concrete from the mixer to the form:
panels;
• adequate handling equipment and product dunnage;
• in sufficient quantities to avoid untimely delays in
• proper ventilation and safety equipment;
placement and consolidation;
• the approved sample rack for comparison with the fin-
• without segregation of aggregates and paste;
ished product; and
• with uniform consistency;
• proper controls for environmental, health, and safety
• with ease of discharge into the molds;
standards.
• with equipment that has been maintained and cleaned;
• with consideration for concrete temperature; and
Quality control personnel should inspect the finish of all
• in a timely manner to avoid excessive slump loss.
products before they are moved to the storage area. If a prob-
lem is found, the problem can be immediately repaired and
Quality control personnel should routinely monitor con-
corrected in the finishing area rather than having it moved
crete placing to ensure that these requirements are met and
back to the finishing area from the storage yard.
to ensure that personnel are trained to place and consolidate
concrete correctly. Discrepancies must be noted in the quality
control reports. Corrective action should be initiated to avoid 2.2.7 Product Handling Equipment
the requirement for costly post-pour corrective action.
Product-handling equipment should be able to properly
2.2.6 Curing and Finishing Areas strip, move, stack, and load the members. This equipment
includes:
A minimum concrete temperature of 50 ºF (10 ºC) should
be maintained during initial curing of the products. Initial cur-
• forklifts, mobile cranes, overhead cranes, and straddle
ing takes place while the concrete is still in the forms. At this
carriers;
minimum temperature, hydration of the cement can occur. If
• strongbacks and lifting frames;
the concrete temperature falls below 50 ºF (10 ºC), the hydra-
• chains, wire ropes, fabric belts,; and other types of
tion slows significantly.
rigging
Moisture retention is critical to the proper curing of the
• rolling blocks, shackles, hooks and other lifting
products. After finishing, the products must be properly cov-
devices; and
ered in a timely manner with care taken not to disturb the fin-
• flatbed trailers, pole trailers, and A‑frames.
ish.
If accelerated curing is used, concrete temperatures should
Equipment should operate smoothly, minimize sudden
be continuously monitored from the time the product is
shock during handling, and equally distribute load to lift-
finished until the time it is stripped. The concrete tempera-
ing or stripping inserts to avoid binding the product in the
ture, not the temperature of the air under the cover, must be
form. The safe load capacity must be clearly marked on all
measured.
equipment.
Heat sources for accelerated curing include radiant heat
from steam lines, hot water or oil pipes, space heaters, live 2.2.8 Storage Area for Finished Products
steam, or electric heat. Quality control personnel must moni-
Product storage areas should be properly compacted, well
tor this process and report any discrepancies in accordance
drained, and provide a solid foundation for dunnage. Dun-
with the requirements of the plant QSM. The type of curing
nage settlement can cause warping or cracking, especially
system used will depend on the:
when pieces are stacked and the bottom piece supports a large
amount of weight. Driveways in the storage area should be
• size of the product;
well compacted or paved to provide a smooth and level road-
• ambient temperature;
way for product-handling equipment.
• required stripping or transfer strength;
Figure 2.3 shows a large storage yard with double-tees, flat
• length of the curing cycle;
slabs, structural wall panels, and stadium risers.
• effectiveness of the heating system used;
Storage areas should be inspected to ensure that the areas
• type of cover or enclosure for the bed; and
are:
• energy cost.
• large enough to accommodate the current amount of
Plants that manufacture concrete products with architec-
production and provide access for handling equipment;
tural concrete finishes should maintain a finishing area. This
• well drained to prevent excessive standing water;
finishing area should provide a uniform environment to finish
• stable under all weather conditions to prevent differ-
each piece according to the job requirements. A proper finish-
ential settlement of dunnage that may result in product
ing area should include:
damage, staining, or soiling;
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 21 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Fig. 2.3 - Storage Yard Fig. 2.4 - Double Tees in Storage
• clean and free of debris; and Welding during cold weather should be performed in an
• equipped with adequate and sound dunnage for product enclosed shop. Welding at temperatures below 32 ºF (0 ºC)
support. requires the use of preheating procedures. Welding must not
be performed in ambient temperatures lower than 0 ºF (-18
Quality control personnel should monitor the storage area ºC) or in rain or snow. Wind velocities greater than 5 mph
as they move through it during their daily activities and after (8 km/h) may also present problems.
a major weather event. The storage yard should drain storm
2.3.1 Welding of Structural Steel
water properly to help avoid settlement of the dunnage. When
dunnage settles unevenly, it can result in stresses in the con- Steel plates, angles, channels, and other similar shapes
crete that may cause warping, cracking, or other damage to used in assemblies are called structural steel. Deformed bars
the product. When a problem in the storage yard is found, it are called reinforcing steel. The AWS standards for welding
should be reported to those responsible for the storage yard structural steel and reinforcing steel are AWS D1.1 Structural
or to management in accordance with the requirements of the Welding Code –Steel and AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code
plant QSM. – Reinforcing Steel.
Figure 2.4 shows double-tees in storage. Several items are
important to note. Welding procedures described in MNL-116 and MNL-117
for mild steel, galvanized steel, and stainless steel should be
• Subgrade is level, well drained, and stabilized. followed. Quality control personnel should inspect the weld
• Double-tees are level and not twisted. shop as required in the plant QSM.
• More dunnage is used at the base to prevent
2.3.2 Welding of Reinforcement
settlement.
• Dunnage is aligned vertically. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
• Dunnage is higher than the lift loops. standards for ASTM A615, ASTM A616, and ASTM A617
reinforcing steel do not include weldability as one of the
2.3 Welding required properties. These bars can usually be welded pro-
vided that specific preheat procedures are determined and
Precast concrete structures are constructed with product-
followed. ASTM A706 reinforcing steel does include weld-
to-product or product-to-structure connections. Much of the
ability as a required property.
hardware that is embedded in the precast concrete is made
If reinforcing bar assemblies are tack welded, all of the pro-
of components that are welded together. The concrete and
cedures for structural welding must be followed. The material
internal reinforcement in the precast concrete may be of the
must be fused into the weld pass. Tack welding of reinforce-
highest quality, but if the welds are of poor quality, the precast
ment should not be allowed unless specifically approved by
concrete member may be unusable or unsafe when placed in
the design engineer. (See section 5.1.3 for more information
service.
on tack welding)
A welding procedure specification (WPS) must be devel-
Welding procedures described in MNL-116 and MNL-117
oped, and all welds used must be qualified in accordance with
for welding of coated or galvanized reinforcing steel should
AWS D1.1 or D1.4. Each welder performing welds must be
be followed. Quality control personnel should inspect the
qualified in accordance with the WPS. All welding should be
weld shop as required in the plant QSM, which will also out-
performed as detailed on approved shop drawings. No unspec-
line the requirements for inspection of individual welds.
ified welding is allowed without written engineering approval.
When reinforcing bars are bent, they become sensitive to the
Minimum preheat requirements must be observed.
welding heat. This heat will cause crystallization and loss of
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 22 10/2/14 11:02 AM

ductility in the area of the bend. Reinforcing bars must not be

welded within two bar diameters of the point of tangency of a
cold bend. Experience shows that a minimum distance to the
point of tangency of 2 in. (50 mm) is better than two bar diam- Bent bar
eters for the small diameter bars commonly used in precasting
plants. Figure 2.5 shows the weld stopping at the required dis-
×××××××××
tance from the bend.
Figure 2.6 is a photograph of bent bars welded to plates,
then galvanized. Most of the welds appear to stop about two Point of tangency
of bar bend
bar diameters away from the point of tangency of the bend 2 × bar
diameter
(as recommended), but some of the welds are too close to the
minimum 2" (50 mm)
bend. Proper welding procedures and adequate inspection will
avoid these problems. Fig. 2.5 - Welds at Bends
2.3.3 Stud Welding
Guidelines for stud welding are in chapter 7 of AWS D1.1.
Assemblies made with headed studs or deformed-bar anchors
shall conform to assembly drawings for size and location of
stud anchors. They shall also conform to AWS for weld details
and quality. Headed-anchor studs and deformed-anchor studs
may be fuse-welded with a stud gun or may be hand-welded
with proper fillet welds around the stud. Figure 2.7 shows a
plate assembly made with headed studs.
2.4 Forms and Molds
2.4.1 Materials and Construction

Quality control should inspect forms during assembly to
ensure conformance with project requirements and plant stan-
dards, including materials, assembly, joints, seams, stability,
and sealing. Self-stressing forms must be able to support the Fig. 2.6 - Bent Bars Welded to Plates
total prestressing load without buckling, bowing, warping, or
wrinkling.
2.4.2 Verification and Maintenance
All form dimensions and surface conditions should be
inspected by quality control personnel only after thorough
inspection by the production personnel responsible for mak-
ing the forms. This quality control inspection must be per-
formed before the first unit is cast from a new form. If more
than one form is to be used to make a given type of product,
then a comparative check should be made of all units made in
the different forms to be sure that the products are uniform.
Architectural concrete products of the same shape and size
produced in different molds should be marked with a form
code to define any dimensional errors or finish problems that
result from a specific form. This will allow correction of that Fig. 2.7 - Headed Studs
form. If form problems are detected during a product post-
pour inspection, the forms must be repaired.
The finish and condition of the form should be evaluated those specified for the finished product. Many plants have a stan-
to ensure that the form conforms to project requirements and dard that requires the dimensional tolerance of the form be one-
plant standards for the product being made. After verification half that of the finished product. If the product length tolerance
and before use, the form surface should be lightly coated with is plus or minus 1/2 in. (13 mm), the tolerance for the form is set
the appropriate release agent. If the product appearance is at plus or minus 1/4 in. (6 mm). This can help compensate for
critical, it will be necessary to fully seal all joints to prevent variations such as slight header movement, form shrinkage and
paste leakage. swelling, form growth, form damage or wear during multiple
The dimensional tolerances for the form should be less than uses, temperature changes, and slight layout errors.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 23 10/2/14 11:02 AM

age than others. The most common forming materials will

be discussed in the following paragraphs with emphasis
Leng
th on the materials’ characteristic weaknesses and inspection
requirements.
Wood forms
Thickness
W
idt
These should be inspected daily as they are susceptible to
h
damage from use. The wood should be coated to prevent the
onal absorption of moisture from the concrete while the concrete is
Diag nsions
dime
fresh. All nail and screw holes on surfaces that will be exposed
to view on the product should be filled to meet project require-
ments. When wood forms are used to produce architectural
concrete products, the condition of the form surface is criti-
cal to achieving the desired finish. These forms must be thor-
Form for Precast
oughly cleaned and inspected after each use. Wood forms may
also be coated with fiberglass to provide a durable pouring
surface. As with wood forms, the surfaces must be inspected
Di
Less
ag
than 90° for surface defects after each use.

•B
90° Corners g•A

Dia Greater
Steel forms
than 90°
Form square or rectangular Form out of square

These are more durable than wood forms but are more diffi-
Diagonals equal as they are
hypotenuse of similar triangles.
Diagonals differ since similar triangles
are no longer present.
cult to repair and more costly to replace. Steel forms should be
Diagonal • A is longer than diagonal • B.
free of ripples, dimples, and other surface imperfections that
are beyond those allowed in the finished product. All seams
Fig. 2.8 - Diagonal Dimensions should butt together so form lines meet the requirements of
the project.
The initial verification should include a check of all dimen-
Concrete forms
sions on all sides of the form. Squareness of sides and bulk-
heads or headers should be checked, as well as the overall Concrete forms should be inspected for surface imperfec-
squareness of the entire form. The overall squareness of a rect- tions such as chips and spalls. All cracks must be repaired to
angular form can be checked by measuring and comparing the minimize transfer or reflected cracks. Concrete forms do not
lengths of the overall diagonals. If the opposite sides are equal usually contain joints, but if they do, these joints should butt
and the diagonals are the same, then the corners are 90 deg. together to meet finish requirements.
If the diagonals are different lengths, then the corners are out
Rubber forms or form liners
of square and should be adjusted. Figure 2.8 illustrates this
measurement. These should be free of tears and other imperfections. Lin-
Any discrepancies noted during this initial verification of ers should be arranged so the pattern matches from one piece
the forms should be communicated to production personnel to the next. When possible, a single liner should be used. The
for correction. These corrections should be made by produc- liners should be secured to the form to prevent movement during
tion and verified by quality control personnel prior to autho- concrete placement. Liner separation or lift must be corrected
rizing concrete placement. before concrete placement begins or continues. High tempera-
For plants that produce concrete products with architec- tures may cause the liner to expand or deform. Movements must
tural finishes, form condition is even more critical. In general, be checked for during the prepour inspection. The liner manu-
all forms, regardless of material, should be able to provide the facturer should be consulted on the type of form to be used
required form finish. All forms should be checked to ensure
that: 2.5 Hardware Installation
After production personnel have completed the form setup
• they are clean;
and have made their final inspection, quality control person-
• no unacceptable surface imperfections exist;
nel should, as part of their prepour inspection, check all hard-
• required drafts are present;
ware to verify that size, type, and location are in conformance
• joints and seams are sealed and smooth, as required;
with the shop drawings. The method of attachment to the form
• no excess form oil or puddles of form oil exist;
should also be evaluated. Typical hardware includes, but is not
• headers and side forms are properly connected;
limited to, anchors, inserts, plates, angles, bearing assemblies,
• adequate bracing is provided; and
and stripping and erection devices.
• no excessive concrete build up exists.
If the piece drawing does not detail a particular embedment
The daily inspection of forms during product setup is an
and simply refers to it by its assembly number, then an indi-
ongoing prepour-inspection function covered in chapter 6.
vidual drawing of that embedment should be reviewed to con-
Some forming materials are more susceptible to dam-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 24 10/2/14 11:02 AM

firm that the correct embedment was installed.

A common error made in placing of embedments or other
hardware items is misreading the piece drawing when the Tilted Too Deep
terms near side or far side are used. This terminology is
sometimes used to reduce the amount of detailing on a ticket
by showing only one view with multiple notes on it. Some
hardware items may be installed on the top-in-form side of
the panel, while others are installed on the bottom. The top
items would typically be indicated as near side or top-in-form,
and the bottom items would typically be noted as far side or Don’t Don’t
bottom-in-form.
All embeds must be checked to ensure that their loca-
tions and orientations conform to the shop drawings. Inserts
Too Correct
should be checked for correct size and proper positioning in shallow
the product. Improperly aligned or incorrectly placed inserts
will affect the pullout capacity of the insert and may hinder
its usage. Figure 2.9 illustrates typical problems that are often
encountered when placing embeds.
All lifting devices should project or be recessed an equal
distance from the surface of a product. If the devices are higher
on one side than the other, the product will tilt when it is lifted, Don’t Do
which may cause binding in the form during stripping. This
binding can lead to cracking, spalling, or even failure of the
Establish dimensions A and B and maintain for
lifting insert. A double lift line with a rolling block will tend all similar-sized inserts for the project.
to correct for the lifting-device discrepancy.
When multiple lifting devices are used in one location, all
Fig. 2.9 - Insert replacement.
lifting devices should project equal distances from the prod-
uct. Lifting devices should be located at the center of gravity
of the member so that the member will not tilt when lifted.
For example, the lifting loops for an L-beam will not be at A - dimension is
less than - B.
the middle of the beam. Due to the shape of some products, a
straight lift may not be possible. Figure 2.10 shows an exam-
ple of these conditions.
A B
2.6 Product Identification

Each precast concrete member must be clearly marked with
Higher projection
a unique identification to distinguish that unit from similar of lifting loop
units. The identification mark must tie the unit to the casting
date and specific quality control records relating to that mem-
ber. The identification mark should include the piece number
noted on the shop drawings and must be visible once the prod-
uct is placed in storage. Product markings may be scribed in
the fresh concrete, painted on the units, or documented on a Lifting loops at Offset lifting loop
different height (roll during lift)
tag securely fastened to the member. This mark must remain
legible until the member is erected. Consideration should be
given to locating the identification mark so it is not visible in Fig. 2.10 - Pieces Tilted During Lifting
the finished structure.
should be used. The angle between the lifting line and the
2.7 Product Handling horizontal (the ground) must not be less than 60 degrees or as
shown on the shop drawings.
2.7.1 General Inserts must be installed according to the manufacturer’s
Products should be handled in a manner required by their recommendations. Quality control personnel should be famil-
shape, size, and design. Products must be handled with iar with the common lifting inserts used at the plant. When a
approved devices at designated locations according to the pro- different type of insert is used or the quality control personnel
duction drawings. have questions about the proper installation of the inserts, they
When threaded inserts are used for handling, and the lift- should review the manufacturer’s recommendations. Proper
ing lines are inclined at an angle, appropriate swivel devices bolt installation is critical for the performance of threaded
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 25 10/2/14 11:02 AM

inserts. The type and size of the bolt must match the type and ments to allow the bond and suction between the form and
size of the threaded insert. Not all manufacturer’s coil prod- the member to break. Once the bond and suction to the form
ucts are interchangeable because of thread diameter or pitch. are broken, safe, normal operating speed can be used to lift
Check with the manufacturer or avoid mixing bolts and inserts the members. Care should be taken to ensure that the member
from different manufacturers. does not bind in the forms and does not strike the forms. The
Lifting devices used more than once should be inspected members should be lifted vertically out of the forms until they
for cracks or other defects. When such defects are found, the clear the form and any other objects in the area. Personnel
devices should be discarded. must not be allowed on or under the member during lifting.
Immediately after stripping, each product should be marked
2.7.2 Stripping
for identification. The product markings should be consistent
Compression-strength tests should be conducted before any throughout the job and should be used to correlate the prod-
precast concrete product is detensioned or stripped to ensure ucts to their records. At a minimum, the products should be
that the concrete has reached the required strength. The con- marked as noted in section 2.6 of this training manual.
crete strength should be determined by testing concrete cyl-
2.7.3 Yard Storage
inders in accordance with ASTM specifications. Impact, or
rebound, hammers are typically used to test dry-cast products Products should be stored in the designated storage areas
and may be used to test wet-cast products only if test cylinders and should be arranged so product markings are clearly
are not available and if the impact hammer has been properly visible.
calibrated and a correlation to concrete cylinder tests has been All storage racks and dunnage should be structurally sound and
previously determined. should be placed to support the precast concrete element accord-
Concrete strength gain is primarily affected by curing tem- ing to the shop drawings or plant-engineered standards. Typically,
perature and time. The relationship between the length of cur- products are supported in storage near the locations used for han-
ing time and the level of curing temperature is referred to as dling, although special storage conditions may be required.
the maturity of the concrete. A numerical value for maturity Quality control personnel should verify that all products
can be determined by plotting the curing time versus curing are stored as specified. Dunnage that is not well supported or
temperature graph and calculating or measuring the area under that is placed differently than specified may cause unusual or
the curve. For a specific mixture, a higher maturity generally excessive stresses that can damage the product. Figure 2.11
means a higher concrete strength. Determining the concrete shows several stacks of hollow-core units. Several items are
maturity is not an acceptable substitute for cylinder strength important to note.
testing. It is used as a general guide to determine when cylin- • Dunnage should be placed between the products and
ders are likely to be up to strength. the ground and also between products if they are
Before stripping any product, all side forms must be loos- stacked.
ened and removed, unless they have sufficient draft. Any bolts • Dunnage should be positioned in line with the supports
or other devices used to secure embedded items to the forms of the member below.
should also be removed. • Unless specifically allowed by the plant engineer, short
Precast concrete members should be gradually and care- members should not be stacked on top of longer mem-
fully lifted from the forms. The lifting lines should have just bers as is the case in the stack on the left of Figure 2.11.
enough tension on them at first to make them taut. Each lifting This can overstress the longer panel or cause changes
line should have approximately the same amount of tension on in the camber. Camber variations can cause alignment
it before final lifting. Rigging should be adjusted as required problems during erection.
to achieve this. The initial lifting should be in gradual incre-
Use of dunnage that can stain the panel surface should be
avoided. In members with exposed surfaces, care should be
taken to avoid these problems.
• Solid dunnage that is in contact with the finish face

will cause differential curing of the surface of the pre-
cast concrete member. The dunnage holds in moisture
while the moisture in the surrounding concrete is free
to evaporate. This will result in dark spots at the dun-
nage location. Even though the spots will fade over
time, it is best to avoid any variation.
• Wood, steel, or other materials may stain the surface.
Architectural concrete products should be stored so
that no blocking is in contact with the finished face.
If the product must be supported on the face, plastic
dimple pads should be used to limit the contact area
Fig. 2.11 - Hollow Core Slabs in Storage
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 26 10/2/14 11:02 AM

and allow air to circulate.
Items such as recessed embeds or components, or holes that

can trap water, should be protected from water or snow accu-
mulation during cold weather.
2.7.4 Loading for Shipment
Products should not be loaded for shipping until a post-
pour inspection of the product has been conducted and the
product is in compliance with the job requirements. If repairs
are required, they should be completed prior to shipping and
should conform to plant and industry standards for quality.
Shipping dunnage should be properly located, and the loads
should be secured for transport. Figure 2.12 shows a double- Fig. 2.12 - Double-tees on Trailer
tee loaded and secured on a trailer. The horizontal timber
members span across the double-tee and keep the chains from 2.8.3 Exposed or Visible Unformed Surface
bearing on the thin top flange. Finishes
2.8 Surface Finishes The unformed surface refers to the exposed concrete that
requires a manual or machine finish, such as a screed, float,
2.8.1 General trowel, broom, rake, or tine following consolidation. In order
to obtain the desired finish, production personnel should fol-
Finish requirements should be clearly stated on the shop low proper procedures. Excess concrete should be struck off
drawings for each product. Quality control personnel should and the surface finished with a float immediately after con-
be familiar with the standard plant finishes and should ensure solidating the concrete. Final finishing should not be started
that each product is finished within acceptable limits of the with bleed water present on the surface. Under no circum-
required finish. stance should the bleed water be absorbed by adding other
In the case of architectural concrete panels, approved substances such as cement or a mixture of sand and cement.
samples should be used to evaluate the finish of the panels as Care must be taken to ensure that the concrete is not over-
explained in Section of this training manual. worked during floating. Overworking the surface will tend to
2.8.2 As-Cast Formed Surface Finishes draw fines and water to the surface, which can create a number
of undesirable surface conditions such as:
The as-cast formed surface finish refers to surface finishes that
are exactly as cast directly on the form or form liner. Typically, • checking (random hairline surface cracks);
no additional finishing is required other than a light sandblast to • crazing (hairline surface cracks originating from a
prepare the surface for coating, if one is specified. common point);
Quality control personnel should be aware of the most com- • dusting (light sandy film on the surface);
mon potentially objectionable visual features that may occur • discoloring; and
on this type of finish: • spalling.
• Form joint lines Where a secondary cast will be made, loose laitance must
• Slight color variations be removed, and the surface must be properly prepared.
• Surface blotching
• Air voids 2.8.4 Applied Coatings
• Minor surface crazing (fine and random hairline cracks) The form release agents must be compatible with any type
of coating to be applied to the concrete surface. Sandblasting
Air voids (bug holes) are most common in surfaces that are may be required to improve adhesion.
cast vertically. The approval sample should show the antici-
pated size, quantity, and uniformity of distribution of these air
voids. This may limit the amount of sack rubbing and patch- 2.8.5 Surface Finishes (refer to
ing required for product acceptance. Sack rubbing can create section 2.8 in MNL-117)
an additional problem because it can cause color variations There are wide varieties of architectural finishes that can be
and, unless kept moist, the rubbed areas will lose moisture applied to concrete products. Some of these remove the top
rapidly and crack. layer of concrete, revealing the aggregates that lie beneath the
Appendix C of PCI MNL-116 defines and describes the top surface. Others, such as those achieved through the use of
requirements for different types of formed finishes for struc- form liners, create special details in the concrete as it is cast.
tural concrete. Each of these finishes requires special techniques to produce a
consistent finish. It is essential for a plant to have experienced
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 27 10/2/14 11:02 AM

personnel in this area of production. Retarded

In architectural concrete production, the finish is very
Set-retarding admixtures act by delaying the set time of the
important. The finish of each panel must be uniform in tex-
cement paste so that the paste can easily be removed by sand
ture and color and match the approved samples and mock-up
or water blasting to expose the aggregates. The surface may be
panels within the accepted range. Areas of heavily segregated
brushed before washing to help control the depth of cement
aggregates, uneven finish, inconsistent color, reinforcement
paste removal. Set-retarding admixtures are sensitive to:
shadowing, and exposed reinforcement or foreign materials
are generally unacceptable.
• application thickness;
The most common architectural precast concrete finishes
• temperature;
are:
• humidity; and
• water content of face mixture.
• smooth;
• sand or abrasive blast;
• acid etched; Tooled or bush-hammered
• retarded;
Tooled or bush-hammered finishing involves mechanically
• tooled or bush-hammered;
spalling or chipping the concrete surface with hand and/or
• honed or polished;
power tools to produce a texture. When establishing the fin-
• form liner; and
ish procedures, the tool orientation and direction of motion
• veneer facing materials.
should be established and maintained to produce a uniform
finish.
Smooth
Honed or polished
The same requirements discussed in Section 2.8.2 of this
This finishing technique involves mechanically grinding the
training manual apply to smooth finishes on architectural con-
concrete surface to produce a smooth, exposed aggregate fin-
crete panels.
ish similar to terrazzo. Honed surfaces are ground to produce
Sand or abrasive blast a finish free of pits and scratches. After honing, the surface is
polished by grinding with finer grit in each successive oper-
Sand or abrasive blasting is a common method for expos-
ation. The surface is then buffed with a buffer brick or felt
ing aggregates. Because the uniformity of the depth of etch is
pad with tin-oxide polishing powder to produce a high-gloss
critical, the personnel doing the blasting, the equipment, and
finish. Air voids should be filled before each of the first few
the type and grading of the abrasive should remain the same
grinding operations and no later than the third grinding step
throughout the project. Products should also be blasted as near
using a sand-cement mixture. The patches should be allowed
as possible at the same age or concrete strength. Concrete with
to completely dry prior to beginning the next grinding opera-
a higher strength requires more time and effort to achieve the
tion.
same etch produced on lower-strength surfaces.
Form liner
Acid-etched
This type of finish involves installing a liner in the form
This type of finishing involves dissolving the surface
prior to casting to provide a textured finish on the as-cast sur-
cement paste with hydrochloric acid applied using one of the
face. Several items need to be investigated prior to the start of
following procedures:
production for this type of casting.
• Brushing the surface with a stiff-bristled brush
• The method used to secure the liner to the form must
immersed in the acid
hold the liner in position.
• Spraying the surface with acid and hot water using spe-
• If the liner is nailed, screwed, or mechanically fastened
cially designed pumps, tanks, and nozzles
to the form, the heads of the fasteners must not create
• Immersing the unit in an acid-filled tank
impressions on the concrete surface unless this feature
is desired.
Only acid-resistive siliceous aggregates may be used. Car-
• The liner and attachment devices must not stain the
bonate aggregates, such as limestone, dolomite, and marble,
panel.
may discolor or dissolve on contact with acid due to their high
• The release agent or set-retarding admixture must be
calcium content. Prior to acid washing, the concrete surface
compatible with the liner.
should be well wetted because acids will penetrate faster and
• Curing temperatures should not exceed the temperature
deeper into dry concrete. After acid etching, the unit should
limit for the liner.
be thoroughly rinsed with water to minimize the formation of
Matching form-liner joints with the panel joints is usually
efflorescence and other damaging effects. In no case should
not possible. Architectural features, such as reveals, ribs, or
the acid remain on the surface longer than 15 minutes. Acid
grooves, should be used at liner discontinuities to avoid hav-
run off should be contained or treated in accordance with the
ing to match adjacent patterns.
plant-water-runoff plan.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 28 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Veneer facing materials 2.10 Acceptability of Appearance

Veneer facing materials include natural cut stone (lime- In most bridge and commercial products, the appearance of
stone, granite, or marble), brick, ceramic or quarry tile, and the product is not as important as its structural performance.
terra cotta. Prior to the start of production, the plant should However, these products should still be free of excessive air
have adequate records supporting the successful use of the voids, honeycomb, or other nonconformance items as defined
material being installed. by project specifications or plant standards.
The performance of the embedded material over a concrete The appearance of architectural concrete products is very
backup must be established through the investigation of the important. Panels should be viewed from approximately
same material in previous projects or by testing samples or 20 ft (6 m) in good daylight for evaluation of the finish. When
mock-ups under anticipated environmental conditions. In viewing from this distance, panels should be free of:
either case, the design of the units must include a compre-
hensive study of the compatibility between the veneer fac- • ragged or irregular edges on the exposed, finished sur-
ing material and concrete backup. Differential expansion and face;
contraction caused by temperature and moisture changes will • air voids larger than 1/2 in. (13 mm) on the exposed,
create forces as the veneer and the backup move. The backup finished surface, or larger than those accepted on the
concrete and the facing material should have similar coeffi- approved sample and mock-up panel;
cients of thermal expansion, modulus of elasticity, and vol- • adjacent surfaces with color or finish differences
ume change due to moisture. greater than variations in the approved samples and
Bond breakers should be placed between the backup con- mock-up panels;
crete and natural stone veneers. Examples of bond breakers • casting lines between different concrete placement
are: lifts;
• poor consolidation;
• liquid bond breaker applied directly to the back surface • aggregate segregation;
of the stone; • form lines;
• polyethylene sheet with a minimum thickness of • stains on exposed surfaces;
4 mil (100 µm); and • areas where the backup mixture has bled through to the
• thin foam pad or sheet. face mixture;
• foreign material embedded in the finish face;
The stone should be attached to the concrete backup using • reinforcement shadowing in excess of the accepted
mechanical anchors. The anchors must be able to accommo- standard;
date the anticipated differential movement between the stone • cracks; and
and the backup. The anchors should be fabricated from Type • visible repairs.
302 or 304 stainless steel (ASTM A204), unless otherwise
specified, to prevent corrosion. Quality control personnel
should inspect these anchors as required. 2.11 Sealers and Clear Surface
Coatings
2.9 Repairs
Sealers may sometimes be specified to improve the weath-
During the post-pour inspection, the quality control inspec- ering characteristics of concrete. If required, sealers should
tor must note all areas that require repairs. The cause should first be tested on samples of various ages and the performance
be determined and measures taken to prevent further occur- verified over a period of time. These sealers should be used
rences. Repairs can range from sack-rubbing surfaces or according to the manufacturer’s directions and should not
epoxy-coating strand ends to evaluating and repairing cracks, stain or cause other unacceptable discoloration in the panel.
chips, and spalls. Repair procedures should be developed by It may be desirable to have the panels inspected and
the plant engineer for all problems encountered with the fin- approved before sealing because corrections to the finish are
ished products. very difficult or sometimes impossible after sealing.
Repairs and patches on panels with exposed finishes can be
extremely difficult to match, and care should be taken during
casting to avoid the need for repairs. This is not always possi-
ble; therefore, a repair procedure and patch mixture should be
developed for each project. The quality control inspector must
then review these repairs to ensure that they were performed
in accordance with the established procedures.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 29 10/2/14 11:02 AM

1. Forms and abutments for casting of precast concrete products should be monitored by quality control for what potential
problem?
2. In a review of a weld shop, a roof leak is noted. Some stick electrodes were splattered by the water from the leak hitting
the shop table. What should be done with these electrodes?
3. Architectural concrete finishing areas should include what characteristics? Name three.
4. Stainless steel can only be welded to other stainless steel – true or false?
5. What must be determined before welding of ASTM A615, ASTM A616, ASTM A617 reinforcement?
6. What is the purpose of preheating in the welding of ASTM A615 reinforcing bars to other steel sections? What criteria
are used to determine preheating?
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 30 10/2/14 11:02 AM

7. Embedments made with headed studs should be reviewed and checked when placed for four different items or condi-
tions. Name them.
8. Prior to stripping a prestressed product line, what should be reviewed and done?
9. Dunnage points can create a problem on the contact face. What is that problem and why does it happen?
10. Architectural concrete panels have special finishes on their face. There are a number of factors that can affect the color
of the finish. Name at least five of these factors.
11. Quality control personnel do not need to concern themselves with plant safety policies because their first priority is to
inspect products – true or false?
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 31 10/2/14 11:02 AM

12. Quality control should routinely inspect the beds for several things. Name four.
13. Minimum concrete temperature during initial curing should be:
a. 32 °F (0 °C)
b. 75 °F (24 °C)
c. 50 °F (10 °C)
d. 60 °F (16 °C)
14. Name three means of accelerated curing.
15. The dimensional tolerances for the forms should be the same as those specified for the finished product – true or false?
16. Determining the concrete maturity is not an acceptable substitute for cylinder strength testing – true or false?
17. Name four undesirable surface conditions that may occur when overworking the surface.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 32 10/2/14 11:02 AM

18. To judge the appearance of architectural concrete products, panels should be viewed:
a. from approximately 10 ft (3 m) in the shade

b. at any distance in good daylight
c. from approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) in good daylight
d. from approximately 20 ft (6 m) in good daylight
19. If an insert shown on a shop drawing is located on the far side, where is it located?
20. On the following mold, what dimensions should be checked to confirm squareness of the setup?
D
B
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 33 10/2/14 11:02 AM

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 34 10/2/14 11:02 AM

RAW MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES CHAPTER 3
Chapter 3 – Raw Materials nary portland cement its gray color. White cement is primarily
used in architectural projects for its consistency of color.
and Accessories Cements must conform to ASTM C150, Standard Specifi-
cation for Portland Cement. This specification covers many
General types of portland cement. Types I, II, and III are normally used
in precast and/or prestressed concrete products.
This chapter deals with the many different materials gen-
erally used by precast and prestressed concrete producers in • Type I cement – for general use when the special prop-
the United States and the generally accepted U.S. standards or erties and characteristics of other types are not required.
specifications. The plant QSM will list the approved vendors • Type II cement – for use when moderate sulfate resis-
who supply products to the plant. These vendors should be tance or moderate heat of hydration is desired.
approved annually based on their satisfactory performance. • Type I/II cement – meets the requirements of both
Purchase agreements defined in the QSM should describe Type I and Type II cements
the materials in accordance with ASTM or other approved • Type II Modified cement- Type II cement ground
specifications or standards. Materials should be inspected finer to achieve a higher early strength while maintain-
upon delivery to the plant. Plant personnel should review the ing moderate sulfate resistance.
test data or mill certificate for the material received. The pur- • Type III cement – for use when high early strength is
chase order should contain a requirement that a mill certificate desired.
be submitted. Physical testing, such as gradation of aggre- • Type IA, IIA, IIIA cements– Types I, II, and III air-
gates, may be required. Certain materials, such as cement, entraining cement, respectively, used when air-entrain-
strand, and reinforcing steel, are generally not tested at the ing is desired (air entrainment is usually created with a
plant. The supplier must know the required material specifica- chemical admixture rather than using an “A” cement).
tions or standards. Always use the applicable edition of the • Type IV cement – Low heat of hydration, used in mas-
specification. sive concrete placements such as dams.
The plant quality system manual (QSM) as outlined in Divi- • Type V cement – Sulfate resistant, used for severe sul-
sion One of manuals MNL‑116 and MNL-117 (and in chapter fate exposure.
1 of this training manual) defines the purchase and tracking
of all materials used. Project specifications or plant standards There are no practical test methods for ensuring cement
determine the materials to be used in the production of pre- quality that can be performed in the average precasting plant
cast and prestressed concrete products. The finish and color quality control laboratory. Therefore, the cement manufac-
of approved samples define concrete material, formwork, and turer must furnish a report of the results of the chemical and
finish processes for architectural concrete panels. physical tests and certify that the cement conforms to the
applicable requirements of the relevant ASTM specification.
3.1 Concrete Materials The mill certificate must be reviewed to ensure that the mate-
rial conforms to the purchase order and should be maintained
3.1.1 General on file at the plant.
Concrete is a proportioned mixture of cementitious materi- The level of alkalinity of the cement can contribute to
als, water, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and admixtures. Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) or Delayed Ettringite Forma-
Variations in the materials will affect concrete’s appearance tion (DEF), especially when reactive aggregates are used.
and physical properties, such as strength and durability. Sup- Low-alkali cement must have an alkali content (alkali equiva-
plier certification documents for these materials must be lent expressed as Na2O) of less than 0.6%. If mill certificates
reviewed when received and kept on file. are not received with each shipment of cement, those ship-
ments must be tested before use by an approved laboratory.
3.1.2 Cementitious Materials Plant quality control personnel should monitor cement tem-
Portland cement is a hydraulic cement produced by com- peratures. Cement temperatures of 170 oF (77 oC) or more
bining selected raw materials, superheating the materials in a may lead to problems of flash setting of the concrete. Sam-
kiln, and then pulverizing the fused product (clinker). A small ples may be taken from shipments and retained for 60 days
amount of gypsum is added to the ground clinker to regulate or until product acceptance to allow for laboratory testing of
the setting time of the cement. Portland cement was patented the cement if problems occur. Each shipment of white cement
in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, an English mason. It was called should be visually inspected for color uniformity.
portland cement because its gray color resembled that of the Pozzolans
natural limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland, a peninsula
in the English Channel. Pozzolanic materials, defined as those that react with water
Gray portland cement tends to vary in color from one batch similar to cement, must conform to:
to the next due to its alkali and oxide contents. White portland
cement is made from material containing only small amounts • ASTM C618, Standard Specification for Fly Ash and
of iron and manganese oxides, the compounds that give ordi- Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolans for Use as a Min-
eral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete;
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 35 10/2/14 11:02 AM

CHAPTER 3 RAW MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES
• ASTM C989, Standard Specification for Ground Section 6.2.3 of this training manual) to verify the consis-
Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag for Use In Concrete tency of the material. The base value of fineness modulus for
and Mortars; and each fine aggregate should be computed when preparing the
• ASTM C1240, Standard Specification for Silica Fume mixture proportions by averaging the results of several tests.
for Use in Hydraulic Cement Concrete and Mortar. In order to provide a consistent mixture, the fineness modu-
lus should not vary more than +0.2 from the base value. For
These specifications define the qualities and methods for example, the fineness modulus for a mixture based on a fine-
testing pozzolanic admixtures. The most commonly used ness modulus of 2.6 may range from 2.4 to 2.8. Variations
pozzolans are fly ash (Types F and C), silica fume, ground- of the fineness modulus outside the +0.2 limit could result
granulated blast-furnace slag, and a number of naturally in variable mixture performance. Additionally, the amount
occurring compounds such as diatomaceous earth, metaka- retained on any two consecutive sieves should not change by
oline, opaline cherts, clays, shales, volcanic tuffs, and more than 10% by weight of the total fine-aggregate sample.
pumicites. ASTM C 33 defines an acceptable fineness modulus range for
Pozzolans are materials that exhibit little or no cementi- concrete aggregates as 2.3 to 3.1.
tious properties by themselves (although slag is an exception) Fine aggregates for architectural concrete vary from those
but chemically react with calcium hydroxide released during used in typical structural concrete in a number of ways. Fine
the hydration of portland cement to produce compounds with aggregates for architectural concrete are not required to meet
cementitious properties. Pozzolans can reduce the amount the gradation requirements of ASTM C33; however, once the
of cement in the mixture. They also may improve workabil- gradation requirements and fineness modulus for a given mix-
ity, plasticity, reactivity, permeability, and reduce the heat of ture are established, they must remain within tolerance for
hydration. the duration of the project. Although fine aggregates used in
architectural concrete mixtures are typically selected based on
3.1.3 Fine Aggregate
a visual inspection of concrete samples provided by the pre-
Fine aggregate must conform to ASTM C33, Standard caster, the fine aggregates must meet ASTM C33 requirements
Specification for Concrete Aggregates, unless other require- for strength, durability, and workability. Only the gradation
ments are set by the specifier or by approved finish require- requirements may be waived to achieve the desired texture.
ments for architectural concrete. This specification includes Colors of aggregates for architectural concrete may vary
requirements for gradation and quality of fine aggregate considerably according to their geological classifications
(other than lightweight aggregate) for use in concrete. Some and even among rocks of one type. For this reason, once a
precasting plants and state departments of transportation have sample has been approved, no other aggregate source should
fine aggregate specifications different from ASTM C33 due be used unless shown to be equal in quality, gradation, and
to the properties of local materials. Fine aggregate should be color. Stockpiling of aggregates for an entire project will min-
ordered, tested, and used in accordance with the appropriate imize color variation caused by variability of material. Newly
specification. crushed aggregate will appear brighter than older material, but
Fine-aggregate suppliers should provide a gradation test it will dull slightly with time.
each month for each source. Each shipment received at the
3.1.4 Coarse Aggregates
plant should be visually inspected, and material with an
unacceptable gradation variation or contamination should be Coarse aggregates must conform to ASTM C33, Standard
rejected. Specification for Concrete Aggregates, unless other require-
Fine aggregate meeting the gradation requirements of ments are set by the owner or specifier. This specification
ASTM C33 is generally satisfactory (but not required) for includes requirements for gradation and quality of coarse
most precast concrete. Table 3.1 shows the ASTM C33 grada- aggregate (other than lightweight aggregate) for use in con-
tion limits with respect to sieve size. crete. Some state departments of transportation have coarse
Fineness modulus is an indication of fine-aggregate con- aggregate specifications different from ASTM C33 due to
sistency. The greater the fineness modulus, the more coarse the properties of local materials. Coarse aggregate should be
the aggregate. The fineness modulus should be computed (see ordered, tested, and used in accordance with the appropriate
specification.
Table 3.1 - Gradation Limits by Sieve Size Coarse aggregates should be ordered to conform to a spe-
Sieve size Percent passing by weight cific size and specification in accordance with purchasing stan-
dards outlined in the plant’s QSM. Coarse-aggregate suppliers
3
/8 in. 100
should provide the plant with a gradation analysis each month
No. 4 95 to 100
for each source to verify that it produces material consistent
No. 8 80 to 100 with the purchase specification. Each shipment must also be
No. 16 50 to 85 visually inspected. Material with a significant gradation varia-
No. 30 25 to 60 tion or contamination (such as clay or sedimentary rock) can
No. 50 10 to 30 be quickly spotted and rejected before it is used in production.
No. 100 2 to 10
Gradation testing by plant quality control is outlined in Sec-
tion 6.2.3 of this training manual. Table 3.2 shows gradation
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 36 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Table 3.2 - Grading requirements for coarse aggregates (ASTM C33)

