REVERSE OSMOSIS

Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis is a water purification technology. The most common use of RO is to

reduce the water hardness and eliminate contaminants like Fluoride, Arsenic, and Lead.
Reverse Osmosis is a technology that is used to remove a large majority of
contaminants from water by pushing the water under pressure through a semi -
permeable membrane.

In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure

a colligative property. That is driven by chemical potential differences of the solvent,
a thermodynamics parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved
and suspended species from water, including bacteria, and is used in both industrial
processes and the production of potable water. The result is that the solute is retained
on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the
other side. To be "selective", this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions
through the pores(holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as
solvent molecules) to pass freely.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-
is-reverse-osmosis)

Understanding Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis, commonly referred to as RO, is a process where you

demineralize or de-ionize water by pushing it under pressure through a semi-
permeable Reverse Osmosis Membrane.

Osmosis

To understand the purpose and process of Reverse Osmosis you must first
understand the naturally occurring process of Osmosis. Osmosis is a naturally
occurring phenomenon and one of the most important processes in nature. It is a
process where a weaker saline solution will tend to migrate to a strong saline
solution. Examples of osmosis are when plant roots absorb water from the soil and
our kidneys absorb water from our blood.

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Below is a diagram which shows how osmosis works. A solution that is less
concentrated will have a natural tendency to migrate to a solution with a higher
concentration. For example, if you had a container full of water with a low salt
concentration and they were separated by a semi-permeable membrane, then the
water with the lower salt concentration would begin to migrate towards the water
container with the higher salt concentration. And another container full of water
with a high salt. (http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-
osmosis)

Figure -1- Osmosis

A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that will allow some atoms or

molecules to pass but not others. A simple example is a screen door. It allows air
molecules to pass through but not pests or anything larger than the holes in the
screen door. Another example is Gore-Tex clothing fabric that contains an
extremely thin plastic film into which billions of small pores have been cut. The
pores are big enough to let water vapor through, but small enough to prevent
liquid water from passing.

Reverse Osmosis is the process of Osmosis in reverse. Whereas Osmosis occurs

naturally without energy required, to reverse the process of osmosis you need to
apply energy to the more saline solution. A reverse osmosis membrane is a semi -
permeable membrane that allows the passage of water molecules b ut not the

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

majority of dissolved salts, organics, bacteria and pyroxene. However, you need to
'push' the water through the reverse osmosis membrane by applying pressure that
is greater than the naturally occurring osmotic pressure in order to desalinate
(dematerialize or deionizer) water in the process, allowing pure water through
while holding back a majority of contaminants.

Below is a diagram outlining the process of Reverse Osmosis When pressure is

applied to the concentrated solution, the water molecules are forced through the
semi-permeable membrane and the contaminants are not allowed
through.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Reverse Osmosis

Below is a diagram outlining the process of Reverse Osmosis? When pressure is applied
to the concentrated solution, the water molecules are forced through the semi--
‐permeable membrane and the Contaminants are not allowed through.

Figure-2 -Reverse Osmosis

Working principle of Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis works by using a high pressure pump to increase the pressure on
the salt side of the RO and force the water across the semi-permeable RO
membrane, leaving almost all (around 95% to 99%) of dissolved salts behind in

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

the reject stream. The amount of pressure required depends on the salt
concentration of the feed water. The more concentrated the feed water, the more
pressure is required to overcome the osmotic pressure.

The desalinated water that is de-mineralized or deionized, is called permeate (or

product) water. The water stream that carries the concentrated contaminants that
did not pass through the RO membrane is called the reject (or concentrate)
stream.

Figure-3 -Diagram for Working principle of Reverse Osmosis

As the feed water enters the RO membrane under pressure (enough pressure to
overcome osmotic pressure) the water molecules pass through the semi -
permeable membrane and the salts and other contaminants are not allowed to
pass and are discharged through the reject stream (also known as the concentrate
or brine stream), which goes to drain or can be fed back into the feed water supply
in some circumstances to be recycled through the RO system to save water. The
water that makes it through the RO membrane is called permeate or p roduct
water and usually has around 95% to 99% of the dissolved salts removed from it.

It is important to understand that an RO system employs cross filttion rather than

standard filtration where the contaminants are collected within the filter media.
With cross filtration, the solution passes through the filter, or crosses the filter,
with two outlets: the filtered water goes one way and the contaminated water
goes another way. To avoid buildup of contaminants, cross flow filtration allows

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

water to sweep away contaminant build up and also allow enough turbulence to
keep the membrane surface clean.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-
is-reverse-osmosis)

Reverse Osmosis Plant

A reverse osmosis plant is a manufacturing plant where the process of reverse osmosis takes
place. An average modern reverse osmosis plant needs six kilowatt-hours of electricity to
desalinate one cubic meter of water. The process also results in an amount of salty briny waste.
The challenge for these plants is to find ways to reduce energy consumption, use sustainable
energy sources,and improve the process of desalination and to innovate in the area of waste
management to deal with the waste. Self-contained water treatment plants using reverse
osmosis, called reverse osmosis water purification units, are normally used in a military
context.(https://www.google.co.in/search?q=ro+plaNT&dcr=0&source=lnms&tbm=isch
&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjnvLLsiunWAhXEqo8KHb7lDjcQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=659#
imgrc=NS3xG23ZqagBRM:)

Figure-4 -Reverse Osmosis Plant

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

UV, UF and TDS water purifier systems

There are many different types of water purifiers system, each uses a different type of
technologies to purify water. The answer for what type of water purifier is best for your
home to depend on the type of water in your area hard or soft water and contamination
level.

RO : Reverse Osmosis

UV : Ultraviolet

UF : Ultra Filtration

TDS : Total Dissolved Solids

UV

UV water purifier uses UV radiations to kill contaminants, microorganisms. Treating

water passes through the UV radiation source tube and exposes water to UV radiation.
UV water purifier is advisable to use with soft water which has contaminants

UF

UF full form is Ultra filtration. UF water purifier contains hollow fiber threaded
membrane. UF removes dispersed material, suspended solids, and other large molecular
weight materials from water which are harmful to human health. UF water purifiers are
works without electricity.

