VECTOR CALCULUS

➢ Vector Functions

➢ Limit, Continuity and Differentiability

➢ Gradient of a Scalar Function

1
Vector Functions of One Variable - functions that map a real number to a vector

𝑦 -axis
A vector function, say 𝑟(𝑡),
Ԧ is written in the form

𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 Position Vector
෠
𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.
𝑥-axis

Here 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are real-valued functions of the parameter 𝑡 Vector function in a 3D plane

and 𝑖,Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ and 𝑘෠ are unit vectors along 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧-axes, respectively.

In 2D plane, 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗,Ƹ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.

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Vector Functions of one Variable
Example 1: Equation of a straight line passing through 𝐴 with position vector 𝑎Ԧ parallel to the vector 𝑢

𝑃
𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑡 𝑢, 𝑡∈ℝ
𝐴
𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ
𝑎Ԧ
𝑢 clockwise orientation
𝑂

Example 2: Consider 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 3 cos 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ − 2 sin 𝑡 𝑗,Ƹ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

෠ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
Example 3: 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 2 sin 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑡 𝑘, helix

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Limit and Continuity of Vector Functions
• Limit : lim 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = lim 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + lim 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + lim 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘෠
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

provided 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), and 𝑧(𝑡) have limits as 𝑡 → 𝑎.

• Continuity : A vector-valued function 𝑟(𝑡)

Ԧ is continuous at 𝑡 = 𝑎 if and only if each of its component
functions is continuous at 𝑡 = 𝑎

Example: Discuss continuity of 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 2 − 𝑡 2 𝑘෠

Since each component of 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 is continuous for all 𝑡 ∈ ℝ

The given vector function of one variable is continuous for all 𝑡 ∈ ℝ

1
Example: Discuss continuity of 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + ln(𝑡) 𝑘෠
𝑡−2
The given vector is continuous for all 𝑡 > 0 except 𝑡 = 2

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Differentiability of Vector Functions
• Differentiability : 𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ is said to be differentiable if

𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 − 𝑟Ԧ (𝑡)
lim exists.
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
Similar to limit evaluation, differentiation of vector-valued functions can be done
on a component-wise as

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑧 𝑡
= 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟′
Ԧ 𝑡
Geometrical Interpretation 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 − 𝑟Ԧ (𝑡)
𝑟′
Ԧ 𝑡 is a vector tangent to the curve given by 𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ and
𝑟Ԧ (𝑡)
pointing in the direction of increasing values of 𝑡. 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 + ∆𝑡
𝑟Ԧ ′ (𝑡)
Unit tangent vector: 𝑢 = ′
|𝑟Ԧ (𝑡)|

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Arc Length of a Curve

෠ 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏
Let a curve be given by the vector function 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘,

Recalls from integral calculus – Parametric equation of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡):

𝑏
2 2 2
Length = න 𝑥′ 𝑡 + 𝑦′ 𝑡 + 𝑧′ 𝑡 dt
𝑎

2 2 2
Note that 𝑟′
Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥′ 𝑡 + 𝑦′ 𝑡 + 𝑧′ 𝑡 (length of the tangent vector)

𝑏
Length in terms of position vector 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = න 𝑟′
Ԧ 𝑡 dt
𝑎

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Equation of a Tangent to a Curve 𝑪 at Point 𝑷 𝑞Ԧ 𝜆 = 𝑟Ԧ + 𝜆𝑟Ԧ ′ , 𝜆∈ℝ 𝜆𝑟Ԧ ′
𝑃
𝐶
Example: Consider 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡 2 + 1 𝑗Ƹ 𝑟′(2)
Ԧ 𝑞(𝜆)
Ԧ
𝑟Ԧ
Tangent vector 𝑟Ԧ ′ = 𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑡 𝑗Ƹ
𝑂
Equation of the tangent at 𝑡 = 2:

𝑞Ԧ 𝜆 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 5 𝑗Ƹ + 𝜆(𝑖Ƹ + 4 𝑗)Ƹ

= 2 + 𝜆 𝑖Ƹ + 5 + 4𝜆 𝑗Ƹ
𝑟(2)
Ԧ

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Gradient of a Scalar Function (Function of Several Variables)

Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a function of 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 such that 𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 and 𝑓𝑧 exist.