Amounts finer than each laboratory sieve (square-openings), weight percent passing
Aggregate
size Nominal size (sieves No. 4 No. 8 No. 16
11/2 in. 1 in. 3
/4 in. 1
/2 in. 3
/8 in.
number with square openings)
1
/4 in. 1
/8 in. 1
/16 in.
(38 mm) (25 mm) (19 mm) (13 mm) (10 mm)
(6 mm) (3 mm) (2 mm)
1 to 1/2 in.
5 100 90 to 100 20 to 55 0 to 10 0 to 5 - - -
(25 to 13 mm)
1 to 3/8 in.
56 100 90 to 100 40 to 85 10 to 40 0 to 15 0 to 5 - -
(25 to 10 mm)
57 1 in. (25 mm) to no. 4 100 95 to 100 - 25 to 60 - 0 to 10 0 to 5 -
3
/4 in. to /8 in.
3
6 - 100 90 to 100 20 to 55 0 to 15 0 to 5 - -
(19 to 10 mm)
67 /4 in. (19 mm) to no. 4
3
- 100 90 to 100 - 25 to 55 0 to 10 0 to 5 -
7 /2 in. (13 mm) to no. 4
1
- - 100 90 to 100 40 to 70 0 to 15 0 to 5 -
8 3
/8 in. 10 mm) to no. 8 - - - 100 85 to 100 10 to 30 0 to 10 0 to 5
requirements for common sizes of coarse aggregate. The maximum size of coarse aggregate must not exceed:
Aggregates can have properties that react with concrete
components under certain conditions. These reactions can • one-third of the minimum cross-section thickness of
have detrimental effects on the concrete. Two of the most the concrete member;
common types of reactivity are known as Alkali-Silica Reac- • three-fourths of the minimum clear depth of concrete
tion, (ASR) and Alkali-Carbonate Reaction, (ACR). Specifi- cover over reinforcing; and
cations may require certain ASTM tests to be performed on • two-thirds of the spacing between reinforcing bars,
aggregates to determine if the concrete mixture will conform strands, or ducts.
to the requirements of the specifications. The inspection of
aggregates for use in concrete should comply with any addi- These limits are to ensure that the concrete can freely flow
tional testing requirements and possible changes in the mix in the forms and around all reinforcement.
designs to mitigate the effects of these reactions. Aggregates
3.1.5 Aggregates for Lightweight Concrete
considered for use in concrete should be evaluated for reactiv-
ity by petrographic analysis in accordance with ASTM C295. Aggregates for lightweight concrete must conform to
In addition, ASTM C1293, ASTM C1260 and ASTM C1567 ASTM C330, Standard Specification for Lightweight Aggre-
are common tests to determine the ASR potential for concrete gates for Structural Concrete. This specification defines the
made with combinations of proposed aggregates, cements, requirements for grading and quality of lightweight aggre-
pozzolans and admixtures. gates for use in concrete. Lightweight aggregates must con-
Coarse aggregates for architectural concrete vary from form to ASTM C330, except as modified by MNL-116, sec-
those used in typical structural concrete in a number of ways. tions 6.2.2 and 6.2.3. Structural-lightweight-aggregate suppli-
Coarse aggregates for architectural concrete are not required ers must provide the manufacturing plant with certified test
to meet the gradation requirements of ASTM C33. However, reports indicating material conformance to applicable ASTM
once the gradation requirements for a given mixture are estab- standards and the purchase specification.
lished, they must remain within tolerance for the duration of Structural lightweight aggregates are much more porous
the project. Although coarse aggregates used in architectural than normalweight aggregates. As a result, they may absorb
mixtures are typically selected based on a visual inspection of 5% to 20% water by weight of dry material. To prevent rapid
concrete samples provided by the precaster, the coarse aggre- slump loss due to water absorption in the mixer, lightweight
gates must meet ASTM C33 requirements for strength, dura- aggregates must be pre-wetted prior to batching. Aggregates
bility, and workability. Only the gradation requirements may with moisture levels above saturated surface dry will con-
be waived to achieve the desired texture. Coarse aggregates tribute water to the mixture and alter the water-cement ratio;
for architectural concrete are usually gap graded, meaning therefore, mixture proportions should be adjusted during
that most of the aggregate are the same size, and there are batching.
gaps between different sizes rather than a uniform gradation.
3.1.6 Mixing Water
Colors of coarse aggregates for architectural concrete may
vary considerably according to their geological classifications Almost any natural water that is drinkable (potable) and has
and even among rocks of one type. For this reason, once a no pronounced taste or odor can be used as mixing water for
sample has been approved, no other aggregate source should making concrete. Impurities in mixing water may affect set-
be used unless shown to be equal in quality, gradation, and ting time, strength, efflorescence, staining, volume change,
color. Stockpiling of coarse aggregates for an entire project and durability. Therefore, non-potable water must meet the
will minimize color variation caused by variability of material. chemical limits given in Table C3.1.6 of PCI MNL-116 and
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 37 10/2/14 11:02 AM

MNL-117. Table C3.1.6 also references the corresponding mizes freezing and thawing damage to the concrete.
ASTM test methods to be used for determining the chemical
Retarding admixtures
concentrations.
Mixing water from a source other than a municipal water Retarding admixtures must conform to ASTM C494, Stan-
supply should be tested annually. This testing includes mak- dard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.
ing and testing mortar cube samples by ASTM C109. Sea- This specification defines the qualities of and methods for
water or any other water known to contain concentrations of testing retarding admixtures.
harmful substances, such as chlorides, must not be used. Retarding admixtures can be used to:
Potable or non-potable water may be used to wash out mix-
ers and trucks. However, government regulations prohibit dis- • offset the adverse effects of hot weather (ambient tem-
charging untreated wash water into waterways. As a result, peratures that exceed 85 oF (29 ºC)) by delaying the
retention ponds are used for staged settling of particulates. initial set of the concrete and maintaining workability
Wash water may be used as mixing water only if it meets the for a longer period of time;
requirements after treatment. • slow the rate of temperature rise and lower the peak
temperature in mass concrete to reduce thermal crack-
3.1.7 Admixtures
ing; and
Admixtures influence the reaction (or modify the physical • eliminate cold joints where difficult placing conditions
properties) of the concrete. All admixtures must meet applica- exist.
ble ASTM specifications. Performance of a given brand, class,
or type of admixture may be determined through one or more Some reduction in strength at early ages (one to three days)
of the following three sources: may be expected. However, the strengths at later ages are not
affected.
• A history of use, preferably with the same materials
Accelerating admixtures
under similar conditions as those expected
• Technical literature and information from the admix- Accelerating admixtures must conform to ASTM C494,
ture manufacturer Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Con-
• Laboratory tests to evaluate the admixture crete. This specification defines the qualities of and methods
for testing accelerating admixtures.
Technical literature from the manufacturer should indicate Accelerating admixtures are used to accelerate normal set-
whether or not the admixture contains chloride ions. Admix- ting time and to increase early compressive strengths. Only
tures containing chloride ions, other than trace impurities non-chloride and non-corrosive accelerating admixtures are
from the admixture ingredients, must not be used because allowed to be used in precast/prestressed concrete. Examples
chloride ions cause corrosion of steel embedments, reinforc- are triethanolamine, sodium thiocyanate, calcium formate,
ing steel, and prestressing strands. Chlorides are harmful to calcium nitrite, and calcium nitrate. Calcium chloride must
reinforced and prestressed concrete, so the exact amount con- never be used in precast/prestressed concrete products
tained in an admixture must be known. because chloride ions induce corrosion of steel reinforcement,
When two or more admixtures are used in a mixture, their prestressing strands, and steel embedments. ASTM C494
compatibility must be checked to ensure proper performance. classifies these accelerators as Type C or as Type E when in
Some admixtures cannot be used together, and most of them combination with a water-reducing admixture.
have specific dosing requirements. It is good practice to have
Water-reducing admixtures
all your admixtures come from the same supplier to avoid
incompatibilities. Water-reducing admixtures must conform to ASTM C494,
Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.
Air-entraining admixtures
This specification defines the qualities of the materials used as
Air-entraining admixtures must conform to ASTM C260, chemical admixtures for concrete.
Standard Specification for Air‑Entraining Admixtures for Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the amount of
Concrete. mixing water needed while maintaining workability. This low-
Air-entraining admixtures are used to substantially improve ers the water-cement ratio and generally increases strengths.
the durability of concrete that is subjected to freezing and Water-reducing admixtures can also be used to obtain a speci-
thawing cycles and to improve the concrete’s resistance to sur- fied strength with less cement or to increase the slump of a
face scaling caused by deicing salts, sulfate attack, and corro- mixture without adding additional water.
sive water. Air entrainment will also reduce permeability (the
High-range water-reducing admixtures
ease with which liquid passes through concrete), reduce seg-
regation and bleeding, and improve plasticity and workability. High-range water-reducing admixtures, also called super-
Air-entraining admixtures create microscopic air bubbles plasticizers, must conform to ASTM C494, Standard Speci-
throughout the cement paste to provide the specified air con- fication for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, and ASTM
tent in the hardened concrete. The entrained air provides voids C1017 Type 1 or 2, Standard Specification for Chemical
capable of relieving pressures from freezing water and mini- Admixtures for Use in Producing Flowable Concrete.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 38 10/2/14 11:02 AM

These specifications define the qualities and methods for test- protective barrier. Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures prevent or
ing high-range water-reducing admixtures that produce flowing delay the corrosion of steel embedded within the concrete.
concrete. Flowing may be defined as highly workable concrete The most common corrosion-inhibiting admixture is calcium
(slump greater than 71⁄2 in. [190 mm]) that can be placed with nitrite.
less vibration and does not segregate or produce excessive bleed
Pigments
water when placed according to recommended guidelines. Gen-
erally, slumps should be less than 91⁄2 in. to avoid segregation, Coloring agents must conform to ASTM C979, Standard
unless a viscosity modifier is used. Specification for Pigments for Integrally Colored Concrete.
High-range water-reducing admixtures are generally used This specification defines the qualities and methods for test-
to produce concrete with the following properties: ing pigments. Pigments are commonly formulated with car-
bon black, natural iron oxide, synthetic iron oxide, chromium
• Compressive strengths above 6000 psi (41 MPa) oxide, titanium dioxide, and cobalt blue.
• High early strengths The various natural and synthetic materials used as coloring
• Reduced chloride-ion permeability agents may affect the physical characteristics of the concrete;
• Increased workability, which may last only 30 to 60 therefore, tests should be performed before a pigment is used
minutes, followed by rapid slump loss to determine color fastness, chemical stability, and its effects
Admixtures for self-consolidating concrete (SCC) may on the concrete properties.
consist of a high-range water-reducing admixture and may
3.1.8 Curing Materials
also include a viscosity-modifying admixture to keep the
aggregate suspended in the concrete. Curing materials are used to prevent moisture loss during
concrete curing. These materials are in two broad categories.
Self Consolodating Concrete (SCC)
Curing compounds
SCC concrete is a highly fluid mixture that minimizes
segregation while providing a workable concrete requiring Curing compounds must conform to ASTM C309, Standard
little or no vibration during placement. The admixtures that Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming Compounds for
produce SCC are called plasticizers and are required to meet Curing Concrete. Most liquid membrane-forming compounds
the provisions of ASTM C1017. SCC has a limited working are formulated of waxes, resins, and chlorinated rubber, and
time which is approximately 30 - 60 minutes, depending upon are typically clear or white pigmented. The clear compounds
the type of admixture used, temperature of the concrete and may contain a temporary dye that disappears shortly after
other admixtures or properties of the mix design. Plasticizers application. The pigments and dye allow a visual check for
can affect the air content of the fresh and hardened concrete. complete coverage of the concrete surface. Even a small hole
This type of concrete can have larger air voids that are spaced in the membrane allows water vapor to escape.
farther apart, which may have an affect on freeze-thaw resis-
Sheet materials
tance.
Sheet materials must conform to ASTM C171, Standard
Testing of fresh SCC is slightly different than testing of Specification for Sheet Materials for Curing Concrete. Plastic
regular concrete. The conventional slump test is replaced sheets are the most common vapor barriers used in the precast
by a slump flow test (ASTM C1611), which evaluates the concrete industry. Polyethylene film with a minimum thick-
flowability of SCC by observing diameter of the spread (or ness of 4 mil (100 µm) is a lightweight material that is easy
flow) of the mixture. The flow rate, viscosity, and stability of to install. Clear or white opaque films should typically be
fresh SCC are evaluated according to Appendix X1 of ASTM used; however, black film may be used indoors at any time or
C1611. ASTM C1612 is used to evaluate the ability of SCC to outdoors during cool weather to absorb the sun’s rays. White
pass through a device that simulates a reinforcing cage. There burlap laminated with a 4 mil (100 µm) polyethylene sheet is
are several other tests of SCC which may be required for spe- another example of a suitable sheet material.
cific projects. The project specifications should list the types
of tests required 3.2 Reinforcement and Hardware
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures
3.2.1 Reinforcing Steel
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures must conform to the gen-
eral requirements for all admixtures in ASTM C494. ASTM Uncoated reinforcing steel
G109 is a test method to evaluate the effectiveness of chemi-
Uncoated reinforcing steel should conform to ASTM speci-
cal admixtures on corrosion protection of reinforced concrete.
fications. The following are the most commonly used in the
Some specifications may require the corrosion inhibitor to be
United States. Table C3.2.1 in MNL-116 shows English to
tested using the ASTM G109 procedure.
Metric conversions for all bar sizes.
Concrete (due to the alkalinity of cement) naturally protects
embedded steel by forming a thin protective film around the
• ASTM A615/A615M, Specification for Deformed and
steel, but carbonation can reduce the alkalinity of cement or
Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
chloride ions can penetrate the concrete and break down this
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 39 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Section 2.3 of this training manual and MNL‑116. Reinforc-

ing bars have deformations to enhance the bond of the sur-
rounding concrete. The bars are marked by the manufacturer
with:
• a symbol designating the producing mill;

• the bar size;
• a symbol for the bar type (ASTM A615, ASTM A616,
ASTM A617, ASTM A706); and
• a grade mark indicating the yield strength.
Figure 3.3 illustrates these marks.

The ASTM A706/A706M specification was first published
in 1974 and was developed in response to the need for weld-
able reinforcing bars. The material in A706 bars is intended to
be welded, and the amount of all alloys and chemicals must
be within specified limits. The mill certificates must list the
carbon equivalent for the bars. Markings on these bars will
include the letter W. Some preheat may be required for weld-
ing based on the carbon equivalent and bar size.
As shipments of reinforcing bars are received, the correspond-
ing mill certificates must be reviewed to confirm that the bar
size and grade conform to the purchase specifications and proj-
ect requirements. If the bars are to be welded, then the welding
criteria must be determined and the steel marked accordingly.
Reinforcing bars should also be visually reviewed for their
general condition upon receipt at the precasting plant. A cer-
tain degree of mill scale, as well as some rusting, is usually
acceptable. However, bars should not have excessive pitting
or loss of section caused by rusting. If either finger pressure or
light rubbing easily removes the rust and no significant pitting
is observed, the bars are acceptable.
Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel
Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel must conform to one of the
Fig. 3.3 - Identification marks, ASTM standard bars following:
• ASTM A775, Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated

• ASTM A616/A616M, Specification for Rail-
Reinforcing Steel Bars. This specification is for bars
Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete
that may be bent after coating.
Reinforcement
• ASTM A934, Standard Specification for Epoxy-
• ASTM A617/A617M, Specification for Axle
Coated, Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars. This
Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete
specification is for bars that are bent before coating.
Reinforcement
They may not be bent after coating.
• ASTM A706/A706M, Specification for Low Alloy
Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
These specifications detail the epoxy requirements for coat-
• ASTM A1035/A1035M, Standard Specification for
ing thickness, coating continuity, coating flexibility, and coat-
Deformed and Plain, Low-Carbon, Chromium, Steel
ing adhesion. The epoxy coating is applied within eight hours
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
of cleaning the bars in preparation for coating. Coating thick-
ness varies from 7 mils (180 µm) to 12 mils (300 µm). The
Reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM A615/A615M are
coating is to be free of pinholes, voids, cracks, and damaged
normally used in precast/prestressed concrete products. Rein-
areas visible to the unaided eye after curing.
forcing bars conforming to ASTM A616/A616M and ASTM
During shipment, some damage to the coating will occur.
A617/A617M are less common. Weldability of the bars is
Coating damage is not required to be repaired if the damaged
not included in these ASTM specifications. Requirements
area is 0.1 in.2 (65 mm2) or smaller. All damaged areas larger than
for determining weldability and welding procedures for these
0.1 in.2 (65 mm2) are to be repaired with patching material. The
bars must be determined using the American Welding Society
maximum amount of damage is not to exceed 2% of the sur-
specification AWS D1.4 and the welding practices covered in
face area of the bar. Particular care must be exercised during
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 40 10/2/14 11:02 AM

handling and storage to prevent damage to the epoxy coating. 3.2.2 Prestressing Materials
Epoxy coatings exposed to sunlight for long periods of time
may fade and lose color. Some specifications or coating-material Tendons
suppliers limit direct sun exposure to two months or less. This
Tendon is the general name for all types of prestressing
time limit applies to epoxy-coated bars in storage and exposed
bars, wires, or strands whether used individually or in groups.
projecting reinforcement in stored precast concrete members.
This manual will refer to prestressing strands because they are
Epoxy-coated bars should be tied using plastic-coated tie
the most common type of tendon used in a precasting plant.
wire, handled properly, and supported with plastic chairs to
prevent damaging the coating. Strands
Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing steel The most common specification for prestressing strand is
ASTM A416/416M, Standard Specification for Steel Strand,
Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcement must conform
Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete. Other, less-
to ASTM A767, Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated
common specifications exist for steel wire, epoxy-coated
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. This specification
strand, and indented strand.
has two classes of zinc coating weights. Class II (2.0 oz/ft2
ASTM A416/A416M establishes the size, breaking strength,
[200 mL/m2]) is normally specified for bars used in precast
nominal cross-sectional area, nominal weight, and elonga-
concrete members. This specification also prescribes the mini-
tion requirements for the strands. The specification includes
mum bend diameters for bars that are galvanized after fabrica-
grades 250 (1700 MPa) and 270 (1900 MPa) stress-relieved
tion. The requirements of the specification must be followed
and low-relaxation strands.
to prevent damage to the bars or fabricated assemblies.
Mill certificates providing the actual cross-sectional area
Welded-wire reinforcement and modulus of elasticity must be provided for all strand
packs. Both of these properties are used in the tensioning
Welded-wire reinforcement must conform to one of the fol-
calculations. Low-relaxation strands have a greater mini-
lowing specifications:
mum yield strength than stress-relieved strands, so the mate-
rial must be identified as low relaxation or stress relieved on
• ASTM A185, Specification for Steel Welded-Wire Fab-
the mill certificate. Mill certificates must also indicate that
ric, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
prestressing strands meet the minimum specified acceptance
• ASTM A497, Specification for Steel Welded-Wire Fab-
criteria when tested in accordance with ASTM A1081-12
ric, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
(formerly the National Strand Producers Association test pro-
The wires for welded-wire reinforcement must conform to:
cedure). This is an important aspect that must be included on
the mill certificates and will allow plants to reject strand that
• ASTM A82, Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for
is not certified. In addition, PCI recommends that producers
Concrete Reinforcement
test for strand bond on each of their production mixes using
• ASTM A496, Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed,
the procedure commonly known as The Peterman Test. The
for Concrete Reinforcement.
Peterman Test is described in the May 2009 issue of PCI Jour-
nal (pages 143 - 161).
Welded-wire reinforcement is designated by the spacing
When strand shipments are received at the precasting plant,
and size of the wires. The wires are welded together at all
the mill certificates from the supplier should be reviewed for
intersections by electrical resistance welding. Spacing of indi-
conformance with the purchase requirements. The strand
vidual wires in the reinforcemenet may not vary more than
packs should be inspected to confirm they are properly tagged
1
/4 in. (6 mm) from that specified. Welds of overlapping wires
and identified. The tag should show the manufacturer, strand
must withstand normal shipping. Broken welds must not
size, grade, and heat number.
exceed 1% of the total number of joints in a sheet or 1% of
Strand should be inspected for rust, nicks, and kinks because
the total number of joints in 150 ft2 (14 m2) of rolled material.
these can adversely affect the performance of the material.
In addition, not more than half of the permissible maximum
Light rusting is generally acceptable if the strand is not pitted.
number of broken welds in a sheet or roll may be located in
Section 5.1.2 of this training manual describes the evaluation
any one wire.
of strand rust.
Each bundle of flat sheets and each roll must have a suitable
Kinks or nicks in strands, bars, or wire provide an area
tag attached with the name of the manufacturer, description of
where stress concentrations occur, and the material can break.
the material, and any other information specified by the pur-
Strand received with kinks or nicks should not be accepted.
chase agreement. Rust that has not excessively pitted the wire
Handling procedures at the precasting plant must avoid nick-
surface may be acceptable.
ing or kinking the strands or wire as they are moved in the
Welded-wire reinforcement can be smooth or deformed and
plant or set up for stressing.
may be epoxy-coated or galvanized. Requirements for han-
dling, evaluating, and repairing the coatings are similar to those Prestressing steel anchorages
described for reinforcing steel.
Strand chucks (barrels, vises, and spring caps) for preten-
sioning must be designed and manufactured to withstand the
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 41 10/2/14 11:02 AM

stresses imposed by the stressed strand. ing be applied. Corrosion protection should consist of one of
the following:
• Strand jaws must withstand at least 95% of the strand’s
ultimate strength. • Shop primer paint
• Strand barrels must withstand at least 100% of the • Zinc-rich paint
strand’s ultimate strength. • Zinc metalizing or plating
• Cadmium plating
These devices must positively anchor the strand without • Hot-dip galvanizing
slippage after seating. The same brand and size of jaws, bar- • Epoxy coating
rels, and caps must always be used together. The strand chuck • Use of stainless steel
use and maintenance procedures are listed in appendix D of
MNL-116. The appropriate ASTM or project specification for the
Post-tensioning tendon anchorages must meet the minimum desired coating must be followed.
strength and tendon elongation requirements stated in section
3.2.4 Handling and Lifting Devices
3.2.2 of MNL-116. Anchorage castings must be nonporous
and free of sand, blowholes, voids, and other defects. Anchor- Lifting devices generally fall into three categories:
ages should be inspected for such defects when received and
rejected if necessary. • Strand loops
• Standard manufactured inserts
Ducts and sheathing
• Smooth bars
Ducts for bonded post-tensioned tendons must be strong
enough to hold its shape, resist irreparable damage during pro- Reinforcing bars must never be used as lifting devices because
duction, and prevent the entrance of excessive cement paste they are brittle and may fail due to sudden impact loads, such as
and water during casting of the concrete. Ducts for bonded those encountered during stripping and handling.
tendons must be reviewed for dimensional conformance to Strand loops are widely used in the industry for lifting pre-
design parameters. cast concrete products. The number of strand loops required
Grout for bonded post-tensioned tendons is generally a is determined by considering the total of the expected load
mixture of cement, water, and a shrinkage-compensating from product weight and impact forces due to stripping and
admixture. If the cross-sectional area of the sheathing is more handling. When more than one loop per pickup point is used,
than four times the post-tensioned tendon’s cross section, fine all strands must be similarly bent and positioned to ensure
aggregate may be added to the grout. that even distribution of load occurs among loops. Two or
Sheathing for unbonded tendons (non-grouted) must be more strands should be encased in a conduit before bend-
polypropylene, high-density polyethylene, or other plastic that ing to ensure alignment. Strands undergo physical changes
is not reactive with concrete, tendon coating, or tendon steel. when bent into loops; therefore, care should be exercised with
Tendons are normally received at the precasting plant already multiple bending. Shop drawings should clearly define loop
sheathed and must be inspected at delivery to confirm full dimensions for fabrication and placement or refer to a stan-
sheathing of the tendon. The tendon or strand is coated with dard detail developed by the plant’s engineering department.
grease or other approved bond breaker and then the sheathing Specialized prefabricated inserts or lifting devices for use
is placed continuously over the coated strand. The coating for in the precast concrete industry are available from numerous
the strand must be chemically stable and non-reactive to the ten- companies. Device manufacturers should provide test data
don, the concrete, or the sheath. The coating must fill the annular and ultimate or safe-working load ratings to guide engineers
space between the sheathing and the strand. in the selection of appropriate inserts. Many different types
of inserts are available for use in precast concrete. The manu-
3.2.3 Hardware and Miscellaneous Materials
facturer’s recommendations are critical if the devices are to
Various materials may be used for connection items, inserts, perform as designed.
lifting devices, or other apparatus. Size and yield-strength Permanent connection hardware may sometimes be used
data should be provided to the project architect or engineer for for handling, keeping in mind OSHA requirements for safety
approval. Material suppliers should furnish mill certificates. factors which may be lower than the connection load factors.
These must be reviewed as the material is received and should In this case, the hardware must be properly designed to ensure
also be inspected for general conformance to the specific that connection damage or product damage does not occur.
shapes and the quantities requested. Consideration must be given to concrete strength at the time
All metallic surfaces exposed to the weather or subject to of stripping the product from the form. Stresses due to strip-
corrosive conditions while in service should be protected by ping and handling may exceed in-service stresses. The engi-
or made with non‑corrosive materials. Corrosion damage can neer must address this and make allowance in the number and
cause spalling and can significantly reduce the strength of the position of lifting devices to limit stresses in the devices and
member. When coatings are used, care should be taken to pro- the concrete.
tect the coating as much as possible during handling. Damage
may still occur, requiring that a touch-up of the original coat-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 42 10/2/14 11:02 AM

3.3 Insulation or AWS A5.20.

SMAW is a versatile method for welding several base met-
ASTM C578 defines properties for many types of rigid, cel-
als. The process uses an electrode made of a core wire sur-
lular, expanded and extruded polystyrene insulation for use as
rounded by flux, which is a clay-like mixture. The flux pro-
thermal insulation at temperatures between -65 °F (54 °C) and
vides shielding for the core wire and adds specific chemicals
165 °F (74 °C). The insulation material may warp or melt if
to the weld.
concrete temperatures exceed product limits during concrete
Low-hydrogen welding electrodes are packaged in hermeti-
curing. Insulation must conform to ASTM specifications for
cally sealed containers to prevent contamination until first
material production and should be inspected upon receipt to
used. Electrodes in sealed containers can be stored indefinitely
confirm that the type and size agree with the purchase order.
without danger of moisture absorption. Once opened, these
Material not meeting these requirements must be rejected.
electrodes must be stored in ovens set at the recommended
Expanded polystyrene, also known as beadboard, is fre-
temperatures in accordance with AWS standards (AWS D1.1)
quently used as insulation in precast concrete sandwich pan-
to prevent moisture absorption into the flux from ambient
els. This insulation is formed by the expansion of polystyrene
humidity. Moisture adversely affects the covering’s ability to
beads or granules in a closed mold. It is usually white in color
adequately stabilize the arc, displace air, and insulate the hot
and is normally purchased in 4 ft × 8 ft (1.2 m × 2.4 m) or 4 ft
weld metal, thereby reducing the quality of the weld. In addi-
× 10 ft (1.2 m × 3.0 m) boards; although some manufacturers
tion, moisture adds hydrogen to the molten weld pool and has
will cut special, customized sizes. Density of the boards must
the potential to cause brittle welds. Electrodes that become
be in conformance with project specifications.
wet should be discarded.
Extruded polystyrene insulation boards are also widely
Electrodes that are not low-hydrogen must not be kept in a
used in precast concrete sandwich panels. This insulation is
drying oven. They should be stored at room temperature.
formed by the expansion of polystyrene beads or granules in
GMAW and FCAW are different processes, but have simi-
an extrusion process. Boards may be blue, pink, yellow, or
larities with regard to application and equipment. Electrodes
green depending on the manufacturer. They are available in
for the GMAW process are solid and all of the shielding gas
2 ft × 8 ft (0.6 m × 2.4 m) or 4 ft × 8 ft (1.2 m × 2.4 m) sizes.
is supplied by an external source. Electrodes for the FCAW
Some manufacturers may also supply larger boards. Density
process are tubular and contain some or all of the flux.
of the boards must be in conformance with project specifica-
Upon receipt of a new shipment, a welder should inspect the
tions.
materials to determine that proper items were received. Using
ASTM C591 defines properties for unfaced, preformed,
the wrong electrodes or gas could greatly reduce the quality
rigid, cellular polyisocyanurate thermal insulation and also
and the capacity of a weld.
encompasses polyurethane insulation. Both materials may
be used as thermal insulation at temperatures below 225 ºF
3.5 Headed Studs
(107 ºC); however, they are seldom used in precast concrete
sandwich panels. Both types of insulation are produced by a Headed studs are welded to plates that are embedded in
chemical reaction and are classified into one of three types. fresh concrete to anchor structural components. Headed studs
come in many lengths and diameters and can be made of many
• Type I – compressive resistance at yield = 16 psi types of materials. Most studs used in precast concrete range
(0.11 MPa) minimum from 3/8" - 1" in diameter and 3"-8" long. The most com-
• Type II – compressive resistance at yield = 25 psi mon type of stud is the mild steel stud and must conform to
(0.17 MPa) minimum ASTM A-108. Each stud material, whether it be stainless steel
• Type III – compressive resistance at yield = 50 psi or aluminum must adhere to ASTM specifications that are
(0.34 MPa) minimum specific to the material used in making the stud. Welding of
ASTM C1126 applies to faced or unfaced, rigid, cellular headed studs must be in accordance with AWS D1.1 and test-
phenolic thermal insulation in either board or tubular form. ing of welded assemblies must follow the PCI Quality Control
Phenolic thermal insulation is not customarily used in precast Manual for frequency and type of testing. The type of stud
concrete sandwich panels. Materials covered by this specifi- used must be determined by the engineer and must be called
cation are used as roof insulation, sheathing, or rigid board out on the drawing of the specific assembly being fabricated.
for non-load-bearing building material applications and pipe Any assembly that fails the stud test should be discarded or
insulation where temperatures are between -40 ºF (-40 ºC) and reworked.
257 ºF (125 ºC). The foam is produced by a chemical reaction
of a phenolic resin, surfactant, blowing agent, and other addi-
tives as needed.
3.4 Welding Electrodes

Electrodes for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) must
conform to the requirements of AWS A5.1 or A5.5. Electrodes
and the shielding for gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and
flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) must conform to AWS A5.18
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 43 10/2/14 11:02 AM

1. You will need early strength from a concrete mixture design in order to strip the product as soon as possible. What type
of cement should you consider and what characteristic of this cement make it a good choice?
2. Fine and coarse aggregates should generally conform to which standard?
3. How are fine and coarse aggregates defined by the standard and how does a plant check these criteria?
4. Nondrinkable water should not be used to make concrete – true or false? Explain.
5. As a general statement, what are admixtures?
6. Chlorides are detrimental to precast concrete because:
a. chlorides limit the amount of entrained air that can be produced in a concrete mixture
b. chlorides promote corrosion of embedments, reinforcing, and prestressing strand
c. chlorides limit the ability of concrete slump to reach desired levels
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 44 10/2/14 11:02 AM

7. Which of the following is not a benefit of using retarders as admixtures?
a. Reduction of 28-day strength

b. Offset the adverse effects of hot weather (ambient temperature that exceeds 85 ºF (29 ºC)) by delaying the setting
of concrete and maintaining the workability for a longer period of time
c. Slow the rate of temperature rise in mass concrete and lower the peak temperature, thereby reducing thermal crack-
ing
d. Delay initial set for special finishes such as exposed aggregate
8. Pozzolans are beneficial in concrete because:
a. they provide for water disposal

b. they make the mixture less sticky for finishing
c. they react with calcium hydroxide to provide cementitious benefits
d. they increase early strength development of the concrete mixture
9. Concrete placing temperature should be maintained at an appropriate level because:
a. lowering temperature may delay hydration of the cement

b. lowering temperature will require more energy to set
c. early strength development may be delayed
d. All of the above
10. The general specification for prestressed strand is:
a. ASTM A767
b. ASTM A775
c. ASTM A185
d. ASTM A416
11. Low-alkali cement has an equivalent Na20 content of less than:
a. 3.0 %
b. 1.2%
c. 0.1%
d. 0.6%
12. Which one of the following answers is NOT a good reason for using air-entraining admixtures?
a. Improves durability
b. Resists surface scaling
c. Reduces permeability
d. Increases segregation
13. Which one of the following is NOT a result of using water reducers?
a. Increases workability
b. Increases compressive strength
c. Decreases slump
14. What is the maximum fineness modulus variation allowed from the established base value for the fine aggregate?
a. ±0.1
b. ±0.2
c. ±0.3
d. ±2.0
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 45 10/2/14 11:02 AM

15. You have received some reinforcing steel that conforms to ASTM A615. What must you do, if anything, prior to using
this material in a welded assembly?
16. You have some reinforcing bar in your storage area that is marked with a W. What does this mean?
17. You have received some wire mesh that you ordered as a 6 in. x 6 in. (150 mm x 150 mm) grid. The grid spacing on one
stack of sheets ranges from 53/4 in. (146 mm) to 61/4 in. (159 mm), while the spacing on a second stack ranges from 51/4
in. (133 mm) to 61/2 in. (165 mm). Which stack, if either, is acceptable according to specification ASTM A185?
18. You have received a stack of welded-wire fabric sheets 8 ft x 12 ft (2.4 m x 3.7 m). The grid in both directions is a 6 in.
(150 mm) grid. As you examine the stacks of mesh sheets, you notice there are broken welds. The number of these breaks
ranges from three to seven per sheet. Is there a level of acceptable breakage in accordance with the applicable ASTM
standard, and if so, which of these sheets should have an acceptable level of breakage?
19. You need to order some headed steel studs for use on an upcoming project. What is the applicable ASTM standard for
the material from which these studs will be manufactured?
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 46 10/2/14 11:02 AM

20. When evaluating a new source for coarse aggregate or if your supplier is changing his particular source, what testing
should be performed, if any, on the aggregate material?
21. Name the types of admixtures identified as high-range water-reducing admixtures. What is the general specification
number of which those types are a sub-group?
22. Mixing water from a source other than a municipal water supply should be tested:
a. once
b. every 6 months
c. every 5 years
d. annually
23. Name five advantages of using pozzolans.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 47 10/2/14 11:02 AM

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 48 10/2/14 11:02 AM

CONCRETE AND CURING CHAPTER 4
Chapter 4 – Concrete and (SCC) are given in the current edition of Interim Guidelines
for the Use of Self-Consolidating Concrete in Precast/Pre-
Curing stressed Concrete Institute Member Plants (PCI TR-6). These
requirements are well beyond the scope of TM-101, but some
General general items are summarized in the following:
1. SCC shall be designed by a qualified private labora-
This chapter deals with some of the properties of fresh tory or concrete technologist.
and hardened concrete. It also discusses the testing, evaluat- 2. SCC shall be designed for the following plastic char-
ing, adjusting, and controlling of concrete as well as curing acteristics:
protection. • Filling ability – able to fill the forms without
Persons seeking PCI Level I certification should have a gen- vibration
eral understanding of concrete characteristics, such as water– • Stability – able to remain homogeneous during
cementitious materials ratio and strength gain during curing, placement
as well as placing, consolidating, finishing, and natural curing • Passing ability – able to flow through reinforce-
methods. PCI Level 1 individuals should also be able to evalu- ment without vibration or segregation
ate the moisture content of the aggregates used in the concrete 3. Three levels of testing are required for SCC:
and adjust the batch weights accordingly. • laboratory testing during design
Persons seeking PCI Level II certification must understand • testing to qualify the mixture for production use
the information described for Level I certification and should • testing during production (see Division 6).
also be able to understand accelerated curing, calculate basic
elongation and understand and account for prestressing cor- 4.1.3 Specified Concrete Strength
rection factors. The required concrete strength at different ages is specified
by the project architect or engineer, or determined by the pre-
4.1 Mix Proportioning cast concrete design engineer. In either case, conformance to
The design and proportioning of mixtures for precast con- the required strengths must be determined by testing. Con-
crete products is a very important part of the overall produc- crete strength is frequently specified at the following times for
tion process. The types and amounts of the materials used in the reasons given.
the concrete depend on the finish, type, size, and shape of the Release (stress transfer) strength
unit as well as its required strength, durability, and other nec-
essary performance characteristics. Concrete mixture propor- The concrete must be strong enough for structural integrity
tioning is covered in TM-103. and to bond to the prestressing strands at detensioning. This
strength is determined by the precast concrete design engineer
4.1.1 General and is usually at least 3500 psi (24 MPa), but it may be higher
The preparation of mixture proportions and the further eval- depending on the number of strands or other factors. Release
uation of fresh and hardened concrete are included in Level III strength should be shown on the production drawings for each
of the PCI Plant Quality Personnel Certification Program and piece.
are discussed in TM-103. Stripping strength
4.1.2 Qualification of New Concrete Mixtures When the unit is stripped from the form or mold, the con-
The procedures for designing concrete include testing and sta- crete must have sufficient strength to resist cracking and spall-
tistical analysis of trial batches to ensure that the final mixture ing due to stresses created by stripping and handling. The
will meet all of the performance requirements. These trials must minimum required strength for proper performance of the lift-
conform to ASTM C192 and should be performed by qualified ing devices is also considered. Stripping strength should be
concrete technologists. Variables include the type of cement, shown on the production drawings for each piece.
source and gradation of aggregates, and brands of admixtures. Seven-day strength
Changes in these variables require reevaluation of the mixture.
Mixtures for structural precast concrete products are pro- The strength of the concrete at 7 days may be tested to indi-
portioned primarily for strength and durability. Mixtures for cate how the mixture will perform at 28 days. A general rule-
architectural concrete products are proportioned for their of-thumb is to expect the 7-day strength to be approximately
appearance, including finish, color, and texture, in addition to 70% of the 28-day strength.
strength, durability, and weathering characteristics. Shipping strength
Guidelines for mixture proportioning are given in detail
in the Portland Cement Association’s Design and Control of Production and erection sequencing sometimes require
Concrete Mixtures, and the American Concrete Institute pub- that units be loaded and shipped to the jobsite before they
lication Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Nor- reach their full design strength. In these cases, the minimum
mal, Heavy-Weight and Mass Concrete (ACI 211.1). strength required to allow the units to resist the stresses of
Additional requirements for self-consolidating concrete shipping and erection are calculated by the precast concrete
design engineer. Shipping strength may be shown on the
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 49 10/2/14 11:02 AM