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Figure-5 -Ultraviolet

TDS

TDS full form is Total dissolved solids. Minerals, salts or dissolved metals such as
calcium, chloride, nitrate, iron, sulfur and some organic matter that dissolved in water
commonly referred as TDS. TDS expressed in terms in milligrams (mg) per liter of
water, also referred in parts per million (ppm). Presence of TDS in water will affect the
water taste. If you are not sure of the water hardness you can test it with the small
devise called TDS meter. TDS value of 500 mg/l water is considered as very hard. Most
commonly used purification systems to reduce TDS are carbon filter and reverse
osmosis (RO).

See the list of best RO+UV, RO, UV, gravity based water purifiers for further information.

Apart from the above information, we got frequent queries about the same information
in different forms of questions, presented for your reference.

TDS in water purifier

TDS full form is Total dissolved solids. There is no use of it, it is simple a measure of
hardness. Water with the 500 mg/l TDS value is considered as very hard.

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

RO MF

MF is full form of Micro filtration purification technology.

Microfiltration (commonly abbreviated to MF) is a type of physical filtration process

where a contaminated fluid is passed through a special pore-sized membrane to
separate microorganisms and suspended particles from process liquid. It is commonly
used in conjunction with various other separation processes such as ultra
filtration and reverse osmosis to provide a product stream which is free of
undesired contaminants. In MF purification the water is passed through a special pore-
sized membrane to separate microorganisms. Both reverse osmosis and Nano filtration
are fundamentally different since the flow goes against the concentration gradient.
In a recent research found that if MF filtration is used as pre-filtration, before RO
purification, the purification results are much effective. (http://www.zelect.in/water-
purifier/ro-uv-uf-tds-meaning)

Structure of R.O.

The following figure represents the working diagram of a basic reverse osmosis. As we
can see in figure we have divided figure in four different parts. The first part is sediment
pre-filter which is made of Polypropylene and connected with inlet from where impure
water enters the R.O. system. In this section of RO all the basic process of removing
impurity form water is done. Impurities like dirt, rust, sediment particles and others
having five micron size been removed. As the water and the flock particles progress
through the treatment process, they move into sedimentation basins where the water
moves slowly, causing the heavy flock particles to settle to the bottom. Flock which
collects on the bottom of the basin is called sludge, and is piped to drying lagoons Direct
Filtration, the sedimentation step is not included, and the flock is removed by filtration
only.

The second part is known as carbon pre-filter which is made off coconut shell carbon. As
we know characteristics off carbon, it absorbed most amounts of small particles like
chlorine and others. It also removes bad odor (smell), taste from water due to the
particles present in impure water.

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Once this process completes the water is taken to R.O. membrane which is known third
section of system. The membrane is semi-permeable thin film which allows pure water
pass through wall and prevents all dissolved salts. Common membrane materials
include polyamide thin film composites (TFC), cellulose acetate (CA) and cellulose
triacetate (CTA) with the membrane material being spiral wound around a tube, or
hollow fibers bundled together.
The inside structure of membrane can be presented by following diagram:

Figure-6 -Structure of membrane

Hollow fiber membranes have a greater surface area and hence capacity but are more
easily blocked than spiral wound membranes.RO membranes are rated for their ability
to reject compounds from contaminated water. A rejection rate (% rejection) is
calculated for each specific ion or contaminant as well as for reduction of total dissolved
solids (TDS).TFC membranes has superior strength and durability as well as higher
rejection rates than CA/CTA membranes. They also are more resistant to microbial
attack, high pH and high TDS. CA/CTA's have a better ability to tolerate chlorine.
Sulphonated polysulphone membranes (SPS) are chlorine tolerant and can withstand
higher pH and are best used where the feed water is soft and high pH or where high
nitrates are of concern.

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

At the output of membrane we get highly purified water. From there the water is taken
to the fourth section of R.O. system which is also the carbon filter which filtrates.the
water coming from R.O. membrane. Whatever amount of impurities if left is removed in
this division at the output of carbon post-filter we get almost 99.9% purified water. This
water is stored in huge tank and from there it is supplied to various areas of
surrounding. (https://www.h2odistributors.com/global/productpics/misc/reverse-
osmosis-steps_l.png)

Figure-7 -Structure of R.O.

Contaminants removed by Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis is capable of removing up to 99%+ of the dissolved salts (ions),

particles, colloids, organics, bacteria and pyroxene from the feed water (although
an RO system should not be relied upon to remove 100% of bacteria and viruses).
An RO membrane rejects contaminants based on their size and charge. Any
contaminant that has a molecular weight greater than 200 is likely reject ed by a
properly running RO system (for comparison a water molecule has a MW of 18).
Likewise, the greater the ionic charge of the contaminant, the more likely it will be
unable to pass through the RO membrane. For example, a sodium ion has only one
charge (monovalent) and is not rejected by the RO membrane as well as calcium

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

for example, which has two charges. Likewise, this is why an RO system does not
remove gases such as CO2 very well because they are not highly ionized (charged)
while in solution and have a very low molecular weight. Because an RO system
does not remove gases, the permeate water can have a slightly lower than normal
pH level depending on CO2 levels in the feed water as the CO2 is converted to
carbonic acid.

