Element 8: Control of waste and land use

Learning outcomes

On completion of this element, candidates should be able to demonstrate understanding of the

content through the application of knowledge to familiar and unfamiliar situations. In particular

they should be able to:

6.1 Outline the significance of different waste categories and the relationship between category

and route of disposal

6.2 Explain the importance of minimising waste

6.3 Outline how to manage waste

6.4 Describe outlets available for waste

6.5 Outline the risks associated with contaminated land.

Human activities generate waste materials that are often discarded because they are considered

useless. These wastes are normally solid, and the word waste suggests that the material is useless

and unwanted. However, many of these waste materials can be reused, and thus they can become

a resource for industrial production or energy generation, if managed properly.

Waste management has become one of the most significant problems of our time because modern

way of life produces enormous amounts of waste, and most people want to preserve their lifestyle,

while also protecting the environment and public health. Industry, private citizens, and state

legislatures are searching for means to reduce the growing amount of waste that American homes

and businesses discard and to reuse it or dispose of it safely and economically.

In recent years, state legislatures have passed more laws dealing with solid waste management

than with any other topic on their legislative agendas

6.1 Waste categories

A material is considered to be waste when the producer or holder discards it, intends to discard it,

or is required to discard it.

When assessing whether a material is waste or not, discarding doesn’t simply mean throwing away

or getting rid of something. Discarding also covers activities and operations such as recycling and

recovery operations, which put waste material back to good use.

Situations when a material is considered to be waste include when it’s:

• mixed with another waste material - the whole mixture will be waste

• deliberately and illegally abandoned or dumped, for example fly-tipping

• accidentally, unknowingly or involuntarily discarded, for example when a fuel is leaking from

a service station storage tank into the ground beneath and the producer or holder is unaware of

the leak

• required to be discarded by law

• Hazardous

Hazardous Waste includes any unwanted or discarded material (excluding radioactive material),

which because of its physical, chemical or infectious characteristics can cause significant hazard

to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of or

otherwise managed.

Hazardous waste is defined in the Hazardous Waste List incorporated in the European Waste

Catalogue. Hazardous wastes pose a greater risk to the environment and human health than non-

hazardous waste and thus require a stricter control regime

Explosive:’

waste which is capable by chemical reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure

and at such a speed as to cause damage to the surroundings. Pyrotechnic waste, explosive organic

peroxide waste and explosive self-reactive waste is included.

Oxidising:

waste which may, generally by providing oxygen, cause or contribute to the combustion of other

materials

Flammable:

‘’—flammable liquid wasteliquid waste having a flash point below 60 °C or waste gas oil, diesel

and light heating oils having a flash point > 55 °C and ≤ 75 °C;

—flammable pyrophoric liquid and solid wastesolid or liquid waste which, even in small

quantities, is liable to ignite within five minutes after coming into contact with air;

—flammable solid wastesolid waste which is readily combustible or may cause or contribute to

fire through friction;

—flammable gaseous wastegaseous waste which is flammable in air at 20 °C and a standard

pressure of 101.3 kPa;

—water reactive wastewaste which, in contact with water, emits flammable gases in dangerous

quantities;

—other flammable wasteflammable aerosols, flammable self-heating waste, flammable organic

peroxides and flammable self-reactive waste

Irritant — skin irritation and eye damage

waste which on application can cause skin irritation or damage to the eye.

Specific Target Organ Toxicity (STOT)/Aspiration Toxicity

waste which can cause specific target organ toxicity either from a single or repeated exposure, or

which cause acute toxic effects following aspiration.

Acute Toxicity

Waste which can cause acute toxic effects following oral or dermal administration, or inhalation

exposure.

Carcinogenic

Waste which induces cancer or increases its incidence.

Corrosive:

waste which on application can cause skin corrosion.

Infectious

waste containing viable micro-organisms or their toxins which are known or reliably believed to

cause disease in man or other living organisms.

Toxic for reproduction

waste which has adverse effects on sexual function and fertility in adult males and females, as well

as developmental toxicity in the offspring.

Mutagenic:

waste which may cause a mutation, that is a permanent change in the amount or structure of the

genetic material in a cell.

Sensitising

waste which contains one or more substances known to cause sensitising effects to the skin or the

respiratory organs.
Ecotoxic:

waste which presents or may present immediate or delayed risks for one or more sectors of the

environment.

Dangerou

s Goods

Class (UN

Class*)

UN

Code

1 H1

Explosive An explosive substance or waste is a solid or liquid substance or

waste (or mixture of substances or wastes) which is in itself capable by

chemical reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure and

at such a speed as to cause damage to the surroundings.

3 H3

Flammable liquids The word ‘flammable’ has the same meaning as

‘inflammable’. Flammable liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or

liquids containing solids in solution or suspension (for example, paints,

varnishes, lacquers, etc, but not including substances or wastes otherwise

classified on account of their dangerous characteristics) which give off

flammable vapour at temperatures of not more than 60.5°C, closed-cup test,

or not more than 65.6°C, open-cup test. (Since the results of open-cup tests

and of closed-cup tests are not strictly comparable and even individual results

by the same test are often variable, regulations varying from the above

figures to make allowances for such differences would be within the spirit of

the definition.)