CHAPTER 4 CONCRETE AND CURING
production drawings or transmitted in writing to storage and tions exist to test for ASR prevention: ASTM C1567
transportation personnel. Accelerated mortar bar test using blended cements,
and ASTM C1293 Determination of length change of
28-day strength
concrete due to Alkali Silica Reaction.
Most concrete gains strength very rapidly during the first • Some aggregates contain iron or other compounds
hours and days after casting. The strength gain slows, but does that are subject to rusting, staining, or deterioration
not stop completely for many weeks or months. Twenty-eight (sometimes called pop-outs or bleeders). They should
days is the usual age for concrete to meet its design strength. not be used in precast concrete that will be exposed to
The project specifications and the individual unit’s design weather.
determine the required 28-day strength, which must be shown • Precast concrete that will be exposed to corrosive envi-
on the production drawings. High-performance concrete may ronments, deicing salts, excessive moisture, very low
specify a later age to reach design strength such as 56 or 120 temperatures, or other severe exposures must be pro-
days. portioned to resist these conditions.
It is the plant’s responsibility to use a concrete that will • Aggregate suppliers should provide ASTM C33 and
meet the specifications and design requirements for each proj- ASTM C1260 test results to confirm how the aggre-
ect. Lost production time can result from a concrete that does gates react with the cement. These records should be
not gain the required release or stripping strength within a rea- kept on file.
sonable amount of time. Likewise, low 28-day strengths can
4.1.6 Special Consideration for Air
result in expensive, additional tests and may cause rejection
Entrainment
of the unit.
Water expands as it freezes. Water that is present in concrete
4.1.4 Statistical Concrete Strength
will expand and create internal stresses that will lead to crack-
Considerations
ing and deterioration unless the stresses can be relieved. Air-
Actual concrete strength is determined using compression entraining admixtures create individual microscopic air bub-
cylinders. If the tested strength is below the specified strength, bles in the concrete. These bubbles do two important things in
quality control must notify engineering or management. The the hardened concrete.
actual strength of frequently used mixtures should be recorded
daily. The strength level is considered satisfactory if the aver- • They interrupt and block many of the small capillaries
age of any three consecutive 4" x 8" cylinder tests (two con- (microscopic tunnels) in the concrete that allow water
secutive tests if using 6" x 12" cylinders) equals or exceeds the and other chemicals to enter from the surface. This
specified strength. No cylinder test may fall below the design greatly reduces the chances of damage due to freezing
strength by more than 500 psi when design strength is 5000 and thawing and chemical deicers.
psi or less. For design strengths greater than 5,000 psi no • They act as tiny cushions or pressure relief valves
cylinder test may fall below one-tenth of the design strength. when the water in the concrete expands as it freezes.
This greatly reduces the effects of freezing on the
4.1.5 Proportioning to Ensure Concrete
concrete.
Durability
Most architectural and structural precast concrete units are The amount of entrained air in the concrete is expressed as
exposed to the effects of weather, but other factors also affect a percentage of its volume compared with the total volume of
the durability of concrete. Concrete design is beyond the scope the mixture. For example, when the air content of 1 yd3 (0.8
of this text, but some of the factors affecting durability are listed m3) of concrete is 5.0%, the air takes up 1.35 ft3 (0.04 m3) of
below. the total 27 ft3 (0.8 m3). This is a lot of air, and it is important
to accurately measure it using the testing procedures described
• Drying shrinkage occurs as water evaporates from the in chapter 6. The project specifications usually require a cer-
mixture and is affected by aggregate size and gradation, tain percentage (with a tolerance) of entrained air, especially
aggregate-cement ratio, water–cementitious materials in concrete exposed to cold weather, moisture, and freezing
ratio, concrete temperature, ambient temperature and and thawing conditions. If the tested values are outside the
humidity, and wind speed. Drying shrinkage may be specified limits, quality control must notify the engineering
controlled by preventing rapid water loss. department or management for evaluation.
• Incompatibility of cement and aggregates can result in
4.1.7 Compatibility of Face and Backup
large volume changes, cracking, and deterioration of
Mixtures
the concrete. These reactions sometimes cause Alkali-
Silica Reaction (ASR) or Delayed Ettringite Formation Many face mixtures for architectural concrete panels
(DEF). The evaluation of cements and aggregate is contain expensive aggregates. If these mixtures were used
beyond the scope of this text, but quality control per- throughout the thickness of the panel, the cost could be very
sonnel should be aware that mixture proportions must high. In order to reduce the panel cost, it is common to cast a
be based on the materials to be used in the project and layer of the face mixture approximately 2 in. (50 mm) thick on
those materials must be used throughout. Specifica- all exposed surfaces. The remainder of the panel is filled with
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 50 10/2/14 11:02 AM

the plant-standard backup mixture, which is made with less out specific authorization from the engineering department or
expensive aggregates used in the structural concrete. management. Adding water can reduce the strength and dura-
The face mixture thickness may vary based on project or bility, cause segregation and bleeding, and change the color of
panel requirements and should be shown on the production architectural precast concrete. Quality control personnel must
drawings. Quality control should measure the thickness to monitor concrete batching and placing operations to ensure
ensure it is within acceptable plant tolerance limits. that unauthorized water is not added.
The face mixture proportions must include the evaluation High-range water-reducing admixtures may be used to
of its compatibility with the backup mixture. The face mix- increase slump and improve workability without adding
ture usually contains different coarse aggregate, cement, pig- water. These admixtures are effective in increasing the slump
ments, and admixtures than those used in the backup. These of concrete from 1 in. (25 mm) or 2 in. (50 mm) to as much
differences will cause the two mixtures to expand and contract as 8 in. (200 mm) with no additional water. This effect does
at different rates due to changes in moisture and temperature wear off with time, and if a concrete containing high-range
and cause panel bowing or delamination of the face mixture. water-reducing admixture falls below the desired slump due to
These differences should be evaluated by the person design- a delay, additional admixture should be added, if authorized,
ing the mixture. Quality control may be involved in testing for rather than additional water, if the concrete can still be mixed.
these properties during design, but these tests are beyond the Even though they may have slumps of up to 8 in. (200 mm),
scope of Level I and II certifications. mixtures containing high-range water-reducing admixtures must
be properly consolidated with external or internal vibration.
4.1.8 Proportioning for Appearance of
Concrete Surfaces 4.1.10.1 Self-Consolidating Concrete
The final appearance of architectural precast concrete pan- The next step beyond concrete containing high-range water-
els is achieved using different techniques. Some of these reducing admixtures is SCC. These specially designed mix-
involve sandblasting, chipping, acid etching, or water washing tures use a combination of aggregate distribution and admix-
the surface. The type and quantity of coarse and fine aggre- tures to produce concrete that does not segregate and flows
gate as well as the color of the cement and pigment affect so well it does not have to be vibrated if it is properly placed.
the final color and texture. Quality control should periodically SCC must be carefully designed by someone with expe-
observe batching and finishing procedures to ensure that the rience. The design of these mixtures is beyond the scope of
right materials and finishing procedures are being used. Level I and II certifications, but there are several important
things that plant quality control personnel should know about
4.1.9 Mixture Proportioning for Concrete
testing, acceptance, and use of SCC.
Made with Structural Lightweight
PCI’s Interim Guidelines for the Use of Self-Consolidating
Aggregate
Concrete in Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute Member
Structural lightweight aggregates are used to reduce the Plants (TR-6) includes details of SCC material qualification,
overall weight of the precast concrete unit. The approximate mixture proportioning and qualification, forms, transport,
average density of three different types of concrete is: placing, finishing, curing, quality control testing, and overall
performance.
• 145 lb/ft3 (2300 kg/m3) for normalweight coarse aggre- The quality and performance of the SCC is dependent on
gate and normalweight fine aggregate (normal con- proper proportioning of all components. Minor changes in the
crete) ratio of fine and coarse aggregates or the water content can
• 125 lb/ft3 (2000 kg/m3) for lightweight coarse aggre- make the mixture segregate or lose its ability to flow. For this
gate and normalweight fine aggregate (semi-light- reason, numerous trial batches are required to fine-tune the
weight concrete) mixture until it performs as desired.
• 110 lb/ft3 (1750 kg/m3) for lightweight coarse aggre- Quality control and production personnel should not alter
gate and lightweight fine aggregate (all lightweight the batch quantities if the mixture is not performing as desired.
concrete) They should work with a concrete technologist to adjust the
mixture and requalify it for production use.
These densities will vary depending on the types of aggre-
4.1.11 Water–Cementitious Materials Ratio
gates used and are given here for general information only.
Quality control personnel should visually inspect the mixture The performance of a concrete is most affected by the
to ensure that the correct aggregates were used. amount of all cementitious materials and the amount of water.
Some materials such as fly ash, natural pozzolans, blast fur-
4.1.10 Proportioning for Concrete Workability
nace slag, and silica fume have properties similar to cement
Slump is the most common measure of concrete work- and are called cementitious. Their weight is also included in
ability. Mixtures are designed for a specific slump to permit the calculation of the water–cementitious materials ratio.
the concrete to be placed and consolidated without excessive The ratio of the weight of the water to the weight of all
segregation or bleeding. cementitious materials in a mixture is called the water-
The slump must not be increased by adding more water cementitious materials ratio (w/cm). For example, 1 yd3 (0.8
than the amount called for in the mixture proportions with- m3) of concrete that contains 247 lb (112 kg) of water and 705
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 51 10/2/14 11:02 AM

lb (320 kg) of cement has a w/cm ratio of 0.35, as calculated: regation, and variable moisture content. Rehandling should
w/cm = 247 lb (112 kg) / 705 lb (320 kg) = 0.350 be minimized to avoid aggregate segregation that occurs each
Silica fume slurry and many chemical admixtures contain time the aggregate is moved. Wet aggregates should be stock-
water that becomes a part of the mixing water in the concrete piled in sufficient time before use so they can drain to uniform
and should be considered in the calculation of the water- moisture contents.
cementitious materials ratio.
Stockpiles
Concrete with a w/cm range of 0.35 to 0.40 can be designed
using proper admixtures to yield a mixture that can be placed Aggregates should be stored in bins or on hard, clean, and
and consolidated using conventional equipment and proce- well-drained surfaces. Stockpiles should be separated by walls
dures. Once the w/cm is established for a mixture, it must not or at a sufficient distance to avoid cross contamination of dif-
be changed. If a higher slump is needed, it should be achieved ferent materials. Coarse aggregate stockpiles may segregate
using admixtures. and accumulate smaller particles near their bases. This mate-
The w/cm stated for a given mixture must not be exceeded, rial should be periodically removed and discarded to keep the
and the w/cm for precast concrete products must not exceed a aggregate within its specification limits. Quality control per-
maximum value of 0.45 with an allowable variation during pro- sonnel should regularly inspect stockpiles to confirm proper
duction of ±0.02. The w/cm must be evaluated in relation to the procedures are used.
required workability for satisfactory placing and consolidation.
Bins
Concrete with a very low w/cm is often called zero slump
and is used for machine cast products. A w/cm of 0.25 is con- Different types or sizes of aggregates should be in separate,
sidered to be the minimum ratio needed for proper hydration properly designed and built compartments without cross con-
of the cement in a traditional mixture. tamination. Quality control personnel should regularly inspect
the aggregate bins to be sure the proper material is in each bin
4.1.12 Use of Admixtures
and check for contamination. Improperly positioned or mal-
The development and use of admixtures to modify and functioning diverter valves or transfer conveyors can spill or
improve the properties of plastic and hardened concrete is one discharge aggregate into the wrong bins.
of the most rapidly changing areas of concrete technology.
Bags
For that reason, plant personnel must ensure that the admix-
tures they use have been tested and are suitable and meet the When bagged aggregates are used, the individual sizes must
requirements of the ASTM standards. be stored in a well-drained, reasonably dry area. Burlap and
When more than one admixture is used in a mixture, plant polypropylene bags should be protected to prevent deteriora-
personnel must verify that they are compatible with each other tion from moisture and sunlight. Quality control personnel
and their properties are not adversely affected. should monitor storage areas to ensure that bags are not bro-
Some admixtures contain chloride that can cause corro- ken or damaged.
sion of prestressing strands and reinforcing bars. For this rea-
4.2.3 Storage and Handling of Cement
son, the maximum water-soluble chloride ion cannot exceed
0.06% by weight of cement. Admixture properties must be Cement will gradually absorb water from the air so it is
reviewed to check for chloride content. important to store it properly.
Bulk cement is stored in water-tight bins or silos that should
4.2 Storage and Handling of be used at least monthly to prevent caking. Delivery pipes and
Concrete Materials valves must be clearly marked to avoid loading cement to the
wrong silo. The gate and conveyance system must provide for
4.2.1 General accurate measurement during batching.
Bagged cement must be stacked on pallets or platforms in a
The proper storage and handling of all concrete materials is
protected area to avoid contact with moisture. Bags must not
the responsibility of management and production personnel.
be stacked in piles higher than 14 bags for more than 60 days to
Quality control personnel should periodically observe and
avoid pack set. For longer periods, the stack must not be higher
inspect the plant’s facilities, equipment, and the following
than 7 bags. The oldest bags of cement must be used first.
procedures to be sure everything is working correctly.
Concrete supplied to a precasting plant by an outside batch 4.2.4 Storage and Handling of Admixtures
plant must meet the same requirements as those for onsite and Pigments
facilities. Plant quality control personnel should periodically
Admixture storage and dispensing systems are frequently
inspect the outside supplier to ensure that they are certified by
designed and installed by the admixture supplier. Liquid or
the National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA)
solid admixtures and pigments must be stored to prevent dam-
and meet the precasting plant’s requirements.
age from high and low temperatures or contamination. Liquid
4.2.2 Storage and Handling of Aggregates systems may require agitation or stirring.
Quality control personnel should ensure that batching accu-
Aggregate storage and handling procedures should be
racy is checked at least every 90 days. If powdered admixtures
designed and implemented to minimize contamination, seg-
or pigments are weighed at the plant, quality control personnel
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 52 10/2/14 11:02 AM

should verify the accuracy of measurement on a regular basis.
the materials are weighed and discharged into the mixer
4.3 Batch Plant automatically.
Automatic
4.3.1 Batching Equipment Tolerances
The operator selects a mixture, and the batch weights are
Batching equipment measures the weight or volume of each controlled automatically by means of punch cards or com-
ingredient used in the mixture and must be able to measure puter memory.
within the tolerances required by MNL-116 or MNL-117. Some precast concrete manufacturers do not have an onsite
Quality control personnel should periodically inspect the batch plant and order concrete from a ready-mix concrete
equipment to be sure it is being operated and maintained in a plant. Quality control personnel should regularly inspect
manner consistent with tolerance requirements. onsite batch plants or outside ready-mix concrete batch plants
Individual batchers measure the weight or volume of each to confirm compliance with PCI MNL-116, PCI MNL 117,
ingredient separately. and applicable NRMCA and ASTM requirements.
Cumulative batchers measure the weight or volume of a
combination of ingredients. For example, one scale may be 4.3.4.2 Requirements for Concrete Mixers
used to weigh all of the different aggregates in a mixture, or The most important function of any concrete mixer is the
one scale may be used to weigh cement and fly ash together. ability to produce concrete that is uniform from batch to
Water and liquid admixtures are most often measured by batch. There are three basic types of mixers.
volume. A drum mixer is a rotating drum with blades around the
4.3.2 Scale Requirements inside. Materials are charged into the mixer while it is turn-
ing and mixed by tumbling over the blades. Concrete is dis-
PCI manuals MNL-116 and MNL-117 both require sepa- charged by tilting or reversing the direction of rotation of
rate scales for weighing cement and aggregates. The scales the mixer. Concrete should not be allowed to build up on the
may operate using levers or load cells with loads indicated blades because this greatly reduces the ability of the drum to
either by means of a beam with balance indicator, a full read- mix properly.
ing dial, or a digital read-out. Concrete truck mixers must be equipped with revolution
Quality control personnel should regularly inspect scales to counters, and they must be used to verify mixing time.
be sure they are properly maintained and are calibrated at inter- A paddle mixer is a fixed drum with rotating blades (pad-
vals not greater than six months. The total weight used for cali- dles) on a horizontal shaft. Materials are charged into the
bration must exceed the maximum batch weight for each scale. mixer through an opening in the top. Concrete is mixed by the
4.3.3 Requirements for Water-Measuring turning paddles and is discharged by opening a door near the
Equipment bottom and letting the paddles sweep it out.
There are two types of pan mixers (single or dual vertical
Water may be measured by weight or volume. If water is shaft). A fixed pan is a scraper and a set of blades, or feet,
measured by volume, the measuring device must be arranged rotate around inside the fixed pan to mix the concrete. Mate-
so variable pressure in the supply line does not affect the mea- rial is charged through a hole in the top and discharged by
surement. opening a door in the bottom.
Quality control personnel should regularly inspect water- A rotating pan is a pan that rotates, with one or two sets of
measuring devices to be sure that they are properly maintained blades on a vertical shaft turning inside to mix the concrete.
and are calibrated at intervals not exceeding three months. The blades may rotate in different directions depending on the
4.3.4 Requirements for Batchers and Mixing type of mixer.
Plants Concrete for architectural concrete face mixtures should be
mixed in a paddle mixer or a pan mixer and not in a stationary
4.3.4.1 General drum mixer or concrete truck in order to ensure thorough mixing.
There are many different types and sizes of concrete batchers 4.3.4.3 Mixer Requirements
and mixing plants that generally fall into one of three catego- The rated capacity of every mixer must be on file at the plant.
ries. Any of these methods are acceptable as long as concrete Mixers must not be used to mix quantities greater than their
quality is consistent and operations conform to ASTM C94. rated capacities. The rate of rotation of drum mixers must be in
Manual accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
The operator sets batch weights for each component on a 4.3.4.4 Maintenance Requirements for
beam balance or observes batch weights on a scale, then dis- Concrete Mixers
charges the materials into the mixer. Batch-plant personnel should thoroughly clean the mix-
Semi-automatic ers between different architectural concrete batches and after
each day’s use. Accumulations of hardened concrete should
The operator sets batch weights for each component and be removed. They should also inspect the condition of the
drum, blades, and other mechanical parts.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 53 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Quality control personnel should periodically inspect the 4.6.2 Batching of Aggregates
mixers to be sure there is not an excessive amount of concrete
Variations in aggregate gradations have a significant affect
buildup and that the blades are adjusted properly and are not
on the uniformity of the concrete from batch to batch. That is
excessively worn.
why it is important to stockpile and handle aggregates using
proper procedures and to perform aggregate gradation tests as
4.4 Concrete Transportation
required by MNL-116 and MNL-117. Quality control person-
Equipment
nel should periodically check aggregate storage and handling
and must also perform the required gradation testing.
4.4.1 General
Aggregate moisture
Concrete may be transported in bottom dump buckets or
hoppers that discharge by means of a conveyor or auger. The The correct weight of each different type of aggregate must
hoppers may be truck-mounted for more efficient transporta- be accurately measured for every batch of concrete. These
tion and placement. weights must include the effects of moisture on the surface of
Production personnel should clean and maintain the equip- the material. At first glance, this might not seem like an impor-
ment after each use. It should also be thoroughly cleaned prior tant item, but free moisture on the surface of the aggregate
to casting, between different mixtures, and at appropriate particles can have a significant affect on the batch.
intervals during prolonged castings. If the aggregates have a high moisture content when they
are weighed, and the weight is not adjusted to compensate for
4.4.2 Requirements for Concrete-Agitating
this moisture, a significant percentage of what appears to be
Delivery Equipment
aggregate weight on the scale is actually water. This reduces
Special agitator trucks or conventional concrete trucks may the actual amount of aggregate and increases the amount of
be used to deliver concrete. Agitators should not be loaded water in the batch. For high-aggregate-moisture contents, the
beyond their rated capacity, and they should be cleaned and aggregate weights could be reduced by 6% and the water con-
inspected as described in section 4.11.4 in MNL-116. tent could be increased by as much as 50%.
Most plant personnel understand that if the aggregates are
4.5 Placing and Handling Equipment wet, they should reduce the amount of water used in the batch.
This will solve the problem of excess water, but it will not
The type and design of placing and handling equipment
solve the problem of reduced aggregate weights.
must consider the properties of the concrete to be placed.
Aggregate moisture may be determined by testing samples
If the concrete has a low slump, the slope of the chute must
or by the use of moisture meters in the aggregate bins. If mois-
be steep enough to allow the concrete to flow down and not
ture meters are not used, the free moisture of the fine aggre-
spill over. A bottom dump bucket or the chute from a hopper
gate must be determined at least daily or any time a change in
may need to have a vibrator installed to help the concrete flow.
moisture content becomes apparent. Moisture can be tested
If the concrete has a high slump or is self-consolidating,
by comparing the weights of wet and dry samples or by a pro-
bucket gates and joints in chutes must be able to contain the
cedure using a chemical to produce a gas and measuring the
concrete without leaking.
pressure of the gas.
Aggregate moisture content is especially important for
4.6 Batching and Mixing Operations
SCCs. For SCC batching, the aggregate moisture meters must
be able to detect changes of at least 0.5% aggregate moisture
4.6.1 General
for both coarse and fine aggregates and must be positioned so
Proper batching and mixing create concrete that contains readings are representative of the aggregate being placed in
all of the required ingredients in the proper amounts and has the mixer. Without meters, aggregate moistures must be deter-
a uniform appearance and texture. The sequence of charging mined at the beginning of each batching operation and every
the components into the mixer is important to ensure proper four hours during continuous batching or whenever changes
mixing, as well as in maintaining proper batch-to-batch in moisture are apparent.
uniformity. The different states of aggregate moisture content are illus-
Information on mixture proportions as well as proper batch- trated in Figure 4.1.
ing and mixing procedures should be included in the plant
quality system manual (QSM) and should be used by qual-
ity control personnel during periodic inspections at the batch
plant.
Ready-mixed concrete delivered to the plant must be docu-
mented with delivery tickets showing the moisture designa-
tion, design slump, time of batching, and the quantities of all
aggregates, cementitious materials, water, and admixtures.
Quality control personnel should receive and review delivery
tickets for all ready-mix concrete received at the plant.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 54 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Oven dry
Moisture Conditions of Agregates
As the name implies, the aggregate is completely dry after
being heated in an oven to release all moisture. Aggregate will
Saturated, Damp
absorb moisture from the concrete if used in this state. State: Oven dry Air dry surface dry or wet
Air dry
The outside of the aggregate is dry, but there is some mois-
ture absorbed on the inside. Aggregate will absorb some mois- Total moisture: None Less than Equal to Greater than
potential potential potential
ture out of a mixture if used in this state. absorption absorption absorption
Saturated-surface dry (SSD)

Fig. 4.1 - Aggregate Moisture Conditions
The outside of the aggregate appears dry, but the inside has
absorbed all the water it can. In this state, the aggregate will
not take away or add water to a mixture. than its absorption, it will take water from the mixture to meet
its fully absorbed state.
Damp or wet The following example illustrates how the absorption per-
The aggregate has absorbed all of the water it can hold and centage is calculated.
the outside has excess moisture clinging to the surface and Example A
between the particles.
Most mixtures are proportioned based on SSD moisture SSD weight of sample = 1500 g
conditions for aggregates. Dry weight of sample = 1470 g
Figure 4.1 shows the names given to the different types of
moisture. All of these terms will be used in the following dis- % absorption = 1500 g – 1470 g × 100%
cussion about aggregate moisture and should be understood. 1470 g
Absorbed moisture = 30 g ×100%

Absorbed moisture is the amount of moisture contained 1470 g
inside the aggregate particles. Absorbed water is contained in
the pores or cavities of individual aggregate particles. It is not = 0.0204 × 100%
visible on the surface of the particles and does not add water
to the mixture. Absorbed water is not included as a portion of = 2.04% absorption
the mixing water.
The weight of absorbed water equals the SSD weight of the Generally, the absorption percentage is relatively constant
aggregate minus the dry weight of aggregate. The absorption for a given material and absorption tests do not need to be
percentage is calculated by dividing the weight of absorbed run frequently. Tests should be run whenever the source is
water by the dry weight of the aggregate. The weight of the changed and periodically during a year’s operation even
absorbed water is determined by weighing the SSD aggregate if the same source is consistently used. This test is usually
and then weighing it again after it has been dried in an oven. performed in conjunction with specific gravity tests and can
either be done in-house or by a commercial laboratory. Most
% Absorption = SSD weight – oven-dry weight × 100% suppliers provide the absorption of each different aggregate
oven-dry weight type they furnish.
The total moisture is the total amount of moisture con-
Absorption is determined by taking an aggregate sample, tained inside and clinging to the outside surfaces of the aggre-
soaking it in water to fill the interior particle cavities, and gate particles.
then drying it off to bring it to the SSD condition. For coarse Once absorption has been determined for the aggregates
aggregate, a towel can be used to dry the surfaces. For fine currently in use, a daily testing procedure can be developed
aggregate, currents of warm air will be required along with for determining total moisture.
mixing until the sand reaches a free-flowing condition that The following equation expresses the relationship between
indicates dry particle surfaces. As long as the surfaces of fine total moisture, absorbed moisture, and free moisture.
aggregates have moisture present, they will stick together.
After the SSD aggregate sample is weighed, the sample is Total moisture = absorbed moisture + free moisture
then dried completely in an oven or over a burner. The oven-
dry weight of the sample is then obtained and is used in the Total moisture can be determined by drying samples or
previous calculation to determine the weight × 100% and per- by using moisture meters in the aggregate bins. If moisture
centage of absorbed water. meters are used, they must be checked and calibrated by dry-
Aggregate will always take on water until its absorption ing samples and comparing the meter indication with the
state is reached. If an aggregate is used that has less moisture value determined by drying.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 55 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Moisture meters are typically linked to a probe on the inside The following example illustrates how the total moisture
face of the aggregate hopper. As the material passes this probe, percent is calculated.
the electrical resistance is measured and the value is converted If we assume the absorption of 2.04% calculated in Exam-
to a moisture reading. Differences in aggregate moisture vary ple A is for the same aggregate where the total moisture of
significantly from day to day and hour to hour, depending 6.40% was calculated in Example B, the free moisture would
upon the source, the weather, and the storage capability. be calculated as shown in the following example.
In order to determine the total moisture, an aggregate sample
Example C
is taken from the stockpile or the bin. The sample is weighed and
then dried in an oven. The oven-dry condition is reached when Absorption percentage = 2.04%
the aggregate weight stops decreasing. The total moisture (total Total moisture percentage = 6.40%
weight of the water) is determined by weighing the wet aggre-
gate and then weighing it again after it reaches the oven-dry state % free moisture = 6.40% – 2.04%
and subtracting the dry weight from the wet weight. The percent
of total moisture is calculated by dividing the weight of the water = 4.36% (free moisture)
by the oven-dry weight of the aggregate.
The relationship among total moisture, absorbed moisture,
% total moisture = wet weight – oven-dry weight × 100% and free moisture must be understood in order to correctly
oven-dry weight compensate mixtures for varying moisture contents.
The following example illustrates how to compensate for
The following example illustrates how the total moisture a known free-moisture percentage in one aggregate. Assume
percent is calculated. the aggregate from Example C with a free moisture of 4.36%
is to be used and the mixture proportions were based on SSD
Example B
aggregate weights.
Wet weight of sample = 1080 g A free-moisture content of 4.36% means that 4.36% of the
Dry weight of sample = 1015 g weight that shows on the aggregate scale is actually water and
not aggregate. The weight of this water must be calculated and
% moisture = 1080 g – 1015 g × 100% then added back to the desired aggregate weight so the correct
1015 g total amount of aggregate is used.
Example D
= 65 g × 100%
1015 g Desired aggregate weight = 1550 lb (704 kg)
Free moisture = 4.36%
= 0.064 × 100%
Free moisture = 4.36% × 1550 lb (704 kg)
= 6.40% total moisture = 0.0436 × 1550 lb (704 kg)
= 67.58 lb (30.68 kg)
Storing large quantities of aggregate in bins and protecting
them from the weather stabilizes the moisture content. How- Batch weight = 1550 lb (704 kg) + 67.58 lb (30.68 kg)
ever, even in this case, moisture migrates to the lower part of Batch weight = 1617.58 lb (734.68 kg)
the hopper, and the material there is wetter. As the batching Batch weight = 1618 lb (734 kg) [rounded to the nearest
day begins, the first material discharged is wet and then begins pound/kilogram]
to stabilize at a lower moisture content.
In large, outside stockpiles, there can be significant varia- The previous calculation should be performed for coarse
tions within the stockpile. As the material is loaded from the aggregates and fine aggregates for each day’s operations to
stockpile to the bins, moisture variations will occur. determine the aggregate free moisture that will contribute to
Free moisture is the amount of water clinging to the out- the water in the mixture.
side surfaces of the aggregate particles. In addition to correcting the aggregate weights, the amount
Moisture or water on the surface beyond the SSD condition of batch water used must be reduced from the SSD-based
makes coarse aggregates appear wet and shiny and makes fine mixture amount by the total weight of free moisture calculated
aggregates clump together. Free moisture adds to the mixing for all aggregates.
water in the concrete and will increase the water-cementitious The examples used in this manual are only for mixture
materials ratio for a particular mixture if it is not accounted proportions based on SSD aggregate weights. Some mixture
for during batching. proportions are based on oven-dry aggregate weights, but the
The free moisture is determined by subtracting the percent discussion of these is beyond the scope of this manual. The
of absorbed moisture from the percent of total moisture. same basic procedures are followed, but careful attention must
be paid to water absorbed into the oven-dry aggregates.
Free Moisture = Total Moisture - Absorbed Moisture Consider the following example for a mixture based on
SSD aggregate weights.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 56 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Example E 4.6.4 Batching of Water

The following mixture proportions are for 1 yd3 (0.8 m3) of Next to the amount of cement, the amount of water in the
concrete based on SSD aggregate weights. concrete has the most significant affect on the properties of
Cement = 650 lb (295 kg) the concrete. Because of the poor quality caused by too much
Fine aggregate = 1250 lb (568 kg) (SSD) water in the mixture, the handling, measurement, and intro-
Coarse aggregate = 1900 lb (863 kg) (SSD) duction of water to the mixture must be closely controlled.
Water = 200 lb (91 kg) The sequencing of putting batch water into the mixer should
be reviewed and revised as needed for the production of SCC.
The following absorption percentages were furnished by
Quality control personnel should periodically inspect and ver-
the aggregate suppliers.
ify the accuracy of batching.
Fine aggregate = 2.04%
Coarse aggregate = 1.55% 4.6.5 Batching of Admixtures
The following aggregate total moisture percentages were Admixtures must be batched in accordance with the manu-
measured by the quality control inspector before batching. facturer’s recommendations. Water-based admixtures must
Fine aggregate = 5.5% be considered part of the mixing water. A procedure for con-
Coarse aggregate = 2.3% trolling the timing and addition rate of the admixture to the
concrete batch must be established and followed. Admixtures
Calculate the corrected batch weights for fine aggregate,
must be uniformly distributed throughout the concrete during
coarse aggregate, and water based on the moisture conditions.
the charging cycle. Admixtures must be introduced into the
Because the mixture proportions were based on SSD aggre-
mixer in the sequence developed in the qualification proce-
gate weights, the batch quantities must be corrected for free
dure for each SCC’s mixture proportions.
moisture in each aggregate.
Pigments must be batched in a manner that ensures uniform
Fine aggregate = 5.5% – 2.04% distribution of the mixture. Pigments must be pre-weighed
= 3.46% and batched from packages that are sized for a single batch.
Coarse aggregate = 2.3% – 1.55% When finely divided mineral admixtures are used in bulk,
= 0.75% the weighing sequence must be cement first, admixture or
Calculate the weight of free moisture in both aggregates pigment second, followed by the aggregates. This procedure
rounded off to the nearest pound. must be used when cement and finely divided mineral admix-
tures are weighed cumulatively on the same scale. Mineral
Fine aggregate = 3.46% × 1250 lb (568 kg)
admixtures must not be charged into a wet mixer ahead of the
= 0.0346 × 1250 lb (568 kg)
other materials or at the same time as the mixing water.
= 43.25 lb (19.64 kg)
Centrally mixed concrete containing silica fume must have
= 43 lb (20 kg)
the silica fume fed slowly, along with all other ingredients.
Coarse aggregate = 0.75% × 1900 lb (863 kg) For truck-mixed concrete that incorporates silica fume slurry,
= 0.0075 × 1900 lb (863 kg) the silica fume must be added to the truck before any other
= 14.25 lb (6.47 kg) ingredients, as it contains much of the batch water needed for
= 14 lb (6.5 kg) the mixture. Metakaolin must be added to the batch with the
The weight of the free moisture must be added to each aggre- cement or after all other ingredients have been charged.
gate weight and deducted from the water weight to determine Quality control personnel should periodically inspect and
the corrected batch weights based on the stated conditions. verify the accuracy of batching.
Corrected batch weights for the stated aggregate moisture
conditions: 4.6.6 Mixing of Concrete
Fine aggregate = 1250 lb (568 kg) + 43 lb (20 kg)
4.6.6.1 General
= 1293 lb (588 kg)
Coarse aggregate = 1900 lb (863 kg) + 14 lb (6.5 kg) Concrete of satisfactory quality requires the materials to be
= 1914 lb (870 kg) thoroughly mixed until there is a uniform distribution of the
Water = 200 lb (91 kg) – (43 + 14) lb materials and the mixture is uniform in appearance.
[(20 + 6) kg] The necessary mixing time will depend on many factors
= 200 lb (91 kg) – 57 lb (26 kg) including batch size, workability of the batch, size and grading
= 143 lb (65 kg) of the aggregate, type of mixer, condition of blades, and abil-
ity of the mixer to produce uniform concrete throughout the
4.6.3 Batching of Cement
batch and from batch to batch. Some mixtures require longer
If batching by bag, the weight of full bags of cement must mixing times to improve workability and reduce the potential
be checked for conformation to stated weight once for every for surface voids and other consistency-related problems.
ten bags. Fractional bags must not be used unless they are Quality control personnel should periodically inspect and
weighed. Quality control personnel may periodically inspect verify mixing procedures. Some SCC mixture properties may
and verify the accuracy of batching. vary substantially with variation in mixing time. After a suc-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 57 10/2/14 11:02 AM

cessful mixing time is determined, all SCC batches should be 4.6.6.5 Mixing Time – Shrink Mixing
similarly mixed.
When a stationary mixer is used for the partial mixing of the
4.6.6.2 Methods of Concrete Mixing concrete during shrink mixing, the time may be reduced to a
minimum of 30 seconds, followed by not less than 50 revolu-
Concrete must be mixed by one of the following methods.
tions, or more than 100 revolutions in the truck mixer (must
Central-mixed concrete is concrete mixed in a central sta-
be at agitating speed in accordance with mixer manufacturer’s
tionary mixer and delivered to the casting area by buckets,
recommendations).
truck mixer, truck agitator, or non-agitating trucks.
Mixing time in stationary mixers, and subsequent minimum
Shrink-mixed concrete is concrete that is partially mixed
and maximum mixer truck revolution-count requirements
in a stationary mixer and then mixed completely and delivered
when using the shrink mixing method in the production of
to the casting site in a truck mixer.
SCC, must be set during mix qualification testing.
Truck-mixed concrete is concrete that is completely
Quality control personnel may periodically inspect and ver-
mixed in a truck mixer as it is delivered to the casting site.
ify mixing procedures.
Truck mixing is only suitable for structural or back-up mix-
tures because it usually results in insufficient uniformity for 4.6.6.6 Mixing Time – Truck Mixing
architectural concrete units.
For mixing in a truck mixer loaded to its maximum-rated
The elapsed time from mixing to placement must not exceed
mixing capacity, the number of revolutions of the drum or
1 hour. Retempering (with water) of concrete that has started
blades at mixing speed must be not less than 70 or more than
to stiffen must not be allowed. The addition of a high-range
100, unless special conditions necessitate additional mixing
water-reducing admixture to counteract slump loss must be
time. If the batch is at least 1/2 yd3 (2/5 m3) less than the maxi-
carefully monitored to avoid potential uniformity problems.
mum mixer capacity, the number of revolutions at mixing
4.6.6.3 Mixing Time and Concrete Uniformity speed may be reduced to 50. All revolutions in excess of 100
must be at agitating speed according to the mixer manufac-
Both overmixing and undermixing are to be avoided. Under-
turer’s recommendations.
mixing will result in concrete of variable consistency and low
Minimum and maximum mixer truck revolution-count
strength. Overmixing may result in a reduction of air in air-
requirements for SCCs must be established during mixture
entrained mixtures, grinding of aggregates, and loss of work-
qualification testing.
ability. Concrete mixing procedures should be established for
Quality control personnel must monitor the number of revo-
each type of mixer. Variations in mixture proportions (such
lutions of the drum or blades, the mixing speed, and the addi-
as those for lightweight concrete) and the use of high-range
tion of water by drivers.
water-reducing admixtures may require adjustments to stan-
dard mixing procedures. 4.6.6.7 Special Batching and Mixing
Charging sequence may be more important for SCCs than Requirements for Lightweight Aggregates
for non-SCCs. This is especially true of the charging sequence
Lightweight-aggregate concrete must be batched and mixed
of admixtures, powders, and water.
as recommended by the producer of the aggregate and MNL-
The mixing time required for each batch must be based on
117. Lightweight aggregate may require pre-dampening prior
the ability of the mixer to produce uniform concrete through-
to batching. This may be carried out by submerging the light-
out a given batch and between batches. For each type of mixer,
weight aggregate or by the use of a sprinkling system.
the optimum mixing time must be established by the manufac-
Quality control personnel may periodically inspect and ver-
turer’s recommendations.
ify lightweight pre-dampening and batching procedures.
Mixing time and batch-to-batch uniformity may be checked
by quality control using the procedures outlined in MNL 117. 4.6.6.8 Cold-Weather Mixing
4.6.6.4 Mixing Time – Stationary Mixers When concrete temperatures are less than 50 °F (10 °C),
the time required for the concrete to gain strength is greatly
Unless otherwise recommended by the mixer manufacturer,
extended or strength gain may actually stop.
the minimum mixing time for stationary mixers must be 1
The benefits and associated cost of heating the components
minute for batches of 1 yd3 (0.8 m3) or less. This mixing time
of the fresh concrete should be balanced against the benefits and
must be increased by at least 15 seconds for each cubic yard,
costs of heating the concrete after placement and during curing.
or fraction thereof, in excess of 1 yd3 (0.8 m3). The mixing
Concrete temperatures at the mixer must be maintained
time must be increased when necessary to ensure the required
above a minimum of 50 °F (10 °C). Materials must be free
uniformity and consistency of the concrete. Undermixing and
from ice, snow, and frozen lumps before entering the mixer.
overmixing must be avoided.
When exposure to cold weather is severe, due either to
In the event a batch has to be held in the mixer for a lon-
low air temperature or because the concrete sections are thin,
ger period, the speed of the drum blade should be reduced to
the temperature of concrete must be increased by heating
agitating speed or the mixer should be stopped in intervals to
to ensure that the concrete temperature does not fall below
prevent overmixing. Quality control personnel may periodi-
50 °F (10 °C). When it is necessary to heat the concrete com-
cally inspect and verify mixing procedures.
ponents materials, the aggregates must not be heated above
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 58 10/2/14 11:02 AM