Reverse Osmosis is very effective in treating brackish, surface and ground water
for both large and small flows applications. Some examples of industries that use
RO water include pharmaceutical, boiler feed water, food and beverage, metal
finishing and semiconductor manufacturing to name a
few.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Reverse Osmosis Performance & Design Calculations

There are a handful of calculations that are used to judge the performance of an
RO system and also for design considerations. An RO system has instrumentation
that displays quality, flow, pressure and sometimes other data like temperature or
hours of operation. In order to accurately measure the performa nce of an RO
system you need the following operation parameters at a minimum:

1. Feed pressure

2. Permeate pressure

3. Concentrate pressure

4. Feed conductivity

5. Permeate conductivity

6. Feed flow

7. Permeate flow

8. Temperature

Salt Rejection %

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

This equation tells you how effective the RO membranes are removing
contaminants. It does not tell you how each individual membrane is performing,
but rather how the system overall on average is performing. A well-designed RO
system with properly functioning RO membranes will reject 95% to 99% of most
feed water contaminants (that are of a certain size and charge). You can determine
how effective the RO membranes are removing contaminants by using the
following equation:

Conductivity of Feed Water – Conductivity of Permeate Water

�� %= ∗ 100
Conductivity of Feed

The higher the salt rejection, the better the system is performing. A low salt
rejection can mean that the membranes require cleaning or
replacement.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Salt Passage %

This is simply the inverse of salt rejection described in the previous equation. This
is the amount of salts expressed as a percentage that are passing through the RO
system. The lower the salt passage, the better the system is performing. A high salt
passage can mean that the membranes require cleaning or replacement.

�� �� � % = (1 – �� %)

Recovery %

Percent Recovery is the amount of water that is being 'recovered' as good

permeate water. Another way to think of Percent Recovery is the amount of water
that is not sent to drain as concentrate, but rather collected as permeate or product
water. The higher the recovery % means that you are sending less water to drain as
concentrate and saving more permeate water. However, if the recovery % is too
high for the RO design then it can lead to larger problems due to scaling and

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fouling. The % Recovery for an RO system is established with the help of design
software taking into consideration numerous factors such as feed water chemistry
and RO pre-treatment before the RO system. Therefore, the proper % Recovery at
which an RO should operate at depends on what it was designed for. By calculating
the % Recovery you can quickly determine if the system is operating outside of the
intended design. The calculation for % Recovery is below:

Permeate Flow Rate (gpm)

% � �= ∗ 100
Feed Flow Rate (gpm)

For example, if the recovery rate is 75% then this means that for every 100 gallons
of feed water that enter the RO system, you are recovering 75 gallons as usable
permeate water and 25 gallons are going to drain as concentrate. Industrial RO
systems typically run anywhere from 50% to 85% recovery depending the feed
water characteristics and other design considerations.
(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Concentration Factor

The concentration factor is related to the RO system recovery and is an important

equation for RO system design. The more water you recover as permeate (the
higher the % recovery), the more concentrated salts and contaminants you collect
in the concentrate stream. This can lead to higher potential for scaling on the
surface of the RO membrane when the concentration factor is too high for the
system design and feed water composition.

% Concentration factor = 1/ 1- Recovery%

Gpm of permeate × 1,440 min/day

Gfd =
% of RO elements in system × square footage of each RO element

For example, you have the following:

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

The RO system is producing 75 gallons per minute (gpm) of permeate. You have 3
RO vessels and each vessel holds 6 RO membranes. Therefore you have a total of 3
x 6 = 18 membranes. The type of membrane you have in the RO system is a Dow
Filmtec BW30-365. This type of RO membrane (or element) has 365 square feet of
surface area.

To Find The Flux (Gfd):

�
min
75 gpm × 1,440 75 gpm × 1,440 min/day
day
=
18 elements × 365 sq ft
108000
=
6570

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Difference between 1 And 2 Stage Ro System

In a one stage RO system, the feed water enters the RO system as one stream and
exits the RO as either concentrate or permeates water.

In a two-stage system the concentrate (or reject) from the first stage then
becomes the feed water to the second stage. The permeate water is collected from
the first stage is combined with permeate water from the second stage. Additional
stages increase the recovery from the system.

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Figure-8-Difference between 1 And 2 Stage Ro System

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Figure-9 -Diagram for Difference between 1 And 2 Stage Ro System

Array

In a Reverse Osmosis System an array describes the physical arrangement of the

pressure vessels in a 2 stage system. Pressure vessels contain RO membranes
(usually from 1 to 6 RO membranes are in a pressure vessel). Each stage can have
a certain amount of pressure vessels with RO membranes. The reject of each stage
then becomes the feed stream for the next successive stage. The 2 stage RO system

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

displayed on the previous page is a 2:1 array which means that the concentrate
(or reject) of the first 2 RO vessels is fed to the next 1 vessel.

RO System with Concentrate Recycle with an RO system that can't be properly

staged and the feed water chemistry allows for it, a concentrate recycle setup can
be utilized where a portion of the concentrate stream is fed back to the feed water
to the first stage to help increase the system recovery.

Figure-10 -RO System with Concentrate Recycle

Single Pass RO vs. Double Pass RO

Think of a pass as a standalone RO system. With this in mind, the difference

between a single pass RO system and a double pass RO system is that with a
double pass RO, the permeate from the first pass becomes the feed water to the
second pass (or second RO) which ends up producing a much higher quality
permeate because it has essentially gone through two RO systems.

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Besides producing a much higher quality permeate, a double pass system also
allows the opportunity to remove carbon dioxide gas from the permeate by
injecting caustic between the first and second pass. C02 is undesirable when you
have mixed bed ion exchange resin beds after the RO. By adding caustic after the
first pass, you increase the pH of the first pass permeate water and convert C02 to
bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate (CO3-2) for better rejection by the RO
membranes in the second pass. This can't be done with a single pass RO because
injecting caustic and forming carbonate (CO3-2) in the presence of cations such as
calcium will cause scaling of the RO membranes.

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Figure-11 -Single Pass RO vs. Double Pass RO

RO Pretreatment

Proper pretreatment using both mechanical and chemical treatments is critical for
an RO system to prevent fouling, scaling and costly premature RO membrane
failure and frequent cleaning requirements. Below is a summary of common
problems an RO system experiences due to lack of proper pretreatment.
(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Fouling

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Fouling occurs when contaminants accumulate on the membrane surface

effectively plugging the membrane. There are many contaminants in municipal
feed water that are naked to the human eye and harmless for human consumption,
but large enough to quickly foul (or plug) an RO system. Fouling typically occurs in
the front end of an RO system and results in a higher pressure drop across the RO
system and a lower permeate flow. This translates into higher operating costs and
eventually the need to clean or replace the RO membranes. Fouling will take place
eventually to some extent given the extremely fine pore size of an RO membrane
no matter how effective your pretreatment and cleaning schedule is. However, by
having proper pretreatment in place, you will minimize the need to add ress
fouling related problems on a regular basis.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-
osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Fouling can be caused by the following:

Particulate or colloidal mater (dirt, silt, clay, etc.)