4.1 H4.1

Flammable solids Solids or waste solids, other than those classified as

explosives, which under conditions encountered in transport are readily

combustible, or may cause or contribute to fire through friction.

4.2 H4.2

Substances or wastes liable to spontaneous combustion Substances or

wastes which are liable to spontaneous heating under normal conditions

encountered in transport, or to heating up in contact with air, and being then

liable to catch fire.

4.3 H4.3

Substances or wastes which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases

Substances or wastes which, by interaction with water, are liable to become

spontaneously flammable or to give off flammable gases in dangerous

quantities.

5.1 H5.1

Oxidising Substances or wastes which, while in themselves not necessarily

combustible, may, generally by yielding oxygen, cause or contribute to the

combustion of other materials.

5.2 H5.2

Organic peroxides Organic substances or wastes which contain the bivalent

OO structure are thermally unstable substances which may undergo

exothermic self-accelerating decomposition.

6.1 H6.1

Poisonous (acute) Substances or wastes liable either to cause death or

serious injury or to harm human health if swallowed or inhaled or by skin

contact.

6.2 H6.2

Infectious substances Substances or wastes containing viable micro-

organisms or their toxins which are known or suspected to cause disease in

animals or humans.

8 H8

Corrosives Substances or wastes which, by chemical action, will cause

severe damage when in contact with living tissue, or in the case of leakage,

will materially damage, or even destroy, other goods or the means of

transport; they may also cause other hazards.

9 H10

Liberation of toxic gases in contact with air or water Substances or

wastes which, by liberation with air or water, are liable to give off toxic

gases in dangerous quantities.

9 H11

Toxic (delayed or chronic) Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled

or ingested, or if they penetrate the skin, may involve delayed or chronic

effects, including carcinogenicity.

9 H12

Ecotoxic Substances or wastes which, if released, present or may present

immediate or delayed adverse impacts to the environment by means of

bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon biotic systems.

9 H13

Capable of yielding another material which possesses H1-H12 Capable

by any means, after disposal, of yielding another material (e.g. leachate)

which possesses any of the characteristics listed above.

Other reasons Potential to have a significant adverse impact on ambient air quality. Potential to

have a significant adverse impact on ambient marine, estuarine or fresh water quality.

• Non-hazardous

Waste that neither hazardous nor Inert waste. This may also disposed of to landfill. Paper, food

waste, wood and related are considered to be as non hazardous.

• Other main categories; e.g.

- Inert

Solid waste that has no active chemical or biological properties. These wastes do not undergo

environmentally significant physical, chemical or biological transformation and have negligible

potential to cause environmental harm and may be landfilled.

The definition of inert waste

● Will not undergo any significant physical, chemical or biological transformations

● Will not dissolve

● Will not burn

● Will not physically or chemically react

● Will not biodegrade

● Will not adversely affect other matter with which it comes into contact in a way likely to give

rise to environmental pollution or harm to human health

● Has insignificant total leachability and pollutant content

● Produces a leachate with an ecotoxicity that is insignificant (if it produces leachate)

Clinical

1. Any waste consisting wholly or partly of human or animal tissue, blood or other body fluids,

excretions, drugs or other pharmaceutical products, swabs or dressings, or syringes, needles

or other sharp instruments, being waste which unless rendered safe may prove hazardous to

any person coming into contact with it; and

2. Any waste arising from medical, nursing, dental, veterinary, pharmaceutical or similar

practices, investigation, treatment, care, teaching or research, or the collection of blood for

transfusion, being waste which may cause infection to any person coming into contact with

it.

In addition some clinical waste, by virtue of its properties, is classified as special waste and is

therefore subject to the Hazardous Waste (England & Wales) Regulations 2005 and the Special

Waste Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2004.

Clinical waste means any waste resulting from medical, nursing, dental, pharmaceutical, skin

penetration or other related clinical activity, being waste that has the potential to cause injury,

infection or offence, and includes waste containing any of the following:

• human tissue (other than hair, teeth and nails)

• bulk body fluids or blood

• visibly blood-stained body fluids, materials or equipment

• laboratory specimens or cultures

• animal tissue, carcasses or other waste from animals used for medical research.

But does not include any such waste that has been treated by a method approved in writing by the

Director-General of the Department of Health.

The effect of the clinical waste definition is to allow the Secretary, NSW Health to approve, in

writing, of any method which may be used to treat clinical waste so that the waste no longer has

the properties of clinical waste and can be re-classified for waste regulatory purposes. That is, the

waste is no longer injurious, infectious or able to give rise to offence. The approval is separate to

any licence which may be issued by DECCW.

Radioactive

Radioactive waste includes any material that is either intrinsically radioactive, or has been

contaminated by radioactivity, and that is deemed to have no further use. Government policy

dictates whether certain materials – such as used nuclear fuel and plutonium – are categorised as

waste.

Controlled (UK)

The UK Regulations classify waste as household, industrial or commercial waste. They enable

local authorities in Wales to charge for the collection and disposal of waste from non-domestic

properties. There are some exemptions including:

• charity shops selling donated goods and “re-use” organisations as the waste has come from

homes

• village halls and premises used for public meetings.