The gradient of 𝑓, denoted by grad 𝑓, is the vector

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
grad 𝑓 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ Vector Function
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Nabla or Del operator 𝛻 ≡ 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⟹ grad 𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓

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Tangent Plane and Normal Line to a Surface

Let a surface 𝑆 be given by 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦). Define the function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑧.

Then the given surface 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) can be treated as the level surface of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 given by 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 0.

Note that level surfaces of a function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are given by 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐

Example: Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

The Level surfaces are concentric spheres centred at the origin.

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 𝛻𝑓(𝑃)
Let 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a point on 𝑆 and let 𝐶 be a curve on 𝑆 through 𝑃 that is defined
by the vector-valued function 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘෠ 𝑃

Since, the curve lies on the surface, we have 𝑓 𝑥 𝑡 ,𝑦 𝑡 ,𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑐, ∀𝑡 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐

𝑑 ′ ′ ′
⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑡 ,𝑦 𝑡 ,𝑧 𝑡 = 0 ⟹ 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑦 + 𝑓𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝑡

At 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 we have 𝛻𝑓 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ⋅ 𝑟′
Ԧ 𝑡0 = 0

⇒ The gradient at 𝑃 is orthogonal to the tangent vector of every curve on 𝑆 through 𝑃.

𝛻𝑓
Unit normal vector to a surface 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐:
𝛻𝑓

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The plane through 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) that is normal to 𝛻𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is called the tangent plane to 𝑆 at 𝑃

𝛻𝑓(𝑃)

𝑧-axis
Let 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be an arbitrary point in the tangent plane.

𝑄
Then the vector 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑘෠ lies in the tangent plane. 𝑃

𝑦-axis
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑗Ƹ + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑘෠ ⋅ 𝑓𝑥 𝑃0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑓𝑦 𝑃0 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑓𝑧 𝑃0 𝑘෠ = 0

𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑓𝑥 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 + 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑓𝑦 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 + 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑓𝑧 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 = 0

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Example : Find the unit normal to the surface 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 = 0 at the point 1,1,2 .

Define 𝑓 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 ⇒ 𝛻𝑓 = 2𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑦 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠

𝛻𝑓 1,1,2 = 2 𝑖Ƹ + 2 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠
1
Unit normal vector 𝑛ො = 2 𝑖Ƹ + 2 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠
4+4+1

2 2 1
= 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠
3 3 3

2 2 1
The other unit normal vector is −𝑛ො = − 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
3 3 3

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KEY TAKEAWAY

෠
➢ Vector valued functions 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.

➢ 𝑟′
Ԧ 𝑡 is a vector tangent to the curve given by 𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
➢ grad 𝑓 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

➢ grad 𝑓 is the normal vector to a surface 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐

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➢ Vector and Scalar Fields

➢ Directional Derivatives

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Vector Field Function that maps a point in space/plane to a vector

Ԧ 𝑦, 𝑧) or 𝐹Ԧ 𝑥, 𝑦
A vector field over a solid region (or a plane) R is a function that assigns a vector 𝐹(𝑥, to

each point in R: 𝐹Ԧ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑗Ƹ + ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑘෠

Example: Velocity of the air inside a room is defined by a vector field.

Example: Gradient of a function is an example of a vector field:

Suppose f 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2 𝑥𝑦 3

grad 𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 = 6𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 3 𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑗Ƹ Vector Field (in the plane)

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Example: 𝐹Ԧ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖Ƹ − 𝑥𝑗Ƹ

Magnitude of 𝐹Ԧ 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ⇒ vectors of equal magnitude lie on circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑐

(level curves)

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 2 𝐹Ԧ 1, 0 = − 𝑗Ƹ

𝐹Ԧ 0, 1 = 𝑖Ƹ
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 =1

𝐹Ԧ −1, 0 = 𝑗Ƹ

𝐹Ԧ 0, −1 = −𝑖Ƹ

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Scalar Field Function that maps a point in space/plane to a scalar
A scalar field over a solid region (or a plane) R is a function that assigns a scalar to each point in R:

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

Temperature inside a room is defined by a scalar field.

In the context of vectors, a real valued function of several variables is
called a scalar field.