Organics (humic/fulvic acids, etc.)

Microorganisms (bacteria, etc.). Bacteria present one of the most common fouling
problems since RO membranes in use today cannot tolerate a disinfectant such as
chlorine and therefore microorganisms are often able to thrive and multiply on the
membrane surface. They may product bio films that cover the membrane surface and
result in heavy fouling.

Breakthrough of filter media upstream of the RO unit. GAC carbon beds and softener
beds may develop an under drain leak and if there is not adequate post filtration in
place the media can foul the RO system.

By performing analytical tests, you can determine if the feed water to your RO has
a high potential for fouling. To prevent fouling of an RO system, mechanical
filtration methods are used. The most popular methods to prevent fouling are the
use of multi-media filters (MMF) or microfiltration (MF). In some cases cartridge
filtration will suffice.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-
osmosis)

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Scaling

As certain dissolved (inorganic) compounds become more concentrated

(remember discussion on concentration factor) then scaling can occur if these
compounds exceed their solubility limits and precipitate on the membrane surface
as scale. The results of scaling are a higher pressure drop across the sys tem,
higher salt passage (less salt rejection), low permeate flow and lower permeate
water quality. An example of a common scale that tends to form on an RO
membrane is calcium carbonate (CaCO3).(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-
osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Chemical Attack

Modern thin film composite membranes are not tolerant to chlorine or

chloramines. Oxidizers such as chlorine will 'burn' holes in the membrane pores
and can cause irreparable damage. The result of chemical attack on an RO
membrane is a higher permeate flow and a higher salt passage (poorer quality
permeate water). This is why microorganism growth on RO membranes tends to
foul RO membranes so easily since there is no biocide to prevent its growth.
(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Mechanical Damage

Part of the pretreatment scheme should be pre and post RO system plumbing and
controls. If 'hard starts' occur mechanical damage to the membranes can occur.
Likewise, if there is too much backpressure on the RO system then mechanical
damage to the RO membranes can also occur. These can be addressed by using
variable frequency drive motors to start high pressure pumps for RO systems and
by installing check valve(s) and/or pressure relief valves to prevent exce ssive
back pressure on the RO unit that can cause permanent membrane damage.
(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Pretreatment Solutions

Below are some pretreatment solutions for RO systems that can help minimize
fouling, scaling and chemical attack.

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Multi Media Filtration (MMF)

A Multi-Media Filter is used to help prevent fouling of an RO system. A Multi -

Media Filter typically contains three layers of media consisting of anthracite coal,
sand and garnet, with a supporting layer of gravel at the bottom. These are the
Medias of choice because of the differences in size and density. The larger (but
lighter) anthracite coal will be on top and the heavier (but smaller) garnet will
remain on the bottom. The filter media arrangement allows the largest dirt
particles to be removed near the top of the media bed with the smaller dirt
particles being retained deeper and deeper in the media. This allows the entire
bed to act as a filter allowing much longer filter run times between backwa sh and
more efficient particulate removal.

A well-operated Multi-Media Filter can remove particulates down to 15-20

microns. A Multi-Media Filter that uses a coagulant addition (which induces tiny
particles to join together to form particles large enough to be filtered) can remove
particulates down to 5-10 microns. To put this in perspective, the width of a
human hair is around 50 microns.

A multimedia filter is suggested when the Silt Density Index (SDI) value is greater
than 3 or when the turbidity is greater than 0.2 NTU. There is no exact rule, but
the above guidelines should be followed to prevent premature fouling of RO
membranes.

It is important to have a 5 micron cartridge filter placed directly after the MMF
unit in the event that the under drains of the MMF fail. This will prevent the MMF
media from damaging downstream pumps and fouling the RO system.

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Microfiltration (MF)

Microfiltration (MF) is effective in removing colloidal and bacteria matter and has
a pore size of only 0.1-10µm. Microfiltration is helpful in reducing the fouling
potential for an RO unit. Membrane configuration can vary between
manufacturers, but the "hollow fiber" type is the most commonly used. Typically,

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

the water is pumped from the outside of the fibers, and the clean water is
collected from the inside of the fibers. Microfiltration membranes used in potable
water applications usually operate in "dead-end" flow. In dead-end flow, all of the
water fed to the membrane is filtered through the membrane. A filter cake that
must be periodically backwashed from the membrane surface forms. Recovery
rates are normally greater than 90 percent on feed water sources which have
fairly high quality and low turbidity feeds. (http://puretecwater.com/reverse-
osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Anti scalantsand Scale Inhibitors

Antiscalants and scale inhibitors, as their name suggests, are chemicals that can be
added to feed water before an RO unit to help reduce the scaling potential of the
feed water. Antiscalants and scale inhibitors increase the solubility limits of
troublesome inorganic compounds. By increasing the solubility limits, you are able
to concentrate the salts further than otherwise would be possible and therefore
achieve a higher recovery rate and run at a higher concentration factor.
Antiscalants and scale inhibitors work by interfering with scale formation and
crystal growth. The choice of antiscalant or scale inhibitor to use and the correct
dosage depends on the feed water chemistry and RO system design.
(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Softening By Ion Exchange

A water softener can be used to help prevent scaling in an RO system by

exchanging scale forming ions with non-scale forming ions. As with a MMF unit, it
is important to have a 5 micron cartridge filter placed directly after the water
softener in the event that the under drains of the softener
fail.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Sodium Bisulfate (SBS) Injection

By adding sodium bisulfate (SBS or SMBS), which is a reducer, to the water stream
before an RO at the proper dose you can remove residual chlorine.

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)

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 REVERSE OSMOSIS

GAC is used for both removing organic constituents and residual disinfectants
(such as chlorine and chloramines) from water. GAC media is made from coal,
nutshells or wood. Activated carbon removes residual chlorine and chlo ramines
by a chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons from the surface of the
GAC to the residual chlorine or chloramines. The chlorine or chloramines ends up
as a chloride ion that is no longer an oxidizer.