The Regulations enable litter collected on educational premises to be charged for as well as other

non-hazardous waste generated on the site.

(a)sewage, sludge or septic tank sludge which is treated, kept or disposed of (otherwise than by

means of mobile plant) within the curtilage of a sewage treatment works as an integral part of the

operation of those works;

(b)sludge which is supplied or used in accordance with the Sludge (Use in Agriculture)

Regulations 1989;

(c)septic tank sludge which is used on agricultural land within the meaning of those Regulation

Special waste (Scotland - equivalent to hazardous in most other countries).

Waste is defined as 'hazardous waste' (in Northern Ireland) or 'special waste' (in Scotland) if it is

classified as 'hazardous' in the European Waste Catalogue (or List of Wastes). Generally, waste is

hazardous/special if it, or the materials or substances it contains, are harmful to human health or

the environment.

Examples of hazardous/special waste

Almost all businesses produce some hazardous/special waste. Typical examples of this waste

include waste:

• asbestos

• chemicals, eg brake fluid and printer toner

• electrical equipment with potentially harmful components such as cathode ray tubes - eg

computer monitors and televisions

• fluorescent light tubes and energy-saving light bulbs

• vehicle batteries and other lead-acid batteries

• oils (except edible oils) - eg engine oil

• refrigerators containing ozone-depleting substances

• solvents - eg aerosols

• pesticides.

Waste with hazardous properties which may render it harmful to human health or the environment

is called special waste in Scotland.

Elsewhere in the UK and the EC, special waste is referred to as hazardous waste and managing

and regulating it is essential to minimise any effects on the environment.

6.2 Minimising waste

• The problems of waste disposal due to increased volumes from growing populations and

higher standards of living

Indian urban dwellers generate 0.2- 0.6 kg per person per day resulting into a national total

generation of nearly 105,000 metric tons of solid wastes per day. The country’s largest cities

collect between 70-90% of total wastes generated, while smaller cities and towns usually collect

less than 50% (Kumar, 2009). Uncollected wastes accumulate on the streets, public spaces, and

vacant lots, sometimes creating illegal open dumps. Residents can also simply throw their wastes
at the nearest stream or burn them. Uncollected wastes, and residents’ actions to deal with them,

create pollution problems and pose risks to human health and the environment.

It is estimated UK generation of commercial and industrial (C&I) waste at 40.0 million tonnes in

2014, of which 31.7 million tonnes (around 80%) was generated in England. The latest estimates

for England only indicate that waste generation was around 31.9 million tonnes in 2015 and 33.1

million tonnes in 2016.

Cities spend US $11.60 - 34.90 per metric ton in waste collection, transportation, treatment, and

final disposal. Most of this cost is spent on collection (60-70 %), while transportation requires 20-

30 %, and final disposal less than 5 %. New Delhi, the national capital, for instance, spends 71%

in collection, 26 % in transportation, and 3 % in final disposal (Kumar, 2009). Virtually all the

country’s collected wastes are disposed of at open dumps, which are the cheapest option available.

Despite their low cost, open dumps is a source of land, water, and air pollution, as well as public

health hazards.

The waste hierarchy:

The waste hierarchy is a set of priorities for the efficient use of resources

From an overall material consumption standpoint, excessive quantities of waste in society result

from inefficient production processes on the industrial side, and low durability of goods and

unsustainable consumption patterns on the consumer side. While total waste quantities are a

reflection of the loss of resources, the hazardous components contained in product wastes and their

release into the environment determine the priorities and challenges for effective waste

management strategies, so that extensive environmental hazards can be avoided.

Prevent and reduce

The highest priority, avoiding and reducing the generation of waste, encourages the community,

industry and government to reduce the amount of virgin materials extracted and used. The goal is

to maximise efficiency and avoid unnecessary consumption through behaviours such as

• selecting items with the least packaging or that require the fewest resources to produce

• avoiding disposable goods or single-use materials

• buying products that are recycled, recyclable, repairable, refillable, re-usable or biodegradable

• using leftover food rather than throwing it away.

Re-use

Where avoiding and reducing waste is not possible, the next most preferred option is to re-use the

materials without further processing, avoiding the costs of energy and other resources required for

recycling. For example, many household and industrial items can be repaired, re-used, sold or

donated to charities

Recover (re-cycle followed by other methods of recovery, eg, energy recovery)

The second priority, resource recovery, maximises options for re-use, recycling, reprocessing and

energy recovery.

Disposal

Finally, the waste hierarchy recognises that some types of waste, such as hazardous chemicals or

asbestos, cannot be safely recycled and direct treatment or disposal is the most appropriate

management option.

• Benefits , limitations of re-cycling and barriers for recycling

Recycling has a numerous advantages if properly done.It reduces the usage of raw materials,

energy usage, air pollution, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. There are, however, a

number of limits to the effective implementation of recycling. Recycling can involve energy usage,

hazards, labor costs, and practices by individuals and countries, which can hamper the efficient

implementation of recycling plans. The biggest limit to recycling is that not all materials can be

recycled and so materials can only be recycled a limited number of times due to degradation each

time through the process. This degradation is referred to as downcycling.