Example: Consider 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Scalar filed may be visualize using level curves of 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦

(level surface in case of 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧))

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Directional Derivative of a Scalar Field 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) at 𝑷(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 , 𝒛𝟎 ) along a Vector 𝒃
Let 𝑏 = 1. Let 𝐶 be the line passing through 𝑃 and parallel to 𝑏 𝑏
𝑄
𝑃
Position vector of the line C is : 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑃0 + 𝑡𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘෠ 𝑡

Rate of change of 𝑓 in the direction 𝑏 is given as 𝑃0 𝑃0 + 𝑡𝑏

𝑓 𝑄 − 𝑓(𝑃) 𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑧
lim = = + + 𝑂
𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
= 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ ⋅ 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ = 𝛻𝑓 ⋅ = 𝛻𝑓 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ⋅ 𝑏
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

At any point 𝑃, the directional derivative of 𝑓 represents the rate of change in 𝑓

along 𝑏 at the point 𝑃, it is denoted by 𝐷𝑏 𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 ቚ ⋅ 𝑏
𝑃

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 1 2
Example 1: Find the directional derivative of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦 at 1, 2 in the direction 𝑢 = 𝑖Ƹ + 3 𝑗Ƹ
4

1
𝛻𝑓 = −2𝑥 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑦 𝑗Ƹ ⇒ 𝛻𝑓(1, 2) = −2 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ Gradient of 𝑓 at 1, 2
2

1 3
𝑏 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ Unit vector in the direction of 𝑢
2 2

1 3 3
𝐷𝑏 𝑓 = −2 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ ⋅ 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ = −1 − Directional Derivative
2 2 2

19
Example 2: Find the directional derivative of the scalar field 𝑓 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 2 in the direction of the
vector 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ and evaluate this at the origin.

𝛻𝑓 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑧 𝑘෠

𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ 𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
𝐷(1,1,1) 𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 ⋅ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑧 𝑘෠ ⋅ + +
3 3 3 3

2 1 2
= + + 𝑧
3 3 3

2 1
Value at the origin: + = 3
3 3

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Maximum Rate of Change of a Scalar Field

Rate of change of 𝑓 in the direction of a unit vector 𝑏 : 𝐷𝑏 𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝛻𝑓 𝑏 cos 𝜃 = 𝛻𝑓 cos 𝜃

⇒ Rate of change is maximum when 𝜃 is 0, i.e., in the direction of 𝛻𝑓

⇒ Rate of change is minimum when 𝜃 is 𝜋, i.e., in the opposite direction of 𝛻𝑓

⇒ Gradient vector 𝛻𝑓 points in the direction in which 𝑓 increases most rapidly and

− 𝛻𝑓 points in the direction in which 𝑓 decreases most rapidly.

21
Example: Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑧. Find the direction of maximum increase of 𝑓 at (2, 1, −1).

Gradient of 𝑓: 2𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑦 𝑗Ƹ − 2 𝑘෠

Direction of maximum increase at (2, −1, 1): 4 𝑖Ƹ − 2 𝑗Ƹ − 2 𝑘෠

Note: The above concept of maximum increase/decrease is very useful for

optimization problems. Gradient ascent/descent approach is very popular for
finding local maximum/minimum.

22
KEY TAKEAWAY

➢ Vector Field – Function that maps a point to a vector

➢ Scalar Field - Function that maps a point to a scalar

➢ Directional Derivative 𝐷𝑏 𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 |𝑃 ⋅ 𝑏

23
KEY TAKEAWAY
෠
➢ Vector valued functions 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.

➢ 𝑟′
Ԧ 𝑡 is a vector tangent to the curve given by 𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
➢ grad 𝑓 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
➢ grad 𝑓 is the normal vector to a surface 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐

➢ Vector Field – Function that maps a point to a vector

➢ Scalar Field - Function that maps a point to a scalar

➢ Directional Derivative 𝐷𝑏 𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 |𝑃 ⋅ 𝑏

24
➢ Divergence of a Vector Field

➢ Curl of a Vector Field

➢ Conservative Field

25
Divergence of a Vector Field
𝛿𝑆
Flux: Surface integral of the perpendicular component of a vector field over a surface 𝑃
𝑛

The divergence of a vector field 𝑣Ԧ at a point 𝑃 is defined as

𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛: component of 𝑣Ԧ in the direction of 𝑛

1
div 𝑣Ԧ = lim ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎 Flux of the vector field 𝑣Ԧ out of a small closed surface
𝛿𝑉→0 𝛿𝑉
𝛿𝑆 div: Flux density (flux entering or leaving at a point)

where 𝛿𝑉 is a small volume enclosing 𝑃 with surface 𝛿𝑆 and 𝑛 is the outward pointing normal to 𝛿𝑆.