180 °F (82 °C). during consolidation, and it minimizes additional entrapped

Quality control personnel may periodically inspect and ver- air between the deposits at the mold face.
ify cold-weather batching and mixing procedures.
4.7.4 Preparation of the Form/Mold
4.6.6.9 Hot-Weather Mixing
Quality control personnel must inspect the forms or molds
The concrete temperature at the mixer must be maintained prior to concrete casting to ensure that they are clean, free of
below 95 °F (35 °C). If high temperatures are encountered, the unwanted materials, and have been treated with the correct
mixture ingredients must be cooled before or during mixing. form-release agent.
Flake ice or well-crushed ice of a size that will completely
4.7.5 Placing Concrete under Severe-
melt during mixing may be substituted for a portion of the
Weather Conditions
mixing water. Material storage bins should be protected from
direct sun, and liquid nitrogen may also be used to cool the Quality control personnel must monitor weather conditions
aggregates. and ensure that concrete is protected from freezing during cold
Quality control personnel may periodically inspect and ver- weather, and from excessively high or differential tempera-
ify hot-weather batching and mixing procedures. tures, premature drying, and moisture loss during hot weather.
Quality control personnel must measure concrete tempera-
4.7 Requirements for Transporting ture, which must be between 50 °F (10 °C) and 95 °F (35 °C).
and Placing of Concrete
4.7.6 Placing Concrete in Wet and Rainy
Conditions
4.7.1 General
The presence of moisture in any form prior to the placement
As concrete is placed in layers to produce a monolithic
of concrete can have detrimental affects on concrete strength
and visually acceptable finished product, it is important that
and adversely impact the concrete finish. Quality control per-
each layer of concrete be shallow enough so that it may be
sonnel must monitor placement conditions to ensure concrete
placed while the previous layer is still fresh. This will allow
quality is maintained.
for proper consolidation between layers. The lower the slump
or w/cm, the shallower the lift that should be used. 4.7.7 Placing Concrete in Hot or Windy
Conditions
4.7.2 Transporting and Placing Concrete
Wind or direct sunlight can have significant rapid drying
Regardless of the manner of transportation, concrete should
and shrinkage effects on fresh concrete. These, along with
be discharged into the forms or molds while in its original
low humidity, are conditions that should be considered and
mixed or fresh state. Retempering by adding water and remix-
accounted for during placement of concrete. Procedures
ing concrete that has started to stiffen must not be permitted.
should conform with ACI 305, Recommended Practice for
As concrete is placed into the forms or molds, the paste
Hot Weather Concreting. When the ambient temperature is
coating of strand or mild steel should be of no concern up to
above 80 °F (27 °C,), steps should be taken to protect the con-
the top of the section of the precast concrete element. How-
crete from the effects of hot- and/or dry-weather conditions.
ever, cement paste should be kept from or cleaned from all
If these weather conditions occur, any of the following pro-
reinforcing or embedments that will extend out of the concrete
cedures or combination of procedures may be used to prevent
section.
plastic shrinkage cracking or loss of strength of the concrete:
4.7.3 Preventing Aggregate Segregation
• Shaded storage for aggregates.
Procedures and arrangements of equipment must be used
• Sprinkling, fog spraying, or chilling aggregates with
that result in placing concrete in a uniform and compacted
liquid nitrogen.
condition without segregation or cold joints and seams. Plac-
• Burying, insulating, and/or shading water-supply facil-
ing methods must preserve the quality of the concrete in terms
ities.
of w/cm, slump, uniformity, air content, and homogeneity.
• Use of cold water in batching.
Placement guidelines must be qualified by each producer
• Use of shaved or crushed ice for a portion of the mix-
for each SCC and must minimize the possibility of segrega-
ing water. Only as much ice should be used as will be
tion. Most products can be cast with SCC by starting at one
entirely melted at the completion of the mixing period.
end of the mold with the discharge as close to the form sur-
• Maintaining concrete surfaces in a cool and moist con-
faces as possible. The SCC is then placed onto prior concrete
dition by use of wet coverings such as burlap, sprin-
placement (maintaining head pressure), keeping the mixture
kling, or ponding as soon as the water sheen disap-
flowing toward the opposite end.
pears. This is especially important for exposed loca-
Another method is to start placing in the center of the mold
tions in hot and windy conditions.
so that the mixture flows outward from the center in both direc-
• Shading of the product surface during and after casting
tions. Whenever possible, avoid opposing flows that may not
to avoid heat buildup in direct sunlight.
completely combine. Placing concrete on concrete already in
• Use of cement with temperatures under 170 °F (77 °C),
the mold minimizes loose aggregate rollout and swirl patterns
unless special measures to control concrete tempera-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 59 10/2/14 11:02 AM

ture (as outlined in ACI 305, Recommended Practice 4.8 Consolidation of Concrete
for Hot Weather Concrete) are used and verified to pro-
duce concrete of acceptable performance. 4.8.1 General
• White-pigmented membranes may be used but are not
Concrete must be uniformly consolidated by internal or
recommended in very hot weather until after the first
external vibration, surface vibrators, spading, by impact, or
24 hours, as such membranes do not cool the concrete
by a combination of these methods.
as well as wet curing methods.
Consolidation of concrete must accomplish full coating of
• Set-retarding admixtures, which can delay the concrete
the coarse aggregate and reinforcement with cement paste. Air
setting time and provide a longer period for placing and
pockets around uncoated reinforcement that create potentially
finishing.
corrosive environments must be avoided by the selected con-
solidation methods.
When the temperature of steel is greater than 120 °F (49
Vibration should be distributed so the concrete is thor-
°C), steel forms or molds and reinforcement should be sprayed
oughly consolidated, producing a dense, uniform mass with
with water just prior to placing the concrete. The surface of
surfaces free of imperfections or blemishes. The optimum
the mold should be free of visible water droplets prior to plac-
time of vibration depends on the type of vibrator, the mixture
ing the concrete to avoid potential surface-finish problems.
characteristics, and the configurations of mold and reinforce-
4.7.8 Placing Concrete in Cold-Weather ment. Reducing the vibration time on the last lift will result in
Conditions increased bugholes.
The selection of the most appropriate vibrator or vibration
Special precautions must be taken to protect concrete place-
method involves factors such as:
ments in cold weather that is below 40 °F (4° C) to ensure
that the concrete gains strength under favorable curing condi-
• size, shape, type and stiffness of forms or molds;
tions. The requirements of ACI 306, Recommended Practice
• concrete and consistency; and
for Cold Weathering Concreting, must be observed.
• plant preference based on experience.
Concrete can be placed successfully when ambient temper-
ature falls below 40 °F (4° C) by heating the forms or molds
Unless there are problems with mixture proportioning
to maintain a minimum concrete temperature of 50 °F (10 °C).
or vibration procedures, excessive vibration should not be
The mold temperature should be about the same as the
a problem if the forms are designed to withstand the lon-
concrete temperature. An optimum of 75 °F (24 °C) to 80 °F
ger durations of high-frequency vibration. Not vibrating the
(27 °C) is desirable. Concrete curing temperatures must be
concrete enough (undervibration) is far more common than
maintained above 50 °F (10 °C) for the cement to properly
vibrating the concrete too much (overvibration).
hydrate.
4.8.2 Consolidation of Lightweight Concrete
4.7.9 Placing Facing Concrete
When consolidating lightweight aggregate concrete, care
The thickness of a face mixture after consolidation must be
should be taken not to overvibrate. Because the coarse aggre-
at least 1 in. (25 mm) or a minimum of one-and-a-half times the
gate particles are the lightest solid ingredients in the mix-
maximum size of the coarse aggregate, whichever is larger. The
ture, overvibration can cause the particles to rise. This may
1 in. (25 mm) minimum thickness of face mixture dimension
lead to finishing problems and cause the strength to be non-
is chosen because the consolidated face is normally used to
uniform through the depth of the member. Differential shrink-
provide the proper concrete cover over the reinforcement.
age can also occur with a nonuniform aggregate distribution.
For units not exposed to weather or for face mixtures applied
face-up, this dimension may be reduced to 3/4 in. (19 mm), 4.8.3 Consolidation of Face and Backup
provided the backup mixture does not bleed through to the Mixtures
exposed face.
Special attention is required for consolidation of face mix-
Paste coating of strand or mild-steel reinforcement during
tures, especially if the aggregates are going to be exposed later
placement should be of no concern up to the top of the sec-
by removing the paste from the surface.
tion; above that, paste should be kept from or cleaned from all
Layers of the face mixture concrete must be placed as level
reinforcement.
as possible so that the vibrator does not need to move the con-
4.7.10 Placing Backup Concrete crete laterally; this will cause segregation. Where there are
mounds or high spots in the surface of the concrete as placed,
In placing backup concrete, care must be taken to break the
a vibrator must not be stuck into the center of the mound to
fall into the mold so that it will not displace the face mixture.
knock it down, but instead, the mound must be leveled by
The allowable time interval between placing the face mixture
hand or mechanical screed.
and the backup depends on the concrete characteristics, the
temperatures of the mixture and the ambient air, and the dry- 4.8.4 Use of Internal Vibrators
ing conditions near the mold.
Vibrators must not be allowed to touch forms or molds for
exposed architectural concrete surfaces. Internal vibrators
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 60 10/2/14 11:02 AM

must not be inserted closer than 2 in. (50 mm) to 3 in. (75 mm) concrete.
from the face of the mold. Care must be taken to avoid vibrat- Surface vibrators must be moved at a rate sufficient to
ing the reinforcement, displacing cast-in hardware, or disturb- embed the coarse aggregate and bring a sufficient quantity of
ing the face mixture. paste to the surface for finishing. The vibration and rate of
Vibrators contacting forms or molds for exposed-concrete movement must be sufficient to compact the full depth of the
surfaces may mar and disfigure the concrete surface. Inter- concrete layer. Solid plate and bull vibrators must be operated
nal vibrators inserted close to the mold may cause the coarse at a slight angle from the plane of the concrete surface for best
aggregate to be driven away from the mold face, producing results.
local pockets of fine material (stinger marks) on the surface.
4.8.7 Use of Vibrating Tables
Vibration of reinforcement may cause reinforcing-steel reflec-
tion features (shadow lines) visible in the surface of the fin- Vibrating tables or casting decks are best used for flat or
ished product. low-profile units, and provide an easy and effective method
Vibrators should be allowed to sink into the concrete under for application of external vibration.
its own weight (usually at a rate of 1 second per foot [3/10 The frequency and amplitude of vibrating molds and vibrat-
m]) and then be withdrawn slowly (usually at a rate of 3 sec- ing tables equipped with external vibrators should be deter-
ond per foot [3/10 m]) to prevent air pockets. The distance mined at sufficient points to establish the level of uniformity.
between vibrator insertions should generally be about one to Inadequate amplitudes cause poor consolidation, while exces-
one-and-a-half times the radius of action, or so the area visibly sive local amplitudes cause the concrete to roll and tumble so
affected by the vibrator overlaps the adjacent just-vibrated area that it does not consolidate properly.
by a few inches. The vibrator should not be inserted within The number and location of external vibrators to be used
2 ft (0.6 m)of any leading (unconfined) edge. on a vibrating table must be determined on the basis of ade-
When internal vibrators are used to consolidate concrete quate amplitudes and uniform distribution of vibration over
around epoxy-coated steel reinforcing bars, the vibrators must the entire concrete surface. The frequency and amplitude
be equipped with rubber or nonmetallic vibrator heads to must be checked at several points on the table, using a vibro-
avoid damaging the epoxy coating. graph, vibrating reed tachometer, or other suitable method.
The vibrators must be positioned to ensure that dead spots are
Consolidating flowing concrete
eliminated and the most uniform vibration is attained.
When casting units that have constricted dimensions or
limitations on the amount of consolidation effort that may 4.9 Requirements for Curing
be applied, a high-slump, flowing concrete should be used. Concrete
When consolidating high-slump, flowing concrete, use large
amplitude (as in, large diameter) internal vibrators inserted at 4.9.1 General
a close spacing and withdrawn slowly. While consolidating in
Mixing cement and water together creates a chemical reac-
this manner, the surface should be examined for evidence of
tion known as hydration. The life of this reaction affects the
excess water or paste, and if this does appear, the amount of
durability and strength of the concrete. Freshly placed and
consolidation effort used should be reduced. The high-slump,
consolidated concrete must be protected from premature dry-
self-leveling characteristics of flowing concrete may appear to
ing and temperature extremes. Concrete must be cured with
not require any consolidation. However, a minimum nominal
minimal moisture loss at a relatively constant temperature for
vibration should be provided to eliminate large air voids.
the period of time necessary to ensure proper hydration of the
4.8.5 Use of External Form Vibrators cement and hardening of the concrete. Early moisture loss can
cause plastic shrinkage cracking.
External vibrators must be securely fixed to the molds or
forms to obtain the maximum vibration effect and to avoid 4.9.2 Curing Temperature Requirements
damage to vibrators, molds, or forms. During the casting
The concrete in the mold must be maintained at a tempera-
operation, a check must be made to verify that the vibrators
ture of not less than 50 °F (10 °C) during the curing period
are in operation and firmly in place.
(prior to reaching stripping strength). The time between plac-
4.8.6 Use of Surface Vibrators ing of concrete and the start of curing must be minimized in
hot or windy weather to prevent loss of moisture. Rapid dry-
Surface vibrators are used to consolidate thin layers of
ing may result in plastic shrinkage cracking.
concrete like facing mixtures or thin flanges or slabs. These
Curing compounds should be used with care because some
include vibrating screeds; hand jitterbugs, which are small
of them may act as a bond breaker. If a secondary cast is to be
plates or grid vibratory tampers (usually 2 ft2 [0.2 m2] to
applied or additional material is to be bonded to the concrete
3 ft2 [0.3 m2] in area) powered by an external air vibrator; and
surface, the effect of the curing compound must be evaluated.
bull floats with vibrators mounted along the rib section of the
During the early curing period, positive action must be
floats. Vibrators on the bull floats should be mounted so that
taken to provide heat if necessary to maintain minimum
the shaft of each vibrator rotates in opposite directions.
temperatures and to prevent loss of moisture from the unit.
The top surface of a facing mixture should not be finished
Curing materials or methods must not allow one portion of
smooth because this may result in poor bond to the backup
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 61 10/2/14 11:02 AM

an element to cure differently than other portions of the ele- test specimens be protected from moisture loss and rapid tem-
ment. Except for climates with prolonged temperatures below perature variations. Accordingly, the temperature of the speci-
50 °F (10 °C), continued curing in storage yards should enable mens should be closely monitored.
the units to reach their final design strengths.
4.9.4 Monitoring of Concrete Curing
The maximum concrete curing temperature must not exceed
Temperatures
158 °F (70 °C) unless special measures are taken to reduce the
adverse effects of higher temperatures. The concrete temperature in precast concrete units due to
solar radiation or in those cured using the application of heat
4.9.3 Curing to Attain Specified Stripping or
to accelerate curing shall be monitored to ensure that the mini-
Release Strength
mum and maximum concrete temperatures, rate of heating,
Precast concrete products must be cured by retaining mois- and rate of cooling specified in MNL-116 and MNL-117 are
ture and heat until the stripping strength or release strength, as not exceeded.
indicated on the production drawings, is reached. The locations selected for concrete temperature monitoring
The stripping strength and release strength (strength at must consider the likely maximum and minimum tempera-
transfer of prestress) are established by the precast concrete tures or rates of temperature change. Monitoring should also
design engineer based on the characteristics of the product. consider the location of heating or cooling sources, the con-
This strength must be high enough to ensure that stripping or figuration and design of the form and insulating enclosure,
transfer of prestress forces does not overstress or otherwise and the cross-sectional dimensions and configuration of the
damage the product. product. Thin flanges tend to lose heat more rapidly than the
Stripping or prestress transfer strengths are usually speci- thicker, more protected, webs of members.
fied at a minimum of 2000 psi (14 MPa) for non-prestressed Careful monitoring of concrete curing temperatures and
units and 3500 psi (24 MPa) for prestressed units. Strengths correlation with stripping or release strengths can be used to
higher than this are frequently required, and special mixture optimize the curing cycle and reduce energy costs. Concrete
proportions, special curing provisions, or longer curing cycles curing temperatures above the recommended maximum of
may be needed. 158 °F (70 °C) must be avoided in order to prevent long-term
Well-documented and correlated methods using concrete problems with the concrete.
maturity (time and temperature relationships) have proven
to be beneficial in refining curing procedures and more accu- 4.10 Accelerated Curing of Concrete
rately predicting when the required stripping strength has
been achieved. Using maturity as the only method to deter- 4.10.1 General
mine stripping or stress transfer strength is not acceptable.
Concrete produces heat due to hydration during the early
The stripping, transfer of prestress, or handling strength of
strength-development phase. The retention of this heat can be
products must be determined by test specimens cured under
used to provide some of the heat for accelerated curing.
the same conditions as the product. Due to the difference in
Heat may be added to increase the speed of the hydration
mass between standard test specimens and the actual product,
reactions. The use of accelerated curing may result in some
curing “under the same conditions” usually requires that the
loss of strength at 28 days as opposed to concrete that is sim-
ply cured with moisture at 72 ºF (22 ºC). However, this loss of
strength, which generally should not exceed 10%, is compen-
sated for in the mixture designs.
The accelerated curing cycle generally takes 6 to 10 hours, and
then the product is removed from the form. In this way, forms
Concrete Compressive Strength
50 to 100 psi
are reused on a daily basis, which is necessary for economical
Moderate strength gain
1 hour precast concrete manufacturing. Figure 4.2 is a sample concrete
Concrete
strength
strength curve. The times and strength gains are approximate.
curve
Stage 1 – Placement to initial set
500 psi to 700 psi This stage may take from 3 to 5 hours and occurs from the
(2.2 to 3.1 MPa) time the concrete is fresh until it reaches initial set, defined as
500 psi Rapid strength gain
1 hour
(2.2 MPa) a concrete strength of 500 psi (3.4 MPa). The initial set time
for each different mixture must be determined in accordance
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
with ASTM C403, Standard Test Method for Time of Setting
of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance.
Initial Set
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

3 to 5 hours about 8 hours 8 to 12 hours
Stage 2 – Rapid strength gain
Total Curing Time This stage generally lasts for approximately 8 more hours,
and the concrete experiences gains of 500 psi (3.4 MPa) to
Fig. 4.2 - Accelerated Curing Cycle 700 psi (4.8 MPa) per hour. External heat for accelerated cur-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 62 10/2/14 11:02 AM

ing should be applied during this stage because that is when it • Precast concrete units that will be dry or subject to
is most efficient. infrequent wetting in service may be cured up to
180 °F (82°C). The concrete should be tested for
Stage 3 – Moderate strength gain
alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and delayed ettrigi-
This stage may last for 8 to 12 more hours after stage 2, nite formation (DEF), and long-term performance
and the concrete strength gain slows to approximately 50 psi records should be kept.
(0.35 MPa) to 100 psi (0.7 MPa) per hour. During this stage, • Temperature must be measured at the portion of the
heat should be maintained in the product. One of the most unit that is likely to be the maximum during cur-
efficient ways to retain heat is through the use of insulated ing. Duration of heat curing should be established by
tarpaulins or covers. strength requirements for stripping as measured by test
The combination of applying heat during stage 2 and the cylinders cured with the products.
retention of the heat during a portion of stage 3 is a cost- • Units should be allowed to cool gradually to prevent
efficient means for curing precast concrete. After stage 3, the thermal shock, which may cause cracking. The maxi-
strength gain slows significantly until the cement is completely mum cooling rate from the sustained accelerated curing
hydrated. Applying heat during this time is not effective. temperature is 50 °F (28 °C) per hour. In order to pre-
vent surface crazing or other thermal-related damage,
Concrete curing temperatures
the cooling at this rate must continue until the concrete
To maximize the benefit of accelerated curing while mini- temperature is 40 °F (22 °C) or less above the ambient
mizing the possible damage due to excess heat, the following temperature outside the curing chamber or enclosure.
guidelines must be followed: • Self-recording thermometers must be provided to show
the time-temperature relationship for the entire curing
• The controlling temperatures must be those within the period or until stripping or transfer of prestress. At least
concrete elements, not the ambient temperature of the one recording thermometer, per contiguous form group
curing enclosure. and common heat source, must be used to monitor the
• After placing, consolidation, and finishing, the con- product at appropriate locations.
crete should attain initial set before heat is applied
that will raise the concrete temperature above
4.10.2 Curing with Live Steam
104 °F (40 °C). Applying heat too soon may have
a detrimental affect on the long-term strength Curing with live steam involves injecting steam vapor into
and durability of the concrete. a curing enclosure around the precast concrete member. The
• The length of stage 1 (the preset period) is dependent enclosure should minimize moisture and heat loss and allow
on factors such as the type of cement, use of admix- free circulation of the steam. Steam jets must be positioned
tures, w/cm, temperature, and other mixture character- to provide a uniform distribution of heat without discharging
istics. Because of the wide possible variation of initial directly onto the concrete, the forms, or the test cylinders.
set times, determination of the actual initial set time is
4.10.3 Curing with Radiant Heat and Moisture
important. This is covered in PCI MNL TM-103 and
the Level III Certification Program. Radiant heat may be applied by circulating steam or hot liquids
• If necessary, the concrete temperature may be increased through pipes, by using electric blankets or heating elements, or
during the preset period at a rate not to exceed 10 °F circulation of warm air. Heating devices should not be in direct
(5 °C) per hour. The total permissible temperature gain contact with the concrete, the forms, or the test cylinders.
during the preset period shall not exceed 40 °F (22 °C) Moisture may be supplied by a cover of moist burlap, cotton
above the placement temperature or 104 °F (40 °C), mats, or other effective means. Moisture may be retained by
whichever is less. covering the member with an impermeable sheet in combina-
• For accelerated curing, heat shall be applied at a con- tion with an insulating cover or by applying a liquid curing
trolled rate following the preset period in combination compound. Supplying or retaining moisture during curing is
with an effective method of supplying or retaining very important.
moisture. The heat gain must not exceed 36 °F (20 °C)
per hour, as measured in the concrete. 4.11 Curing by Moisture Retention
• The optimum curing temperature ranges from 130 °F without Supplemental Heat
(54 °C) to 158 °F (70 °C). The maximum curing tem-
perature must not exceed 158 °F (70 °C) unless spe- 4.11.1 General
cial measures are taken to reduce the adverse effects of
Concrete that is cured without supplemental heat shall be
higher temperatures.
kept covered and kept warm and moist until the compressive
• Precast concrete units that will be damp or con-
strength of the concrete reaches the strength specified for
tinuously wet in service may be cured up to
transfer of prestress or stripping.
170 °F (77 °C) if the cement is appropriately mod-
Acceptable methods of curing include:
ified with fly ash, ground-granulated blast-furnace
slag, or metakaolin.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 63 10/2/14 11:02 AM

• leaving the element in the form with the side forms

and keeping the top surfaces continuously moist by
fogging, spraying, or covering with wet mats, or by
covering the top surface with an impermeable cover or
membrane curing compound; and
• Removing the side forms and curing all exposed sur-
faces by the applicable methods described previously.
4.11.2 Moisture Retention Enclosures
Enclosures used to retain moisture during the curing period
must ensure that free water is present on concrete surfaces
at all times. Moisture retention enclosures must be resistant
to tearing and must be positively fastened in place to avoid
displacement by wind or other causes during the curing cycle.
They must remain in place until curing is complete.
4.11.3 Curing with Membrane Curing

Compound
Membrane curing compounds may be used to retain mois-
ture within the concrete during curing with the following con-
siderations.
The membrane curing compound:
• must be applied as soon as the surface bleed water

sheen disappears;
• must be applied at the recommended coverage rate and
cover the entire exposed surface with a uniform film;
• must remain in place until the curing cycle is complete;
and
• must be compatible with coatings or other materials to
be applied to the product in later construction stages.
Some curing compounds act as bond breakers and may

interfere with adhesion of repairs or surface coverings such as
paint, fabric, insulation materials, or other types of protective
coatings.
Membrane curing compounds should not be used in areas
where joint sealants or other required adhesive materials are
going to be applied unless entirely removed at the end of the
curing period.
Membrane curing compounds should only be used on sur-
faces where discoloration or staining will not result in an
unsatisfactory product.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 64 10/2/14 11:02 AM

1. What ratio is used as a primary control for concrete design?

a. The wet-dry aggregate ratio
b. The ratio of admixtures to cement
c. The water-cementitious materials ratio
d. The slump-water ratio
2. An increase in the amount of water used in a mixture could mean:

a. An increase in the slump of the concrete
b. A decrease in the strength produced by the concrete
c. Maintaining slump as the temperature rises
d. All of the above
3. If the sand moisture increases from 4% to 8% and the same batch quantities are used with the changed moisture, what
will result for the mixture?
a. The amount of sand will be the same and the water will increase
b. The amount of sand will increase and the water will decrease.
c. The amount of sand will decrease and the water will increase.
d. The amount of sand will decrease and the water will decrease.
4. An aggregate that is saturated surface dry is:

a. An aggregate in its natural state
b. An aggregate with no free moisture
c. An aggregate with pent-up water demand
d. An aggregate with free moisture to contribute
5. A sand sample is taken for a morning reading. The wet weight of the sample is 800 g. After drying completely, the dry
weight is 762 g. We know from the supplier that the absorption for the sand is 1.2%. What is the saturated surface dry
weight of this sample?
a. 830 g
b. 771 g
c. 760 g
d. 809.6 g
6. A week later, after long, hot, dry days, another sand sample is taken from the same material noted in question 5. The
wet weight is 800 g, but the dry weight is 795 g. How much free moisture will be available from the sand when batched
today?
a. 5 g
b. 0.6%
c. None
d. 11 lb (5 kg) per 1000 lb (450 kg) of sand
7. The following quantities are the batch weights per cubic yard (3/4 m3) for a mixture. The batch quantities for aggregates
are dry weights. The conditions for today’s batch are:
Sand 1.3% absorption 6.2% total moisture

Stone 0.85% absorption 1.6% total moisture
Batch weights:
Cement 705 lb (320 kg)
Sand 1250 lb (568 kg) (dry)
Stone 1700 lb (770 kg) (dry)
Water 250 lb (110 kg)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 65 10/2/14 11:02 AM

What will be the saturated surface dry weights for aggregate today?
8. Given the mixture and properties outlined in question 7, what will be the adjusted batch weights for the aggregates and
what will be the revised batch water for the batch?
9. Accelerated curing of concrete by adding heat generally results in what potential results?
a. Increased air in the final product
b. Increased early strength and slightly increased 28-day strengths
c. Increased early strength and slightly decreased 28-day strengths
d. Decreased strengths at early age
10. Typically, what is the maximum allowable, sustained curing temperature for accelerated concrete curing?
a. 185 °F (85 °C)
b. 158 °F (70 °C)
c. 176 °F (80 °C)
d. 104 °F (40 °C)
11. Name five procedures that may be used to prevent plastic shrinkage.
12. The recommended maximum curing temperature is:

a. 200 °F (93 °C)
b. 158 °F (70 °C)
c. 100 °F (38 °C)
d. 175 °F (79 °C)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 66 10/2/14 11:02 AM

13. What are the approximate average densities for normalweight concrete, semi-lightweight concrete, and all lightweight
concrete?
Normalweight: ________________
Semi-lightweight: ______________
Lightweight: __________________
14. Accelerated curing temperatures must be monitored at what locations on a long line bed?
a. At each piece
b. At 50-foot (15-meter) intervals
c. Once per product line
d. At 200-ft (60-meter) intervals
15. In the evaluation of aggregate moisture, what type of moisture is considered as contributing water to the mixture?
a. Free moisture and absorbed moisture
b. Free moisture
c. Absorbed moisture
d. Saturated surface dry moisture
16. Water-measuring equipment should be calibrated at intervals not exceeding:

a. 6 months for scales, 3 months for meters
b. 1 month
c. 1 year
d. 3 months for scales, 6 months for meters
17. Scales should be calibrated at intervals not greater than:

a. 6 months
b. 1 month
c. 1 year
d. 3 months
18. When using internal vibrators, the vibrator should be:

a. Inserted slowly under its own weight, then be withdrawn as quickly as possible
b. Inserted slowly, then be withdrawn at a rate of 3 seconds per foot (3/10 m)
c. Sink quickly, then be withdrawn slowly
d. Sink quickly, then be withdrawn quickly
19. List three desirable characteristics for concrete.
20. Name the two parts that make up total aggregate moisture.
21. Define saturated-surface dry conditions.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 67 10/2/14 11:02 AM

22. In the following example, the mixture quantity for each material is based on saturated surface dry conditions for aggre-
gates. The quantities given are total batch weight quantities.
Cement 611 lb (277 kg)
Sand 1581 lb (718 kg)
Gravel 1880 lb (854 kg)
Water batched 195 lb (89 kg)
What are the adjusted batch weights base on today's moisture conditions?
Wet sand (6% total moisture, absorption 1.5%)
Wet gravel (2% total moisture, absorption 1%)
23. Based on the batch quantities in question 22, compute the water-cement ratio.
24. ASTM C403 is the standard for determining what concrete characteristics?
25. Concrete curing involves controlling what two factors for the concrete?
26. Define the temperature limits as they apply to accelerated concrete curing as outlined in PCI MNL-116.
27. Concrete strength gain during the curing period falls into three stages. Define those stages as to the strength gains that
can be expected and the amount of time that each stage entails.
28. Accelerated curing impairs the 28-day strength of a particular mixture – true or false?
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 68 10/2/14 11:02 AM

REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING CHAPTER 5
Chapter 5 – Reinforcement
and Prestressing
Introduction Reinforcement
This chapter deals with the reinforcing of precast and/or
prestressed concrete products.
Precast members are reinforced with reinforcing steel. Initial condition
(no load)
The steel must be checked for size and dimensional confor-
mance to design and shop drawing details. Level I and Level
II inspectors must be familiar with these reinforcing require-
ments.
Prestressed members are special precast members rein-
forced with tensioned strands in addition to reinforcing bars.
Level I inspectors must be familiar with the basic need for
reinforcement and behavior of conventional (rebar) reinforce- Tension cracking
ment in concrete. Level II inspectors must be familiar with
prestressing, including basic elongation calculations and also
correction factors. Loaded condition
5.1 Reinforcing Steel Fig. 5.1 - Conventially reinforced concrete beam
5.1.1 General Conventially reinforced

concrete beam
Conventional reinforcement
Concrete has been used as a building material for centuries.
In early times, buildings were massive because they were con-
structed in ways that placed most of the components, usually
stone and other forms of masonry, in compression. Effective
Unreinforced concrete is a good material in compression, depth
but it cracks and will fail if loaded in a manner that creates TT
excessive tensile stresses. The ability of unreinforced concrete
beams to carry tension is limited.
Placing reinforcing steel in the tension zones (usually the T = Tension in reinforcement
bottom of a beam) increases the ability of a concrete member
to carry loads. The reinforcing bars resist the tensile forces
and the concrete resists the compression.
Figure 5.1 shows a conventionally reinforced concrete beam
and illustrates the tension cracks that develop in the bottom of Fig. 5.2 - Reinforced concrete beam
the beam when it is loaded.
Reinforcing steel is placed in the bottom of the concrete
beam to resist the tension that develops when the beam spans Prestressing
between supports. The concrete in the beam bonds to the rein- Although reinforcing bars do increase the capacity of a
forcing steel, and the tension stresses in the concrete are trans- concrete beam, the reinforced beam still cracks under load
ferred to this reinforcement. The concrete may still crack, but and deflects more as it cracks. Prestressing the reinforcement
the reinforcing bars extend across these cracks and hold the (usually strands) in the beam produces compressive stresses
beam together. in the locations of the concrete where the applied loads will
The tensile force carried by the reinforcement combined create tensile stresses. The prestressing prevents or reduces
with the compressive force in the concrete allows the beam to the amount of cracking.
carry loads across a span, as shown in Figure 5.2. The distance As shown in Figure 5.3, a simple-span beam is prestressed
from the centerline of the reinforcement to the edge of the by compressing the bottom of the beam to resist the tension
concrete (where it is in compression) is called the "effective resulting from the applied loads. This is done by placing
depth" (See Fig. 5.2). Both the amount of reinforcement and strands near the bottom of the beam and stressing them.
the effective depth affect the capacity of the beam. If the rein- Transferring this strand force into the concrete creates
forcement is placed other than where it is shown on the shop compression in the bottom and tension in the top of the beam
drawings, the beam capacity is changed and may be reduced. causing it to camber (or deflect upward). Applied load cre-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 69 10/2/14 11:03 AM

CHAPTER 5 REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING
Conventional reinforcement and prestressed

Prestress force
reinforcement
Conventionally reinforced concrete usually refers to con-
crete members that are not prestressed but are reinforced with
reinforcing bars or welded-wire reinforcement. Reinforcing
bars are often referred to as conventional reinforcement.
Prestressing
Beams produced with either conventional reinforcement or
prestressing strands have a number of items that are important
to their production. These reinforcement-related items must
Initial condition be considered during production and checked during inspec-
(no load)
tion.
Reinforced beam items

• fabrication of bars
• size and number of bars
• position of bars
• placement tolerance of bars
Prestressed beam items

• position of strands and bars
Loaded condition • size and number of strands and bars
• placement tolerance of strands and bars
• tensioning of strands
Fig. 5.3 - Prestressed concrete beam
Prestressed The position of reinforcing bars and/or prestressing

ates tension in the bottom and compression
concrete beam in the top of the strands in concrete is important. Incorrect placement reduces
beam. The final combined stresses are much less than those in the strength of the member. In prestressed members, the
a conventionally reinforced beam. The final deflection is also force applied by the prestressing strands is also important.
reduced due to the camber. If the desired prestressing force is not applied, the load-
carrying capacity of the member will be changed.
Shear reinforcement
5.1.2 Storage of reinforcing steel
Loads on a concrete beam also create stresses that act per-
pendicular to the length of the beam, called shear stresses. Reinforcing steel is furnished in coils or bundles of 40-ft-
Excessive shear stresses create vertical or sloped cracks in the (12 m)- or 60-ft (18 m)-long bars. In some cases, the bars may
beam. The shear stresses are highest near the ends of simple- be precut to the desired length. Bars within a bundle or coil are
span beams. usually the same size, grade, and heat number. Each heat num-
Reinforcing bars bent into U-shapes, called stirrups, resist ber must be referenced on the mill certificate that accompanies
the shear stresses in beams, both prestressed and convention- the shipment. A marking or tagging system should be used
ally reinforced. In prestressed concrete beams, the compres- so bars within a shipment can be traced back to the accom-
sion created by the prestressing helps resist the shear stresses, panying mill certificate. This is particularly important if the
but stirrups are usually still required. reinforcement is going to be welded because reinforcing bar
Horizontal loads on a concrete column also create shear chemistry determines weldability and welding requirements.
stresses. In addition, the compressive forces in the column Reinforcing steel should be stored in an orderly fashion
create stresses that tend to make the column bulge, or even and off the ground on blocks or racks. Storing the bars off the
crack, if the stresses are very large. ground allows water to drain from around the bars. This helps
protect the bars and reduce the formation of rust. Figure 5.4
• Reinforcing bars bent into rectangular or round shapes, illustrates storage methods.
called ties, resist the shear stresses and confine the ver- Rust, surface irregularities, or mill scale on uncoated rein-
tical reinforcement. forcing steel should not be a cause for rejection, provided the
• Steel wire bent into square or round spirals is also steel weight, minimum dimensions, and height of deforma-
effective for this purpose. tions meet the acceptable ASTM specification requirements.
Light or moderate rust, which can be easily removed with fin-
The size, shape, and position of stirrups in a beam or ties ger pressure or a soft object such as a pencil eraser, is gener-
and spirals in a column are important. These items must be ally acceptable. Light or moderate rust does not need to be
checked by production personnel during placement and removed from bars prior to use. Heavy rust that has flakes and/
verified by quality control personnel during the prepour or pits in the bar’s surface may reduce the strength of the bars
inspection. and may be cause for rejecting the bars. The evaluation of the
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 70 10/2/14 11:03 AM

degree of rusting on reinforcing bars can be subjective. Per-

sonnel from the engineering department should be consulted
if there is any question regarding the effect of rust on the bars.
Reinforcing bars should be well supported to avoid exces-
sive distortion that could affect the proper placing of the rein-
forcement in the form. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars should be
stored on protective curbing to prevent damaging the coating.
The steel should also be properly labeled according to grade,
size, and weldability. This may be achieved using a color-coding
method, labeling on the material tags, or some other method pre-
scribed in the plant quality-systems manual.
Reinforcing bars should be kept clean and free of contami-
nates such as dirt, oil, grease, or other foreign substances. For
reinforcing steel to perform as required, the concrete must
properly bond to the surface of the bar. Contaminates signifi-
cantly decrease the bond of the concrete to the bar and reduce
the strength and serviceability of the member. Fig. 5.4 - Storage of Reinforcing Steel
Nylon slings or padded wire-rope slings are required for the
handling of galvanized or epoxy-coated reinforcing. Bundles
be quenched. Bars with kinks or improper bends should not be
of coated reinforcing require lifting at multiple pick points
used because this can lead to premature cracking of the con-
so that the bundles will not sag when lifted. Excessive sag
crete and a possible failure of the precast concrete member.
between pick points causes abrasion between the bars in the
Galvanized reinforcing bars can usually be bent after gal-
bundle and can damage the coating. Epoxy coating that has
vanizing. Some cracking and flaking of the galvanized coat-
been rubbed or scraped off in handling must be touched up
ing at the bend is to be expected and should not cause rejec-
with epoxy to retain the coverage on the bars. Refer to section
tion. Galvanized bars shall be bent according to ASTM A767
5.1.3 of MNL-116. Uncoated bars may be handled with wire
requirements. Areas of damaged galvanizing must be repaired
rope slings and chokers.
by coating the damaged area with zinc-rich paint conforming
Storage and identification requirements for rolls or bundles
to ASTM A767 and in accordance with ASTM A780. These
of flat sheets of welded-wire reinforcement are similar to
repairs are allowed because galvanizing is a sacrificial coating
those for reinforcing bars. Rolls and bundles of different wire
that will continue to protect against corrosion even with minor
sizes, wire spacings, and sheet sizes should be carefully iden-
cracks in the coating.
tified. There are many different wire reinforcement products,
If epoxy-coated bars are damaged during fabrication beyond
and it is critical that the specified reinforcement be used in the
the limits stated in the project specifications, they must be
precast concrete member. The steel strapping that is used to
repaired with material conforming to ASTM A775. The cut
tie stacks of welded-wire reinforcement sheets together must
ends of epoxy-coated reinforcement must be repaired, as any
not be used to lift the bundles. Slings should be attached to
other damaged areas.
the bundles in locations that reduce bending and do not cause
Sheets of welded-wire reinforcement may be bent.
permanent deformation of the sheets.
5.1.3 Fabrication of Reinforcing Steel • If the inside diameter of the bend is smaller than eight
wire diameters (8dw), the bend shall be located at least
Two publications of the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
four wire diameters from the nearest welded cross wire.
are the primary references for the fabricating reinforcing steel.
• ACI-318 specifies the following minimum bend diam-
eters D.
• ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
• Wire size W6 or smaller: D ≥ 2dw
Concrete, governs bend diameters for reinforcing bars,
• Wire larger than W6: D ≥ 4dw
reinforcing concrete cover requirements, and bar spac-
ing requirements.
Many plants fabricate reinforcing cage assemblies by pre-
• ACI 117, Standard Tolerances for Concrete Construc-
tying the bars in an area outside the form or mold. The entire
tion and Materials, specifies standard tolerances in the
cage is then placed as a unit. Reinforcing cages should have
fabrication and placement of reinforcing steel.
adequate stability so that they do not permanently distort
when handled. Cages are often produced on marked jigs so
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute’s Manual of Standard
that the bars can be easily placed in position without mea-
Practice is also an excellent reference for the placement of
suring each bar location. Placing extra bars on a diagonal
reinforcing steel.
across the primary reinforcing makes the cage more stable for
ACI 318 requires reinforcing bars to be bent without heat-
handling purposes. Adequate cover must also be maintained
ing. Bending the projecting end of embedded reinforcment by
over these extra bars if they are used. Pre-tied cages may be
using heat is only allowed if directed by the design engineer.
inspected in the reinforcing fabrication area in addition to the
When heat is permitted, the bars must cool naturally and never
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 71 10/2/14 11:03 AM

bars without permanently displacing them beyond standard

tolerances from the position shown on the shop drawings.
The distance of the edge of the bar from the formed or fin-
ished surface is called the reinforcing-bar cover because this
distance determines the thickness of the concrete covering
the bar. Reinforcing-bar cover from the top, side, and bottom
faces of the product must always be within the specified tol-
erance. Reinforcing-bar cover is determined and affected by
several different factors.
• Exposure – Concrete surfaces exposed to weather,

chemicals, or the ground require larger bar cover than
surfaces that are not exposed.
• Aggregate size – The bar cover is generally equal to
or greater than 1.33 times the size of the largest coarse
Fig. 5.5 Reinforcing Cage aggregate in the mixture.
• Reinforcing bar size – Larger bars may require more
cover than smaller bars.
prepour inspection in the forms or molds. This saves valuable
• Prestressing – Strands generally require more con-
time because a deficiency can be corrected in the reinforcing
crete cover than bars.
assembly area.
Standard, uncoated reinforcement is usually tied with black,
The required reinforcing-bar cover is determined by the
annealed wire. Galvanized reinforcement must be tied using
engineer and must be clearly shown on the shop drawings.
zinc-coated or nonmetallic-coated, annealed tie wire. Epoxy-
Production and quality control personnel must be aware of
coated bars must be tied with epoxy or plastic-coated tie wire.
the required bar cover and tolerances, and check them during
Reinforcing bar cages may be welded at bar intersections if
setup, prepour inspection, and concrete casting.
allowed by the project specifications and the production draw-
Any change in reinforcing positioning from that shown on
ings. Weld locations must be approved by the design engineer
the shop drawings must be reviewed and approved in writ-
and performed using the same requirement as structural weld-
ing by engineering. No individual shall be given authority to
ing. Due to the metallurgy of reinforcing bars, they require
cut reinforcing steel due to congestion or conflict with other
care to weld properly using preheat and welding procedures
embedded items without review and written approval by engi-
that comply with AWS D1.4. Additionally, the welds should
neering. Similarly, no reinforcement should be bent unless
be inspected to ensure against flaws such as undercut and
shown on approved shop drawings or approved in writing by
spatter. This is a requirement for welding all reinforcing bars
engineering.
that serve a structural purpose in the precast member.
Figure 5.5 shows a reinforcing cage for a bridge girder that
Tack welding must be performed using the same require-
includes plain and epoxy-coated bars. The epoxy-coated bars
ments as structural welding of reinforcing bars. Welding must
are tied with coated tie wire.
never be performed near stressed or unstressed prestressing
strands. Regardless of the method used to fabricate the cage,
5.2 Tensioning
it must remain in proper position during concrete placement.
Lap splicing of both welded-wire reinforcement and rein-
5.2.1 General Tensioning Requirements
forcing bars is acceptable if approved by the engineer. The
engineer must determine all reinforcing bar and welded-wire Prestressing is a highly effective method of taking advan-
reinforcement splice lengths if they are not ACI standard laps. tage of concrete’s most important property, its compressive
The standard splice length for welded-wire reinforcement is to strength. Prestressed concrete works by compressing the con-
overlap two cross wires plus 2 in. (50 mm). crete in specific locations to counteract the tension produced
Mechanical bar connections are used when bar splices by applied loads. This is explained and illustrated in Section
are not wanted or when close bar spacing prohibits lap 5.1.1 of this training manual.
splicing. These splices must be shown on the shop draw- There are two general types of prestressing.
ings and installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. • Pretensioning involves tensioning the strands between
anchors before the concrete is placed.
5.1.4 Installation of Reinforcing Steel
• Post-tensioning involves tensioning the strands after
Reinforcing bars and cages are usually held in position in the concrete is placed and has achieved adequate
forms or molds by metal or plastic bar supports, sometimes strength.
called chairs. Bars and cages may be suspended above the This chapter includes recommendations for pretensioned
mold surface with wires. Any method used must support the and post-tensioned plant-produced products. The applica-
reinforcing bars and the weight of workers walking on the tion of the tensioning load must be carefully controlled in
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 72 10/2/14 11:03 AM

Support and restraint

of jack
Stressed length of strand
Author plate
Live end Dead end

abutment abutment
Strand
Tensioning jack Strand

chuck
Tensioning pump
with pressure gauges
Fig. 5.6 - Single-strand tensioning layout
both methods. Inaccurate tensioning can result in differential strand pretensioning setup.
camber or inadequate product strength. Tensioning must be Figure 5.7 shows a single-strand prestressing jack at a hol-
carefully controlled by production and monitored by quality low-core bed. The jack is suspended from a frame to keep it
control as part of the prepour inspection. level. The portable shield is in place to protect the workers in
case a strand breaks. Strand tensioning is dangerous if correct
5.2.2 Tensioning of Tendons
procedures are not used. All plant safety procedures must be
The designers of prestressed products specify a force for followed.
each strand. This force is required before detensioning in The applied force is usually measured with calibrated
the case of pretensioned products, or after tensioning in the pressure gauges connected to the jack’s hydraulic system,
case of post-tensioned products. In all methods, the force in as described in Section 5.3.4 of this training manual. Dyna-
the strand must be measured by accurate monitoring of the mometers or load cells may also be used to measure the strand
applied force, and the elongation must be measured to ensure force. Elongation is usually measured with a ruler, measuring
that the applied force has been uniformly distributed along the tape, or other pre-marked gauging device.
length of the strand. Figure 5.6 illustrates a simplified single- Figure 5.8 shows elongation being measured. The exact
Fig. 5.7 - Single-strand prestressing jack
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 73 10/2/14 11:03 AM

the measured elongation.

The examples in Figures 5.9 and 5.10 illustrate the num-
ber line and how it can be used to evaluate tensioning toler-
ance variations. In both examples, the measured elongation is
below the calculated value and the observed final gauge force
is above the desired value.
5.2.3 Methods of Force Measurement
Methods of measuring the tensioning force typically include
one or more of the following:
• Gauges that measure the fluid pressure applied to

hydraulic jacks and, in most cases, provide a direct
reading of the applied force
• Dynamometers connected to the tensioning system
• Load cells connected into the tensioning system in
Fig. 5.8 - Elongation measurement a manner to compress them during the tensioning
operation
• Digital readouts that provide a direct reading of the
methods and requirements for measuring force and elongation
applied force based on hydraulic pressure in the jack or
are discussed in detail in the following sections.
load cells in the jack
Three separate tolerance checks are required for tensioning
operations.
All systems for measuring tensioning force must be cali-
brated as required.
• The applied force shall be within 5% of the calculated
force. 5.2.4 Gauging Systems
• The measured elongation shall be within 5% of the
All methods of force measurement must be capable of indi-
calculated elongation.
cating the force within an accuracy of 2% of the actual force.
• The deviation in the applied force and the deviation
The entire tensioning system consisting of gauges, jacks,
in the measured elongation shall not be separated by
pumps, hoses, and connections must be calibrated as a unit in
more than five percentage points. This requirement is
the same manner as they are used in the tensioning operation.
best understood by using a simple number line that
While the calibration is normally performed by an approved
graphs the percentage error for the applied force and
calibration agency, it may be performed by plant personnel
Final elongation is measured at -3% below the calculated value.