In addition, recycling poses a number of societal and ethical issues. As e-waste recycling has led

to electronic waste from developed countries being shipped to undeveloped countries for recycling.

In many cases, this leads to low wages and terrible conditions for workers involved in the recycling

process and the release of toxins which are environmental and health risks for the individuals and

their surrounding communities.

• Barriers to reuse and recycling and how they can be overcome.

Barriers to recycling are often considered in terms of energy, hazards, costs, and practices by

individuals and countries.

The biggest barriers of recycling however, is that not all materials can be recycled or can only
be recycled a number of times before they lose their quality. Some materials once used are

always going to have to be dumped as we have no method for making them useful again. What

sorts of materials do you think can be recycled? These are the materials that are recycled: glass,

paper, metal, plastic, textile, and electronics.

First up is the energy aspect. Put simply some materials like paper and aluminum metal agree

to have lower processing costs when it comes to recycling them rather than using fresh materials

to make new products. However, the recycling of materials like plastics is extremely energy

intensive. Before the plastics can be melted and mixed together, they require sorting usually by

hand as there are many different types of plastics usually indicated by special marking a

number. If a mixture of plastic recycled together now ever contaminate the melt or you get a

lower grade of plastic than the originals which is therefore less valuable. This reduction in the

quality of recycling product is called downcycling. In addition to this there is the added

complication that devices often use mixed materials. Think of a car. There are wide range of

recyclable materials the copper wire the aluminum in engine some of the plastics, the glass, and

the iron however, what about the alloys? These are mixtures of metals energy will be needed

to separate these and so one of the most difficult problems of recycling is the separation of

randomly intermixed particles.

Secondly, there are hazards to recycling including the recycling of dangerous metals. Some of

the metals associated with recycling are lead and mercury. Often these metals can come from

the recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment. In India and China, a significant

amount of pollution is generated where informal recycling in an underground economy of these

countries has generated an environmental and health disaster. High levels of lead

polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated dioxins and furans, as well as polybrominated

dioxins, have become concentrated in the air, bottom ash, dust, soil, water, and sediments in

areas surrounding these underground recycling sites. Many of these chemicals become

dissolved in the water that we drink called leachates. Also, plants can take up these chemicals

allowing toxic chemicals to enter the food chain. Finally, if the chemicals are airborne there are

own problems with us inhaling them.

There are also social issues connected to recycling whilst it may create jobs they are often jobs
with low wages and terrible working conditions in developing countries. In areas without many

environmental regulations or worker protections, job like ship braking can result in deplorable

conditions for both workers the surrounding communities.

Thirdly, is a challenge of cost.The costs of recycling depend on the efficiency of the recycling

program. Governments or local authorities may not recycle because it's cheaper to use landfill. Also,
consumers are encouraged to recycle, but this depends on people being

involved in pre-sorting their recycling. Some countries or local governments impose charges

when this is not done.

6.3 Managing waste

• Recognition of the key steps: on site separation, storage, transportation and Disposal

Waste generation :

Waste generation encompasses those activities in which materials are identified as no longer being

of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.What is important in waste

generation is to note that there is an identification step and that this step varies with each

individual.Waste generation is, at present, an activity that is not very controllable.

Waste handling and separation, Waste handling and separation involve the activities associated

with managing storage, and processing at the source wastes until they are placed in storage

containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the

point of collection.

Separation of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at

the source. On-site storage is of primary importance because of public health concerns and

aesthetic considerations.

Collection Collection includes both the gathering of solid wastes and recyclable materials and the

transport of these materials, after collection, to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied,

such as a materials-processing facility, a transfer station, or a landfill.

Transfer and transport The functional element of transfer and transport involves two steps: (1)

the transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment, and (2)

the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal

site.The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station. Although motor vehicle transport is most
common, rail cars and barges are also used to transport wastes.

Separation, processing, and transformation of solid waste

The means and facilities that are now used for the recovery of waste materials that have been

separated at the source include curbside collection and dropoff and buyback centers.The separation

and processing of wastes that have been separated at the source and the separation of commingled

wastes usually occurs at materials recovery facilities, transfer stations, combustion facilities, and

disposal sites.

Transformation processes are used to reduce the volume and weight of waste requiring disposal

and to recover conversion products and energy.The organic fraction of MSW can be transformed

by a variety of chemical and biological processes.The most commonly used chemical

transformation process is combustion, used in conjunction with the recovery of energy.The most

commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic composting.

Disposal Today, disposal by landfilling or landspreading is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes,

whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site, residual

materials from MRFs, residue from the combustion of solid waste, compost, or other substances

from various solid waste processing facilities.A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump. It is a

method of disposing of solid wastes on land or within the earth’s mantel without creating public

health hazards or nuisances

Responsible waste management

Planning for the management of municipal solid waste becomes increasingly important as the

complexity of management needs expands, the tools and procedures for addressing these needs

require greater sophistication, and competition increases. In addition, as the roles and

responsibilities of states and their subdivisions in the management of solid waste have evolved,

both state and local or regional solid waste planning is required.