Computation of Divergence
The divergence of a vector field 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑣3 𝑘෠ is the scalar field given by
𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3
div 𝑣Ԧ = 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑣Ԧ = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
26
Physical Interpretation of Divergence of a Vector Field

Suppose 𝑣(𝑥,
Ԧ 𝑦, 𝑧) is the velocity of a fluid at a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). 𝛿𝑧
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Measure the rate per unit volume at which fluid flows out of 𝛿𝑦
this box across its faces: 𝛿𝑥

6
1 1
div 𝑣Ԧ = lim ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎 = lim ෍ ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎
𝛿𝑉→0 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝑆 𝛿𝑦→0 𝑖=1 𝑆𝑖
𝛿𝑧→0

27
Flux outward across 𝑆1 :
𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑥 𝑆1
ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎 ≈ 𝑣1 𝑥 + , 𝑦, 𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑆2 𝑛 = (1,0,0)
2 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑆1 (−1,0,0)

Flux outward across 𝑆2 : 𝛿𝑦

𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥
ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎 ≈ −𝑣1 𝑥 − , 𝑦, 𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
2
𝑆2

Flux outward across S1 & 𝑆2 :

𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑣1
ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎 ≈ 𝑣1 𝑥 + , 𝑦, 𝑧 −𝑣1 𝑥 − , 𝑦, 𝑧 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 ≈ 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
2 2 𝜕𝑥
𝑆1 +𝑆2

28
 Flux outward across S1 & 𝑆2 :
𝑆6
𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣1
ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎 ≈ 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑉 𝑆2 𝑆4 𝑆1 𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑆1 +𝑆2 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑆3
Similarly from other faces:
𝑆5 𝛿𝑦
𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3 𝛿𝑥
ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎 ≈ 𝛿𝑉 ඵ 𝑣Ԧ ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝜎 ≈ 𝛿𝑉
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑆3 +𝑆4 𝑆5 +𝑆6

𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3

Flux per unit volume out of the box ≈ + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3

Flux per unit volume at 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = + + = div 𝑣Ԧ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Divergence can be interpreted as the rate of expanssion or compression of the vector field.

29
Example 1 : Consider 𝑣Ԧ = (𝑥, 0,0) div 𝑣Ԧ = 1 (positive) Tendency of fluid is EXPANSION.

30
Example 2: Consider 𝑣Ԧ = (−𝑥, 0,0) div 𝑣Ԧ = −1 (negative) Tendency of fluid is COMPRESSION.

31
 Example 3: Consider 𝑣Ԧ = (0, 𝑥, 0)

div 𝑣Ԧ = 0

Neither expanding nor contracting.

A vector field 𝑣Ԧ for which 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑣Ԧ = 0 everywhere is said to be solenoidal.

The relation div 𝑣Ԧ = 0 is also known as the condition of incompressibility.

32
Curl of a Vector Field Curl of a vector 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑣3 𝑘෠ field is given by

𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
curl 𝑣Ԧ = 𝛻 × 𝑣Ԧ = 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3

𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1

= − 𝑖Ƹ + − 𝑗Ƹ + − 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Example: Let 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑦 𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑥𝑧 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧𝑒 𝑥 𝑘෠

𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
curl 𝑣Ԧ = = −2𝑥 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑧𝑒 𝑥 𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑧 − 1 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦 2𝑥𝑧 𝑧𝑒 𝑥

33
Physical Interpretation of Curl of a Vector Field 𝑣Ԧ
Suppose an object rotates with uniform angular velocity 𝜔 𝜔

tangential speed = angular speed × radius

𝑟Ԧ 𝑟Ԧ sin 𝜃
𝑣Ԧ = 𝜔 𝑟Ԧ sin 𝜃 = 𝜔 × 𝑟Ԧ
𝜃

Note that the direction of 𝑣Ԧ is perpendicular to both 𝑟Ԧ and 𝜔

Since 𝑣Ԧ and 𝑟Ԧ × 𝜔 both have same direction and same magnitude, we conclude

𝑣Ԧ = 𝜔 × 𝑟Ԧ
Let 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑘෠ and 𝜔 = 𝑎 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑐 𝑘෠

𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
𝑣Ԧ = 𝜔 × 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 = (𝑏𝑧 − 𝑐𝑦) 𝑖Ƹ + (𝑐𝑥 − 𝑎𝑧) 𝑗Ƹ + (𝑎𝑦 − 𝑏𝑥) 𝑘෠
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