Final gauge force is observed at +2% above the desired value.
5% total (acceptable)
-6% -5% -4% -3% -2% -1% 0% +1% +2% +3% +4% +5% +6%
Negative tolerance Positive tolerance
This 5% variation is at the tolerance limit and would be accepted.
Fig. 5.9 - Elongation Tolerances
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 74 10/2/14 11:03 AM

Final elongation is measured at -4% below the calculated value.

Final force is observed at +3% above the desired value.
7% total (not acceptable)
-6% -5% -4% -3% -2% -1% 0% +1% +2% +3% +4% +5% +6%
Negative tolerance Positive tolerance
This 7% variation is beyond the 5% tolerance limit and must not be accepted.
Fig. 5.10 - Elongation Tolerances
under the supervision of a registered professional. prestressing pump. Control valves direct the hydraulic fluid to
A calibration curve or chart must be constructed for each the low-pressure gauge for initial tension and the high-pres-
tensioning system. If the indicated force is within 2% of the sure gauge for final tension. Automatic pressure-relief valves
actual force, then the indicated force may be read without are used to control and hold a preset load during tensioning.
correction. If the variation between the indicated force and
5.2.5 Control of Jacking Force
the actual force is greater than 2%, then a correction must be
applied. The correction is normally made by adjusting the Tensioning and gauging systems should be equipped with
gauge reading in accordance with a calibration chart that plots automatic pressure-relief valves to automatically stop the jack
indicated gauge readings versus actual forces. movement when the pressure within the hydraulic system
Tensioning systems must be calibrated any time the system reaches a preset level for both initial and final force. The accu-
indicates erratic results or when some part of the tensioning racy of the valve settings should be checked at the beginning
system is replaced or repaired. Tensioning systems must have of the tensioning operation and whenever there is reason to
been calibrated within a 12-month period. suspect the setting is not accurate. An increase in temperature
Multiple-strand tensioning systems are capable of tension- of the hydraulic fluid during a tensioning operation will affect
ing all of the strands in a pretensioning setup at one time the setting; therefore, the jacking system should be warmed up
using large-capacity hydraulic rams. These systems are ini-
tially calibrated as a unit using large-capacity proving rings or
load cells. A master gauge connected to the hydraulic system
is used to periodically confirm the accuracy of the system’s
working gauge. The master gauge must have been calibrated
within a 12-month period.
Measuring devices may not be accurate near the extreme
low or high ends of their capacity. A high-capacity gauge used
to measure the final tensioning load may not have the accu-
racy required for measuring the initial tensioning force on the
strand. Therefore, single-strand tensioning systems must be
equipped with a low-capacity gauge for measuring the initial
strand force and a high-capacity gauge for measuring the final
force. Gauges should be used in the middle 80% of their full-
scale capacity unless the calibration shows accuracy within
2% in the upper or lower 10% of their range.
Figure 5.11 shows a low-pressure (8000 lb [36 kN]) gauge
and a high-pressure (80,000 lb [360 kN]) gauge on a typical
Fig. 5.11 - Pressure Gauges
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 75 10/2/14 11:03 AM

a metallurgical change will reduce the strength of the strand.

Welding in the vicinity of a prestressing strand can result in
wire failure if the current arcs to a strand or if weld slag falls
5000
on a strand. Welding around a tensioned strand is dangerous.
Gage pressure jacking system No. 1,
(22.3)
Welding around a strand that has not yet been tensioned can
4000
(17.8) also cause damage that may lead to failure when the strand is
tensioned.
psi (MPa)
x
3000
(13.3)
x 5.2.7 Calibration Records for Jacking
2000 x Equipment
(8.9) x
1000
Calibration records shall be maintained for each of the vari-
x
(4.5) ous tensioning systems or system combinations used. As a
minimum, the calibration record should include:
5000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
(22.3) (44.5) (66.8) (89.0) (111.3) (133.5)
Actual load proving ring/load cell, lb • the date of calibration;

• the name of the calibration agency or registered engi-
neer supervising the calibration;
Fig. 5.12 - Calibration Plot • the method of calibration (load cell, proving ring, test-
ing machine) and its calibration reference;
prior to setting the bypass valve. • the range of calibration with the indicated gauge or dig-
Tensioning systems without pressure-relief valves rely on ital reading compared with the actual pressure or force
the skill of the operator to manually stop the jack movement indicated by the calibration instrument; and
when the required tensioning load is achieved. When manual • the graph of the indicated gauge reading plotted against
cutoff is used, the rate of load application should be slow- the actual reading shown on the calibration instrument.
enough to accurately determine the applied force. The ten-
sioning forces must be accurately monitored and recorded to The tensioning system must be calibrated slightly beyond
confirm compliance with tolerance requirements. A quality the maximum tensioning force that is expected to be applied
control inspector should perform this monitoring. by the system. This ensures that the system is accurate at all
desired loads. Personnel responsible for performing tension-
5.2.6 Wire Failure in Strands or Tendons
ing calculations or evaluating tensioning tolerances must use
Strands typically used in prestressing operations contain the calibration record. Tensioning operations may appear to
seven wires. Sometimes during a tensioning operation, a be out of tolerance, but when errors in the tensioning system
single wire within a strand may break. The strand or tendon are included, the tensioning may be within tolerance. Figure
containing the broken wire does not need to be replaced if the 5.12 illustrates a typical calibration plot for a single-strand
area of the broken wire does not exceed 2% of the total area of jack equipped with a gauge that reads in pounds per square
prestressing steel in the setup. For example, if 8 strands con- inch. This jack should not be used beyond 4000 psi (28 MPa)
tain 56 wires (8 strands × 7 wires per strand), one broken wire (40,000 lb [180 kN]), which is the limit of the calibration data.
in this setup is acceptable because the total area of that wire is
less than 2% of the total area of all wires. 5.3 Pretensioning
This 2% limit of wire breakage does not apply in all cases.
If one wire breaks in a three-wire strand or if two wires break 5.3.1 Storage of Prestressing Steel
within a single seven-wire strand, the strand must be replaced.
Prestressing strands can be purchased in many sizes of either
Wires sometimes fail at the tip of the chuck due to non-
stress-relieved or low-relaxation material. Strands with speci-
uniform seating of the jaws within the chuck. This can be
fied ultimate strengths of 250 ksi (1700 MPa), 270 ksi (1900
caused by mixing jaws of different manufacturers within a
MPa), and 300 ksi (2100 MPa) are available. It is extremely
chuck. Using worn O-rings or tensioning without a spring cap
important that each coil or reel of strand be properly identified
on the chuck can also lead to wire failure during tensioning.
with a tag that remains with the strand until it is completely
This need for proper chuck maintenance is covered in Sec-
used. These tags typically list the strand manufacturer, size,
tion 5.3.5 of this traning manual. Wire failure may also be
grade, pack number, and heat number. This information allows
caused by the strand rubbing against the jaws if the prestress-
the user to trace every pack to a specific mill certificate that
ing jack is not level during tensioning. Any wire failure during
lists the strand properties. The properties of the strand being
a tensioning operation should be investigated and reported to
used must be known. Tensioning a lower-capacity strand to
the engineering department. Every effort should be made to
the specified load of a stronger strand might cause the strand
prevent wire failure during tensioning.
to break during tensioning. It will also reduce the strength of
Welding must not be performed near any prestressing
the precast concrete member.
strand, whether tensioned or untensioned. Strands must not
Strands must not be exposed to standing water, abrasion,
be exposed to weld spatter, direct weld heat, or current flow.
nicks, or kinks while in storage or during stringing. Strand
If a welding arc or hot slag comes in contact with the strand,
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 76 10/2/14 11:03 AM

packs must be stored away from contact with the ground or 5.3.4 Stringing of Strands
any material that could hold water. Concrete pads, wood dun-
Strands should be positioned between anchorages and
nage, or scrap tires are often used. Strands with surface pitting
through hold-down or hold-up points without interference
due to corrosion should not be used. Reasonable care should
from the form, other strands, reinforcing steel, or inserts
be taken to protect strand from corrosion while in storage.
within or at the ends of the members.
Refer to “Evaluation of Degree of Rusting on Prestressed
Concrete Strand” in the 1992 May–June PCI Journal for a
• Crossing strands within a member can create friction
description, with detailed photographs, of the various degrees
during tensioning and cause strand damage or failure.
of rusting that are acceptable.
Crossed strands must be corrected.
Steel bands on strand packs must not be cut before the pack
• Strands can also be damaged by rubbing against rein-
is placed in an appropriate frame. The steel bands shall be
forcing bars or headers during tensioning, The friction
cut with mechanical shears. Never cut the steel bands with a
produced by rubbing will reduce the force applied to
torch.
the strand.
5.3.2 General
When strands are pulled from the pack, they must be pulled
Force shall be applied to the strands in two increments: ini-
tial force and final force. These are identified and explained in
Sections 5.3.9 through 5.3.15 of this training manual.
The plant quality system manual (QSM) must include
written tensioning procedures for all tensioning operations.
Trained and authorized personnel who perform and observe
tensioning must be identified in the manual.
The following specific procedures must be included:
• Operation and control of jacking equipment Fig. 5.13 - Strand Chuck

• Operation and control of the gauging system
• Tensioning to an initial force in preparation for measur-
ing elongation out from the interior of the correct side, or entanglement will
• Tensioning to a given final force, measuring and result. Strand packs usually have an arrow indicating which
recording the corresponding elongation side should be used. The strand must also be allowed to
• Checking for strand anchor seating rotate as it is being pulled down the bed to prevent twists or
• Procedures in case of out-of-tolerance results kinks. Strands must also be protected from damage caused by
• Procedures in case of wire failure wheeled vehicles such as trucks or cranes.
• Alternative tensioning methods or measurements Strands may be cut with a torch, an abrasive wheel, or a
• Detensioning and stripping shear. If the strand is cut with a torch, the end should extend
beyond the chuck by at least 3 in. (75 mm) because the heat
5.3.3 Strand Surfaces from the torch weakens the strand for a short distance.
For prestressed concrete to perform as designed, the con- When a strand is gripped by a chuck during tensioning,
crete must bond to the strands’ surfaces. Strands must be free small notches or nicks are cut into the strand surface. A strand
of form-release agents, dirt, grease, oil, or other contaminants. that is cut near the teeth on the jaws of the chuck must not
Form-release agents and dirt are the most common contami- be retensioned or used within a prestressed member. These
nants at precasting plants. small cuts can lead to a significant reduction in the strand’s
strength and can cause a failure. In certain cases, the force on
• Puddles of form-release agent must be mopped up a strand may have to be released after it is tensioned. In this
prior to stringing strands. Form-release agents must case, extreme care must be used to protect personnel during
never be sprayed on strands after stringing. If strands destressing and restressing. The strand may be regripped at the
are contaminated with these agents, special solvents location where the teeth marks are located, but any area con-
are needed to effectively clean them. This process is taining teeth marks may not be placed within the cast product.
sometimes difficult, if not impossible, to perform if the 5.3.5 Strand Chucks and Splice Chucks
strands are located in the bottom of a deep form.
• Strands must not be dragged through mud during string- Strand chucks and splice chucks must be cleaned and
ing. Paved areas at the ends of the beds can prevent this. inspected after each use. The typical components that go
• It is much better to prevent contamination than to try together to make up a strand chuck are:
to clean the strands after they become contaminated. • barrel;
The performance of all prestressed products depends • jaws (or wedges) with teeth;
on good bond of the concrete to the strands. • o ring that maintains the jaws in position; and
• spring cap that pushes the jaws uniformly into the barrel.
All chuck components must be compatible and from the
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 77 10/2/14 11:03 AM

possible to compensate for the differential elongation

of spliced and unspliced strands in the same setup.
5.3.7 Strand Position
CGS
31/2 in. (89 mm)
31/2 in. (89 mm)

CGS
Correct strand position within a prestressed product is
CGS of strand
important. Abutments, headers, and strand-positioning hard-
raised ware must be properly designed and installed to hold strands
in their specified position. Strand position tolerance varies for
Shop drawing Actual
different product types. Division 7 of MNL-116 and MNL-
117 list the required product tolerances, including strand posi-
tion. Production and quality control personnel must know the
Fig. 5.14 - Harped strand location. Note: CGS = center of strand-positioning tolerance for the products they are manu-
gravity of strands
facturing.
Strand position must be checked during the prepour inspec-
same manufacturer. Components of different sizes and/or
tion to ensure proper placement because it may be difficult or
from a different manufacturer must not be mixed. Figure 5.13
impossible to verify strand position during the post-pour inspec-
shows all of the strand chuck parts.
tion. Strands must be held securely in position to prevent move-
Appendix D of MNL-117 and MNL 116 contains recom-
ment during concrete placement. Strand position should also be
mendations for chuck use and maintenance. Strand chucks
checked, where possible, during the post-pour inspection.
should be removed from the bed after each use and taken to
a properly equipped cleaning area where the chucks are dis- 5.3.8 Spacing of Strands
assembled, cleaned, inspected, lubricated with an approved
The center-to-center spacing of strands at the ends of mem-
material, and reassembled by trained personnel. Chucks
bers should be checked during the prepour and post-pour
should be loosened from the strand by use of an approved
inspections. The spacing should conform to the shop drawings
slide hammer and never by striking with a hard object such
and the minimums shown in MNL-116 and MNL-117.
as a hand-held hammer. Only cleaned and inspected chucks
Strands may be deflected (harped) within a member as
should be used for each setup of a prestressing bed.
required by design and shown on the shop drawings. The
5.3.6 Strand Splices horizontal and vertical locations of these hold-down points
are critical. These dimensions should be measured during the
Strands may be spliced together to prevent waste of strand
prepour inspection. The method of holding the strands must
when relatively short lengths of product are cast on a long
be known.
prestressing bed. Long lengths of strands outside the product
Figure 5.14 shows a vertical stack of strands on the left and
can be spliced to the strands that extend through the product.
a tight bundle on the right. The location of the center of grav-
The strands outside the product can then be reused for daily
ity of all strands is important. The location is normally deter-
tensioning operations rather than being wasted. Strands may
mined by measuring down from a reference point to the top
be safely spliced by following specific procedures.
of the top strand in the group. The location of the center of
gravity is different for the vertical stack and the tight bundle.
• The strand on each side of the splice must be of the
The concepts and methods for deflected strands is covered in
same lay (right or left). To ensure this, each strand in
the Level III Plant Quality Personnel Certification program.
the bed should be pulled from the same end and in the
same direction. 5.3.9 Initial Tensioning
• Strand splices should not fall within a member unless
To have an accurate starting point for measuring elongation,
the chucks are the type that are specifically designed
the dead-end chucks must be seated, and excess slack must be
to do so.
removed from the strands before making the elongation refer-
• The ends of strands within the splice chuck should be
ence mark. The initial force required to do this varies with
cut with mechanical shears or abrasive saws, never
each setup. Each plant’s QSMshould state these standards for
with a torch. Using a torch to cut the strand will affect
the initial tension force, and these values should be used every
the strand properties and can cause failure near the cut
day.
area.
The minimum recommended initial force is 5% of the final
• The strands should be marked near the ends to ensure
tensioning force. This minimum is set to ensure seating of the
full penetration into the splice chuck.
dead-end chucks and removal of excess slack from the strands.
• Only one splice per strand is permitted.
The maximum recommended initial force is 25% of the
• In single-strand tensioning operations, any number of
final force. This maximum is set to ensure that the remaining
strands within the setup may be spliced because chuck
elongation is large enough to be accurately measured.
seating losses can be monitored and considered for
The tolerance for the initial force is ±100 lb (450 N) if the
each strand.
initial force is equal to or less than 10% of the final force. The
• With multiple-strand tensioning operations, either all
tolerance is ±200 lb (900 N) if the initial force is greater than
or none of the strands may be spliced because it is not
10% of the final force.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 78 10/2/14 11:03 AM

A low-range, initial tensioning gauge should be used

for measuring the initial force. In multiple-strand tension-
ing operations, the initial force must be placed equally and
individually on each strand prior to setting the elongation
reference.
5.3.10 Measurement of Elongation
The typical strand tensioning procedure is as follows:
1. Apply the specified initial force to the strand.

2. Mark the strand at a specific reference point.
3. Apply the specified final force to the strand.
4. Release the force from the jack.
5. Measure the distance between the mark on the strand
and the original reference point to determine the
elongation.
6. Record the measured elongation. Fig. 5.15 - Marking for Elongation Measurement
7. Compare the observed final force with the specified
force before releasing the force. 5.3.11 Elongation Calculation and Corrections
8. Compare the measured elongation after the release of
force with the calculated value. When a force is applied to a prestressing strand, the strand
9. Ensure that both force and elongation are within the gets longer; the larger the force, the greater the increase in
specified tolerance limits described in Section 5.2.2 of length. This increase in length is called elongation. In this
this traning manual. manual, elongation is discussed using three different terms.
The reference mark for elongation measurement should be • Basic elongation

made in conformance with the approved stressing plan. Mak- • Gross elongation
ing the mark while the jack holds the initial load is not con- • Net elongation
sidered to be a safety problem due to the relatively low force.
Figure 5.15 shows a worker preparing to paint the strands to Each term has a specific meaning and must be understood to
mark them for elongation measurement. properly evaluate the tensioning operation.
During single-strand tensioning, personnel should not
Basic elongation
approach the jack to make elongation measurements while
the jack is holding the final force. The final force should be The basic elongation is the distance the strand elongates
released and held by the live-end chuck before the elongation considering only the:
is measured.
For multiple-strand tensioning operations, the elongation • tensioning force;
should be measured after the final force has been released • strand length from chuck to chuck;
from the stressing rams. The stops should be set on the anchor • strand cross-sectional area; and
rods, and the final jacking force is transferred to these rods. • strand modulus of elasticity
Regardless of the tensioning method, all operational
losses should be monitored and considered in the elongation The equation for calculating the basic elongation is:
measurement.
The elongation should be measured and recorded to the eb = P × L
nearest 1/4 in. (6 mm) for most bed lengths. This corresponds AE
to a maximum error in measurement of ±1/8 in. (3 mm) Elon-
gation may be measured to the nearest ±1/8 in. (3 mm) in beds Term Units
50 ft (15 m) or shorter in length because the elongation is so eb = basic elongation inches (millimeters)
small. P = applied force pounds (kilonewtons)
L = strand length (chuck inches (millimeters)
to chuck)
A = strand area s quare inches (square
millimeters)
E = strand modulus of pounds per square inch
elasticity (kilonewtons per square
millimeter)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 79 10/2/14 11:03 AM

For a typical 1/2-in. (13 mm)-diameter, 270 ksi (1900 MPa),

Elastic range Inelastic range low-relaxation strand with an area of 0.153 in.2 (100 mm2), the
following forces apply:
Ultimate strength = 270,000 psi (1860 MPa)

× 0.153 in.2 (0.0001 m2)
MPa) strand
270 ksi (1860 = 41,310 lb (186 kN)
Yield strength = 0.90 × 41,310 lb (186 kN)
Yield 250 ksi (1720 MPa)
strand = 37,179 lb (167 kN)
point
Maximum jacking force = 0.80 × 41,310 lb (186 kN)
= 33,048 lb (149 kN)
Stress ksi
Strand area and modulus of elasticity may vary for dif-

δ ferent heat numbers and manufacturers. Average values of
ε area and modulus of elasticity for different packs of strand
may be used in the elongation equation, provided the final
results are within allowable tolerance limits. If strand area
Strain in./in. and modulus of elasticity are within a total range of 2.5%
for all strand in use, then the average value may be used.
Fig. 5.16 - Stress-Strain Curve for Steel Strand If out-of-tolerance conditions are encountered during ten-
sioning and average strand properties were used in the ten-
sioning calculations, the elongation should be recomputed
As is the case for all equations, consistent units must be
using the actual properties of the strand in use. The revised
used. In the United States, elongation is normally measured
calculations may indicate that the operation is in tolerance.
in inches, and the applied force is measured in pounds. There-
It is important to monitor and record which packs of strand
fore, the strand length must be in inches, and the strand prop-
are being used on a setup in order to evaluate the stressing
erties of area and modulus of elasticity must be in square
results.
inches and pounds per square inch, respectively.
Elongation corrections
• Applied force P is determined by subtracting the ini-
Several operational factors affect the measured elongation
tial force from the final force observed on the gauges
during stressing. The characteristics of each bed and setup
during tensioning. For example, if the initial force is
must be determined, and appropriate compensations must be
3000 lb (13 kN) and the final force is 30,000 lb
made in the calculations. The usual factors to be considered
(133 kN), the applied force used to calculate basic
are:
elongation is 27,000 lb (120 kN).
• Strand length L is determined by measuring the dis-
• chuck seating;
tance between plates where the chucks are supported
• dead-end chuck seating
at each end of the bed. This distance should then be
• live-end chuck seating
converted from feet to inches.
• splice-chuck seating
• Strand cross-sectional area A is taken from the strand
• friction in the jacking system;
manufacturer’s mill report for each pack of strand.
• form shortening (self-stressing forms);
• Strand modulus of elasticity E is taken from the strand
• abutment rotation or movement of anchorages (fixed
manufacturer’s mill report for each pack of strand.
abutment beds); and
• thermal effects.
The strand must remain in its elastic range during tension-
ing. The elastic range is defined in Figure 5.16.
Each one of these operational factors is discussed and
If the strand is tensioned to a stress below its yield strength,
explained.
it remains in the elastic range and will return to its original
unstressed length when the load is released. If a strand is ten- Chuck seating
sioned to a stress greater than its the yield strength, it is no
Dead-end chuck-seating occurs at the strand chuck opposite
longer in the elastic range and permanent elongation occurs.
the jacking (live) end of the bed during both initial and final
tensioning. It is the result of the jaws in the dead-end chuck
• The yield strength for strand is approximately 90% of
gripping into the strand and moving forward slightly (approxi-
its ultimate strength.
mately 1/8 in. [3 mm]) as these jaws seat into the tapered chuck
• The ACI and AASHTO design specifications limit the
barrel. This movement at the dead end occurs throughout the
maximum jacking force that may be applied to a strand
length of the strand and adds to the elongation measurement at
to 80% of its ultimate strength. This limit ensures that the
the live end, even though it is not really elongation. The dead-
strand will remain in the elastic range during tensioning.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 80 10/2/14 11:03 AM

end chuck-seating amount should be measured and confirmed

periodically by making a mark on the strand approximately 1
in. beyond the back of the chuck cap after the application of
intial tension. The amount of chuck seating can then be mea-
sured after final tensioning is complete, and this is the value
that is added to the calculated elongation.
Live-end chuck-seating occurs during single-strand tension-
ing as the final jacking force is transferred from the chuck in
the jack to the chuck at the abutment or end of the self-stress-
ing form. A measurable elongation loss occurs during this pro-
cess as the jaws move into the tapered chuck barrel. A 1/2 -in.
(13 mm)-diameter strand chuck will have approximately
1
/2 in. (13 mm) of live-end chuck-seating movement. Addi- Fig. 5.17 - Self Stressing Bed
tional force and corresponding elongation must be applied
to the strand so the elongation and force lost due to live-end
chuck seating will be accounted for in the stressing operation.
• Gross elongation is the elongation before live-end

chuck seating.
• Net elongation is the elongation after live-end chuck
seating.
Before tensioning strands
Bed shortening
For safety considerations, elongation measurements should
be made only after live-end chuck-seating has taken place and
the jack is relieved of its force. Therefore, in single-strand ten-
sioning operations, the measured elongation should be com-
pared with the computed net elongation.
Live-end chuck seating losses for multiple-strand tension-
ing operations are the same as dead-end chuck-seating losses After tensioning strands
because the jaws are set in the chuck as the tensioning force
is applied. Fig. 5.18 - Bed Shortening on Self-Stressing Beds
The assumed live-end chuck-seating amount should be peri-
odically verified by marking the strand while the jack is hold-
ing the load and then measuring the movement after release operation on a self-stressing form. Figure 5.17 shows a self-
of load and seating. Care should be taken when approaching stressing double-tee form.
the jack while it is holding the load. This should only be done Self-stressing steel forms do not have a fixed abutment at
in accordance with established plant procedures due to safety each end. The strand chucks bear against a thick steel plate
concerns. that transfers the force to the form at the live and dead ends.
Splice-chuck seating is similar to dead-end chuck seating The resulting compression in the form causes it to shorten
and occurs during final tensioning. This movement is approxi- while the load is applied. Each strand causes a small, incre-
mately twice as large as the total dead-end chuck seating mental increase in the form shortening, as during tensioning.
because it takes place at each side of the splice-chuck assem- Form shortening may not occur during tensioning of the first
bly. This movement adds to the elongation measurement at the few strands due to friction along the bottom of the form, and it
live end even though it is not really elongation. Splice-chuck may not be uniform for additional strands. Figure 5.18 further
seating should be periodically measured to confirm values illustrates self-stressing form shortening.
that are used in the elongation calculations. This measure- The total amount of shortening that takes place should be
ment should be made by marking the strand on each end of measured periodically for different numbers of strands in
the splice chuck after the initial tension has been placed on common setups. The form and the concrete are marked at
the strand. The amount of chuck seating can then be deter- each end before tensioning. The movement of the marks on
mined after final tensioning is complete by adding the seating the form relative to the marks on the concrete at both ends is
on each side of the splice chuck. the total shortening.
The final elongation (and the tensioning force) must be
Friction in the jacking system increased slightly to compensate for form shortening. Theo-
Elongation corrections are not required for jacking system retically, each strand would be tensioned to a slightly different
friction. elongation to compensate for shortening of the bed due to that
strand and strands tensioned later. This is a complex proce-
Self-stressing form shortening dure, so a simplified method is commonly used.
Self-stressing form shortening occurs during the tensioning This simplified elongation-correction amount for all strands
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 81 10/2/14 11:03 AM

is assumed to be one-half of the total form shortening. When

tensioning is complete, the first half of the strands tensioned
will be at a force slightly below the design requirement,
and the last half of the strands tensioned will be at a force
slightly above the design requirement. The average force of
all the strands in the setup will be approximately equal to the
required value.
Abutment movement or movement of anchorages
Abutment movement or movement of anchorages occurs
during tensioning of fixed abutment beds. Figure 5.19 shows
two fixed abutments.
Even these large, well-designed abutments will rotate and
deflect slightly from their vertical position when loaded, as
illustrated in Figure 5.20. Even though the movement is small,
it must be monitored and evaluated for each set of abutments
Fig. 5.19 - Fixed Abutments for strand patterns commonly used. The movement can be
measured by hanging a plumb line from the abutment at the
center of the strand pattern and marking the concrete before
tensioning. The movement of the plumb line from the mark on
Abutment rotation the slab is the abutment rotation.
to center of gravity
of strand For single-strand tensioning, the final elongation and the
tensioning force must be increased slightly to compensate
for abutment movement. The amount of correction for each
Abutment • after tensioning strand is assumed to be one-half of the total abutment move-
ment (sum of both ends). When tensioning is complete, the
Strand
first strands tensioned will be at a force slightly below the
design requirement and the last strands tensioned will be at a
force slightly above the design requirement. The average force
Measured elongation = calculated elongation
and abutment rotation of all the strands in the setup will be approximately equal to
Abutment rotation the required value.
Abutment rotation is usually small for well-designed abut-
ments but must still be considered in tensioning calculations.
Fig. 5.20 - Abutment rotation Large movement or rotation under load is an indication of a
possible problem and must be reported to engineering.
Thermal effects
Abutment When strands are anchored between fixed abutments,
Strand Casting bed changes in the temperature of the strand after tensioning will
change the force in the strands.
Strands tensioned on a cold morning will expand and lose
force when warmer concrete raises the stand temperature. The
Tensioned condition • A
abutments are not affected by the concrete temperature, and
the strand loses force as it expands. This condition is illus-
trated in Figure 5.21.
Concrete filled
casting bed The opposite effect occurs for strands tensioned on a hot
afternoon. They will contract and gain force when cooler con-
crete lowers the strand temperature. The stress in the strand
Relaxed strand will increase as it contracts.
To compensate for these changes in strand stress, the cal-
Tensioned condition • B culated elongation (and tensioning force) must be adjusted.
Concrete temperature higher than strand temperature These adjustments are made based on the difference in the
in condition A relaxes strand as illustrated in condition B.
temperature of the strand at the time of tensioning and the
temperature of the concrete at the time of placement.
The usual adjustment is to increase the tensioning force
Fig. 5.21 - Temperature Effects
and elongation by 1% for each 10 ºF (5.5 ºC) rise in tem-
perature between the strand at the time of tensioning and the
anticipated strand temperature after concrete placement. In no
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 82 10/2/14 11:03 AM

case should the strand be tensioned beyond 80% of its ulti- ance between the gauge reading and the actual force placed
mate strength. If the strand temperature at tensioning is 40 ºF on the strand is greater than 2%, a correction must be made
(4 ºC), and the concrete temperatue is 70 ºF (21 ºC), the based on the calibration data. The corrected gauge reading is
strand would be stressed to a force and elongation 3% higher determined by linear interpolation of the calibration data.
(30 ºF [17 ºC] = 3% change) than the values used to calculate
5.3.13 Final Tensioning of Straight Strands
the basic elonation.
Alternately, if the concrete temperatue is cooler than the The recommended procedure for tensioning straight strands
strand temperature at the time of tensioning, the adjustment using single-strand systems usually is as follows:
would be to decrease the tensioning force and elongation by
1% for each of 10 ºF (5.5 ºC) drop in temperatue. 1. Apply the initial force to the strand.
These adjustments are required if the temperature change 2. Mark the strand, usually at the cap of the live-end
is greater than 25 ºF (14 ºC). No adjustment is required for chuck, while the initial force is being held by the jack.
temperature differentials of 25 ºF (14 ºC) or less. 3. Clear the area and apply the calculated final force to
These thermal adjustments are not applied to self-stressing the strand using the hydraulic pressure gauge as the
forms because, after tensioning, the self-stressing form and control.
the strand both expand or contract at the same rate. The force 4. Release the jack and measure the net elongation after
in the strand is unchanged. live-end chuck seating.
5. Compare the measured net elongation with the calcu-
5.3.12 Force Corrections
lated net elongation.
Calculated force must be adjusted for all known factors that 6. The values of gauge pressure and net elongation must
affect the observed gauge force. The factors are generally the be within acceptable tolerance limits.
result of friction along the strand length, minor errors in the 7. Record the values of gauge pressure and net elongation
gauging system, or variations in strand properties. Increasing on the tensioning record.
the calculated or applied force to overcome friction is only
acceptable at very low levels. In situations where the source Specifiers sometimes require that tensioning be controlled
of friction is concentrated at the live end of the setup and is by pulling the strand to the calculated gross elongation and
consistent and predictable, over-pulling for friction without an then reading the corresponding gauge pressure as a check.
adjustment in required elongation may be permitted. While this appears to achieve the same result, it is not as
The following items, in addition to those discussed above in accurate as the preferred method. It is not safe for the per-
Section 5.3.11, affect the calculated tensioning force: son observing the elongation during stressing to stand close
enough to the jack in order to accurately observe its move-
• Live-end chuck seating (section 5.3.11) ment. PCI strongly recommends controlling tensioning by
• Friction in jacking system stressing to the calculated gauge pressure and measuring the
• temperature difference between concrete temperature net elongation after releasing pressure and seating the strands.
at placing and ambient temperature at time of stressing In most setups, the net elongation is measured on every
• bed shortening and abutment rotation strand. If the bed is completely open with no headers or other
sources of friction along the strand length, the elongation
measurement is only required on the first and last tensioned
Friction in the jacking system
strands and 10% of the remaining strands in the setup.
Single-strand tensioning jacks are relatively small with Strands must be tensioned in a pattern that is symmetrical
lightweight and free-moving parts. Friction buildup during the about the vertical centerline of the bed to minimize eccentric
operation of single-strand jacks is usually negligible. loading of the form. Eccentric prestressing forces on a form
Multiple-strand tensioning systems are usually large with may cause the form to bow laterally.
heavy moving parts that may generate significant friction during The recommended procedure for multiple-strand tension-
operation. In those instances, some of the force being delivered ing is much the same as it is for single-strand tensioning.
by the rams is used to overcome friction in the system. In this Care should be taken to ensure that all strands are elongated
case, the strand does not receive all of the force being delivered equally. Any difference in elongation from side to side or top
by the rams. If excess friction exists, strand tensioning may be to bottom of the strand group shall be monitored and recorded.
out of tolerance. If this is suspected as a problem, and if the gauge As with single-strand tensioning, the elongation should not be
reading is predicted to not be a reliable indication of the force in measured until the strand is in its final anchored position and
the strand, then load cells must be used to verify actual strand the jacking load is released to the shims or anchor rods.
force. Small load cells may be placed on individual strands, or
5.3.14 Final Tensioning of Harped Strands
large load cells may be placed on one or more of the rams.
This section is beyond the scope of Level I and Level II
Gauge correction based on calibration data
Plant Quality Personnel Certification programs, and is cov-
In certain instances, a tensioning system is calibrated but the ered in Level III.
gauge is not adjusted to read the actual force on the strand or
pressure within the hydraulic system. In cases where the vari-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 83 10/2/14 11:03 AM

considered.
5.3.17 Detensioning
Cutting the strands free from the abutments or self-
stressing forms releases the tensioning force into the concrete
and compresses it.
In symmetrically prestressed members, such as columns
and wall panels, the prestressing force usually creates uniform
compressive forces in the concrete.
In eccentrically prestressed members, such as beams, dou-
ble-tees, or hollow-core slabs, the prestressing force usually
Fig. 5.22 - Strand Debonding creates compressive forces in the bottom and tensile stresses
in the top. If the tensile stresses in the top are higher than
the concrete can resist, it may crack, and if the compressive
stresses in the bottom are higher than the concrete can resist,
Tension cracks
it may crush, as illustrated in Figure 5.23.
The tensioning force cannot be released into the concrete
by cutting the strands until the concrete strength is verified,
by test, to be equal to or greater than the specified release
strength. The release strength is calculated by the designer to
ensure that the concrete will not crack excessively under ten-
Compression cracks sion or crush under compression. Mild steel may be required
and spalls to control tension cracking and must be placed as detailed.
Cylinders tested to determine release strength must accu-
Fig. 5.23 - Distress after detensioning rately represent the concrete in the member. For this reason,
they must be cured in the same temperature and moisture con-
ditions as the curing product. The concrete temperature of the
5.3.15 Equal Distribution of Force in Harped cylinders and the precast concrete members must be close to
Strands the same value. This may be accomplished by curing cylinders
with the product or through the use of a slave cylinder system.
This section is beyond the scope of Level I and Level II
The shop drawings should show the minimum concrete
Plant Quality Personnel Certification programs, and is cov-
strength for detensioning. This strength is generally called the
ered in Level III.
release strength.
5.3.16 Strand Debonding PCI recommends a minimum strength of 3000 psi (21 MPa),
even if calculations show lower strengths may be acceptable,
Precast, prestressed concrete members may require a large
for detensioning. The bond of the concrete to the strand is
number of strands near the center of the span, but the stresses
important and it may be inadequate for proper load transfer at
induced by these strands may be too high near the ends of the
concrete strengths lower than 3000 psi (21 MPa).
member. If this is the case, the shop drawings may require
Concrete strength affects camber of members. If camber
that some of the strands be debonded. Any method that breaks
control is important, such as in pretopped parking structure
the bond between the concrete and the strand and does not
double-tees, the members should be detensioned when the
adversely affect the surrounding concrete can be used.
concrete strength is close to the same value each day.
Plastic sheathing is the most common method of debonding
If the products have been heat-cured, it is important that
strand. It is made with a split along the length of the sheath
they be detensioned while still warm and moist. If they are
so it can be wrapped around the strand after it is stressed. The
allowed to cool before cutting the strands, transverse shrink-
ends must overlap so that concrete paste cannot leak into the
age cracks can occur because concrete contracts as it cools.
sheath. (You may need tape to secure the connection.) The
The uncut strands still anchored at each end of abutment beds
ends must be sealed or tied tightly to the strand to prevent
restrain movement, which cause cracking.
leakage. Figure 5.22 shows a split plastic sheath.
During detensioning, it is important to minimize sliding
A light coating of retarder may be an effective method
of the members in the bed and minimize any eccentric load-
if it is not rubbed off during concrete placement and
ing on the members. This is usually done by detensioning the
consolidation.
strands simultaneously and symmetrically at each end of the
Animal fat and reactive greases should not be used because
bed. Anything that would restrict movement, such as forms,
they adversely affect the concrete surrounding the strands.
ties, bolts, inserts, and the like, must be removed. Sixty feet
Some specifications restrict the use of PVC pipe which may
(eighteen meters) of exposed strand can result in a potential
introduce free chloride ions, as this may damage the reinforce-
movement of approximately 5 in. (130 mm) during detension-
ment and concrete. Other methods approved by the engineer-
ing if the strands are cut near the ends of the bed and not near
ing department and included in the plant QSM should also be
the members. As the members move in the bed during deten-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 84 10/2/14 11:03 AM

• •
• •
1 • • 2
4 3
5 6
Cut-down sequence
Coordinate cut-down
at each end
(Remainder of form not

shown for clarity)
Fig. 5.25 - Saw-cutting Hollow-core
Fig. 5.24 - Detensioning sequence
sioning, they may bind in the form and cause spalls or more
serious damage.
Each strand should be released gradually by heating a length
of strand before cutting completely. Studies have shown that
quickly cutting the strands increases the transfer length and
causes strand slippage, even in well-vibrated and consolidated
members.
In products where strands are tensioned individually, the
strand should be detensioned in a prescribed pattern. The
detensioning pattern must be relatively symmetrical about the
vertical centerline of the product. The maximum unbalanced
force about the product vertical centerline should be no more
than 10% of the force of the entire strand group. Detensioning
of a double-tee member is illustrated in Figure 5.24.
Unbalanced forces about the vertical centerline of a double- Fig. 5.26 - Saw-cutting Machine
tee will tend to bow the member horizontally and bind it in
the form. Excessive unbalanced force can cause cracking of
5.3.19 Detensioning of Dry-Cast, Machine-
the double-tee.
Cast Products
In multiple-strand tensioning operations, the tensioning
force is gradually released into the products by slowly remov- Special procedures are necessary when detensioning dry-
ing pressure from the rams. Most multiple-strand setups also mixture hollow-core products because the strands may not
require single-strand detensioning with a torch at the dead-end bond as well to the dry-mixture concrete as they do to wet-
abutment. These operations must be carefully coordinated as cast concrete.
described previously for single-strand detensioning. Figures 5.25 and 5.26 show hollow-core strands being
Multiple-strand detensioning should also follow a prescribed saw cut.
pattern. Any restraints, tie-downs, or bolted connections should Strand slippage will occur at each end of the bed during
be released to avoid restraint, which will lead to spalling or initial detensioning. Special jigs or other methods should be
cracking of the member. Forces are high, and detensioning has devised to accurately monitor the slippage that occurs at each
to be carefully done. Potential movement of members must be end of the bed during initial detensioning. Quality control per-
limited to avoid damage to the product. The amount of free sonnel must record these values for each end of each strand
strand in the setup determines the movement potential. Spe- that is detensioned. Typically, end slip should be approxi-
cial detensioning procedures or sequence must be conveyed in mately d/5 or less. If slips significantly greater than this are
writing to production and quality control personnel. encountered, the engineering staff should be alerted immedi-
5.3.18 Detensioning of Harped Strand ately. (A method for monitoring initial slippage is shown in
Figure 5.27.)
This section is beyond the scope of Level I and Level II Strand slippage will also occur at the saw-cut ends of the
Plant Quality Personnel Certification programs. It is covered individual members. Quality control personnel should mea-
in Level III.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 85 10/2/14 11:03 AM

5.3.20 Protection of Strand Ends and

L1 = before detensioning Anchorages
Cut-down
Reference mark 1
template The strand ends in precast concrete products that are
Reference mark 2
before cut exposed to weather in service, such as some bridge girders
and parking structure members, must be protected against cor-
rosion. The strands may be cut back into the concrete and the
holes filled the specified material, or the strands may be cut
flush with the end and the surface painted or protected with
the specified coating. These procedures may be shown on the
Slippage
drawings or defined by the plant QSM.
5.4 Post-Tensioning of Plant-