The disadvantage of using a GAC before the RO unit is that the GAC will remove
chlorine quickly at the very top of the GAC bed. This will leave the remainder of
the GAC bed without any biocide to kill microorganisms. A GAC bed will absorb
organics throughout the bed, which is potential food for bacteria, so eventually a
GAC bed can become a breeding ground for bacteria growth which can pass easily
to the RO membranes. Likewise, a GAC bed can produce very small carbon fines
under some circumstances that have the potential to foul an RO.
(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Re-Mineralization And pH Adjustment

The desalinated water is "stabilized" to protect downstream pipelines and storage,

usually by adding lime or caustic soda to prevent corrosion of concrete-lined surfaces.
Liming material is used to adjust pH between 6.8 and 8.1 to meet the potable water
specifications, primarily for effective disinfection and for corrosion control. Re-
mineralization may be needed to replace minerals removed from the water by
desalination. Although this process has proved to be costly and not very convenient if it
is intended to meet mineral demand by humans and plants. The very same mineral
demand that freshwater sources provided previously For instance water from Israel s
national water carrier typically contains dissolved magnesium levels of 20 to
25 mg/liter, while water from the Ashkelon plant has no magnesium. After farmers used
this water, magnesium deficiency symptoms appeared in crops, including tomatoes,
basil, and flowers, and had to be remedied by fertilization. Current Israeli drinking
water standards set a minimum calcium level of 20 mg/liter. The post desalination
treatment in the Ashkelon plant uses sulfuric acid to dissolve calcite (limestone),
resulting in calcium concentration of 40 to 46 mg/liter. This is still lower than the 45 to

24
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

60 mg/liter found in typical Israeli freshwaters.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-

osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

RO Data Trending and Normalization

The RO membranes are the heart of the RO system and certain data points need to
be collected to determine the health of the RO membranes. These data points
include the system pressures, flows, quality and temperature. Water temperature
is directly proportional to pressure. As the water temperature decreases it
becomes more viscous and the RO permeate flow will drop as it requires more
pressure to push the water through the membrane. Likewise, when the water
temperature increases the RO permeate flow will increase. As a result,
performance data for an RO system must be normalized so that flow variations are
not interpreted as abnormal when no problem exists. The normalized flows,
pressures and salt rejection should be calculated, graphed and compared to the
baseline data (when the RO was commissioned or after the membranes were
cleaned or replaced) to help troubleshoot any problems and also determine when
to clean or inspect the membranes for damage. Data normalization helps display
the true performance of the RO membranes. As a general rule of thumb, when the
normalized change is +/- 15% from the baseline data then you need to take action.
If you don't follow this rule then RO membrane cleanings may not be very effective
at brining the membranes back to near new performance.
(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

RO Membrane Cleaning

RO membranes will inevitably require periodic cleaning, anywhere from 1 to 4

times a year depending on the feed water quality. As a general rule, if the
normalized pressure drop or the normalized salt passage has increased by 15%,
then it is time to clean the RO membranes. If the normalized permeate flow has
decreased by 15% then it is also time to clean the RO membranes. You can either
clean the RO membranes in place or have them removed from the RO system and
cleaned off site by a service company that specializes in this service. It has been

25
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

proven that offsite membrane cleaning is more effective at providing a better

cleaning than onsite cleaning skids.

RO membrane cleaning involves low and high pH cleaners to remove contaminants

from the membrane. Scaling is addressed with low pH cleaners and organics,
colloidal and befouling are treated with a high pH cleaner. Cleaning RO
membranes is not only about using the appropriate chemicals. There are many
other factors involved such as flows, water temperature and quality, properly des
service group must address in order to properly clean RO
membranes.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Reverse Osmosis Normalization

The purpose of RO data collection and analysis is to understand the true condition
of the RO membranes and help troubleshoot any potential problems before they
become serious.

Normalized data factors in external factors that can affect membrane performance
so you can compare apples to apples when reviewing normalized data. RO data
that is normalized is then compared to a baseline (when the membranes were
new, replaced or cleaned).

The following raw data is collected to determine the health of the RO membrane.

Feed Temp (F°)

Permeate Flow (GPM)

Concentrate Flow (GPM)

Feed Pressure (PSI)

Concentrate Pressure (PSI)

Permeate Pressure (PSI)

Feed Conductivity

Permeate Conductivity

26
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

All of these operating conditions directly affect the quality and amount of
permeate water that the RO membranes can produce. However, since these
operating conditions are constantly changing, it is impossible to compare the
observed performance of certain parameters at one point and compare them to
another point under different operating conditions. Changing factors such as
temperature, feed water quality, permeate flow and system recovery all has an
effect on membrane performance.

Normalizing RO data allows the user to compare the performance of an RO

membrane performance to a set standard which does not depend on changing
operating conditions. Normalized data will measure the direct condition of the RO
membrane and show the true performance and health of an RO membrane.

Data that is not normalized can be misleading, as there are many variables that
can cause changes that may appear to be problems when in fact they are not.
Temperature of the feed water is the most noticeable condition affecting the
performance of RO systems. The general rule of thumb is to estimate a permeate
flow change of . % per degree Fahrenheit F˚ . For example, if an RO produ ced
GPM of permeate when the feed water was F˚ and later the feed water
temperature dropped F˚, and then the RO would produce approximately 46 GPM.
This 4 GPM drop in product is perfectly normal given the temperature
drop.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Data Interpretation

An RO operator is ultimately concerned about two outcomes: the quality and

quantity of water being produced. As mentioned above, these two factors can be
influenced by a number of variables such as feed water pressure, system recovery,
and changes in feed water quality to name a few.