Understanding needs. The idea is to learn more about current problems and needs and future

prospects before deciding on a course of action to accomplish objectives. By this means, decisions

become more rational, more objective, and based on more reliable information.

2. Commitment to solid waste management. Some local governments make a decision to plan for

solid waste management because they are committed to addressing the issue in a logical and
comprehensive manner. Others simply develop plans because they are required. A plan can easily

be written down on paper, but for a plan to work, the local government must be as committed to

decision making and implementation as they are to

planning.This includes paying enough attention to the planning process to ensure that the

plan can be implemented.

3. Leadership. More often than not there is a single jurisdiction, agency, or individual that is

deeply committed to seeing the planning process through to fruition and in many cases

carrying on to lead implementation.When interest begins to taper off, need is considered

to be less critical, or tough decisions need to be made, these leaders push on.

The waste producer should either: • treat their own waste and provide information about the

treatment for subsequent holders; or • ensure that a subsequent holder will treat the waste before

it is landfilled. Producers are not obliged to treat their waste themselves and many will buy this

service from a waste contractor. They are however, required to consider the waste hierarchy.

Producers will need to decide the option that best suits their waste and their circumstances. In some

cases, the producer may opt to have the waste treated elsewhere for practical reasons such as lack

of space for storing separated materials.

• Segregation, identification and labelling

Segregation means the separation of the entire waste generated in defined, different waste groups

according to the specific treatment and disposal requirements. Only a segregation system can

ensure that the waste will be treated according to the hazards of the waste and that the correct

disposal routes are taken and that the correct transportation equipment will be used.

Every place of generation should have the necessary equipment for the types of wastes that are

generated at that place like bags, bag holder, container, etc. Segregation and identification

instructions should be placed at each waste collection point. Segregated waste should not be mixed

during transport and storage. If hazardous and non hazardous wastes are mixed, the entire mixture

must be considered and treated as hazardous waste. Correct segregation will only be achieved

through a rigorous training of all h staff and waste generators inside the workplace.

Different kind of waste need a different packaging due to the different risks created by the waste.

The chemical characteristic of the waste must be obtained! Some chemical solution may can solute
plastic bags and must be collected in metal containers or glass bottles For the packaging of

infectious waste, plastic bags should be used in a good quality and from strong material. For bags,

closable bag holder or bins with a lid are recommended. The containers for hazardous waste must

be puncture proof and sealable. For the identification of the risks, the United Nations packaging

symbols should be used. 11.1.5 The labelling of the segregated waste The labelling of the waste is

absolutely necessary, for the identifying, monitoring, controlling and record keeping of the

different waste groups along the entire waste stream. At least all yellow and red waste bags or

containers should be labelled with the basic information on their content and on the waste producer.

The labels should be clearly, legibly and durably marked with the following information: ¾ Name

of the Producer, if applicable department ¾ Waste classification, date of production ¾ Special

remarks ¾ Waste volume-waste destination

The different waste groups have different colours for the containers and bags for the identification

according to the hazards and applied throughout the complete disposal chain (segregation,

collection, storage, transport, disposal): ¾ Warning colors for hazardous waste (Red, yellow,

orange) ¾ Positive colors for recycling (Blue, green, etc.) ¾ Neutral colors for normal waste

(Black, etc.) The colour coding makes the process understandable even for low-skilled workers

with language and reading problems. The packaging of the segregated waste Different kind of

waste need a different packaging due to the different risks created by the waste. The chemical

characteristic of the waste must be obtained! Some chemical solution may can solute plastic bags

and must be collected in metal containers or glass bottles For the packaging of infectious waste,

plastic bags should be used in a good quality and from strong material. For bags, closable bag

holder or bins with a lid are recommended. The containers for hazardous waste must be puncture

proof and sealable. For the identification of the risks, the United Nations packaging symbols

should be used. The labelling of the segregated waste The labelling of the waste is absolutely

necessary, for the identifying, monitoring, controlling and record keeping of the different waste

groups along the entire waste stream. At least all yellow and red waste bags or containers should

be labelled with the basic information on their content and on the waste producer. The labels should

be clearly, legibly and durably marked with the following information: ¾ Name of the Producer,

if applicable department ¾ Waste classification, date of production ¾ Special remarks ¾ Waste

volume-waste destination+

• Packaging waste

The containers and packaging category includes both primary packaging (the containers that

directly hold food, beverages, toiletries, and a host of other products) and secondary and tertiary

packaging, which contain the packaged products for shipping and display. By definition it is

assumed that all containers and packaging are discarded the same year they are manufactured (with

a few exceptions, such as reusable wood pallets).

By far the dominant material in this category is paper and paperboard, which accounted for about

63 percent of the weight of containers and packaging generated in 1998. Corrugated boxes, at

nearly 30 million tons generated in 1998, are the single largest product line item in MSW.

• Electrical and electronic waste

The world is producing ever more electrical and electronic waste. The quantity of dumped

computers, telephones, televisions and appliances doubled between 2009 and 2014, to 42 million

tonnes per year globally1, 2.