L2 = after detensioning
Produced Products
Reference mark 1 Reference mark 2
after cut
5.4.1 General
Pretensioning is the process of stressing strands prior to
concrete placement. It is the process that has been discussed
so far in this manual.
Slippage = L1 – L2 Post-tensioning is the process of stressing strands or ten-
dons in the concrete member after the concrete has been
Fig. 5.27 - Strand Slippage placed and cured.
Post-tensioning is usually used in precasting plants for sev-
eral purposes.
In relatively small plants that have limited bed length, han-
Standard MK P-1/16-A MK P-1/16-B MK P-1/16-C
dling capacity, or headroom, post-tensioning may be neces-
overrun
sary to safely strip and handle the members in the plant or at
Cut no. 1 Cut no. 2 Cut no. 3
the jobsite due to rigging or headroom constraints.
In some cases, the post-tensioning is the primary reinforce-
ment in the final design.
Slippage Slippage Many times, post-tensioning is used in multiple-span
P-1/16-A P-1/16-B
Initial slippage Slippage Slippage
I-beam bridges for cap beams that cantilever over the piers.
into P-1/16-A P-1/16-B P-1/16-C A drop-in beam is then post-tensioned to the cantilevers at
each end, making a continuously spanning, precast concrete
Indicate strand slippage
structure that can be much longer than that using simple-span,
plant-produced pretensioned beams.
Fig. 5.28 - Hollow-core strand slippage
Post-tensioning is also used in segmental bridge con-
struction where segmental, concrete box sections are post-
sure and record any strand slippage observed at the saw cut tensioned together in the field.
at each end of each slab. All strand slippage data must be Two methods are typically used in the construction of post-
reported to the engineering department for evaluation. tensioned structures.
Each hollow-core unit must be given a permanent sequence The first method involves embedding strands or tendons in
mark indicating its position in the bed. This marking is neces- the product prior to concrete placement. This type of strand or
sary because strand slippage that is observed in one member tendon is typically called a monostrand, a single seven-wire
may also affect an adjacent member. Each member must be strand that is enclosed by plastic sheathing. To reduce fric-
identifiable in the storage yard. tion during the tensioning operation and to protect the strand
Figure 5.28 shows a sideview of a hollow-core bed and illus- in service, the strand within the sheathing is coated with a
trates the effect of strand slippage at the end and between units. lubricant during the sheathing operation. This type of system
The engineering evaluation of the effect of strand slippage is commonly used in precast concrete wall panels or, in some
in dry-mix hollow-core products is beyond the scope of this cases, prestressed beams. The unbonded strands are anchored
manual. The measured slippage must be recorded by quality in the member only at each end of the strand. If the strand
control personnel and reported to the engineer for evalua- becomes damaged, it can break and completely lose its effec-
tion. The maximum acceptable amount of total slippage in all tiveness as reinforcement for the member.
strands may be furnished by the engineer to quality control The second method involves embedding a hollow duct
personnel for different strand patterns and configurations. The within the product prior to placing the concrete. This duct
measured values should be compared with these maximum may be several inches in diameter. Reinforcing strands are
acceptable limits. placed within the duct after the product is stripped. Multiple-
strand post-tensioning jacks are used to tension groups of
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 86 10/2/14 11:03 AM

these strands at the same time. After the strands are tensioned, 5.4.3 Friction in Ducts
the hollow duct is typically pumped full of grout to bond the
The specified jacking force required to stress post-tensioned
strand in the duct.
tendons includes a force to overcome friction during the
As with pretensioning, the post-tensioning process requires
stressing operation. Instructions indicated on the production
the careful monitoring of the stressing of the strands dur-
documents should be carefully observed in order to stress the
ing the tensioning operation. This includes the calculation
member in a manner consistent with the design intent. The
and monitoring of strand elongation. Products may be post-
actual calculation of the required jacking force is beyond the
tensioned in the plant or at the jobsite. Records for the post-
scope of this manual. An engineer experienced in such mat-
tensioning operation are similar to those for pretensioning
ters must perform these calculations. However, plant person-
operations in the plant.
nel must be aware of the maximum jacking force that can be
Strands in unbonded post-tensioning systems are anchored
applied to the post-tensioned strand or tendon. These maxi-
in chuck assemblies that are embedded in the concrete at each
mum jacking forces are 80% of the ultimate strength of the
end. Tensioning force in the strand is transferred to the precast
strand. This is a force of approximately 33,000 lb (147,000
concrete as a concentrated force on each chuck. The concen-
kN) for a typical 1/2-in. (13 mm)-diameter, 270 ksi (1900
tration of forces at the anchorage assemblies at each end of the
MPa) strand and 46,800 lb (208,000 kN) for a typical 0.6-in.
post-tensioning setup develops large stresses in the concrete
(15 mm)-diameter, 270 ksi (1900 MPa) strand. In no case
around the anchorage zone. The concentrated force of the
should this maximum jacking force be exceeded. If the calcu-
anchorage can burst the concrete unless the anchorage zone
lated elongation has not been achieved at the indicated maxi-
is adequately reinforced. For this reason, all post-tensioning
mum jacking force, the engineer responsible for the design
systems require end-reinforcing details that must be carefully
should be notified immediately.
installed around the anchorage prior to concrete placement.
5.4.4 Tensioning
5.4.2 Details and Positions for Ducts
The product shop drawings should indicate a sequence of
The positioning of post-tensioning tendons and/or ducts
tensioning the tendons to keep the stresses in the member
must be within close tolerances of the positions shown on the
within predetermined limits. The required concrete compres-
shop drawings. The trajectory of ducts shall not vary from
sive strength must be determined from test cylinders.
the position shown on the shop drawings by more than 1/2 in.
The tensioning of post-tensioned tendons is similar to those
(13 mm) per 10 ft (3 m) of length. The position of the ducts
for pretensioning. A minimum initial force of approximately
with respect to the height or depth of the members shall be
10% of the jacking load is applied to the tendons to remove
maintained within a position of ±1/4 in. (6 mm).
excess slack and to provide a starting point for elongation
Hollow ducts, which are installed in concrete members
measurement. After the application of the final jacking force,
prior to casting, must be sealed so that they will not admit
which must include any required additional force for friction
concrete or mortar during the casting operation, and must be
losses, the anchors are seated and the force is released. The
securely supported and fastened so they will maintain the cor-
resulting elongation is then measured and compared with the
rect position in accordance with the tolerances indicated pre-
theoretical value. The tolerance for elongation variation from
viously. The ducts should be blown out with compressed air
the theoretical value for post-tensioning tendons is +7%. This
or otherwise cleaned after casting to remove water or grout
7% tolerance applies to the final force and final elongation.
that may have leaked into the ducts. Ducts and duct drains
The algebraic sum of the error on the gauge reading and the
must be checked after stripping to confirm they are clear of
error in the elongation measurement must also be within the
obstructions.
7% tolerance.
The positioning of the monostrand tendons or hollow ducts
is an important part of the design of post-tensioned members. 5.4.5 Anchorages
After the concrete has hardened and during the tensioning
The anchorage devices for all post-tensioning systems must
operation, friction develops between the duct or monostrand
be carefully aligned with the direction of the axis of the ten-
sheathing. Tensioning calculations for required force and
don at the point of attachment. Any kinks in the tendon near
elongation must be adjusted for specific amounts of antici-
the point of attachment, particularly at the live end, will cause
pated friction or duct misalignment, frequently called wobble.
more friction during the tensioning operation.
If the alignment of the duct or tendon creates friction beyond
Like the strand chuck used in the pretensioning operation,
that assumed in the calculations, it will be difficult to tension
the anchorage devices for post-tensioned tendons have a sig-
strands within the +7% tolerance requirement. Non-uniform
nificant amount of live-end chuck seating loss. The engineer’s
distribution of stress along the length of the post-tensioning
calculations of the required jacking force and elongation val-
tendons can lead to reduced capacity at the far end of the ten-
ues assume a certain amount of live-end chuck-seating loss.
sioned length.
These seating losses should be confirmed during the ten-
sioning operations. The assumed tensioning losses that were
included in the tensioning calculations should be shown on
the shop drawings. If the assumed losses for live-end chuck-
seating vary from those indicated on the shop drawing, the
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 87 10/2/14 11:03 AM

engineer responsible for the product must be notified.

The anchorage vises at each end of the post-tensioned ten-
don must be sealed and held rigidly in place at the position
indicated on the production drawing during concrete place-
ment. Concrete must not intrude into the anchorage hardware
where the tendon will be installed. If concrete is allowed to
intrude in this area, the jaws within the anchorage hardware
will not properly anchor the strand. This can lead to safety
problems during tensioning and to long-term slippage prob-
lems at the strand anchorage over the life of the product.
5.4.6 Grouting
Hollow ducts for post-tensioning tendons are filled with
grout after the tensioning operation. The duct must be free
of any water that may have accumulated during curing of the
concrete to protect the tendons from corrosion. The accumula-
tion of water may indicate the duct drains are not functioning
properly. They should be checked and cleaned, if necessary.
The tendons should be tensioned within 10 days of placement.
If a delay is expected, a rust inhibitor should be applied to
the tendon before placement in the duct. Grout is placed or
pumped from one end of the duct. The other end contains a
vent to allow trapped air to escape during the grouting opera-
tion. Vents must not be closed until a steady discharge of grout
coming out of the vent is observed. Once the vents are closed,
the pumping operation should continue until a steady pressure
of 100 psi (0.69 MPa) is maintained for 10 seconds.
5.4.7 Sealing of Anchorages
It is critically important, particularly in unbonded, mono-
strand construction, that the post-tensioned anchorage hard-
ware at each end be permanently protected against corro-
sion. The anchorage hardware may be sealed in grease or,
if the product is not in a particularly corrosive environment,
a corrosion-resistant paint or sealer may be used to coat
the anchorage hardware. The anchorage hardware and ten-
don end should also be covered with grout or similar mate-
rial to maintain the fire resistance of the assembly. The type
of system must be clearly specified or detailed on the shop
drawings.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 88 10/2/14 11:03 AM

1. What role does conventional reinforcement or prestressing play in a concrete beam?
2. If bottom reinforcement is placed too high in a concrete beam, what is the consequence?
3. Galvanized no. 6 bars are bent to fabricate them for a beam. Some cracking and flaking occurs at the bend. The bars are
rejected – true or false?
4. Because tack welds are small, the concern over preheat does not apply – true or false?
5. What are three losses that calculated force or elongation should be adjusted for?
6. Your tensioning jack has just been calibrated. At a jack reading of 32,500 lb (145,000 kN), the actual load recorded by
load cell during calibration was 32,000 lb (142,000 kN). Can you use the jack system as is for tensioning control?
7. What purpose does initial tension play in tensioning operations?

a. To set the tensioning jack
b. To establish a fixed point for measurement of elongation
c. To tighten the strand for final tension
d. Take the curl out of the strand
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 89 10/2/14 11:03 AM

Elongation Calculation Example 1.1. Note: " = inch; ' = foot.
1'-6" 332'-6" 1'-6"

(457 mm) (101346 mm) (457 mm)
Chuck
Strand
Abutment
Given: /2-in. (13 mm)-diameter, 270 ksi (1860 MPa), low-relaxation strand
1
A = 0.153 in.2 (100 mm2) Initial force = 3000 lb (13 kN)

E = 28,900,000 psi (199 kN/mm2) Final force = 31,000 lb (138 kN)
Find: Basic elongation eb = AP ×EL
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 90 10/2/14 11:03 AM

1'-3" 222'-6" 1'-3"

(381 mm) (67,818 mm) (381 mm)
Chuck
Strand
Abutment
3
A = 0.085 in.2 (55 mm2) Initial force = 2,000 lb (9 kN)

Find: Basic elongation eb = AP ×EL
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 91 10/2/14 11:03 AM

1'-6" 397'-0" 1'-6"

(457 mm) (121,006 mm) (457 mm)
Abutment
Form
Chuck
Splice chuck Strand
1
Massive abutments, no measurable movement

Measured dead-end chuck seating = 1/8 in. (3 mm)
Measured splice chuck seating = 3/16 in. (5 mm) each side
Measured live-end chuck seating = 3/8 in. (10 mm)
Expected strand temperature at stressing = 20 °F (-7 °C)
Expected concrete temperature = 65 °F (18 °C)
Find: Target elongation (gross and net), stressing force, and tolerance limits for both
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 92 10/2/14 11:03 AM

Elongation Calculation 2.2
Original bed length
Stressed bed length
Splice chuck Strands Chucks
Self-stressing form
Given: 1/2" (13 mm) dia, 270 KSI (1860 MPa), Low relaxation strand
Bed setup shown with 8 strands
Original bed length = 357 ft 8 in. (109,017 mm)
Stressed bed length = 357 ft 6.5 in. (108,979 mm)
E = 28,500,000 psi (196,500 MPa) Final force = 31,000 lb (138 kN)
Measured dead-end chuck seating = 1/8 in. (3 mm)
Measured splice chuck seating = 1/8 in. (3 mm) each side
Measured live-end chuck seating = 1/4 in. (6 mm)
Expected strand temperature at stressing = 49 °F (9 °C)
Expected concrete temperature = 75 °F (24 °C)
Find: Target elongation (gross and net), stressing force, and tolerance limits for both
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 93 10/2/14 11:03 AM

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 94 10/2/14 11:03 AM

QUALITY CONTROL CHAPTER 6
Chapter 6 – Quality Control Pre-pour inspection
This chapter deals with inspection and testing procedures • Performing pre-pour inspections of all setups.
for Level I and Level II quality control personnel. The inspec- • Making sure problems that are found during the pre-pour
tion procedures for all phases of production should be stated in inspection are corrected prior to concrete placement.
the plant quality system manual (QSM) with specific respon- • Documenting the pre-pour inspection for each product.
sibilities defined for plant quality control personnel. Concrete batching, mixing, and handling
6.1 Inspection • Monitoring of the batching and concrete handling pro-

cedures periodically.
6.1.1 Necessity for Inspection • Adjusting aggregate and water batch weights for the
amount of free moisture in the aggregates.
Quality inspections are an essential part of the production • Inspecting the concrete batching, mixing, and transpor-
of precast/prestressed concrete products. These inspections tation of equipment to ensure that they are performing
should cover all aspects of production and ensure that proper properly and are free of material that could contami-
methods and materials are used. The goal of the quality sys- nate the fresh concrete.
tem should be the creation of a final product that meets all of
the specified requirements. Concrete placement
Quality control inspectors should not be responsible for any • Monitoring of the concrete placing procedures regu-
aspect of production and should report to plant management larly (checking for aggregate segregation or poor con-
or the engineering department, rather than production man- solidation).
agement. Efforts should be made by management to coordi- • Reviewing the finishing and curing of the concrete.
nate the quality inspections in a manner that will not delay
production as long as all production operations are being per- Fresh concrete testing
formed adequately. • Testing the fresh concrete to ensure that it meets the
6.1.2 Scope of Inspection specified requirements.
• Preparing test cylinders and curing them as required.
The quality inspections should consist of a thorough review • Maintaining records of concrete tests and noting what
of each step of the production cycle. Records must document action was taken when test results did not meet the
the inspection process. These records should include informa- requirements.
tion on the testing of materials, tensioning operations, prepour
inspections, post-pour inspections, final inspections, and con- Detensioning
crete batching, placing, testing, curing, and finishing. • Monitoring the detensioning operations periodically.
The scope of the inspections will vary depending on the • Reviewing the handling and storage procedures to
product type. ensure that products are not damaged.
A plant quality control inspection program should include,
but not be limited to: Post-pour inspection
Materials • Performing post-pour inspections including a review

of dimensions, camber, finishes, blockouts, and embed
• Reviewing mill certificates to ensure compliance with locations.
the required specifications. • Documenting the post-pour inspection thoroughly for
• Testing of materials as required to ensure compliance every member produced.
with the required specifications. • Ensuring that each piece is properly marked.
• Maintaining records of these tests as verification of the • Taking action to correct any problems found during the
quality of the materials used. post-pour inspection.
Pretensioning • Documenting all corrective actions.
• Monitoring the tensioning operations Final inspection (architectural)

• Taking corrective action when strands are tensioned • Performing a final inspection, prior to shipping.
out of tolerance. • Reviewing the finish thoroughly to ensure that it
• Maintaining records of the operation and noting what matches the prebid samples and mock-up panels.
corrective action was taken when tensioning results • Inspecting visually for damage caused by improper
were out of tolerance. handling and storage.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 95 10/2/14 11:03 AM

CHAPTER 6 QUALITY CONTROL
Product identification • reinforcing bars are positioned in accordance with the

shop drawings;
• Maintaining an accurate identification system so that
• reinforcing bars are clean and free of contaminants that
each finished member can be traced to specific produc-
could reduce their bond with the concrete;
tion records.
• reinforcing bars are securely tied to prevent movement
• Marking members in a manner to allow them to be
during concrete placement;
traced back to their specific bed position.
• tie-wire ends are bent away from the form edges and
Equipment concrete surface; and
• epoxy-coated bars are not damaged.
• Maintaining equipment in good working condition
(calibration of stressing jacks and batch plant scales,
Reinforcing bars that are not placed according to the pro-
reviewing strand chucks).
duction drawings may adversely affect the performance of
Quality control record keeping the member. Reinforcement that is without adequate concrete
cover may not develop its full capacity. Reinforcement that is
• Implementing a system of recordkeeping for all of the
too close to the surface of a member will be exposed to cor-
quality control operations listed previously.
rosion, which can significantly reduce the life of the concrete
6.1.3 Pre-pour inspection member. Reinforcement that is placed too far away from the
surface may reduce the strength of the member.
The pre-pour inspection is one of the most beneficial inspec-
The structural performance of reinforcing bars depends on
tions because it is much less expensive to correct a mistake
the bond that develops with the concrete. Reinforcing steel
prior to concrete placement than it is to perform costly repairs
that has form oil, mud, or other contaminants will not bond
once a member is cast. It is also the first line of defense against
properly. If reinforcing bars are found to be contaminated, the
having a defective product leave the plant and arrive at the
quality control inspector should have production personnel
jobsite, or worse, be used in the structure.
thoroughly clean the bars or replace them prior to concrete
Management should schedule production to give the quality
placement.
control inspector enough time to properly perform the pre-
Reinforcement that is not well tied might move during con-
pour inspection. The setup inspection can begin before the
crete placement, and required concrete coverage or bar spac-
production crew finishes, as long as what is being inspected
ing might not be maintained. The ends of wire ties should be
has been completed. For example, the quality control inspec-
turned away from the top surface and the sides of the form
tor can check the dimensions of a form while the production
because wire ties that are too close to the concrete surface
crew ties in the reinforcing steel if the form dimensions are
tend to corrode and stain the panel or cause increased concrete
not changed.
deterioration.
The quality control inspector should make a note of any
problems found with the bed setup and report them to the Prestressing strand
appropriate production personnel for correction. The inspec-
Prestressing strand is the primary reinforcement in a pre-
tor should inspect this part of the setup again prior to concrete
stressed concrete member. Several factors are crucial to the
placement to verify that the problem was corrected. Concrete
proper performance of prestressing strands. The following
casting should not begin until the quality control inspector has
items must be confirmed during every pre-pour inspection:
approved the setup.
The design engineer must be contacted to evaluate produc-
• Correct size, grade, quantity, and position of strands
tion conditions that do not allow a member to be cast according
• Cleanliness and condition of the strands surfaces
to the shop drawings. New production drawings and/or written
• Correct strands are debonded at the correct location
approval should be obtained and maintained on file anytime
the engineer makes a change to the design. Changes made by
In long members, even fully tensioned strands will droop
the engineer should be transferred to the drawings used by pro-
below their required positions. Supports must be provided
duction so they can set up the bed properly. The quality control
to secure the strands throughout the length of each member.
inspector should also have updated drawings.
Strand position should be maintained within the tolerances
Every pre-pour inspection should cover the following items.
given in PCI MNL-116 and/or MNL-117.
Forms and molds Contaminated strands that do not properly bond to the con-
crete will not properly transfer their full force to the member.
The condition and cleanliness of the forms or molds should
Strands are most often contaminated during the stringing pro-
be inspected in accordance with the review process discussed
cess. Excess form release agent should be wiped from the form
in Section 2.4 of this training manual.
surface to prevent contamination. Strands should never be
Reinforcing steel pulled through puddled form oil, mud, or anything that could
coat their surfaces. If the strands are found to be contaminated
The reinforcing steel setup should be thoroughly inspected.
during the pre-pour inspection, they should be cleaned with
The quality control inspector should confirm that:
the appropriate cleaner. However, once strand surfaces have
• reinforcing bars of the correct size and type are used;
been coated with form release agent, it is extremely difficult
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 96 10/2/14 11:03 AM

to thoroughly clean them due to the grooves between the indi- A thorough post-pour inspection should also include a
vidual wires. For this reason, it is much better to avoid con- product-marking system and a product-tracking mark.
tamination.
Product-marking system
Strand debonding sheaths should be inspected to ensure
that the correct strands are debonded at the exact location The product-marking system should allow all pieces to be
called for on the production drawings. The sheath should also easily traced to specific production records. The marking sys-
be secured to prevent movement and the leakage of concrete tem should be detailed in the plant QSM. The marking system
slurry into the section that is to be debonded. does not have to be complicated but should include:
Embedded items
• the job number, date, and mark number; and
Embedments, inserts, and lifting devices must be located in • an additional number, such as a sequence number, to
the correct position. These items should be inspected for all identify products with the same mark numbers that are
products in accordance with the review process outlined in cast on the same date.
Section 2.5 of this training manual.
Products in which strand slippage is a concern (such as
Welded assemblies
dry-cast, hollowcore slabs) should be marked so that their
Welded assemblies are used to connect members to one exact position in the bed can be determined. This is neces-
another or to an existing structure. All welded assemblies sary to evaluate adjacent pieces if strand slippage occurs. As
should be checked during the pre-pour inspection for: an example, if a 1/2-in. (13 mm)-diameter strand slips 1 in.
(25 mm), it loses the prestressing force for approximately
• Location and size of the assemblies 14 ft (4 m) along the bed. If the hollow-core in which the slip-
• Placement of anchorages page occurred is only 10 ft (3 m) long, the slab following that
• Visual inspection of all weld locations, sizes, and one will lose roughly 4 ft (1 m) of prestressing. The strand
condition in the second slab will not necessarily show any slippage
when it is cut because the strand is already dead for 4 ft (1 m).
Weld plates used for connections should be placed flush The quality control inspector should mark each slab with the
in the product so the field connection can be made correctly. sequence numbers immediately after they are stripped from
Plates that have studs or anchors welded to them should be the form to avoid any confusion once they are taken to storage.
inspected for the proper size, length, and condition of weld. If
Product-tracking mark
stud welds are used, all of them should be visually inspected
by removing the ceramic ferrule around the weld. Bend test- A product-tracking mark may be used to identify the sta-
ing should be performed in accordance with MNL-116 and tus of finished products. This marking system is also defined
TM-103. If the plates are manufactured at the plant, a quality in the plant QSM. As the post-pour inspection is completed,
control inspector should periodically inspect the process and each member should be marked in a manner that identifies the
review the bend-test log. If assemblies are received from an piece as accepted, rejected, or pending.
outside supplier, a quality control inspector should receive a Colored marks, identification tags, or some other marking
copy of the bend-test log and mill certificates as verification method may be used, but the marks should be clearly visi-
of their quality. ble. Workers in the storage yard should fully understand the
marking system. This easily allows the inspectors and ship-
6.1.4 Post-Pour Inspection
ping crews to identify which pieces have not been inspected or
The post-pour inspection is the final opportunity to confirm repaired and which pieces are ready to be shipped.
that a product conforms to the specified requirements. The
Visual inspection
post-pour inspection should:
A visual inspection should include a review of:
• locate any errors so they can be corrected before ship-
ment; and • the general appearance of the member;
• identify corrections that should be made in future pro- • items such as excessive bugholes, honeycombing,
duction to prevent reoccurrences of that error. cracks, or spalls;
• tipped or missing weld plates and embeds; and
To allow sufficient time to correct errors in future produc- • anything else that adversely affects the quality of the
tion, the post-pour inspection should be performed as soon as product.
practical after the products are stripped from their forms or
molds. Cracking, honeycombing, and large spalls are problems
All problems or discrepancies should be thoroughly docu- that can affect the structural integrity of the member. Cracks
mented in the post-pour inspection report. Problems should may be caused by improper design, handling procedures, pro-
also be reported to the engineering department for evaluation. duction and curing techniques, or by low concrete strength.
If a product is repaired, the quality control inspector should Honeycombing is typically caused by poor consolidation or
recheck it to ensure that it meets the appropriate requirements. leaking forms. When these items are found in finished mem-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 97 10/2/14 11:03 AM

bers, they should be thoroughly documented and reported to sured include:

the design engineer for review. The problem should be inves-
tigated and the cause should be determined, and the inspectors • overall length, width, and depth;
and production personnel should be informed so that this may • locations of blockouts and embeds; and
be avoided in the future. • squareness of the ends.
Camber
The measured dimensions should be within the required
Camber is the natural upward deflection of a prestressed tolerances stated in MNL-116 or MNL-117. When dimen-
concrete flexural member when the prestressing strands are sions are out of tolerance, the engineering department
placed close to the bottom. Initial camber occurs at the time of should determine if the member can be repaired. The cause
detensioning. Initial camber can be affected by: of the error should be corrected prior to subsequent concrete
placements.
• concrete strength (lower strength members will have Ends that are not square can greatly complicate the erec-
more camber); tion process. Headers that are not set exactly vertical or head-
• differential tension in strands (lower stress than design ers that kick out during concrete placement because they are
will reduce camber); and not secured properly during the bed set up cause problems
• the location of the strands (strands above their design with end squareness. The headers should be checked during
position will result in reduced camber, those below the the pre-pour inspection and the squareness of the ends should
design position will increase camber). be checked during the post-pour inspection. The simplest and
most accurate way to measure these items is with a level or
The initial camber of a product should be: carpenter’s square.
Strand slippage
• measured at consistent times within 72 hours of the
detensioning time; Strand slippage in dry-cast, machine-cast products must
• measured on 100% of the pieces from a new or unusual be monitored and recorded. Development of the proper bond
setup; between the strand and concrete is crucial to the quality and
• measured on 25% of the pieces from the subsequent structural capacity of these products.
casts; and Strand slippage should be measured at the time of deten-
• compared with the initial camber calculated by the sioning. When strands are detensioned at each end of the bed,
engineer. they slip into the product until the bond between the strand and
the concrete is fully developed. This slippage may not show in
Camber will vary with the age of the products; therefore, it the saw-cut ends of the slabs at the ends of the bed because the
should be measured as soon as possible once the products are slippage took place before the saw cut was made. Therefore,
removed from the forms. The engineer should provide the cal- the strands at each end of every bed should be marked prior
culated initial camber to the quality control inspector. Large to detensioning. The amount of slippage measured should be
variations in the initial camber indicate a problem is taking used to determine the amount of unused slab to be left on each
place during production. These cambers should be reported line. This process is discussed further in Section 5.3.19 of this
to the engineering department and special attention should be training manual.
given to the tensioning process to ensure that each strand is Dry-mix units should also be inspected for strand slippage
correctly located and receives the correct tension. Also, the at the sawn ends after they are cut from the bed. Every member
concrete batching, handling, casting, consolidating, and cur- should be visually inspected, and any measurable slippage, 1/16
ing procedures should be closely monitored to determine the in. or greater, should be noted. If the strand slippage is zero, it
source of the error. should still be recorded in the quality control records as veri-
The final camber of a member can be from two to three fication that it was checked. The measured slippage should
times greater than the initial camber. This is called camber be compared with an amount that the engineering department
growth. Final camber can be affected by product storage has determined to be acceptable. Any time a question arises
and dunnage location. Differential camber between similar about the acceptability of a product, it should be reported to
products can present problems during the erection process. the engineering department for further review.
Members that are exposed to sunlight will have a greater final
Handling and storage
camber than those that are not. The sun warms the top of the
member, allowing the concrete to expand while the bottom Handling and storage procedures should be periodically
layer remains cool, which causes the piece to camber. Also, reviewed by quality control personnel. Precast concrete ele-
dunnage that is placed differently than shown in the produc- ments should be supported on stable ground. Flanged mem-
tion drawings can cause the camber to increase or decrease. bers, such as double-tees, with poor support are often exposed
to torsional stresses that can cause cracking and the reduction
Product dimensions
of member structural capacity.
The dimensions of every product should be checked after Dunnage capable of supporting the weight of the products
they are removed from the forms. Items that should be mea- should be provided. When members are stacked, the dunnage
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 98 10/2/14 11:03 AM

shall be aligned in a vertical plane. Shorter members should Mill certificates should show compliance with the appli-
not be stacked on longer members. This could damage the lon- cable ASTM International standards and the plant QSM. They
ger product by applying loads for which it was not designed. should also include the required chemical and physical prop-
Also, this can inhibit the camber growth of the longer piece erties of the materials. Here is a list of some of the material
and complicate the erection process. requirements.
The design engineer may specify that dead weights be
Cement
placed on a member to reduce the amount of camber growth.
This dead weight should be placed exactly as called for in • Cement should comply with ASTM C150.
the drawings. Dead weights should never be used without the
Reinforcing steel
engineer’s approval.
Architectural concrete panels should be stored in an upright All types of reinforcing steel should comply with the appli-
position. Supports should not be placed on the face of the cable ASTM standard. There should be additional inspections
panel, if possible. If this cannot be avoided, the dunnage for reinforcement performed at the plant.
should be of the type that will not stain the finish. Wood or
solid-plastic dunnage will hold moisture next to the finish that • Welded-wire reinforcement – spacing of wires shall
will cause that section to cure darker than the rest of the panel. be within 1/4 in. (6 mm) of the required spacing; welds
Metal dunnage may rust and stain the panel finish. Metal sup- should be visually inspected to ensure that not more
ports should be covered to prevent contamination of the fin- than 1% of welds are broken.
ished face. • Reinforcing bars – visually inspected for corrosion and
damage; calculate carbon equivalent if bars are to be
Architectural concrete finishes
welded.
Finishes on architectural concrete panels should be reviewed • Epoxy-coated or galvanized bars – visually inspected
by the quality control inspector. This review should include for damage or cracks in coating.
monitoring for: • Welded assemblies – 1 out of every 50 units should
have welds visually inspected and 1 stud bend tested.
• color that is consistent with the prebid samples and pre- If the unit fails, 10% of that lot should be tested. If one
viously cast panels; unit fails in the 10%, then 100% of that lot should be
• uniform aggregate distribution and depth of etch tested.
throughout the panel that is consistent with the prebid • Prestressing steel – load versus elongation curves are
samples and previously cast pieces; required. Strand should be visually inspected for con-
• spalls, cracks, and areas that require patching; and tamination, corrosion, damage, size, and proper tag-
• evidence of damage that occurred during handling or ging on the reels.
yard storage. • Hardware and inserts – mill reports for the steel
required, visually inspect for corrosion and damage
6.2 Testing
Admixtures and pigments
6.2.1 General These materials should comply with the applicable ASTM
standard.
Testing is another important aspect of the quality process.
Materials should be tested to confirm compliance with the Aggregates
job specifications prior to production. Testing during the pro-
Specific testing of aggregates is required when new aggre-
duction cycle monitors the ongoing consistency of materials.
gate sources are used and at periodic intervals during produc-
Qualified and trained individuals who are familiar with the
tion. The aggregate supplier will usually furnish this test data.
correct testing procedures and requirements should perform
Some state departments of transportation (DOTs) perform
these tests. Test records should be maintained in case ques-
tests on aggregates that are used in state work, and the test
tions arise about the quality of the materials.
results may be obtained from their testing labs.
6.2.2 Acceptance Testing of Materials If the required tests are not performed at the correct inter-
vals by the aggregate supplier or the state DOT, the plant is
Materials for a project should be tested before production
required to have the aggregates tested by an independent test-
begins to confirm that they meet the job or plant specifica-
ing company.
tions. Material suppliers usually perform these tests and sub-
The following is a list of requirements and the frequency
mit the results in the form of mill certificates. The plant qual-
of testing for bridge and commercial or architectural concrete
ity control inspector should review these materials to confirm
production.
that the delivered materials match the mill certificates. When
material problems are found or indicated in the mill report, Commercial and bridge
plant personnel should contact the supplier for correction.
Tests that are required at the start of a new aggregate source
The material should be rejected if the problems will affect the
and when variations are experienced:
quality of the product.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 99 10/2/14 11:03 AM

• Test of soundness of aggregates (ASTM C88) formed prior to production and verified every six months over
• Test for materials finer than no. 200 sieve a continuous production period. To have this test completed
(ASTM C117) by the time production begins, samples should be made when
• Tests for specific gravity and absorption (ASTM C127 the prebid samples or mockup panels are cast. To perform the
and ASTM C128) test, three 4 in. × 8 in. (100 mm × 200 mm) cylinders or 4 in.
• Test for resistance to degradation by abrasion (100 mm) cubes should be cured for 28 days. The specimens
(ASTM C131) should be placed in an oven for at least 24 hours and until they
• Specifications for concrete aggregates (ASTM C33) are completely dry. They should be weighed after they are
• Specifications for lightweight aggregates allowed to cool. This is the oven-dried weight. They should
(ASTM C330) then be submerged in water for at least 48 hours. The speci-
mens should be surface dried with a towel and weighed. The
Tests that are required prior to the beginning of production complete test procedure is described in ASTM C642.
and updated annually or when variations are experienced, The maximum absorption for normalweight concrete when
whichever is more frequent: expressed by weight is 6%, and when it is expressed by vol-
ume, it is 14%.
• Test for organic impurities in fine aggregate
(ASTM C40) % absorption, by weight =
• Deleterious substances in aggregates (ASTM C33)
• Test for potential reactivity of aggregates (ASTM (surface-dry weight – oven-dry weight) × 100
C227, ASTM C289, and ASTM C586) (oven-dry weight)
6.2.3 Production Testing
Gradations from the fine, coarse, and lightweight aggregate
supplier should be received on a monthly basis. Testing of materials is required throughout the production
cycle. This is essential to ensure the quality and consistency of
Architectural
the materials, not only at the beginning of production but also
Tests that are required prior to the beginning of use of the throughout the entire process. The results of the tests should
aggregate and updated every five years or when variations are be thoroughly documented and maintained as evidence of the
experienced, whichever is more frequent: quality of the materials used to produce the member. If materi-
als are found to not meet the project requirements, that mate-
• Test for specific gravity and absorption (ASTM C127 rial should be rejected and replaced with acceptable material.
and ASTM C128)
Aggregate gradation
• Petrographic analysis (ASTM C295)
Gradation tests should be performed on all aggregates in
Tests that are required prior to the beginning of production use.
and updated on an annual basis or when variations are experi- For aggregates used in commercial and bridge production,
enced, whichever is more frequent: gradation tests should be performed on a weekly basis or once
for every 400 yd3 (300 m3) of fine aggregate and 800 yd3 (600
• Test for organic impurities in fine aggregate m3) of coarse aggregate used, whichever is more frequent.
(ASTM C40) For aggregates used in architectural concrete production,
• Deleterious substances in aggregates (ASTM C33) gradation tests should be performed every two weeks or once
• Specifications of concrete aggregates, except gradation for every 40 yd3 (30 m3) of aggregates used in face mixtures,
and soundness requirements (ASTM C33) every 200 yd3 (150 m3) for fine aggregates used in backup
• Specifications of lightweight aggregates, except grada- mixtures, and every 400 yd3 (300 m3) for coarse aggregates
tion and soundness requirements (ASTM C330) used in backup mixtures, whichever is more frequent.
• Test for staining materials in lightweight aggregate Aggregates should be sampled in accordance with ASTM
(ASTM C641) D75. It is better to get a sample from the conveyor belt or
• Test for potential reactivity of aggregates (ASTM from the discharge of the aggregate bin because these aggre-
C1260); may not be required if petrographic analysis gates represent the size and grade of materials going into
shows aggregates not to be potentially reactive the mixer. The sample should be prepared and quartered as
stated in ASTM C702. The gradation tests should be per-
Water
formed according to the procedure described in ASTM C136
Acceptance testing is also required for the water used in and meet the requirements set forth in ASTM C33 (with the
mixing concrete. If the water is not potable, a chemical analy- exception of some architectural face mixtures.). The require-
sis should be performed and updated annually. ments for coarse aggregates will vary with size of the stone,
while fine aggregates should meet the requirements in the fol-
Absorption
lowing table:
All concrete used in the face of architectural concrete pan-
els shall have a 28-day hardened-concrete absorption test per-
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 100 10/2/14 11:03 AM

Table 6.1 - Coarse Aggregate Gradation Slump of fresh concrete

Requirements
A slump test for fresh concrete should be performed as fol-
Sieve size Percent passing lows:
3
/8 in. (10 mm) 100%
• Bridge and commercial – MNL-116
No. 4 95% to 100%
At least once a day for each mixture and when varia-
No. 8 80% to 100% tions are experienced
No. 16 50% to 85% • Architectural – MNL-117
No. 30 25% to 60% At the beginning of casting for each day’s production,
when test cylinders are made, every second or third air
No. 50 10% to 30%
test, and when variations are experienced
No. 100 2% to 10%
The slump test should be performed in accordance with
The gradation requirements are waived for some aggregates ASTM C143. The test is performed by filling the slump cone
used in architectural face mixtures because gap-graded aggre- in three equal volume layers and rodding each layer 25 times
gates may be used to produce the desired finish. A gap-graded through its full depth. The top surface is smoothed and the
aggregate is one in which certain size particles are omitted. cone is lifted in 5 seconds (±2 seconds). The slump should be
It is still important for gradations to be performed on these measured to the center of the displaced concrete and recorded
aggregates to make sure that the gradation of the aggregate to the nearest 1/4 in. (6 mm). The test should be performed
remains consistent, even though they may not meet ASTM on a flat, nonabsorbent surface relatively free from vibration
C33 requirements. caused by heavy equipment or concrete vibrators. This vibra-
The fineness modulus of the fine aggregate should be cal- tion will cause the test to result in a higher slump than normal.
culated and recorded each time a gradation is performed. The
Spread of self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
fineness modulus is calculated by summing the cumulative
percentage retained on each of the sieves from the no. 100 A spread test for fresh SCC should be performed in lieu
to the 3/8 in. (10 mm), and then dividing this number by 100. of a slump test. This should include a visual stability index
ASTM C33 states that the fineness modulus of fine aggregates (VSI) rating. Refer to appendix B for test procedures and VSI
should not vary by more than 0.20 from the base value (the ratings.
average of ten tests). Wide variations in the fineness modulus
Air content of fresh concrete
will affect the slump and workability of the concrete if the
water content remains the same. The air content of fresh concrete should be tested at least
Aggregate-gradation test records should be maintained on once a day for each mixture design that contains entrained air.
file to monitor variations. When gradations fall outside the It should be checked again when the slump varies by more
desired specifications, the material may be defective when than 1 in. (25 mm) or the temperature varies by more than
received or segregation may be occurring during the handling 10 °F (5 °C).
of the aggregates at the plant. The air content of concrete with normalweight aggregates
can be tested according to ASTM C173 (volumetric method,
Free-moisture compensation
rollometer) or ASTM C231 (pressure method). The air con-
The free moisture in fine aggregates should be determined at tent of concrete with lightweight aggregates can only be
least daily or any time there is an obvious change in the mois- determined according to ASTM C173 (volumetric method).
ture content. If moisture probes in the bins are used to deter- Air contents should remain within ±1.5% of the specified
mine the free moisture, they should be periodically checked value. Concrete with excessive air content may suffer a loss of
using the method prescribed in ASTM C566. The aggregate compressive strength. Concrete with a lower air content will
and water batch weights should be adjusted to compensate for lose workability and will not be as resistant to damage during
aggregate free moisture as described in Section 4.6.2 of this freezing and thawing cycles.
training manual.
Density and yield of fresh concrete
Sampling of fresh concrete
The density of fresh concrete should be tested every week for
A concrete sample should be obtained as described in each normalweight mixture used, at minimum. Lightweight
ASTM C172. The sample should be most representative of the concrete should be tested on a daily basis, at minimum. The
concrete used in the product. Samples should be taken in two test should be performed in accordance with ASTM C138.
or more intervals near the middle of the load. Test samples The size of the measuring bowl required to perform the test is
should be taken only after all mixing water has been added to based on the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. The bowl
the batch in order to represent the weakest concrete. It should should be filled in three equal volume layers with each one
be remixed with a shovel or a scoop. being rodded 25 times. The density is calculated by dividing
the net weight of the concrete by the volume of the bowl. The
yield is calculated by dividing the total batch weight per yard
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 101 10/2/14 11:03 AM

by 27 times the density. products until the products are removed from their form. Cyl-
The density test can be used to monitor the accuracy of batch- inders may be stored:
ing. Variations in the density of fresh concrete usually indicate a
change in the air content or weights of the aggregates. • on the bed overnight; or
• in a curing chamber, if records are maintained showing
Concrete and air temperature
that the temperature of the cylinders during the curing
The concrete and air temperature should be monitored each cycle is similar to that of the product.
time a concrete sample is tested and more frequently during
severe weather. The concrete temperature should be tested After the test cylinders are removed from their molds, they
according to ASTM C1064. Concrete should be maintained should be stored in a moist condition at 73.5 °F ± 3.5 °F (23
within 50 °F (10 °C) to 95 °F (34 °C) with the use of ice or °C ± 2.0 °C).
hot water when mixing the concrete. Variations in concrete Cylinders should be capped in accordance with ASTM
temperature can affect the workability of the concrete if the C617 or C1231. If a fast-setting sulfur compound is used,
water content remains the same. the cylinder should not be tested until the caps have cured
at least 30 minutes. Cylinder compression tests should be
Cylinder making, curing, capping, and testing
performed according to ASTM C39. The strength of the
Concrete test specimens should be cast and cured in accor- concrete is considered to be the average of the strengths
dance with ASTM C31. This standard calls for the use of 6 in. of two cylinders, with the exception of release strength.
× 12 in. (150 mm × 300) mm test cylinders. The use of 4 in. If either cylinder shows visible damage, it should not be
× 8 in. (100 mm × 200 mm) test cylinders is permitted under tested and the remaining cylinder can be used to deter-
two conditions: mine the concrete strength. Cylinders should be loaded at
a rate of 35 psi/second (0.24 MPa/second), ±7 psi/second
• The maximum size aggregate is 1 in. (25 mm). (0.048 MPa/second). Cylinders loaded at a rate greater than
• A correlation curve comparing the 4 in. × 8 in. 50 psi/second (0.345 MPa/second) or less than 20 psi/second
(100 mm × 200 mm) with the 6 in. × 12 in. (150 mm × (0.138 MPa/second) can lead to false results.
300 mm) cylinders is developed. The main purpose of a test cylinder is to represent the con-
crete in the bed. Release-strength cylinders should represent
A correlation curve should be determined for each mixture the weakest concrete in the bed. Therefore, if only one test
design and cylinders of different ages. The correlation curve sample is taken for a bed, it should be taken during the second
requires a minimum of 30 tests. Test results should be within the half of the pour because it will represent the concrete with the
95% confidence limit in order to establish an acceptable curve. shortest curing time and probably the weakest concrete in the
Concrete cylinders should be cast in three equal volume lay- bed.
ers with each layer being rodded 25 times for concrete with a
Non-destructive testing
slump of 3 in. (75 mm) or more. Concrete with a slump of less
than 1 in. (25 mm) should be cast in two equal volume layers and Non-destructive tests can be useful tools in determining
consolidated by vibration. For concretes with slumps between relative concrete strengths. However, these tests should only
1 in. (25 mm) and 3 in. (75 mm), either of these methods may be used when cylinders are damaged or have been exhausted.
be used. The results of these tests will vary between different mixtures
A minimum of: and different age specimens.
Stud-weld testing
• Bridge and Commercial – MNL-116
At least two release and two 28-day cylinders, per mix- If stud welding is performed at the plant, the quality con-
ture, for every 75 yd3 (57 m3) of concrete or fraction trol inspector should periodically review the operations and
thereof the testing log. If welded plates are manufactured by outside
• Architectural – MNL-117 vendors, the plant should receive copies of the testing log and
At least four cylinders per day per mixture or every 40 periodically test the assemblies.
yd3 (30 m3) of concrete per mixture, whichever is more
frequent. 6.3 Records
Test cylinders should be cast near the area where they will 6.3.1 Record Keeping
be cured. Cylinders should not be disturbed from 30 minutes
The quality control department at each plant should develop
after they are cast until they are ready to be moved to the cur-
a recordkeeping system. Records verify the use of proper
ing chamber or tested. Moving cylinders too soon after cast-
materials and production procedures. They should be main-
ing can result in internal cracking of the concrete. This will
tained at least five years or longer if specified.
usually result in decreased cylinder strength and make it dif-
Records can be useful tools for plant management. Man-
ficult to determine the true strength of the concrete. This could
agers should periodically review quality records to determine
result in lost production time.
which procedures commonly result in errors and need to be
Cylinders should be cured under the same conditions as the
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 102 10/2/14 11:03 AM

modified. Measures to reduce these errors could also include time of placement;
having the engineer modify the design or materials specified • the slump, air content, density, and number of cylinders
for a product. This is one reason why all errors found in the cast;
pre-pour and post-pour inspection should be documented. • the duration of the curing cycle and a time-versus-
temperature relationship of the curing cycle if acceler-
6.3.2 Suppliers’ Test Reports
ated curing is used;
Mill test reports should be obtained from the material sup- • the strength of the release or stripping strength
pliers and should show compliance with the specified require- cylinders;
ments. Mill certificates should be received at the following • the strength of the 28-day cylinders; and
intervals: • the action taken when cylinders test below the required
strength.
Table 6.2 - Mill Certificate Testing Frequency
6.3.5 Calibration Records for Equipment
Material Frequency
Equipment used in the production process should be cali-
Prestressing tendons Each shipment brated at regular intervals by either an independent testing
agency or qualified plant personnel. In either case, the calibra-
Cement Each shipment
tion documentation should show:
Aggregates Monthly reports from the
supplier • what equipment was tested;
• the date of the calibration;
Admixtures Each delivery
• any repairs performed on the equipment; and
Reinforcement Each shipment • the range through which the apparatus was tested.
Hardware and inserts Each shipment 6.3.6 Inspection Reports
6.3.3 Tensioning Records Pre-pour and post-pour inspections should be thoroughly

documented for every member produced at a plant. These
Records should be maintained for each tensioning opera- reports should indicate:
tion. All pertinent information should be accurately recorded
and include: • the date, job number, bed number, and product
numbers;
• the date of tensioning; • the items that were corrected in the pre-pour
• the bed and product identification; inspection;
• the size, type, location, and coil numbers of the strand; • any problems found in the finished product;
• the jack identification; • actions taken to correct items in the finished product;
• the initial force; and
• the calculated and actual final force for each strand; • the camber of the finished product.
• the calculated and actual elongation for the required
number of strands; 6.4 Laboratory Facilities
• any problems encountered during the tensioning opera-
tion; and 6.4.1 General
• what action was taken when strands are tensioned out
of tolerance. Each plant shall maintain a laboratory supplied with ade-
quate equipment to properly perform the required testing. The
6.3.4 Concrete Records laboratory facility should be maintained in proper working
Concrete records verify the quality of the concrete used in condition, and equipment should be calibrated at the required
a product and should be maintained for each day’s produc- intervals. A private testing firm shall do any testing for which
tion. These records are useful when evaluating the past per- the plant is not equipped to perform.
formance of a mixture. They may also assist in determining 6.4.2 Quality Control Testing Equipment
if changes in a mixture’s proportions or procedure should be
made to produce a more consistent mixture. Records should In order to perform the required testing, plants should, at a
include: minimum, have:
• the date, time, and job number; • a cylinder compression machine;

• the mixture proportions, adjusted for the free moisture • a slump cone, air meter, density bucket, and cylinder
in the aggregates; molds;
• the amount of concrete; • sieves for fine and coarse aggregate gradations;
• the bed identification and product being cast; • a platform scale capable of reading to within 0.3% of
• the concrete and air temperature and weather at the the test load;
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 103 10/2/14 11:03 AM

• an oven to dry aggregate and concrete absorption

samples;
• cylinder curing room or water tanks; and
• steel and neoprene cylinder caps or sulfur capping
compound and molds.
These items should be maintained in proper working condi-

tion. Also, they should be calibrated at the required intervals
and record of the calibration should be kept on file. Safety
equipment should be provided for any items that pose a haz-
ard such as sulfur capping-compound fumes and flying debris
from cylinder machines.