There are three calculated values which help give a better picture of true
membrane performance and help accurately troubleshoot potential RO system
problems involving the quantity and quality of water being produced by the RO
system. By collecting operating data, normalizing the data and then trending the

27
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

normalized data over time and comparing the values to a baseline (a baseline is
considered the start-up values when the RO membranes are new or after they
have been cleaned or replaced) you can proactively address any problems before
irreversible damage to the RO membranes occur. The three calculated values to
monitor and trend are Normalized Permeate Flow (NPF), Normalized Salt
Rejection (NSR) and Normalized Pressure Differential
(NPD)(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/reverse-osmosis-
normalization)

Normalize Permeate Flow (NPF)

NPF measures the amount of permeate water that the RO is producing. If the NPF
drops 10% to 15% below the baseline value (the NPF reading at start up with new
membranes or when membranes were replaced or cleaned) then this indicates
fouling or scaling of the RO membranes and the RO membranes should be cleaned.

If the NPF increases then this implies that there is damage to the RO membrane.
This damage can be caused by chemical attack (from an oxidizer like chlorine) or a
mechanical issue (like an O-ring failure) on the membrane.

Normalized Salt Rejection (NSR)

NSR indicates how well the RO membrane is rejecting salts (contaminants) and
therefore is related to permeate water quality. If the NSR decreases then the
amount of salts going through the RO membrane is increasing (lower quality
permeate). A decrease in NSR can indicate fouling or scaling or degradation of the
RO membranes.

A well performing RO membrane should be providing 97% to 99% rejection and a

membrane is considered bad when the RO rejection drops to 9 % or less. Over
normal operation of an RO membrane you can expect to see the NSR steadily
decline during continuous use. RO membranes usually last for several years before
they require replacement and a steady decline in NSR is a normal sign of an aging
membrane. A proper cleaning regiment for RO membranes can help improve the
NSR

28
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Figure 12Demonstration about how the NPF is calculated

NSR can be helpful in identifying befouling issues. When befouling is a concern,

oftentimes the NSR will actually increase and the NPF will decrease. This is
because the biofoulant will actually seal small imperfections in the RO membrane
thereby increasing the rejection of salts. Over time, the biofoulant layer ages and
begins to die, many items such as CO2, methane, organic acids begin to diffuse
through the membrane, ultimately affecting the quality of the permeate water
(less salt rejection resulting in a lower NSR). (http://puretecwater.com/reverse-
osmosis/reverse-osmosis-normalization)

See Fig 2 to see how the NSR is calculated.

29
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Figure 13- how the NSR is calculated.

30
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Normalized Pressure Differential (NPD)

The NPD tells us how clean the feed water spacer is on the membrane. These
spacers are only around 30 thousands of an inch thick and are therefore extremely
susceptible to plugging. As plugging occurs the resistance to flow increases and
pressure drop increases.

The NDP will begin to increase over time due to fouling or scaling and RO
membranes should be cleaned when the NDP increases by 15% to 25% above the
baseline value. NDP and NPF should be monitored together to determine when the
RO membranes should be cleaned. Often the NPF will decrease and the NDP will
remain unchanged. This is simply because the fouling/scaling issues have yet to
plug the feed water spacers. In time the NDP will increase in conjunction with the
drop in NPF.

A decrease in NPD is usually due to faulty instrumentation or mistakes made

during data collection.

If NPD can be measured for each stage of an RO, usually problems can be identified
between fouling and scaling based on the location of the increased pressure drop.
An increase in NPD in the front stage of an RO indicates fouling issues and an
increase in NPD in the second stage indicates
scaling.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/reverse-osmosis-
normalization)

Normalized Permeate Flow Calculation

31
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Figure 14-Normalized Permeate Flow Calculation

Normalized Pressure Differential Calculation

32
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

The Pressure Differential can help identify if the membrane is dirty. The
normalized value (NPD) will account for changes in flow and temperature. An
increase in the NPD is an early warning of scaling and/or fouling. To prevent
complex problems the membrane should be cleaned if the NPD becomes 15% or
greater than the baseline.

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

Figure 15 - Normalized Pressure Differential Calculation

RO System Maintenance

A water service preventative maintenance plan is an economical and trouble free

way to ensure that your water treatment system is operating at peak performance.

Puretec Industrial Water offers preventative maintenance agreements to ensure

that your Reverse Osmosis and pre/post treatment systems are functioning at
peak performance. An experienced engineer can work with you to develop a
customized preventative maintenance schedule that is designed specifically for
your water treatment system.

Our trained service technicians specialize in the operation, maintenance and

troubleshooting of high purity water treatment systems and will make sure that
your water system is proactively being monitored and maintained. Reports on

33
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

your system performance along with any suggested action items will be provided
to you after each service visit.(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-
osmosis/reverse-osmosis-system-maintenance)

Preventative Maintenance options include:

Pretreatment System

Nuclides multi-media filters, carbon filters, microfiltration units, degasifies, RO pre-

filters, softeners, chemical feed pump calibration, chemicaltank replenishment (such as
anti-scalant, chlorine/chloramines reducers, and coagulants for depth filters), and
chemical feed pump calibration.

Reverses Osmosis System includes data collection and analysis, cleaning and calibrating
critical sensors, and RO membrane cleaning as needed based on normalized data trends.

Post Treatment includes deionizers, storage tanks, ultraviolet (UV) sterilizers,

submicron point of use filters, calibration of quality instrumentation and periodic
system sanitizations.

Detailed Documentation on system performance is available online at any time and

a proactive report with normalized data trends is delivered to you after each
service visit(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/reverse-osmosis-system
maintenance)

(http://puretecwater.com/images/_heroWide/normalized-ro-data.jpg)

34
REVERSE OSMOSIS

35
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Fresh water applications

Drinking Water Purification Around the world, household drinking water purifications
systems, including a reverse osmosis step, are commonly used for improving water for
drinking and cooking.

Such systems typically include a number of steps: a sediment filter to trap particles,
including rust and calcium carbonate optionally, a second sediment filter with smaller
pores an activated carbon filter to trap organic chemicals and chlorine which will attack
and degrade thin film composite membrane reverse osmosis membranes a reverse
osmosis filter, which is a thin film composite membrane optionally, a second carbon
filter to capture those chemicals not removed by the reverse osmosis membrane
optionally an ultraviolet lamp for sterilizing any microbes that may escape filtering by
the reverse osmosis membrane

The latest developments in the sphere include Nano materials and membranes.