Developed countries, especially in North America and Europe, produce the most e-waste (see

‘Unfair flow’). The United States generates the largest amount, and China the second most3.

The mantra of " Reduce, Reuse, Recycle " applies here.

• Reduce your generation of e-waste through smart procurement and good maintenance.

• Reuse still functioning electronic equipment by donating or selling it to someone who can

still use it.

• Recycle those products that cannot be repaired. To find an organization that will manage your

electronics for recycling

Disposal of e-waste is an emerging global environmental and public health issue, as this waste

has become the most rapidly growing segment of the formal municipal waste stream in the

world.(1) E-waste or Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) are loosely discarded,

surplus, obsolete, broken, electrical or electronic devices.(2) In India most of the waste electronic

items are stored at households as people do not know how to discard them. This ever-increasing

waste is very complex in nature and is also a rich source of metals such as gold, silver, and copper,

which can be recovered and brought back into the production cycle. So e-waste trade and
recycling alliances provide employment to many groups of people(3) in India. Around 25,000

workers including children are involved in crude dismantling units in Delhi alone where 10,000–

20,000 tonnes of e-waste is handled every year by bare hands. Improper dismantling and

processing of e-waste render it perilous to human health and our ecosystem

• Regulatory documentation

In most of countries, All waste must be evaluated to determine whether or not it is regulated as a

“hazardous waste” under the Environmental legislation. Through regulations, agencies requires

that all hazardous waste be properly identified, labeled, stored, treated and disposed .

Relevant legislation and regulations

The EU Waste Framework Directive provides the legislative framework for the collection,

transport, recovery and disposal of waste, and includes a common definition of waste . The

directive requires all member states to take the necessary measures to ensure waste is recovered or

disposed of without endangering human health or causing harm to the environment and includes

permitting, registration and inspection requirements.

The directive also requires member states to take appropriate measures to encourage firstly, the

prevention or reduction of waste production and its harmfulness and secondly the recovery of

waste by means of recycling, re-use or reclamation or any other process with a view to extracting

secondary raw materials, or the use of waste as a source of energy. The directive’s requirements

are supplemented by other directives for specific waste streams.

Environmental permitting for waste

The recovery and disposal of waste requires a permit under EU legislation with the principal

objective of preventing harm to human health and the environment. This legislation also allows

member states to provide for exemptions from the need for a permit, providing general rules are

laid down for each type of exempt activity, and the operation is registered with the relevant

registration authority.

Hazardous waste regulations

Hazardous waste is essentially waste that contains hazardous properties which if mismanaged has

the potential to cause greater harm to the environment and human health than non-hazardous. As

a result, strict controls apply from the point of its production, to its movement, management, and
recovery or disposal.

Waste shipment regulations

Waste shipment regulations are comprised of EU Regulations, a UK statutory instrument and a

UK Plan. Between them, they control movements of waste between the UK and other countries

and provide a framework for enforcement. Some movements are prohibited, others are subject to

prior written notification and consent procedures and some are subject to basic administrative

controls. The control depends on the nature of the waste, its destination and whether it is destined

for recovery or disposal.

UK Ship recycling strategy

Ship recycling is a global issue. Defra considers the environmentally sound management of ships

to be a high priority and in 2007 issued a Ship Recycling Strategy for UK ships.

Electrical and electronic equipment

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and Restriction of Hazardous Substances in

electrical and electronic equipment (RoHS) directives aim to reduce he quantity of waste from

electrical and electronic and increase its re-use, recovery and recycling. The RoHS directive aims

to limit the environmental impact of electrical and electronic equipment when it reached the end

of its life. It does this by minimising the hazardous substances of legislation controlling hazardous

substances in electrical equipment across the community. More information is available on the

Environment Agency website.

Packaging, packaging waste and packaging waste regulations

These regulations aim to harmonise national measures concerning the management of packaging

and packaging waste to provide a high level of environmental protection and to ensure the

functioning of the internal market. For more details read the government’s policy on reducing and

managing waste.

Landfill directive

This directive aims to prevent or reduce as far as possible negative effects on the environment

from the landfilling of waste, by introducing stringent technical requirements for waste and

landfills and setting targets for the reduction of biodegradable municipal waste going to landfill.

For more information, read the government’s policy on reducing and managing waste.
End-of-life vehicles (ELVs) Regulation 2003

This regulation aims to prevent waste from end-of-life vehicles and promote the collection, re-use

and recycling of their components to protect the environment.

Batteries directive

This directive aims to improve the environmental performance of batteries and minimise the

impact waste batteries have on the environment. It does this by:

• restricting the use of cadmium and mercury in the design and manufacture of new batteries

• setting collection and recycling targets for waste portable batteries

• banning the disposal of untreated automotive or industrial batteries in landfill or by incineration

• Waste incineration legislation

• Environmental Protection Act 1990

• Environment Act 1995

• information on the Waste and Emissions Trading Act 2003

• Producer responsibility obligations (packaging waste) regulations 1997

• Differing requirements for domestic/commercial/industrial waste in many

countries (link to Element 6.4)

Domestic waste

Domestic waste is waste that is generated as a result of the ordinary day-to-day use of a domestic

premise and either:

1. taken from the premises by or on behalf of the person who generated the waste; or

2. collected by or on behalf of a local government as part of a waste collection and disposal system.