6.4.3 Test Equipment Operating Instructions
Testing equipment should only be used in the manner in
which it was designed. The operator should be familiar with
the manufacturer’s operating instructions, and these instruc-
tions should be on file in the laboratory. Also, only qualified
personnel should perform testing.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 104 10/2/14 11:03 AM

1. Mill certificates represent the following:

a. Mill thickness for material coatings
b. Fine-tuned grinding compliance for embedments
c. Testing results for material compliance at the production mill
d. Testing for measurement conformance
2. Post-pour inspections are conducted:

a. following (post) plant audits
b. after a product has been cast
c. following concrete batching setup
d. whenever personnel can get to it
3. List two items that should be checked for prestressed strand located in the product.
4. Each product that is produced should be properly marked. List three items that should be addressed by the mark.
5. Camber should be measured for those products where camber is expected. How many products from a
day’s production should be checked for camber after a project is underway?
a. 100%
b. 50%
c. 25%
d. Only every fourth day’s production
6. Describe the performance of a slump test in accordance with ASTM C143.
7. Excessive entrained air in a mixture can result in what effect to the concrete at 28 days?
8. List at least five items of information that should be contained in tensioning records.
9. What tolerance is allowed on comparison of actual tensioning values with the calculated values?
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 105 10/2/14 11:03 AM

10. Name the five items that every prepour inspection must include.
•
•
•
•
•
11. Name four items that should be checked during the post-pour inspection.
•
•
•
•
12. A chemical analysis for non-potable water should be performed:

a. annually
b. semiannually
c. every 5 years
d. every 10 years
13. After the test cylinders are removed from their molds, they should be stored in a moist condition at:
a. 75.4 °F, ± 3.5 °F, (24 °C ± 2.0 °C)
b. 75.4 °F, ± 5 °F, (24 °C ± 2.8 °C)
c. 73.5 °F, ± 5 °F, (23 °C ± 2.8 °C)
d. 73.5 °F, ± 3.5 °F, (23 °C ± 2.0 °C)
14. Cylinders should be loaded at a rate of:

a. 30 psi/second, ±7 psi/second (0.207 MPa/second ± 0.048 MPa/second).
b. 35 psi/second, ±7 psi/second (0.240 MPa/second ± 0.048 MPa/second).
c. 37 psi/second, ±7 psi/second (0.255 MPa/second ± 0.048 MPa/second).
d. 37 psi/second, ±10 psi/second (0.255 MPa/second ± 0.069 MPa/second).
15. A stud-welding bend test should be performed on two samples:

a. at changes in diameter or length
b. daily
c. hourly
d. both a and c
16. What is the fineness modulus of the aggregate sample identified by the values in the following table?
Sieve Size Cumulative Weight Retained (gm) Cumulative % Retained % Passing

/8” (10 mm)
3
0 100
#4 14.8 97.1
#8 47.6 90.6
#16 117.3 76.8
#30 274.2 45.9
#50 418.8 17.3
#100 467.4 7.7
#200 494.2 2.4
Pan 506.4 0
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 106 10/2/14 11:03 AM

PRODUCT TOLERANCES CHAPTER 7
Chapter 7 – Product • reinforcement; and

• prestressing.
Tolerances
Forms
7.1 Requirements for Finished Precast concrete products cannot be manufactured within
Product tolerance if the forms are out of tolerance. Form and setup
dimensions must be maintained within tolerance to be sure the
7.1.1 General precast concrete member is within tolerance. The tolerances
to which the forms are made and the tolerances to which they
Tolerance is a specified, permissible variation from exact can be adjusted are important for achieving member toler-
requirements of the contract documents. Tolerances are ances. The product tolerance variation that results from form
divided into three categories: tolerances must be considered and measured by production
personnel during setup and quality control personnel before
• Product tolerance casting. The tolerance limits on forms and setups must be
• Erection tolerance equal to or less than the final product tolerances.
• Interfacing tolerance Many other factors affect the tolerance and dimensional
stability of precast concrete members. The following factors
Plant production and quality control personnel are primar- must be considered by the engineer during design, as well as
ily concerned with product tolerance, while field personnel by production and quality control personnel during manufac-
are concerned with erection and interfacing tolerances. This turing and storage.
manual will only deal with product tolerances.
Product tolerances are a measure of dimensional accuracy Prestressing
of the individual members. Tolerances are needed in any man- The effects of prestressing can have a significant effect on
ufacturing process and are determined by economics, practi- member dimensions and should be considered during design
cality, function, and appearance. and setup. Prestressing forces may cause member shortening,
Before quality control personnel measure the products and camber, or end rotation. In cases where strict tolerances are
check them against their tolerances, they must first determine required, the effect of prestressing on member dimensions
the required tolerances. The project specifications prepared must be clearly identified.
by the architect or engineer should specify the tolerances for
precast concrete products and tolerances for erection. They Shrinkage, creep, and temperature
may be the same as the recommended tolerances shown in Concrete shrinks as it cures. Overall shrinkage and dif-
the PCI Tolerance Manual for Precast, Prestressed Concrete ferential shrinkage of the member can have an effect on the
Construction (MNL-135) or they may be different. Precasting dimensional tolerances. Although the majority of the concrete
plant personnel must review the project drawings and speci- shrinkage takes place during the initial curing of the mem-
fications to be sure they understand the tolerances, and they ber, its effect, particularly on large members, can be signifi-
must transmit that information to production and quality con- cant and should be accounted for. Differential shrinkage in
trol personnel. members that have different mixtures with different shrinkage
Product tolerances may be shown on each shop drawing, or characteristics can result in member bowing, warping, crack-
a project tolerance drawing or document can be used to con- ing, or camber.
vey the required product tolerances to production and quality
control personnel. Creep
Product tolerances are defined as variations in dimensions Concrete tends to creep slowly under the effect of applied
relating to individual precast concrete members. A tolerance loads and prestressing forces, causing the shape and dimen-
may be expressed as an additive or subtractive variation from sional tolerance of a member to change over time. This is
a specified dimension. These dimensions include, but are not more of a concern for members that have high levels of eccen-
limited to: tric prestress that can lead to changes in member camber or
sweep over time.
• length;
• width; Concrete strength
• depth; Camber in prestressed members can vary enough to cause
• squareness; problems due to differences in concrete strength at the time of
• flange spacing and thickness; detensioning. For example, a long double-tee cast on Friday
• smoothness; and detensioned on Monday may have less camber than the
• camber; same type of member cast on Monday and detensioned on
• sweep; Tuesday because the extra curing time over the weekend may
• openings and blockouts; result in greater concrete strength at release.
• embeds and inserts;
• reveals;
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 107 10/2/14 11:03 AM

CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT TOLERANCES
Temperature the headers through which the strands pass. If the holes are too
large or worn excessively, the strand position may be out of
Long members may lengthen or shorten due to wide
tolerance. Deflected strand position is controlled by the hold-
extremes of temperature. The effects of differential tempera-
down devices. All of these must be measured and compared
ture from one side of a member to another can cause the mem-
with the required tolerances.
ber to bow or camber. Solar heating of members exposed to
the sun in the yard may cause sweep and camber variations Handling device location
when compared with members that are shaded.
Closer tolerances than those normally specified for handling
Production and quality control personnel must use accurate
devices may be needed to ensure adequate concrete cover
measuring devices and methods during form setup and prod-
around lifting devices embedded in the stems of T-shaped
uct checking that have the precision appropriate to the toler-
members.
ance being controlled. Typically, the precision of the measur-
ing technique used to verify a dimension, either during setup Camber and differential camber
and prepour or during post-pour inspections should be capable
Member camber measurements should be performed in
of measuring to a precision of one-third of the magnitude of
a consistent manner to understand the actual differences in
the specified tolerance.
camber. It is important to maintain uniformity in the time
The most common measuring methods used in precasting
of camber measurement with regard to member temperature
plants are metallic tapes graduated in feet, inches, and fractions
and solar exposure, as well as with regard to the age and sup-
of an inch, or, in some cases, meters and millimeters. Members
port conditions of the members. Camber measured on the top
should not be measured in increments in a manner that creates
member of a stack of double-tees in the afternoon on a sunny
the possibility of cumulative errors. The measuring tape should
day will be considerably different from the measured camber
be significantly longer than the member being measured. The
on the bottom member of the same stack.
degree of accuracy in using measuring tapes depends on the
Differential camber control for adjacent members in pre-
particular dimension of the member. To attain greater precision
topped systems may require tighter tolerances to meet func-
when measuring long members, tape slope, tape sag, tape ten-
tional requirements. Special design and production measures
sion, and tape temperature should be taken into account. These
may be required. Quality control personnel should closely
measures are seldom used in precasting plants.
monitor differential camber in these types of systems.
Camber in most prestressed members can be measured by
pulling a strong string straight from end to end and measuring End squareness or specified skew
the distance between the string and the member at its midpoint.
Out-of-square ends or out-of-tolerance skewed ends can cause
If the member is too long to pull the string relatively straight, a
tapered joints between adjacent panels. Ends should be checked
high-strength wire may be used. Surveying instruments should
with framing squares or special devices to confirm skew.
be used for accurate measurements on long members.
Weld-plate position
7.1.2 Product Tolerances
Plates can be positioned to closer tolerances when they are
Product dimensional tolerances are shown in MNL-135,
attached to the bottom or sides of the form, rather than when
MNL-116, MNL-117, as well as ACI ITG-7. These manuals
they are embedded in the top. Plates requiring close tolerances
include drawings for many different products and show the
that are cast into the top of the member should be held in place
recommended tolerances for most dimensions.
with a jig or frame. Embeds cannot consistently be pushed
Dimensions other than member size are also important to con-
into fresh concrete accurately.
trol. Tolerance considerations for some of these are discussed.
Weld-plate tipping and flushness
Blockouts and openings
Plates cast into the top surface will tend to tip more than
The tolerance of a window blockout or matching blockouts
plates attached to the forms. Tipping and flushness tolerances
on adjacent units will probably be more precise than a block-
should be checked carefully.
out for field-installed piping. Setup tolerances for blockouts
requiring high precision should be 50% to 75% tighter than Haunches of columns and wall panels
the product tolerances.
It is more important to tightly control dimensions from
Sweep or horizontal alignment haunch to haunch in multistory columns or walls rather than
dimensions from a haunch to the end of the member because
Horizontal alignment can deviate as the result of form and
base connections often allow some positioning flexibility. The
member-width tolerances. Sweep may be caused by offset
shop drawing should identify the primary control surface.
prestressing strands or differential temperature. The posi-
tion of forms and prestressing strands should be adjusted as Sleeves cast in prestressed products
necessary.
The sleeve location tolerance should be secondary to the
Position of prestressing strands location tolerance of the strands unless otherwise noted on the
shop drawings. The location of straight and deflected strands
Strand position is determined by the location of the holes in
should be considered.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 108 10/2/14 11:03 AM

PRODUCT TOLERANCES CHAPTER 7
Reinforcing-steel bending and placement

Reinforcing steel is controlled by two tolerances: bar length
and bending tolerance and bar placement tolerance. These
tolerances are published by the American Concrete Institute
in ACI 117, Standard Tolerances for Concrete Construction
Materials.
In situations where reinforcement embedded and extend-
ing from a precast concrete member must interface with other
members, special measures are often required when planning
the tolerances for the reinforcement and in the fabrication of
the members.
A common error in laying out reinforcement during design
is using bar centerline-to-centerline dimensions and not con-
sidering the consequences of the bar diameter or the conse-
quences of the radius required for hook bending.
Strand deflection points
Strand hold-down devices are usually attached to the form
or the form support at fixed intervals with spacing as great as
40 in. (1000 mm) between location points. This can result in
hold-down positions being as much as 20 in. (500 mm) from
the specified location. The precast concrete design engineer
should be consulted if the hold-down position is out of tol-
erance that is more than specified. More precise placement
may require adjusting the position of the member in the bed
or modifying the hold-down support system.
The vertical position of the hold down is usually much more
important than the horizontal position and should be checked
at every device.
Warping, bowing, and local smoothness
Panel warping and bowing tolerances are important aspects
of their visual features and influence erection and perfor-
mance. Warping tolerances are stated in terms of the position
of one corner out of plane with respect to an adjacent corner.
Bowing tolerances are stated in terms of the position of a point
along the panel with respect to a straight line from end to end.
Warping and bowing can occur in all types of panels, but
architectural concrete panels usually demand special consid-
eration due to the visual effects and edge match up. Some
warping and bowing can be corrected during erection. Panels
should be checked during the post-pour inspection and mea-
surements should be compared with the specified bowing and
warping tolerances.
Local smoothness refers to small areas on the surface of
the panel that are out of plane. The tolerance for this type of
variation is expresses in inches of deviation from a 10 ft (3 m)
straight edge. The smoothness tolerance should be checked
with a 10 ft (3 m) straight edge or the equivalent.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 109 10/2/14 11:03 AM

CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT TOLERANCES
1. Tolerances are divided into what three categories?

•
•
•
2. Name the five factors that may affect tolerances mentioned in this chapter.
•
•
•
•
•
3. Members can be measured in increments; the measuring tape does not need to be longer than the product –
true or false?
4. Name three ways in which prestressing may affect dimensions.

•
•
•
5. Local smoothness is usually expressed in inches of deviation from a ______ straight edge.
a. 5 ft (1.5 m)
b. 10 ft (3 m)
c. 25 ft (8 m)
d. 50 ft (15 m)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 110 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX A
Appendix A – Reference Literature Treated, 120/105 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength

A370 Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical
Testing of Steel Products
This training manual refers to many standards and recom-
A416 Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated

mendations based on the available body of knowledge involv-
Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete
ing precast and prestressed concrete. This appendix provides a
A421 Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved
basic outline of applicable standards and reference material. It
Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete
is essential that a production facility’s personnel be furnished
A496 Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for
with current reference literature and are encouraged to read
Concrete Reinforcement
and utilize it.
A497 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric,
A minimum reference list should include applicable and
Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
current publications of the American Society for Testing and
A500 Specification for Cold-Formed Welded and
Materials (ASTM); the American Concrete institute (ACI);
Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing in
the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI); the Portland
Rounds and Shapes
Cement Association (PCA); and similar agencies having per-
A572 Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy

tinent applicable specifications dealing with the manufacture
Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel
of precast concrete.
A615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
A616 Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and
100 Barr Harbor Drive
Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania 19428
A617 Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed and

Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
The ASTM Book of Standards contains specifications and
A641 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
test methods for most of the materials and standard practices
Carbon Steel Wire
used in the production of precast concrete. They also contain
A641M Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
specifications and methods of testing for related materials.
Carbon Wire Steel (Metric)
The following is a list of individual standards that can be
A666 Specification for Austenitic Stainless Steel,
ordered in section groups that are published by the society.
Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Flat Bar
ASTM Designation and Title A675 Specification for Steel Bars, Carbon, Hot-
Wrought, Special Quality, Mechanical
A27 Specification for Steel Castings, Carbon, for
Properties
General Application
A706 Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed
A36 Specification for Carbon Structural Steel
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A47 Specification for Ferric Malleable Iron
A722 Specification for Uncoated High-Strength
Castings
Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete
A82 Specification for Steel Wire, Plain for Concrete
A767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Reinforcement
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A108 Specification for Steel Bars, Carbon, Cold
A775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing
Finished, Standard Quality
Steel Bars
A123 Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized)
A780 Practice for Repair of Damaged and Uncoated
Coatings on Iron and Steel Products
Areas of Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings
A143 Practice for Safeguarding Against
A884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and
Embrittlement of Hot-Dip Galvanized Struc-
Welded Wire Fabric for Reinforcement
tural Steel Products and Procedure for Detect-
A934 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated
ing Embrittlement
Steel Reinforcing Bars
A153 Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot Dip) on
B633 Specification for Electrodeposited Coatings of
Iron and Steel Hardware
Zinc on Iron and Steel
A184 Specification for Fabricated Deformed Steel
B766 Specification for Electrodeposited Coatings of
Bar Mats for Concrete Reinforcement
Cadmium
A185 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric,

C29 Test Method for Unit Weight and Voids in
Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
Aggregate
A276 Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting
C31 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Steel Bars and Shapes
Specimens in the Field
A283 Specification for Low and Intermediate Tensile
C33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
Strength Carbon Steel Plates
C39 Test Method for Compressive Strength of
A307 Specification for Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs,
Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
60,000 PSI Tensile Strength
C40 Test Method for Organic Impurities in Fine
A325 Specification for Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat
Aggregates for Concrete
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION A–1
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 1 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX A
C42 Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled C295 Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggre-
Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete gates for Concrete
C67 Test Methods of Sampling and Testing Brick C309 Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming
and Structural Clay Tile Compounds for Curing Concrete
C70 Test Method for Surface Moisture in Fine C330 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for
Aggregate Structural Concrete
C88 Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by C342 Test Method for Potential Volume Change of
Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate Cement-Aggregate Combinations
C94 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete C370 Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete
C109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2 in. or C457 Test Method for Microscopical Determination
50 mm Cube Specimens) of Parameters of the Air-Void System in Hard-
C117 Test Method for Materials Finer than No. 200 ened Concrete
(75-μm) Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Wash- C469 Test Method for Static Modulus of Elas-
ing ticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in
C125 Terminology Relating to Concrete and Con- Compression
crete Aggregates C470 Specification for Molds for Forming Concrete
C127 Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorp- Test Cylinders Vertically
tion of Coarse Aggregates C494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for
C128 Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorp- Concrete
tion of Fine Aggregate C566 Test Method for Total Moisture Content of
C131 Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Aggregate by Drying
Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and C567 Test Method for Unit Weight of Structural
Impact in the Los Angeles Machine Lightweight Concrete
C136 Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and C578 Specification for Rigid, Cellular, Polystyrene
Coarse Aggregates Thermal Insulation
C138 Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air C586 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity
Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete of Carbonate Rocks for Concrete Aggregates
C142 Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles (Rock Cylinder Method)
in Aggregates C591 Specification for Unfaced Preformed Rigid
C143 Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Cellular Polyisocyanurate Thermal Insulation
Concrete C595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
C144 Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mor- C617 Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete
tar Specimens
C150 Specification for Portland Cement C618 Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw of
C171 Specification for Sheet Materials for Curing Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Min-
Concrete eral Admixture in Concrete
C172 Practice for Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete C641 Test Method for Staining Materials in Light-
C173 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed weight Concrete Aggregates
Concrete by the Volumetric Method C642 Test Method for Specific Gravity, Absorption,
C185 Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic and Voids in Hardened Concrete
Cement Mortar C666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to
C188 Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement Rapid Freezing and Thawing
C191 Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic C685 Specification for Concrete Made by Volumetric
Cement by Vicat Needle Batching and Continuous Mixing
C192 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test C702 Practice for Reducing Samples of Aggregate to
Specimens in the Laboratory Testing Size
C204 Test Method for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement C805 Test Method for Rebound Number of Hard-
by Air Permeability Apparatus ened Concrete
C227 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of C845 Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement
Cement-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar- C881 Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding
Bar Method) Systems for Concrete
C231 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed C917 Test Method for Evaluation of Cement Strength
Concrete by the Pressure Method Uniformity from a Single Source
C233 Test Method for Air-Entraining Admixtures for C979 Specification for Pigments for Integrally
Concrete Colored Concrete
C260 Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures C989 Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-
for Concrete Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and
A–2 QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 2 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX A
Mortars American Concrete Institute

C1017 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use P.O. Box 9094
in Producing Flowing Concrete Farmington Hills, MI 48333
C1059 Specification for Latex Agents for Bonding
Fresh to Hardened Concrete 1. Manual of Concrete Inspection, SP-2
C1064 Test Method for Temperature of Freshly Mixed 2. Manual for Concrete Practice
Portland Cement Concrete Part 1 Materials and General Properties of
C1077 Practice for Laboratories Testing Concrete Concrete
and Concrete Aggregates for Use in Construc- Part 2 Construction Practices and Inspection
tion and Criteria for Laboratory Evaluation of Pavements
C1105 Test Method for Length Change of Concrete Part 3 Use of Concrete in Building – Design,
Due to Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reaction Specification, and Related Topics
C1126 Specification for Faced or Unfaced Rigid Cel- Part 4 Bridges, Substructures, Sanitary, and
lular Phenolic Thermal Insulation Other Special Structures; Structural
C1157 Performance Specification for Blended Properties
Hydraulic Cement Part 5 Masonry; Precast Concrete; Special
C1218 Test Method for Water-Soluble Chloride in Processes
Mortar and Concrete
C1231 Practice for Use of Unbonded Caps in Deter- These volumes contain accepted ACI standards including
mination of Compressive Strength of Hard- the building code requirements and appropriate publications
ened Concrete Cylinders covering all aspects of concrete proportioning, batching,
C1240 Specification for Silica Fume for Use in mixing, placing, and curing. They should be available in all
Hydraulic-Cement Concrete and Mortar precasting plants. Some of the more pertinent recommended
C1252 Test Methods for Uncompacted Void Content practices and guides are as follows:
of Fine Aggregate (as Influenced by Particle
ACI Designation and Title
Shape, Surface Texture, and Grading)
C1260 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of 116R Cement and Concrete Terminology
Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method) 117R Standard Specifications for Tolerances for
D75 Practice for Sampling Aggregates Concrete Construction and Materials
D4791 Test Method for Flat Particles, Elongated 201.2 Guide to Durable Concrete
Particles, or Flat and Elongated Particles in 211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Propor-
Coarse Aggregate tions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass
E4 Practices for Force Verification of Testing Concrete
Machines 211.2 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions
E11 Specification for Wire Cloth Sieves for Testing for Structural Lightweight Concrete
Purposes 211.3 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions
E105 Practice for Probability Sampling of for No-Slump Concrete
Materials 212.3 Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
E329 Specification for Agencies Engaged in the 212.4 Guide for the Use of High-Range Water
Testing and/or Inspection of Materials Used in Reducing Admixtures (Superplasticizers) in
Construction Concrete
213R Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate
For all materials and equipment used in the manufacture Concrete
of precast and prestressed concrete for which an appropriate 214 Recommended Practice for Evaluation of
ASTM designation has not been developed, manufacturer’s Strength Test Results of Concrete
specifications and directions should be available. Such materi- 214.3 Simplified Version of the Recommended Prac-
als and equipment should be used only when they have been tice for Evaluation of Strength Test Results of
shown by tests to be adequate for the purpose intended and Concrete
their usage has been approved by the purchasing entity. 221.R Guide for Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in
Concrete
224.1 Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in
Concrete Structures
225R Guide to the Selection and Use of Hydraulic
Cements
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete for
Buildings
303R Guide to Cast-In-Place Architectural Concrete
Practice
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 3 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX A
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, PCA Designation and Title
and Placing Concrete
EB 1 Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures
304.5 Batching, Mixing, and Job Control of Light-
IS 214 Removing Stains and Cleaning Concrete Sur-
weight Concrete
faces
305R Hot Weather Concreting
306R Cold Weather Concreting
American Welding Society (AWS)
308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
550 NW LeJeune Rd.
309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
P.O. Box 351040
309.1R Behavior of Fresh Concrete During Vibration
Miami, FL 33135
309.2R Identification and Control of Consolidation-
Related Surface Defects in Formed Concrete
311.5R Batch Plant Inspection and Field Testing of AWS Designation and Title
Ready-Mixed Concrete
A5.1 S pecification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for
318 Building Code Requirements for Structural
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Concrete and Commentary
A5.4 Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for
363R State-of-the-Art Report on High-Strength Con-
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
crete
A5.5 Specification for Low Alloy Steel Covered Arc
423.3R Recommendations for Concrete Members Pre-
Welding Electrodes
stressed with Unbonded Tendons
A5.18 Specification for Carbon Steel Filler Metals
439.4R Steel Reinforcement – Physical Properties and
for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
U.S. Availability
A5.20 Specification for Carbon Steel Filler Metals
517.2R Accelerated Curing of Concrete at Atmo-
for Flux Cored Arc Welding
spheric Pressure
A5.28 Specification for Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals
546.3R Guide for the Selection of Materials for Con-
for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
crete Repair
A5.29 Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes
for Flux Cored Arc Welding
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI)
B1.11 Guide for Visual Inspection of Welds
200 W. Adams Street, Suite 2100
B2.1 Standard for Welding Procedure and Perfor-
Chicago, IL 60606
mance Qualification
C5.4 Recommended Practices for Stud Welding
PCI Designation and Title
D1.1 Structural Welding Code – Structural Steel
MNL-116 Manual for Quality Control for Plants and D1.4 Structural Welding Code – Reinforcing Steel
Production of Precast and Prestressed Con- QC1 Specification for Qualifications and Certifica-
crete Products tion of Welding Inspectors
MNL-119 PCI Drafting Handbook – Precast and Pre- Z49.1 Safety in Welding, Cutting and Allied
stressed Concrete Processes
MNL-120 PCI Design Handbook – Precast and Pre-
stressed Concrete Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
MNL-122 Architectural Precast Concrete 5060 Spectrum Way
MNL-137 Manual for the Evaluation and Repair of Pre- Mississauga, Ontario
cast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Products L4W 5N6 Canada
SLP-122 PCI Safety and Loss Prevention Manual
JR-307 Tolerances for Precast and Prestressed

CSA Designation and Title
Concrete
TN-3 Efflorescence on Precast Concrete A23.1 Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete
TR-6 Interim Guidelines for Use of Self- Construction
Consolidating Concrete in Precast/ A23.2 Methods of Test for Concrete
Prestressed Concrete Institute Member Plants A23.2/14A
Potential Expansivity of Aggregates (Proce-
dure for Length Change Due to Alkali-Aggre-
Portland Cement Association (PCA) gate Reaction in Concrete Prisms)
5420 Old Orchard Road
Skokie, IL 60077 National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA)
900 Spring Street
Silver Spring, MD 20910
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 4 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX A
NRMCA Designation and Title

• ecommended Guide Specifications for Batching
R
Equipment and Control Systems in Concrete Batch
Plants (Pub. #102)
• Concrete Plant Standards of the Concrete Plant Manu-
facturers Bureau
• Concrete Plant Mixer Standards of Plant Mixer Manu-
facturers Division, CPMB
• Truck Mixer and Agitator Standards of the Truck Mixer
Manufacturers Bureau
• Certification of Ready Mixed Concrete Production
Facilities
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

1849 C Street NW
Washington, DC 20240
• Concrete Manual: A Manual for the Control of Con-

crete Construction
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (CRSI)

933 N. Plum Grove Road
Schaumburg, IL 60173
CRSI Designation and Title

• Guidelines for Inspection and Accepting of Epoxy-
Coated Reinforcing Bars at the Job Site
• Field Handling Techniques for Epoxy-Coated Rebar at
the Job Site
• Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coating Applicator Plant
Certification Program
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 5 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX A
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 6 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX B
Appendix B – Slump-Flow Test and the same as determined by either the upright or inverted slump
Visual Stability Index cone. Either the inverted or upright slump cone should be used
(VSI) Test Method consistently in controlling SCC production (do not switch
from one method to the other).
B1 Introduction
B3 Interpretation of Result
The slump flow is used to assess the horizontal free flow of
self-consolidating concrete (SCC) in the absence of obstruc- The higher the slump-flow value, the greater its ability to
tions. It was first developed in Japan for use in assessment of fill formwork under its own weight. There is no generally
underwater SCC. The test method is based on the test method accepted advice on what are reasonable tolerances about a
for determining the slump. The diameter of the concrete circle specified value, but ±2 in. (50 mm) may be appropriate.
is a measure for the flowability of the SCC and, with the T-50 The T-50 time is a secondary indication of flow. A lower time
test filling ability, can be measured. indicates greater flowability. The Brite EuRam research suggested
that a time of 3 seconds to 7 seconds is acceptable for civil engi-
B2 Assessment of Test neering applications and 2 seconds to 5 seconds for housing appli-
cations.
This is a simple, rapid test procedure. It can be used onsite,
In the case of severe segregation, most coarse aggregate will
though the size of the base plate is somewhat unwieldy and level
remain in the center of the pool of SCC and mortar and cement
ground is essential. It is the most commonly used test, and gives
paste at the SCC periphery. In case of minor segregation, a bor-
a good assessment of filling ability. It gives no indication of the
der of mortar without coarse aggregate can occur at the edge of
ability of the SCC to pass between reinforcement without block-
the pool of SCC. Because the slump-flow patty has no signifi-
ing, but may give some indication of resistance to segregation. It
cant depth through which settlement of aggregate can occur, a
can be argued that the completely free flow, unrestrained by any
visual inspection of the concrete in the wheelbarrow or mixer
boundaries, is not representative of what happens in practice in
should be part of the process in determining the VSI rating.
concrete construction, but the test can be profitably used to assess
The VSI does not quantify a property of the concrete, however,
the consistency of supply of mixed SCC to a site from load to load.
it is useful for quality control and consistency testing.
The slump cone can also be used in the inverted position to
perform the slump-flow test. Values of slump flow are nearly
Rating Criteria
0 No evidence of segregation in slump-flow patty or in mixer drum or wheelbarrow.
1 No mortar halo or aggregate pile in the slump-flow patty, but some slight bleed or air popping on the sur-
face of the concrete in the mixer drum or wheelbarrow.
2 A slight mortar halo (< 3/8 in. [10 mm]) and/or aggregate pile in the slump-flow patty and highly noticeable
bleeding in the mixer drum and wheelbarrow.
3 Clearly segregating by evidence of a large mortar halo (< 3/8 in. [10 mm]) and/or large aggregate pile in
the center of the concrete patty and a thick layer of paste on the surface of the resting concrete in the mixer
drum or wheelbarrow.
The following photographs show the range of VSI ratings.
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION B–1
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 1 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX B
VSI = 0
VSI = 0.5
VSI = 1
B–2 QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 2 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX B
VSI = 1.5
VSI = 2
VSI = 3
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION B–3
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 3 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX B
B–4 QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 4 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
Appendix C – Sample Record Forms

Numerous items that require recordkeeping for confirmation and evaluation are outlined in this publication. The following
record forms are suggested for consideration in a quality control program. These are not the only forms needed for operations,
but will provide a beginning point for form development. It should be recognized that these are only sample record forms and
that a plant may design its own forms to best serve its operation. The importance of any recording form is the information that
it contains and not its format.
The following forms are included:
1. Tensioning Report
2. Aggregate Gradation, Organic Impurities, Material Finer Than 200 Sieve, Aggregate Moisture Content
3. Batch Plant Scale Check
4. Concrete Batching Report
5. Concrete Tests Report
6. Concrete Tests Report (Architectural)
7. Inspection Report (Structural)
8. Inspection Report (Architectural)
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION C–1
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 1 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
FABRICATION
TENSIONING REPORT SHEET
CONTROL
Date
QUALITY CONTROL Inspector

ALL PRODUCTS
Job No._____________________________ Pour No.___________________________________ PLOT STRANDS ON GRID

Bed No._____________________________ Product___________________________________ 23
22
Member Identifications___________________________________________________________ 21
20
___________________________________________________________________________ 19
18
Ram Identification______________________ Ram Area__________________________________
17
16
HOLD DOWN FORCE DATA 15
14
MBR THEORETICAL DIMENSION ACTUAL DIMENSION 13
IDENT Sta. 1 Sta. 2 Sta. 3 Sta. 4 Sta. 1 Sta. 2 Sta. 3 Sta. 4 12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X
Strand Size____________________ No._________________ Pattern______________________Strand Brand_______________________

Type of Tensioning_______________________________________ At_____________________________________ End
Strand Temperature_________________________________ °F Theoretical Elongation_________________________________________
Theoretical Gauge Reading___________________________________________________________________________________lbs.
Temperature Correction for Elongation________________________________________ " = *“_________________________Total Elongation
Temperature Correction for Gauge Reading_________________________________ lbs. = **_______________________ Corrected Reading
LOAD CELLS
Location Strand No. Load By Gauge Press Load By Load Cell Prior To Pour
STANDARD COMPUTER TENSIONING DATA ACTUAL-LIVE END ACTUAL-DEAD END

PATTERN Total Net Gauge Total Gauge Total Gauge
Ident. Elong. Pretension Elong. Pressure Elong. Pressure Elong. Pressure
C–2 QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 2 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
MATERIAL
AGGREGATE GRADATION CONTROL
ORGANIC IMPURITIES SHEET
MAT. FINER THAN 200
MOISTURE TEST
Date AGGREGATES
QUALITY CONTROL Inspector
Applicable Spec. ____________________________ FINE AGGREGATE Date Del.__________________________________

ASTM C 33 REMARKS
Sieve Weight % % Specs.
Size Ret. (Gms.) Retained Passing % Passing Bin__________________ Tons Rep.______________
3
/8 in. 100
No. 4 95-100
No. 8 80-100
No. 16 50- 85
No. 30 25- 60
No. 50 10- 30
No. 100 2- 10
Pan
F.M. =
Applicable Spec. ____________________________ COARSE AGGREGATE Date Del.__________________________________

ASTM C 33 ASTM C 33 REMARKS
Sieve Weight % % Size 67 Size 57
Size Ret. (Gms.) Retained Passing % Passing % Passing Bin__________________ Tons Rep.______________
1 in. 100 –
3
/4 in. 90-100 –
1
/2 in. – 100
3
/8 in. 20- 55 85-100
No. 4 0- 10 10- 30
No. 8 0- 5 0- 10
No. 16 0- 5
MATERIAL FINER THAN 200 SIEVE (ASTM C 117)
_______________ Coarse Agg. __________________Fine Agg. Original Wt. of Sample_________________________________________________ (At least 2.5 kg)
Supplier _____________________________________ Dry Wt. of Orig. Sample________________________________________________ =B
Date Del. _____________________________________ Dry Wt. Sample After Washing___________________________________________ =C
A (% Material Finer Than 200 Sieve = B-C × 100 =____________________________

B
AGGREGATE MOISTURE CONTENT (ASTM C566) ORGANIC IMPURITIES IN SAND (ASTM C40)
Wt. Sample & Container (Wet)____________________________ (D) Circle Color Organic Plate No.
of Sodium
Wt. Sample & Container (Dry)_____________________________ (E)__________________________ Hydroxide 1
Solution 2
Wt. of Container _________________________(F) 3 (standard)
4
Wt. of Moisture (D-E) _____________________________ (G) 5
Net Dry Wt. of Sample (E-F) ________________________ (H) ____________________________
Sand Supplier
% Moisture = (G) x 100 =_______________________________ ___________________________ ____________________________
H Date
Speedy Moisture Test___________________________ %
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 3 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
BATCH PLANT EQUIPMENT

CALIBRATION
SCALE CHECK SHEET
________________________________________________
Date
QUALITY CONTROL ________________________________________________
AGGREGATE SCALES CEMENT SCALES

Bar Test Load Scale Reading Bar Test Load Scale Reading Remarks
Balance Point at Zero at Start of Check
Balance Point Off________ Pts. Under Over
Adjustment Required on Bar to Balance
Scale Report to Be Completed

On First Day of Each Week
Checked By
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 4 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
CONCRETE
BATCHING DATE:____________________________
REPORT SHEET____________________________
ADMIXTURE: _________________ STONE TEMP:_______________________
QUALITY CONTROL AIR ENT. AGENT: _________________
AMBIENT TEMP: _________________

MIX WATER TEMP:_______________________
SAND % MOIST:_______________________
TYPE III BRAND___________________ CEMENT TEMP: _________________ STONE % MOIST:_______________________
TYPE __________ BRAND___________________ SAND TEMP: _________________ CONCRETE TEMP:_______________________
Sand Retard AE
Mix Bed Job Moist Stone Water Admix Admix Mix Slump Cu.
No. No. No. Cement Type Sand (%) Stone Type Added (lbs.) (lbs.) Time Meter Yards
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 5 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
CONCRETE
MATERIALS
CONTROL
TEST REPORT SHEET
_________________ __________________
Job Job No.
ALL
QUALITY CONTROL _________________
Date
__________________
Inspector PRODUCTS
DESIGN STRENGTH
CURING DURATION
DATE AT BREAK
TIME AT BREAK
CONC. TEMP. ºF
YIELD (CU. FT.)
AMB. TEMP. ºF
CYLINDER NO.
(LBS./SQ. IN.)
PIECE NO.
POUR NO.
(HOURS)
AIR (%)
SLUMP
TIME
PSI
REMARKS
CONCRETE YIELD COMPUTATION (ASTM C138) AIR MEASUREMENT (ASTM C231)
Cement _____________ Wt. Container & Concrete ____________ Aggregate Correction Factor (G)
Fine Aggregate _____________ Wt. Container ____________ h1 = ___________________________
Coarse Aggregate _____________ Wt. Concrete ____________ h2 = ___________________________
Admixture _____________ Slump ____________ G = ___________________________
Admixture _____________ Entrained Air ____________ Apparent Concrete Air Content (A1)
Water No. Gals.______ × 8.33 _____________ Container Size ________________________ cu. ft. h1 = ___________________________
Total Wt. per Cu. Yd. (A) _____________ Wt. per Cu. Ft. (B) ____________ h2 = ___________________________
A1 = ___________________________
YIELD = A = ________________ =
B ____________ A (Air) = A1 – G =__________________
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 6 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
CONCRETE MATERIALS
CONTROL
TEST REPORT SHEET
____________________ _____________________
Job Job No.
QUALITY CONTROL ____________________

Date
_____________________
Inspector
ALL
PRODUCTS
Cylinder or Cube
Design Strength
Curing Duration
Conc. Temp. ºF
Amb. Temp. ºF
Time At Break
Specimen No.
Date At Break
Strength (psi)
Unit Wt. (pcf)
Temp. Time
Slump (in.)
Mark No.
Pour No.
Air (%)
(hrs.)
(psi)
REMARKS
FACE MIX Mix Designation (sample number) _______________________________
BACKING MIX Mix Designation (sample number) _______________________________
Impact Hammer (ASTM C805) COMMENTS:_______________________________________________________
Average Rebound Compressive ________________________________________________________________

Reading (R)
________________ Strength (psi)
________________ ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________ ________________
________________________________________________________________
________________ ________________ ________________________________________________________________
CONCRETE YIELD COMPUTATION (ASTM C138) AIR MEASUREMENT (ASTM C231)
Cement _____________ Wt. Container & Concrete ____________ Aggregate Correction Factor (G)
Fine Aggregate _____________ Wt. Container ____________ h1 =________________________________
Coarse Aggregate _____________ Wt. Concrete ____________ h2 =________________________________
Admixture _____________ Slump ____________ G = h1 – h2 =__________________________
Admixture _____________ Entrained Air ____________ Apparent Concrete Air Content (A1)
Water No. Gals.______ × 8.33 _____________ Container Size ________________________ cu. ft. h1 =________________________________
Total Wt. per Cu. Yd. (A) _____________ Wt. per Cu. Ft. (B) ____________ h2 =________________________________
A1 = h1 – h2 =_________________________
YIELD = A = ________________ =
B ____________ A (Air Content) = A1 – G =___________________
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 7 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
INSPECTION REPORT POUR NO: ___________
BUILDING PRODUCTS
BED NO: ___________
BED SET-UP, CASTING AND
JOB NO: ___________
FINISHED PRODUCT
PRODUCT: ___________

Date
__________________
Inspector FORM OIL: ___________
Job No.
ID.
Piece No.
Form Conditions & Cleanliness
Design Length
Form Set-Up Length
As Cast Length
Design Width (Flanges)
Form Set-Up Width (Flange)
As Cast Width (Flange)
Design Width (Stem)
SET-UP DETAILS
Form Set-Up (Stem)

As Cast Width (Stem)
Design Depth
Form Set-Up Depth (Overall)
As Cast Depth (Overall)
Skew Distance
End Details
Strand Deflection Points (Harp Pts.)
Reinforcing Steel
Plates
Block Outs
Inserts
Lifting Loops (type, quantity)
Vibration Rating
CASTING
Workability
Top Finish
Vert. Out of Square (Max.)
Horiz. Out of Square (Max.)
Design Camber @ 28 Days
Measured Camber
FINISHED PRODUCT
Age When Measured

Longitudinal Alignment
Sole Plates
Miscellaneous Plates
Chamfers
Blockouts
Transverse Rod Holes
Lag Studs & Inserts
Cracks
Surface Textures
Blocking
Finishing & Patching
YARD
Date Approval Stamp Applied

Dowel Holes
Strand Slippage
REMARKS
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 8 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
INSPECTION REPORT
BUILDING PRODUCTS MOLD NO: ___________
FORM SET-UP, CASTING AND JOB NO: ___________

FINISHED PRODUCT
PRODUCT: ___________

Date
__________________
Inspector
FORM OIL: ___________
Job No.
ID.
Member Mark No.