In some systems, the carbon pre-filter is omitted, and a cellulose triacetate membrane is
used. CTA (cellulose triacetate) is a paper by-product membrane bonded to a synthetic
layer and is made to allow contact with chlorine in the water. These require a small
amount of chlorine in the water source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The
typical rejection rate for CTA membranes is 85–95%.

The cellulose triacetate membrane is prone to rotting unless protected by chlorinated

water, while the thin film composite membrane is prone to breaking down under the
influence of chlorine. A thin film composite (TFC) membrane is made of synthetic
material, and requires chlorine to be removed before the water enters the membrane.
To protect the TFC membrane elements from chlorine damage, carbon filters are used
as pre-treatment in all residential reverse osmosis systems. TFC membranes have a
higher rejection rate of 95–98% and a longer life than CTA
membranes.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Portable Reverse Osmosis Water Processors

Portable reverse osmosis water processors are sold for personal water purification in
various locations. To work effectively, the water feeding to these units should be under

36
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

some pressure (40 pounds per square inch (280 kPa) or greater is the norm). Portable
reverse osmosis water processors can be used by people who live in rural areas without
clean water, far away from the city's water pipes. Rural people filter river or ocean
water themselves, as the device is easy to use (saline water may need special
membranes). Some travelers on long boating, fishing, or island camping trips, or in
countries where the local water supply is polluted or substandard, use reverse osmosis
water processors coupled with one or more ultraviolet sterilizers.

In the production of bottled mineral water, the water passes through a reverse osmosis
water processor to remove pollutants and microorganisms. In European countries,
though, such processing of natural mineral water (as defined by a European directive is
not allowed under European law. In practice, a fraction of the living bacteria can and do
pass through reverse osmosis membranes through minor imperfections, or bypass the
membrane entirely through tiny leaks in surrounding seals. Thus, complete reverse
osmosis systems may include additional water treatment stages that use ultraviolet
light or ozone to prevent microbiological contamination.

Membrane pore sizes can vary from 0.1 to 5,000 nm (4×10−9 to 2×10−4 in) depending on
filter type. Particle filtration removes particles of 1 µm (3.9×10−5 in) or
larger. Microfiltration removes particles of 50 nm or larger. Ultra filtration removes
particles of roughly 3 nm or larger. Nano filtration removes particles of 1 nm or larger.
Reverse osmosis is in the final category of membrane filtration, hyper filtration, and
removes particles larger than 0.1 nm.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Military Use: The Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit

A reverse osmosis water purification unit (ROWPU) is a portable, self-contained water

treatment plant. Designed for military use, it can provide potable water from nearly any
water source. There are many models in use by the United States armed forces and
the Canadian Forces Some models are containerized.some are trailers, and some are
vehicles unto themselves

Each branch of the United States armed forces has their own series of reverse osmosis
water purification unit models, but they are all similar. The water is pumped from its
raw source into the reverse osmosis water purification unit module, where it is treated

37
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

with a polymer to initiate coagulation. Next, it is run through a multi-media filter where
it undergoes primary treatment by removing turbidity. It is then pumped through a
cartridge filter which is usually spiral-wound cotton. This process clarifies the water of
any particles larger than 5 micrometers (0.00020 in) and eliminates almost all turbidity

The clarified water is then fed through a high-pressure piston pump into a series of
vessels where it is subject to reverse osmosis. The product water is free of 90.00–
99.98% of the raw water's total dissolved solids and by military standards, should have
no more than 1000–1500 parts per million by measure of electrical conductivity. It is
then disinfected with chlorine and stored for later use.

Within the United States Marine Corps, the reverse osmosis water purification unit has
been replaced by both the Lightweight Water Purification System and Tactical Water
Purification Systems.The Lightweight Water Purification Systems can be transported
by Humvee and filter 125 US gallons (470 l) per hour. The Tactical Water Purification
Systems can be carried on a Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement truck, and can filter
1,200 to 1,500 US gallons (4,500 to 5,700 l) per hour.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Water and Wastewater Purification

Rain water collected from storm drains is purified with reverse osmosis water
processors and used for landscape irrigation and industrial cooling in Los Angeles and
other cities, as a solution to the problem of water shortages.

In industry, reverse osmosis removes minerals from boiler water at power plants the
water is distilled multiple times. It must be as pure as possible so it does not leave
deposits on the machinery or cause corrosion. The deposits inside or outside the boiler
tubes may result in underperformance of the boiler, bringing down its efficiency and
resulting in poor steam production, hence poor power production at the turbine.

It is also used to clean effluent and brackish groundwater. The effluent in larger
volumes (more than 500 m3/d) should be treated in an effluent treatment plant first,
and then the clear effluent is subjected to reverse osmosis system. Treatment cost is
reduced significantly and membrane life of the reverse osmosis system is increased.

38
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

The process of reverse osmosis can be used for the production of demonized water

Reverse osmosis process for water purification does not require thermal energy. Flow-
through reverse osmosis systems can be regulated by high-pressure pumps. The
recovery of purified water depends upon various factors, including membrane sizes,
membrane pore size, temperature, operating pressure, and membrane surface area.

In 2002, Singapore announced that a process named new waterwould be a significant

part of its future water plans. It involves using reverse osmosis to treat domestic
wastewater before discharging the new water back into the
reservoirs.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Food Industry

In addition to desalination, reverse osmosis is a more economical operation for

concentrating food liquids (such as fruit juices) than conventional heat-treatment
processes. Research has been done on concentration of orange juice and tomato juice.
Its advantages include a lower operating cost and the ability to avoid heat-treatment
processes, which makes it suitable for heat-sensitive substances such as
the protein and enzymes found in most food products.

Reverse osmosis is extensively used in the dairy industry for the production of whey
protein powders and for the concentration of milk to reduce shipping costs. In whey
applications, the whey (liquid remaining after cheese manufacture) is concentrated with
reverse osmosis from 6% total solids to 10–20% total solids before ultra
filtration processing. The ultra-filtrationretentive can then be used to make various
whey powders, including whey protein isolate. Additionally, the ultra-filtration
permeate, which contains lactose, is concentrated by reverse osmosis from 5% total
solids to 18–22% total solids to reduce crystallization and drying costs of the lactose
powder.