It is not domestic waste if it is:

• taken from domestic premises under a commercial arrangement (ie waste collected in a skip

supplied by a commercial operator)

• generated at domestic premises as a result of a commercial arrangement (ie. waste generated by a

builder paid to perform renovations)

This type of waste would be classified as commercial waste.

Commercial and industrial waste

Commercial waste can be defined as any waste generated as a result of carrying out a business,
including associated lawn and garden clippings from normal maintenance of the business

premises. Commercial waste also includes rubbish produced by your customers ie. food wrappers

and containers. Some waste facilities do not accept commercial waste.

Commercial waste is generated as a result of carrying out of any of the following activities:

• manufacturing and industrial processes

• mining

• wholesale or retail trading

• sorting, resource recovery, reprocessing and recycling operations

• activities carried out at a domestic premises under a commercial arrangement

• accommodation services

• hospitality services, including catering

• primary industries, including agricultural, forestry and fishing

• veterinary services

• health services, including operating a nursing home

• educational services

• activities carried out by charities

• activities carried out by churches

• organising concerts and other entertainment events; and

• other business activities, including administrative services.

The reasons commercial waste is treated differently

There are a number of reasons why commercial waste is treated differently to domestic waste. This

includes:

• The legislative framework is different for commercial waste, resulting in additional compliance

requirements for us.

• Domestic properties are charged a waste management facility charge as part of the property rates,

however commercial properties are not. The payment of the waste management facility charge

allows a nil-gate charge for domestic customers.

• Certain wastes are classified as 'regulated waste' when generated by a commercial business,

therefore these need to be appropriately managed.

• Commercial businesses generate larger quantities of wastes.

• The previous version of the State Waste Levy applied only to commercial waste and not domestic

waste. It is not yet known if the incoming waste levy will initially apply to commercial businesses

only, and therefore our ability to receive commercial waste at our facilities.

• Waste from construction projects.

Construction waste will include waste arising from land excavation, formation, civil/building

construction, or demolition activities.Waste includes various types of construction debris, rubble,

earth, concrete,timber and mixed site clearance materials.

The main construction wastes generated from these construction activities will be:

• site clearance waste/demolition waste

• excavated materials (including contaminated sediments)

• waste concrete

• wooden material

• chemical waste

• wheel wash waste

• sewage

• municipal/domestic waste

6.4 Outlets available for waste

• Landfill and incineration as ultimate disposal routes; advantages and disadvantages

.In many countries, the municipal solid waste is mainly landfilled, however, some other European

countries landfilling is not usual, and municipal waste is sorted and reused in more effective ways

Landfilling is a simple and common solution to handle waste .A landfill is a solid waste disposal

method in which discarded materials are buried between layers of earth in an attempt to reduce

public health hazards caused by decaying refuse

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA,USA), there are more than 10,000 old

municipal landfills and more than 1,754 active landfills in the United States as of 2007. Though

modern landfills are required to be impermeable waste containers, most of the older landfills were

simply holes dug in the ground where everything from cans of paint to old washing machines was

buried. However, even the newest landfill containers have been found to leak over time. The use
of landfills has contributed to both air and water pollution.

Landfills have many environmental problems. The most important is that the waste is piling up,

and polluting the environment nearby. Landfills are a source of methane emissions. There is also

a danger that the groundwater is contaminated by the emission from a landfill. In a sparsely

populated area, building a landfill is not a problem, but in populous Middle Europe there are

considerably less landfills because of the lack of space.

Incineration

Incineration is s the combustion of waste in an incinerating plant. Incinerating has its own

advantages . In incinerating, the waste volume can be diminished, and get energy simultaneously

from the process. Incinerating waste can replace fossil fuel combustion to some extent in energy

production.

The downsides in incinerating are that the incinerated waste may have material that is not suitable

for incinerating. If the incinerated waste is not properly assorted incineration may have harmful

emissions to the air, such as heavy metals. However, incinerating industrial waste is clearly more

trouble-free. This is because the content of industrial waste is known, and therefore also the

emissions can be controlled.

• Domestic waste sites, waste transfer stations, waste treatment facilities involving

recovery operations

Waste transfer stations play an important role in a community’s total waste management system,

serving as the link between a community’s solid waste collection program and a final waste

disposal facility. While facility ownership, sizes, and services offered vary significantly among

transfer stations, they all serve the same basic purpose—consolidating waste from multiple

collection vehicles into larger, high-volume transfer vehicles for more economical shipment to

distant disposal sites. In its simplest form, a transfer station is a facility with a designated receiving

area where waste collection vehicles discharge their loads. The waste is often compacted, then

loaded into larger vehicles (usually transfer trailers, but intermodal containers, railcars, and barges

are also used) for long-haul shipment to a final disposal site—typically a landfill, wasteto-energy

plant, or a composting facility. No long-term storage of waste occurs at a transfer station; waste is

quickly consolidated and loaded into a larger vehicle and moved off site, usually in a matter of
hours.