34
𝑣Ԧ = (𝑏𝑧 − 𝑐𝑦) 𝑖Ƹ + (𝑐𝑥 − 𝑎𝑧) 𝑗Ƹ + (𝑎𝑦 − 𝑏𝑥) 𝑘෠
𝑣Ԧ
𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠ 𝜔
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻 × 𝑣Ԧ =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑟Ԧ sin 𝜃
(𝑏𝑧 − 𝑐𝑦) (𝑐𝑥 − 𝑎𝑧) (𝑎𝑦 − 𝑏𝑥) 𝑟Ԧ
𝜃
= 2𝑎 𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑏 𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑐 𝑘෠ = 2 𝜔

curl 𝑣Ԧ signifies the tendency of ROTATION.

The vector curl 𝑣Ԧ is directed along the axis of rotation with magnitude twice
the angular speed.

A vector filed 𝒗 for which 𝛁 × 𝒗 is zero everywhere is said to be IRROTATIONAL.

35
 𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
Example 1: 𝑣Ԧ = ±𝑥, 0,0 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 ෠ 0=0
𝛻 × 𝑣Ԧ = = 𝑖.Ƹ 0 − 𝑗.Ƹ 0 + 𝑘.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 0 0

No sense of rotation. IRROTATIONAL

36
Example 2: 𝑣Ԧ = (0, 𝑥, 0) 𝛻 × 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑘෠ Rotation is about an axis in the 𝑧 − direction.

37
KEY TAKEAWAY

𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3

➢ Divergence of 𝑣:
Ԧ div 𝑣Ԧ = 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑣Ԧ = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
➢ Expansion or Compression

➢ curl of 𝑣:
Ԧ curl 𝑣Ԧ = 𝛻 × 𝑣Ԧ

➢ Sence of Rotation

38
➢ Smooth and Piecewise Smooth Curves

➢ Simple Closed Curves

➢ Line Integrals

39
 ෠ 𝑡 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 denote a curve in space.
Smooth Curves : Let 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘,

If 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 posses a continuous first order derivative (nowhere zero) for the given values of 𝑡 then the curve is
known as smooth.

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
In other words, the space curve 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 is smooth when , and are continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
and not simultaneously zero on (𝑎, 𝑏)

Note that the condition nowhere zero ensures that the curve has no sharp corners or cusps.

40
Graph of 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡 3 𝑗Ƹ
Consider 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡 3 𝑗,Ƹ 𝑡 ∈ [−1, 1]

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡
Compute = 2𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑡 2 𝑗Ƹ
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡
⟹ = 0 for 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡

(Indicate non-smoothness)

41
 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡
Graph of 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑡 3 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡 6 𝑗Ƹ Note that = 0 does not necessarily implies non-smoothness.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡
However, ≠ 0 always implies smoothness.
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡
Consider 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑡3 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡6 𝑗,Ƹ 𝑡 ∈ [−1, 1] ⟹ = 0 for 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
But the curve is smooth

Alternate parameterization: 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡 2 𝑗,Ƹ 𝑡 ∈ [−1, 1]

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡
⟹ ≠ 0, ∀𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Piecewise Smooth Curve: If it is made up of a finite number of smooth curves.

42
Simple Closed Curve : A curve which does not intersect itself anywhere and initial and end points are same is
known as simple closed curve.

Simple closed curve Simple but not closed curve Closed but not simple

43
Line Integrals Let a force 𝐹Ԧ act upon a particle which is displaced along a given curve C in space.

Let 𝑇 be the unit tangent vector at the point 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 ).

On a small subarc of length Δ𝑠𝑖 the work done is

𝑇
Δ𝑤𝑖 ≈ 𝐹Ԧ 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 ⋅ 𝑇(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 ) Δ𝑠𝑖
𝑇
𝑃 𝑁
𝐶 Total work done: 𝑊 = lim ෍ Δ𝑤𝑖
𝑁→∞
𝐹Ԧ 𝑖=1

= න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑇 𝑑𝑠
𝐶

44
Line Integrals Let the curve 𝐶 be given by 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘෠

𝑟′(𝑡)
Ԧ
Note that 𝑇 = and 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟Ԧ ′ (𝑡) dt
𝑟Ԧ ′ (𝑡)

𝑟Ԧ ′ 𝑡
𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ ′ 𝑟Ԧ ′ (𝑡) dt = 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑟Ԧ ′ (𝑡) dt = 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝑟Ԧ 𝑡

𝑊 = න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝐹Ԧ 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑟′(𝑡)
Ԧ 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

45
Evaluation of Line Integrals න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝐶
d 𝑟Ԧ
෠ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ =
In Vector form: Note that 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘, d𝑡
d𝑡
𝑏
𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝐹Ԧ 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑎

In Component form: Suppose 𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹1 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐹2 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐹3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑘෠ and 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑘෠

⟹ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘෠

න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝐹1 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹2 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝐶

46
Problem 1: Find the work done by 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑧 − 𝑦 2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑥 − 𝑧 2 𝑘෠ over the curve

෠ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1 from (0,0,0) to 1,1,1 .

𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡 2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑡 3 𝑘,

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
Solution: = 𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑡𝑗Ƹ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘෠
𝑑𝑡

𝐹Ԧ 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 − 𝑡 2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑡 3 − 𝑡 4 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑡 − 𝑡 6 𝑘෠ = 𝑡 3 − 𝑡 4 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑡 − 𝑡 6 𝑘෠

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝐹Ԧ ⋅ = 2𝑡 𝑡 3 − 𝑡 4 + 3𝑡 2 𝑡 − 𝑡 6 = 2𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 5 + 3𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 8
𝑑𝑡
1
29
න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 2𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 5 + 3𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 8 𝑑𝑡 =
0 60

47
Problem 2: Evaluate න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ , 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑖Ƹ − 2𝑥𝑦 𝑗Ƹ
𝐶
C : rectangle in 𝑥𝑦 plane bounded by 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑎; 𝑦 = 𝑏, 𝑥 = 0.
𝑦
Solution: න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦=𝑏
𝐶 𝐵
𝐶 𝐶
Along OA: 𝑦 = 0, 𝑑𝑦 = 0 & 𝑥 varies from 0 to 𝑎.

𝑥=0

𝑥=𝑎
𝑎
𝑎3
න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ =න 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
0 3 𝑂 𝑦=0 𝐴
𝑏
Along AB: 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑑𝑥 = 0 & 𝑦 varies from 0 to 𝑏: න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ =න −2𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = −𝑎𝑏 2
0
0 3
𝑎
Along BC: න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑥 = − + 𝑎𝑏2
𝑎 3
න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = −2𝑎𝑏 2
Along CO: න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = 0 𝐶

48
Line Integral as Circulation Let C be an oriented closed curve.

𝑦 − axis
We call the line integral ර 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ the circulation of 𝐹Ԧ around C. 𝐵 (1,1)
𝐶 𝐶2

Problem 3: Find the circulation of 𝐹Ԧ around C where 𝐷

𝐴
𝐶1
𝐹Ԧ = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑖Ƹ + (3𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝑗Ƹ and C is the curve
𝑂 (0,0) 𝑥 − axis
2 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 from (0,0) to (1,1) and the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 from (1,1) to (0,0).

Solution: 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑥 𝑑𝑦

න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ + න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2

49
 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝑦 − axis
Along OAB: 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 ⇒ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 𝐵 (1,1)
𝐶2
1 1
1 𝐷
න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 2𝑥 + 𝑥 4 2
𝑑𝑥 + න 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴
30
𝐶1 0 0 𝐶1

𝑂 (0,0) 𝑥 − axis
Along BDO: 𝑥 = 𝑦2 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑦𝑑𝑦
1 1
6 3 4 5
න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = − න 2𝑦 + 𝑦 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − න(3𝑦 − 4𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑦 = − − + = −
2 2 2
4 2 3 3
𝐶2 0 0

1 5 49
Ԧ
න 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = − = −
𝐶
30 3 30

50
Problem 4: Evaluate ර 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ , 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑦 𝑖Ƹ − 2𝑥 𝑗,Ƹ 𝐶: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
𝐶

Solution: Parametric equation of the circle: 𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

2𝜋 2𝜋
ර 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = ර −9 sin2 𝑡 − 18 cos 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −9 ර sin2 𝑡 + 2 cos 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0 0

2𝜋 2𝜋
1
= −9 ර 1+ cos 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −9 ර 1 + 1 + cos 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0 2

3
= −9 2𝜋 + 0 = −27 𝜋
2

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 KEY TAKEAWAY

Let 𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐹2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐹3 𝑘෠ be a continuous vector field on a smooth curve 𝐶 given by 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 𝑡 𝑘෠

The line integral of 𝐹Ԧ on 𝐶 is given by

න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝐹1 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹2 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝐶

𝑏
𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
න 𝐹Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝐹Ԧ 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

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