Although use of the process was once avoided in the wine industry, it is now widely
understood and used. An estimated 60 reverse osmosis machines were in use
in Bordeaux, France, in 2002. Known users include many of the elite classed growths
(Kramer) such as Château Léoville-Las Cases in
Bordeaux.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

39
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Maple syrup production

In 1946, some maple syrup producers started using reverse osmosis to remove water
from sap before the sap is boiled down to syrup. The use of reverse osmosis allows
about 75–90% of the water to be removed from the sap, reducing energy consumption
and exposure of the syrup to high temperatures. Microbial contamination and
degradation of the membranes must be
monitored.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Hydrogen production

For small-scale hydrogen production, reverse osmosis is sometimes used to prevent

formation of minerals on the surface
of electrodes.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Reef aquariums

Many reef aquarium keepers use reverse osmosis systems for their artificial mixture of
seawater. Ordinary tap water can contain excessive chlorine, chloramines, copper,
nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, silicates, or many other chemicals detrimental to the
sensitive organisms in a reef environment. Contaminants such as nitrogen compounds
and phosphates can lead to excessive and unwanted algae growth. An effective
combination of both reverse osmosis and deionization is the most popular among reef
aquarium keepers, and is preferred above other water purification processes due to the
low cost of ownership and minimal operating costs.

Where chlorine and chloramines are found in the water, carbon filtration is needed
before the membrane, as the common residential membrane used by reef keepers does
not cope with these compounds.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Window cleaning

An increasingly popular method of cleaning windows is the so-called "water-fed pole"

system. Instead of washing the windows with detergent in the conventional way, they
are scrubbed with highly purified water, typically containing less than 10 ppm dissolved
solids, using a brush on the end of a long pole which is wielded from ground level.

40
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Reverse osmosis is commonly used to purify the

water.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Disadvantage

Household reverse osmosis units use a lot of water because they have low back
pressure. As a result, they recover only 5 to 15% of the water entering the system. The
remainder is discharged as waste water. Because waste water carries with it the
rejected contaminants, methods to recover this water are not practical for household
systems. Waste water is typically connected to the house drains and will add to the load
on the household septic system. A reverse osmosis unit delivering five gallons (19 L) of
treated water per day may discharge between 20 and 90 gallons (75–340 L) of waste
water per day. This is having disastrous consequence for mega cities like Delhi. Where
large-scale use of household R.O. devices has increased the total water demand of the
already.

Water parched National Capital Territory of India.

Large-scale industrial/municipal systems recover typically 75% to 80% of the feed

water, or as high as 90%, because they can generate the high pressure needed for higher
recovery reverse osmosis filtration. On the other hand, as recovery of wastewater
increases in commercial operations, effective contaminant removal rates tend to
become reduced, as evidenced by product water total dissolved solids levels.Due to its
fine membrane construction, reverse osmosis not only removes harmful contaminants
present in the water, but it also may remove many of the desirable minerals from the
water. A number of peer-reviewed studies have looked at the long-term health effects of
drinking de-mineralized water.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

Conclusion

Reverse Osmosis is an effective and proven technology to produce water that is

suitable for many industrial applications that require demineralized or deionized
water. Further post treatment after the RO system such as mixed bed deionization
can increase the quality of the RO permeate and make it suitable for the most

41
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

demanding applications. Applications such as fresh water applications,portable

reverse osmosis water processors, water and wastewater purification,food industry and
etc. where RO system is used hugely. Proper pretreatment and monitoring of an RO
system is crucial to preventing costly repairs and unscheduled maintenance. With
the correct system design, maintenance program, and experienced service
support, your RO system should provide many years of high purity water.

References

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

(https://www.google.co.in/search?q=ro+plaNT&dcr=0&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKE
wjnvLLsiunWAhXEqo8KHb7lDjcQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=659#imgrc=NS3xG23ZqagBRM:)

(https://sc02.alicdn.com/kf/HTB1DQMkHpXXXXXUXVXXq6xXFXXXG/221502034/HTB1DQMk
HpXXXXXUXVXXq6xXFXXXG.jpg)

(https://www.h2odistributors.com/global/productpics/misc/reverse-osmosis-
steps_l.png)

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

(https://www.google.co.in/search?q=stages+of+reverse+osmosis&hl=en&tbm=isch&tb
s=rimg:CVdMqIBel_18vIjgUGkcb5LD_1MNBRkMEPXEDfOVXTvpXrDLnvjooZa0cpSX_1Y
wWl6g9iX7IaWqrc_10jFTviMcJsYqPioSCRQaRxvksP8wEdT-
YOXczMiNKhIJ0FGQwQ9cQN8Rpstg7lBInYMqEgk5VdO-lesMuRFLnMiY8KQhnSoSCe-
OihlrRylJEbeLMmm_14yLSKhIJf9jBaXqD2JcR23f8pZGjjuoqEgnshpaqtz_1SMRESHoWkFi
kgcSoSCVO-Ixwmxio-ER0ef-sEnQU-&tbo=u&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYm-
eXjunWAhUMs48KHUE7DfkQ9C8IHw&biw=1366&bih=659&dpr=1#imgrc=V0yogF6X_
y9fdM:)

(http://puretecwater.com/images/RO_Membrane_One_Two_Stage.png)

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

42
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

(http://puretecwater.com/images/RO_Membrane_Single_Double.png)

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/reverse-osmosis-normalization)

(http://puretecwater.com/images/NPF_Graphs.png)

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/reverse-osmosis-normalization)
(http://puretecwater.com/images/RO_Normalization_Equations_1.png)

(http://puretecwater.com/images/RO_Normalization_Equations_3.png)

(http://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/reverse-osmosis-system-
maintenance)

(http://puretecwater.com/images/_heroWide/normalized-ro-data.jpg)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis)

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