Form Conditions & Cleanliness
Seams Sealed
Retarders
Design Length (Height)
Form Set-Up Length (Height)
As-Cast Length (Height)
Design Width
Form Set-Up Width
As-Cast Width
SET-UP DETAILS
Design Depth (Thickness)

Form Set-Up Depth (Thickness)
As-Cast Depth (Thickness)
Out of Square
Block Outs
Squareness of Openings
End & Edge Details
Reinforcing Steel
Insulation
Ringlets
Rustications
Haunches (Corbel)
Plates & Inserts
Lifting Loops
Vibration Rating
CASTING
Workability
Top Finish (Wet)
Top Finish (Dry)
Bottom Finish (Dry)
Surface Textures
Color
FINISHED PRODUCT
Cracks or Spalls
Out of Square (Max.)
Camber or Deflection
Warpage
Bowing
Exposed Reinforcing or Chairs
Plates & Inserts
Chamfers & Radius Quality
Openings
Lifting Loops
Blocking
YARDING
Finishing
Patching & Cleaning
Date Approval Stamp Applied
Blocking
LOADING
Field Patching Required

Tie Downs
Driver Instructions
USE BACKSIDE OF SHEET FOR REMARKS AND SKETCHES
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 9 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX C
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 10 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
Appendix D – Answers to Review Questions
Chapter 1 – Quality System
1. The commitment to quality begins with a company’s top management.
2. The written quality assurance program for a plant is called its quality system manual (QSM). The minimum
items to be addressed by the QSM are:
• management commitment to quality
• definition of organization structure
• management review of the quality assurance program
• plant facilities layout and definition
• purchasing procedures for quality control compliance including project specifications
• uniform methods for reporting, reviewing, and maintaining records
• identification of training needs for production and specific training in quality assurance requirements
• control, calibration and maintenance of necessary inspection, measuring, and test equipment
• standards for shop drawings to ensure accuracy and uniform interpretation of instructions for manufacturing and
handling
• procedures for review and dissemination of project-specific requirements to production and quality control
personnel.
3. Categories of shop drawings:

• Erection drawings – Show an overall layout of products for a particular area. May be a wall layout (or elevation) for
architectural concrete cladding panels or a plan layout for double-tee floor members in a garage.
• Individual piece drawing (shop ticket) – Piece drawings are prepared to detail the internal reinforcement to be cast in
a particular unit. Also shown are embedded items and connection assemblies.
• Assembly drawings – These drawings show special embedments that are manufactured by the plant or a supplier for
use within a product.
4. C
ompute the volume of concrete for the element.

Imperical: Metric:
Front section = 12 x (5+8/12) x 0.5 Front section = 3.7 x 1.7 x 0.15
= 34 ft3 = 0.94 m3
Bottom return = 3.0 x 6.0 x 0.5 Bottom return = (1.1 - 0.15) x 1.8 x 0.15

= 9 ft 3
___________________ ___________________ = 0.26 m3
Total 43 ft3 Total = 1.2 m3
÷ 27 = 1.59 y 3
5. The reinforcing bar is welded to the basic plate with a flare-bevel weld. The small front plate (left of the assembly) is
welded with fillet weld to the base plate. The size of the fillet weld is 3⁄16 in. (5 mm) and the length is 6 in. (150 mm) on
each side of the plate, for a total length of 12 in. (300 mm)
6. The circled area of the weld symbol would describe the size, length and type of weld to be placed at the side of joint oppo-
site to where the arrow point is located.
7. Project samples should be used when required by the project specifications and when special finishes are involved.
8. Principal factors in quality control include:

• Management commitment to quality and quality control program
• Qualified personnel for all stages of design and production
• Testing and inspection of the various materials selected for use as well as product storage and handling
• Clear and complete shop drawings. Good production drawings translate contract documents into usable information
for manufacture, handling, and erection of precast and prestressed concrete units
• Accurate testing procedures
• Control of dimensions and tolerances
• Proper position of all embedded items
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION D–1
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 1 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
• Correct size and positioning of reinforcing steel

• Proper handling, placing, and consolidation of concrete
• Proper proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete
• Appropriate and controlled curing
• Proper procedure for detensioning and striping
• Proper handling, storing, transporting, and erecting of members
• Complete and accurate production documentation
9. Inspection and record keeping should cover the following areas:

• Identification, examination, acceptance, and plant testing of materials and subassemblies
• Inspecting and recording of tensioning
• Inspection of beds and forms prior to concreting
• Checking of dimensions of members, numbers, size and positions of tendons, reinforcing steel, other incorporated
materials, openings, blockouts, and the like
• Regular inspection of batching mixing, conveying, placing, compacting, finishing, and curing concrete
• Preparation of concrete specimens for strength testing and performance of concrete tests (slump, air content,
cylinder strength)
• Inspecting operations of detensioning, product removal from beds, handling and storing
•F inal inspection of finished product prior to shipment. Monitoring dimensions, camber, blockouts, embedments,
and finishes.
•G eneral observation of plant equipment, working conditions, weather, and other items that have the potential for
affecting the products.
•P roducts purchased from suppliers shall comply with requirements for in-plant production as outlined in PCI’s qual-
ity control manuals MNL-116 and MNL-117.
• To establish evidence of proper manufacturing and monitoring as outlined, a system of records shall be utilized in
each plant for the procedures outlined.
10. Prepour inspection should address:

• All dimensions of the form or mold
• Reinforcing in the form or mold both for conformance of size and type as well as spacing
• Embedments, size, locations and number.
11. Post-pour inspections should include:

• Product identification
• Visual inspection of product
• Product dimensional verification
• Strand slippage
• Camber
• Product storage
• Product finish
12.
33'-6" (10,200 mm)
2'-6" 9'-6" 9'-6" 9'-6" 2'-6"

1'-117/8" (1230 mm) 1'-117/8"
1'-6" (1005 mm)
3'-3 3/4"
7'-113/4"
4'-0"
3'-2"
5'-6" 2'-6" 25'-6" (7740 mm)
D–2 QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 2 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
13. (18'-6" [5638 mm])
4' 3'-10" 2'-10" 3'-10" 4'

(14'-0
2'-3" [4266 mm]) 2'-3"
1'-6"
2'-6" 1' 8" [1168 mm]) 2'-6"
[2743 mm])
(3'-10"
(9'-0"
8'-9"
10'-6"
[533 mm])
(1'-9"
3'-6" (5'-9" [1752 mm]) (5'-9" [1752 mm]) 3'-6"
Equal
Spaces
14.
48'-6"
4'-3" 10' 10' 10' 10' 5'-5" 
1'-117/8"
4'-3"
8'-2 /4"

3
 4'
2'-6" 1'-6"
1'-117/8"
3'-6" 2'-6" 40'-6"

1. These dimensions add to 8 ft-3 in. (2514 mm), incorrect. Check design for hole location.
2. Changing 5 ft-5 in. (1651 mm) to 4 ft-3 in. (1295 mm) would make 48 ft-6 in. (14,783 mm) incorrect.
3. Dimensions do not add to 8 ft-23/4 in. (2508 mm). Add again to get 7 ft-113/4 in. (2431 mm).
4. This string of dimensions do not add to 48 ft-6 in. (14,783 mm), an error is apparent.
Review placement of opening on design drawings to correct it.
15. All.
16. D. At least a Level I technician
17. The quality assurance program must be reviewed at regular intervals, not to exceed one year.
18. False. Production personnel may be involved in some quality control activities but should not audit or review
production practices in which they were directly involved.
19. A. Hidden
20. B. Field weld
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 3 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
CHAPTER 2 – Production Practices

1. Forms and abutments should be reviewed between casting for the following potential degradation:
• Cracked welds
• Bent plates
• Offset form joints
• Other cracks or damage
• Size and shape
2. S
tick electrodes that become wet must be discarded. Electrodes that have been out of their containers may be redried
once, but electrodes that are wet cannot be redried.
3. An architectural concrete finishing area should have the following properties:

• Uniform lighting that matches daylight as closely as possible
• Adequate size for panels being produced
• Adequate handling equipment and product dunnage
• Proper ventilation and safety equipment
• Approved sample rack for comparison of the panel finish with the sample
4. F
alse. Stainless steel can be welded to other low-carbon steels if done in accordance with AWS B2.1, AWS A5.4, and
AWS D1.1. Special procedures are required to deal with sensitization of the heat-affected zone.
5. B
efore welding of A615, A616, or A617 reinforcement, the carbon equivalent of the reinforcement must be determined.
For A615 reinforcement, the following formula is used to determine its carbon equivalent: % C + (% Mn)/6
A706 may also require 50 ºF (10 ºC) preheat.
6. P
reheating of steel reinforcement and shapes that are to be welded is done to avoid rapid cooling of the materials after
welding. Preheating is determined by the carbon equivalent of the reinforcing bar or requirements of the other shape. Pre-
heating is also performed to remove hydrogen from the base metal and minimize the effects of contamination.
7. E
mbedments made with headed studs should be reviewed both before and as placed in the form for the following items
against the shop drawings:
• Welded-stud ferrules are removed and a 360 degree weld puddle (flash) is formed
• Bolt or stud diameter
• Plate size and orientation
• Anchorage bars in correct position
• Embedment is secured to the form
• The applicable coating has been applied
• Proper length consummation in welding for automatic welded studs
8. Before stripping a prestressed product line, the following should be done:

• Test compression cylinders to determine whether the required stripping strength has been reached.
• Hold-down devices should be removed to avoid restraining the product.
• Side forms should be loosened and/or removed to avoid constraining the products.
• Any bolts or other devices used to hold embedments to the form or soffit should be removed to avoid binding the products.
9. D
unnage resting against a product can create a dark spot if the dunnage is in full contact with the product. This contact
holds moisture on the contact surface and creates a dark spot. Ventilation is required to allow the moisture to evaporate.
10. Architectural concrete panels can be affected by any of the following factors:
• Cement type and color • Mixing • Curing

• Aggregate color, size, and physical • Water-Cement Ratio • Finishing techniques
and chemical properties • Consolidation • Weather Conditions
• Form material
• Mixture design
11. F
alse. Quality control personnel must be aware of the plant's safety program through employee training and ongoing
safety meetings.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 4 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
12. Any four of the following:

• Abutment movement and deformation
• Self-stressing form damage
• Cracked welds
• Bent plates
• Offset form joints
• Loose clamps
• Other cracks or damage
13. C. 50 ºF (10 ºC)
14. The following are means of accelerating curing:

• Radiant heat from steam, hot-water or oil pipes
• Space heaters
• Live steam
• Electric heat
15. False. The dimensional tolerances for the form should be less than those specified for the finished products.
16. True. It is only used as a general guide to determine when cylinders are likely to be up for strength.
17. O
verworking the surface will tend to draw fines and water to the surface, which can create a number of undesirable sur-
face conditions such as:
• checking (random hairline surface cracks)
• crazing (hairline surface cracks originating from a common point)
• dusting (light, sandy film on the surface)
• discoloring
18. D. From approximately 20 feet (6 m) in good daylight
19. The far side indicates the side opposite to the one in view. A top view of a panel with a note calling for an insert at a
given location but on the far side would indicate a location on the bottom of the piece.
20. A square or rectangular form will have 90 degree corners at all four corners. Checking the principal dimensions A and B
will confirm form size but not squareness. The diagonal should be checked from corner to corner. Diagonals should be
equal if form is square or rectangular.
CHAPTER 3 – Raw Materials and Accessories
1. ASTM C150 Type III cement is used when early strength is desired. Type III is ground finer than other cements and will
react with water faster to provide higher early strengths.
2. Unless specifically stated otherwise, both fine and coarse aggregates should conform to ASTM C33.
3. F
ine and coarse aggregates are generally defined by ASTM C33 in relationship to their gradation or particle size, distribu-
tion and fineness for sand. A plant reviews material by testing for and computing the gradation.
4. F
alse. Water suitable for making concrete does not need to be fit for drinking. However, non-potable water must meet the
chemical limits given in Table C3.1.6 of PCI manuals MNL-116 and MNL-117.
5. In a general sense, any item added to concrete other than cement, aggregates, and water is an admixture.
6. B. Chlorides promote corrosion of embedments, reinforcing, and prestressing strand.
7. A. Reduction of 28-day strength. Early strength reduction is expected but strength at later stages is not affected when
using retarders.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 5 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
8. C. They react with calcium hydroxide to provide cementitious benefits.
9. D. All of the above
10. D. ASTM A416
11. D. 0.6%
12. D. Increase segregation
13. C. Decrease the slump
14. B. +/- 0.2
15. C
heck the carbon equivalence to determine if preheating is required.
16. The mark W on reinforcing bars signifies the material is ASTM A-706, which is weldable reinforcing steel.
17. Wire spacing must be within ¼ in. (6 mm) of the design spacing for welded-wire mesh. Mesh with spacing of 53/4 in.
(146 mm) to 6 ¼ in. (159 mm) would be within these tolerances, while mesh with spacing from 5 ¼ in. (133 mm) to
6 ½ in. (165 mm) would not.
18. Wire-mesh sheets of 8 ft x 12 ft (2.4 m x 3.7 m) size with wires spaced at 6 in. (150 mm) centers each way would have
425 weld points. The acceptable tolerance for broken welds is 1% of the welds for sheet mesh or 425 x 0.01 = 4.25, or
four welds per 8 x 12 (2.4 m x 3.7 m) sheets, but not over one-half the broken welds on any one wire. Therefore, any
sheet with four or less broken welds and not over two broken per wire will be acceptable.
19. The ASTM specification for welded-stud materials is A108. This material produces studs that can be welded by stud-gun
welders such as those manufactured by KSM and Nelson and will perform in accordance with published test data from
these manufacturers.
20. A new source of coarse aggregate should have the aggregate checked for soundness, abrasion, reactivity, organic impuri-
ties, deleterious substances, specific gravity and absorption.
21. High-range water-reducing admixtures are Type F or G in the general specification ASTM C94.
22. D. Annually
23. Any five of the following:

• Can reduce the amount of cement in the mixture
• Improve workability
• Plasticity
• Reactivity
• Permeability
• Reduce heat of hydration.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 6 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
CHAPTER 4 – Concrete and Curing

1. C. The water-cementitious materials ratio
2. D. All of the above
3. C. The amount of sand will decrease and the water will increase
4. B. An aggregate with no free moisture
5. B. 771 g is the most correct answer.

Based on the data given: Absorption is 1.2%. Dry weight = 762 g.
Amount of water the dry sample can absorb = 762 * .012 = 9.14 g
SSD = 9.14 + 762 = 771
6. C. None
800 − 795
The new sample has a wet weight of 800 g and a dry weight of 795 g. The total moisture is (100) = 0.6%.
This means that the absorption of the sand has not been met. 795
7. The quantities for aggregates are given in their dry condition. To change them to saturated surface dry (SSD), you need to
add the absorption.
Dry SSD
Sand 1250 lb (568 kg) × 1.013 1266.25 (574.88 kg) use 1266 lb (575 kg)
Stone 1700 lb (772 kg) × 1.0085 1714.45 (778.36 kg) use 1714 lb (778 kg)
8. There are oven-dried aggregates included in the given batch weights. Hence, you should use today's total moisture per-
centage to make your adjustments. Adjusted batch weights and revised batch water as follows:
Dry Total Moisture

Sand 1250 lb (568 kg) x 1.062 = 1328 lb (603 kg)
Stone 1700 lb (772 kg) x 1.016 = 1727 lb (784 kg)
The total weight of the batch must be the same after the adjustment for aggregate moisture conditions. The amount of water
in the chart below must be: 3,905lb - 705lb - 1328lb - 1727 lb = 145lbs
Original (lb) Adjusted (lb)
Cement 705 705

Sand 1250 1328
Stone 1700 1727
Water 250 ? (see note)
Total 3905 3905
9. C. Increased early strength and slightly decreased 28-day strength
10. B. 158 ºF (70 ºC).
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 7 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
11. The following procedures help prevent shrinkage cracking:

• Shaded storage for aggregates
• Sprinkling, fog spraying, or chilling aggregates with liquid nitrogen
• Burying, insulating, and/or shading water-supply facilities
• Use of cold water in batching
• Used of shaved or crushed ice for a portion of the mixing water. Only as much ice should be used as will be entirely
melted at the completion of the mixing period.
• Maintaining concrete surfaces in a cool and moist condition by use of wet coverings such as burlap, sprinkling, or
ponding as soon as the water sheen disappears.
• Shading of the product surface during and after casting to avoid heat buildup in direct sunlight
• Use of cement with temperatures under 170 F, unless special measures to control concrete temperature as outlined in
ACI 305, Recommended Practice for Hot Weather Concrete, are used and verified to produce concrete of acceptable
performance.
• White-pigmented membranes may be used, but they are not recommended in hot-weather conditions until after the
first 24 hours, as such membranes do not cool the concrete as well as wet-curing methods
• Set-retarding admixtures, which can delay the concrete setting time and provide a longer period for placing and fin-
ishing
12. B. 150 ºF (66 ºC)
13. N
ormalweight: 145 lb/ft3 (2325 kg/m3)
Semi-lightweight: 125 lb/ft3 (2017 kg/m3)
All lightweight: 110 lb/ft3 (1775 kg/m3)
14. D. 200 ft (61 m) intervals
15. B. Free moisture
16. A. 6 months for scales, 3 months for meters
17. A. 6 months
18. C. Allow to sink quickly then withdraw slowly
19. Impermeability, durability, high strength
20. Total aggregate moisture is made up of absorbed moisture and free moisture.
21. Saturated surface dry condition for aggregates is as follows:

• Coarse aggregate: Saturated surface dry is the condition when no water is apparent on the aggregate surfaces and the
aggregate has absorbed all of the moisture it possibly can.
• Fine aggregate: Saturated surface dry is the condition when the aggregate has just reached the free-flowing condition
and are no longer clumping together.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 8 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
22.
Given Make adjustments using free moisture SSD
Cement 611 lb (277 kg) 611 lb (277 kg)
Sand 1581 lb (718 kg) (1581 lbs) × (1.045) 1,652 lbs
Aggregate 1880 lb (853 kg) (1880 lbs) × (1.010) 1899 lbs
Water 195 lb (88 kg)
Total 4267 lb
The total weight of the batch must remain unchanged after aggregate moisture adjustments. Hence, the water to be
added after the adjustments equals 4267-611-1652-1899 = 105 lb.
195 lb (127 kg)
23. Water/Cement = = 0.32
611 lb (277 kg)
24. ASTM C403 is the standard test method for determining set time for a concrete mixture design. The test determines the
elapsed time, after initial contact of water and cement, required for the mortar sieved from the concrete to reach penetra-
tion resistance of 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
25. 1 . Moisture
2. Heat retention
26. 1 . Maximum temperature rise of 36 °F (20 °C) per hour

2. Maximum curing temperature of 158 °F (70 °C)
27. S
tage 1 – A dormant period of three to five hours when little strength gain is made.
Stage 2 – The most active period lasting seven to eight hours with strength gains of 500 psi 3.45 MPa) to 700 psi
(4.83 MPa) per hour.
Stage 3 – A slow period of strength gain lasting eight to twelve hours with strength gains of 50 psi (0.345 MPa) to 100
psi (0.69 MPa) per hour.
28. True. Accelerated curing will reduce the 28-day strength of a particular mixture design by up to 10%.
CHAPTER 5 – Reinforcing Steel and Prestressing

1. In a concrete beam, conventional reinforcement or prestressing carries the tension stresses that develop in the beam.
2. The ability of a reinforced concrete beam to resist applied load relates directly to the position of the reinforcement. If the
bottom reinforcement is placed too high, the beam’s capacity is reduced. Also, cracking along the bottom of the beam
becomes more severe.
3. F
alse. When bent, galvanized bars often have cracking and flaking of the galvanized coating. This should be repaired by
painting with a zinc-rich paint.
4. F
alse. Steel chemistry requires preheat for some steels. Weld size is not a parameter in determining if steel preheat is nec-
essary. All welds to that steel would require preheat.
5. L
ive-end chuck seating
Dead-end chuck seating
Abutment rotation
Bed shortening
Thermal changes
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 9 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
6. Yes, Variance between jack reading and load record is permitted when under 2%. The readings of 32,000 lb (142,000 kN)
and 32,500 lb (145,000 kN) are within 1.5%
7. B
. To establish a fixed point for measurement of elongation
P×L
Elongation calculation Example 1.1: Find basic elongation (eb) = A E
Solution:
P = applied force for which elongation is calculated, lb (kN)

L = total length of strand between chucks, in. (mm)
A = cross-sectional area of strand, in.2 (mm2)
E = modulus of elasticity of strand, psi (kN/mm2)
1. P = 31,000 lb (138 kN) – 3,000 lb (13 kN) = 28,000 lb (125 kN)
2. L = 335.5 ft (102.26 m) × 12 in./ft (1000 mm/m) = 4026 in. (102,260 mm)

28, 000 lb (125 kN) 4026 in. (102,260 mm)
3. BE = × = 25.49 in. = 25.5 in. (642 mm)
0.153 in.2 (100 mm 2 ) 28, 900, 000 psi (199 kN / mm 2 )
Elongation Calculation Example 1.2: Find basic elongation eb =AP ×EL

Solution:
P = applied force for which elongation is calculated, lb (kN)

L = total length of strand between chucks, in. (mm)
A = cross-sectional area of strand, in.2 (mm2)
E = modulus of elasticity of strand, psi (kN/mm2)
1. P = 16,000 lb (71 kN) – 2,000 lb (9 kN) = 14,000 lb (62 kN)
2. L = 225 ft (68.58 m) × 12 in./ft (1000 mm/m) = 2700 in. (68,580 mm)

14, 000 lb (62 kN) 2700 in. (68,580 mm)
3. eb = × = 15.88 in. (401 mm)
0.085 in.2 (55 mm 2 ) 28, 000, 000 psi (193 kN / mm 2 )
Elongation Calculation 2.1: Target elongation (gross and net), stressing force, and tolerance limits for both
Solution:
Target elongation = eb + corrections
Stressing force = final force + corrections
1. P = 31,000 lb (138 kN) – 5,000 lb (22 kN) = 26,000 lb (116 kN)
2. L = 400 ft (121.9 m) × 12 in./ft (1000 mm/m) = 4800 in. (121,900 mm)
3. P×L
Basic elongation eb = A E
26,000 lb (116 kN) 4800 in. (121,920 mm)
eb = × = 28.823 in. (725 mm)
0.153 in. (100 mm ) 28,300,000 psi (195 kN / mm 2 )
2 2
4. Dead-end chuck seating correction

Add dead-end chuck seating (0.125 in. [3 mm]) to elongation with no correction to force.
5. Splice-chuck-seating correction
Add splice-chuck seating (0.375 in. [10 mm]) to elongation with no correction to force.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 10 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
6. Live-end chuck-seating correction

Add live-end chuck-seating (0.375 in. [10 mm]) to elongation. Additional force is required to overpull the strand to
compensate for live-end chuck seating.
Calculate the force F required to elongate the strand 1 in. (25 mm).
26,000 lb (116 kN)
F/in. = = 902 lb/in. (0.16 kN/mm)
28.823 in. (725 mm)
Calculate the force required to elongate the strand 3/8 in. (10 mm).
F = 902 lb/in. (0.16 kN/mm) × 0.375 in. (10 mm) = 338 lb (1.6 kN)
7. Temperature correction.
Is an adjustment required?
65 °F (18 °C) concrete – 20 °F (-7 °C) strand = 45 °F (25 °C) difference
45 °F (25 °C) difference > 25 °F (14 °C); correction is required
Adjust both force and elongation by 1%/10 °F (5.6 °C) difference.

45 °F (25 °C) difference / 10 °F (5.6 °C) = 4.5% = 0.045
a. Temperature adjustment to final force

Multiply the final force by the temperature adjustment to calculate the extra force required.
31,000 lb (138 kN) × 0.045 = 1395 lb (6.2 kN)
b. Temperature adjustment to final elongation

Calculate additional elongation for extra force used to adjust for temperature difference (from 7a).
P L 1395 lb (6.2 kN) 4800 in. (121,920 mm)
× = × = 1.546 in. (39 mm)
A E 0.153 in.2 (100 mm 2 ) 28,300,000 psi (195 kN / mm 2 )
8a. Calculate gross elongation with all corrections.

Gross elongation occurs before release of force on jack.
Basic elongation (step 3) = 28.823 in. (732 mm)

Dead-end chuck seating (step 4) + 0.125 in. (3 mm)
Splice chuck seating (step 5) + 0.375 in. (10 mm)
Live-end chuck seating (given) + 0.375 in. (10 mm)
Temperature (step 7b) + 1.546 in. (39 mm)
_________________
Gross elongation = 31.244 in. (794 mm)
8b. Calculate net elongation.

Net elongation occurs after release of force on jack. Deduct live-end seating from gross elongation.
Gross elongation (step 8a) = 31.244 in. (794 mm)
Live-end chuck seating (given) – 0.375 in. (10 mm)
_________________
Net elongation = 30.869 in. (784 mm)
9. Calculate final stressing force with all corrections.

Final force (given) = 31,000 lb (138 kN)
Live-end seating (step 6) + 338 lb (1.50 kN)
Temperature (step 7a) + 1395 lb (6.25 kN)
_________________
Stressing force = 32,733 lb (145 kN)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 11 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
10. Calculate allowable tolerances on gross force and net elongation.
Tolerance Gross force Net elongation Net elongation

+ 5% 34,370 lb (153 kN) 32.412 in. (823 mm) 32 7/16 in. (823 mm)
Desired 32,733 lb (145 kN) 30.869 in. (784 mm) 30 7/8 in. (784 mm)
– 5% 31,096 lb (138 kN) 29.326 in. (745 mm) 29 5/16 in. (745 mm)
11. Check to be sure strands are not overstressed.
• For building products, use ACI 318-05 limits.

The stress in the strand shall not exceed
1. 0.94fpy (yield strength of strand)
where fpy = 0.90fpu (tensile strength of strand)
Therefore, maximum stress shall not exceed
(0.94)(0.9)fpu = 0.846fpu
2. 0.80fpu (controls)
• For bridge products, use AASHTO limits.

The strand stress prior to seating (jacking stress) shall not exceed 80% of the minimum ultimate
tensile strength (0.80fpu)
Calculate 0.80fpu for this example and compare it with the final stresses.
Maximum stress = 0.80 × 270,000 psi (1,862 MPa) = 216,000 psi (1,489 MPa)
Maximum force = 216,000 psi (1,489 MPa) × 0.153 in.2 (100 mm2 x 1 m2 / 10002 mm2) = 33,048 lb (148 kN)
Applied gross force is smaller than this limit; therefore, it is within both code limits.
Caution: The plus 5% tolerance limit is greater than 33,048 lb (148 kN). Do not exceed 33,048 lb (148 kN).
Elongation Calculation Example 2.2: Target elongation (gross and net), stressing force, and tolerance limits for both
Solution: Target elongation = eb + corrections

Stressing force = final force + corrections
1. P = 31,000 lb (138 kN) – 2500 lb (11 kN) = 28,500 lb (127 kN)

2. L = 357.67 ft (109.017 m) × 12 in./ft (1000 mm/m) = 4292 in. (109,017 mm)
P×L
3. Basic elongation BE = (eb) = A E
28,500 lb (127 kN) 4292 in. (109,000 mm)

BE
eb == × = 28.052 in. (705 mm)
0.153 in.2 (100 mm 2 ) 28,500,000 psi (197 kN / mm 2 )
4. D
ead-end chuck-seating correction
Add dead-end chuck-seating (0.125 in. [3 mm]) to elongation with no correction to force.
5. S
plice chuck seating correction
Add splice chuck seating (0.25 in. [6 mm]) to elongation with no correction to force.
6. L ive-end chuck-seating correction

Add live-end chuck seating (0.25 in. [6 mm]) to elongation. Additional force is required to overpull the strand
to compensate for live-end chuck seating.
Calculate the force F required to elongate the strand 1 in. (25 mm).
28, 500 lb (127 kN)
F/in. = = 1016 lb/in. (180 kN/m)
28.052 in. (0.705 m)
Calculate the force required to elongate the strand 1/4 in. (6 mm)
F = 1016 lb/in. (180 kN/m) × 0.25 in. (6 mm) = 254 lb (1.08 kN)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 12 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
7. Temperature correction
Is an adjustment required?
No, thermal corrections are not required for self-stressing beds.
8. Bed shortening
Bed shortening = original bed length – stressed bed length
Bed shortening = 357 ft-8 in. (109,017 mm) - 357 ft-61/2 in. (108,979 mm) = 11/2 in. (38 mm) = 1.5 in. (38 mm)
a. Elongation correction for bed shortening

The elongation correction for each strand will be one-half the total bed shortening.
1.5 in. (38 mm)
Elongation correction = = 0.75 in. (19 mm)
2
b. Stressing correction for bed shortening
The tensioning force must be increased an average amount in order for each strand to achieve
the extra elongation.
Calculate the force F required for 1 in. of elongation.

P 28,500 lb (127 kN)
F/in. = = = 1016 lb/in. (180 kN/m)
BE 28.052 in. (0.71 m)
Multiply this value by the elongation correction value from step 8a.
Correction = 1016 lb/in. (180 kN/m) × 0.75 in. (0.019 m) = 762 lb (3.4 kN)
9a.
Calculate gross elongation with all corrections.
Gross elongation occurs before release of force on jack.
Basic elongation (step 3) = 28.052 in. (712 mm)

Dead-end chuck seating (step 4) + 0.125 in. (3 mm)
Splice chuck seating (step 5) + 0.25 in. (6 mm)
Live-end chuck seating (given) + 0.25 in. (6 mm)
Bed shortening (step 8a) + 0.75 in. (19 mm)
_________________
Gross elongation (egross) = 29.427 in. (745 mm)
9b. Calculate net elongation.

Net elongation occurs after release of force on jack. Deduct live-end seating from gross elongation.
Gross elongation (step 8a) = 29.427 in. (745 mm)
Live-end chuck seating (given) – 0.25 in. (6 mm)
_________________
Net elongation (enet) = 29.177 in. (740 mm)
10. Calculate final stressing force with all corrections.

Final force (given) = 31,000 lb (138 kN)
Live-end seating (step 6) + 254 lb (1.13 kN)
Bed shortening (step 8) = 762 lb (3.4 kN)
________________
Stressing force = 32,016 lb (142 kN)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 13 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
11. Calculate allowable tolerances on gross force and net elongation.
Tolerance Gross force Net elongation Net elongation

+ 5% 33,617 lb (149 kN) 30.636 in. (778 mm) 30 5/8 in. (778 mm)
Desired 32,016 lb (142 kN) 29.177 in. (740 mm) 29 1/8 in. (740 mm)
– 5% 30,415 lb (135 kN) 27.718 in. (704 mm) 27 3/4 in. (704 mm)
12. Check strands are not overstressed.
• For building products, use ACI 318-05 limits.

The stress in the strand shall not exceed
1. 0.94fpy (yield strength of strand)
where fpy = 0.90fpu (tensile strength of strand)
Therefore, maximum stress shall not exceed
(0.94)(0.9)fpu = 0.846fpu
2. 0.80fpu (controls)
•F or bridge products, use AASHTO limits.

The strand stress prior to seating (jacking stress) shall not exceed 80% of the minimum
ultimate tensile strength (0.80fpu).
Calculate 0.80fpu for the example and compare it with final stresses.
Maximum stress = 0.80 × 270,000 psi (1,862 MPa) = 216,000 psi (1,489 MPa)
Maximum force = 216,000 psi (1.489 kN/mm2) × 0.153 in.2 (100 mm2) = 33,048 lb (148 kN)
Applied gross force is less than this limit; therefore, it is within both code limits.
Caution: The plus 5% tolerance limit is greater than 33,048 lb (148 kN). Do not exceed 33,048 lb (148 kN).
CHAPTER 6 – Quality Control

1. C. Testing results for material compliance at the production mill
2. B. After a product has been cast
3. The following should be checked:

• The correct quantity of strand.
• The correct position of strand.
• The cleanliness of the strand surfaces.
4. Each product should be marked with:

• The job number for which the piece is produced.
• The date the product was cast.
• The mark number for the piece produced.
5. C. 25%
6. The slump test should be conducted as follows:

Step 1 – Fill the slump cone in three equal volume layers.
Step 2 – Rod each layer 25 times.
Step 3 – Smooth the top surface.
Step 4 – Lift the cone straight up in 5 seconds, +2 seconds.
Step 5 – Measure slump to the displaced center of the concrete to the nearest 1/4 in. (6 mm).
The test, as noted, should be conducted on a level, nonabsorbent surface.
7. Too much air entrainment can cause a lowered concrete strength.
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 14 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
8. Tensioning records should contain:

• The date of tensioning
• The bed in use and product identification
• The size, type, location, and coil numbers of the strand
• The jack identification
• The initial force
• The calculated and actual final force for each strand
• The calculated and actual elongation for the required number of strands
• Any problems encountered during stressing
• The action taken if strands are tensioned out of tolerance
9. 5%
10. Pre-pour inspections should check all of the following:

• Forms and molds
• Reinforcing steel
• Prestressing strand
• Embedded items
• Welded assemblies
11. Post-pour inspections should check all four of the following:

• Product-marking system
• Product-tracking system
• Visual inspection
• Product dimensions
• Strand slippage
• Handling storage
• Architectural concrete finishes
12. A. Annually
13. D. 73.5 °F ± 3.5 °F (23 °C ± 2.0 °C).
14. B. 35 psi/second (0.24 MPa/second), ±7 psi/second (0.048 MPa/second)
15. D. Both a and c
16.
Sieve Size Cumulative Weight Retained (gm) Cumulative % Retained % Passing
/8”
3
0 (0/506.4) x 100 = 0 (100 - 0) = 100
#4 14.8 (14.8/506.4) x 100 = 2.9 (100 - 2.9) = 97.1
#8 47.6 (47.6/506.4) x 100 = 9.4 (100 - 9.4) = 90.6
#16 117.3 (117.3/506.4) x 100 = 23.2 (100 - 23.2) = 76.8
#30 274.2 (274.2/506.4) x 100 = 54.1 (100 - 54.1) = 45.9
#50 418.8 (418.8/506.4) x 100 = 82.7 (100 - 82.7) = 17.3
#100 467.4 (467.4/506.4) x 100 = 92.3 (100 - 92.3) = 7.7
#200 494.2 (494.2/506.4) x 100 = 97.6 (100 - 97.6) = 2.4
Pan 506.4 (506.4/506.4) x 100 = 100 (100 - 100) = 0
FM = (0+2.9+9.4+23.2+54.1+82.7+92.3)/100 = 2.646 or 2.65
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 15 10/2/14 11:03 AM

APPENDIX D
CHAPTER 7 – Product Tolerances

1. The three tolerance categories are:
• Product Tolerance
• Erection Tolerance
• Interface Tolerances
2. Five factors that can impace tolerances include:

• Forms
• Prestressing
• Shrinkage
• Creep
• Temperature
3. False
4. Three ways that pretressing can affect dimensions are:

• Member Shortening
• Camber
• End Rotation
5. B. 10 ft (3 m)
EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 16 10/2/14 11:03 AM

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QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/

INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II

200 West Adams Street I Suite 2100 I Chicago, IL 60606-5230

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 1 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Fourth Edition, Fourth Printing

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 2 10/2/14 11:02 AM

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION I

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 1 10/2/14 11:02 AM

2.7.3 Yard Storage..................................................................................................................................26

II QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 2 10/2/14 11:02 AM

4.3.3 Requirements for Water-Measuring Equipment...........................................................................53

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION III

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IV QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 4 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Appendix A Reference Literature............................................................................................................................. A-1 – A-5

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION V

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 5 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Kevin Anderson* Edwin A. McDougle*

Jason Blase* Alex Morales, M.Ed.**

David G. Buesing* Gary E. Oakes

Patrick Carlin, PE** Michael Paris, PE**

T. Henry Clark* Joseph M. Roche*

Mostafa M Gad Alla, Sr.** Dino J. Scalia

Venkatesh S. Iyer* Keith Wallis*

David S. Jablonsky* Gary N. Wildung,* chair

Ordean F. Johnson, chair* Brian R. Williamson*

Brian Lee Lawrence Mike Wolff**

VI QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 6 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Introduction PCI Certification Programs

TM-101, Fourth Edition PCI has three certification programs:

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION VII

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 7 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Plant Quality Personnel Certification Field Certification

• Level I requires a candidate to have at least six months

• ASTM C31 Standard Practice for Making and Curing

VIII QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 8 10/2/14 11:02 AM

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION IX

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 9 10/2/14 11:02 AM

X QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 10 10/2/14 11:02 AM

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION XI

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 11 10/2/14 11:02 AM

XII QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 12 10/2/14 11:02 AM

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION XIII

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 13 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Strand – A group of wires laid helically over a central-core

XIV QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 14 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Variation – The difference between the actual and the basic

Veneered Construction – The attachment of other materi-

V-Funnel – A consistency-testing device used to provide

Viscosity – The measure of flowability of fresh concrete.

Viscosity-Modifying Admixture – A material that, when

QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIAN/INSPECTOR LEVEL I & II TRAINING MANUAL/FOURTH EDITION XV

EDU12-2296TM101_4Ed.indb 15 10/2/14 11:02 AM

Patrick Carlin, PE Michael Paris, PE

• Standards for shop drawings to ensure accuracy

1.5 Project Samples 1.5.4 Visual Mock-ups and Initial Production