Why Use Waste Transfer Stations? The primary reason for using a transfer station is to reduce

the cost of transporting waste to disposal facilities. Consolidating smaller loads from collection

vehicles into larger transfer vehicles reduces hauling costs by enabling collection crews to spend

less time traveling to and from distant disposal sites and more time collecting waste. This also

reduces fuel consumption and collection vehicle maintenance costs, plus produces less overall

traffic, air emissions, and road wear.

In addition, a transfer station also provides:

• An opportunity to screen waste prior to disposal

• Flexibility in selecting waste disposal options.

• An opportunity to serve as a convenience center for public use.

At many transfer stations, workers screen incoming wastes on conveyor systems, tipping floors,

or in receiving pits. Waste screening has two components: separating recyclables from the waste

stream and identifying any wastes that might be inappropriate for disposal (e.g., hazardous wastes

or materials, white goods, whole tires, auto batteries, or infectious waste). Identifying and

removing recyclables reduces the weight and volume of waste sent for final disposal and,

depending on local recycling markets, might generate revenue. Screening for inappropriate wastes

is more efficient at the transfer station than the landfill. Waste transfer stations also offer more

flexibility in terms of disposal options. Decisionmakers have the opportunity to select the most

cost-effective and/or environmentally protective disposal sites, even if they are more distant. They

can consider multiple disposal facilities, secure competitive disposal fees, and choose a desired

method of disposal (e.g., landfilling or incineration). Finally, transfer stations often include

convenience centers open to public use. These centers enable individual citizens to deliver waste

directly to the transfer station facility for ultimate disposal. Some convenience centers offer

programs to manage yard waste, bulky items, household hazardous waste, and recyclables. These

multipurpose convenience centers are assets to the community because they assist in achieving

recycling goals, increase the public’s knowledge of proper materials management, and divert

materials that would otherwise burden existing disposal capacity.

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Basic Transfer Station Technologies

Waste can be unloaded directly into the “open top” of the trailer, but is most often unloaded on

the tipping floor to allow for materials recovery and waste inspection before being pushed into the

trailer. Large trailers, usually 100 cubic yards or more, are necessary to get a good payload because

the waste is not compacted. This is a simple technology that does not rely on sophisticated

equipment (e.g., compactor or baler). Its flexibility makes it the preferred option for low-volume

operations. The surge pit is not a loading technology, but an intermediate step normally used with

open-top or precompactor systems. The pit can store peak waste flow, thus reducing the number

of transfer trailers needed. A tracked loader or bulldozer is used to compact the waste before

loading, increasing payload. Because waste is often unloaded directly into the surge pit, this

technology might deter materials recovery and waste screening efforts. Precompactor systems use

a hydraulic ram inside a cylinder to create a dense “log” of waste. The log is pushed into a trailer

that uses “walking floor” technology to unload or relies on a tipper at the landfill to unload by

gravity. Most precompactor installations have two units in case one unit requires repair. Balers are

units that compress waste into dense, self-contained bales. Wire straps may be used to hold the

bales intact. They are usually moved by forklifts and transported by flatbed trailers. The baler units

can also be used for recyclables such as paper and metal. Payloads are very high, but so are capital

costs. Most baling stations have at least two units in case one is down.This high-technology option

is normally used only in high-volume operations, and special equipment or accommodations might

be required at the landfill (or balefill). In this alternative, waste is tipped at a transfer station, then

loaded into intermodal containers. These containers typically have moisture- and odor-control

features and are designed to fit on both flatbed trailers and railroad flatcars. The containers may

be loaded directly onto railcars or transferred by truck to a train terminal. The sealed containers

can be stored on site for more than 24 hours until enough containers are filled to permit economic

transport to the landfill. At the landfill, these containers are usually unloaded by tippers. This

option allows for reduction of total truck traffic on local roads and can make distant disposal sites

economically viable.

Principles

It is for waste producers and their managers to satisfy landfill operators that waste has been treated
and this means meeting the 3-point test. All three need to be satisfied. The following principles

should help in applying the test.

• All of the waste must have been treated. Collection services that mix treated and untreated waste

are not meeting the requirement and all the waste will need further treatment before landfill. In

many cases it will be easier to treat the waste before collection or undertake separate collection

rounds. If the treatment option

is to separate out certain recyclable material, one could reasonably expect all of that material to

have been removed, not just one or two items.

• Sorting is an acceptable form of treatment because if it is carried out properly it will change the

characteristics of the waste and meet one of the four strands of point 3 of the test, e.g. reducing

volume to landfill. Source segregation meets the same criteria and is acceptable treatment. Where

the sorted or segregated waste is then recovered or re-cycled, it also moves that waste up the waste

hierarchy.

• Compaction is not an acceptable treatment, as it does not change the characteristics of the waste

that will have the same impact on the environment as un-compacted waste.

The three point test

1. Process applied

You must determine whether one or more physical, thermal, chemical or biological process is

involved.

Some simple physical treatments could pass the first criterion of the three-point test but may not

pass the other criteria. All three parts of the three-point test must be applied to a treatment process

for it to be considered valid.

You will also need to consider other landfill requirements before deciding that a treatment method

is valid. For example, shredding used tyres is a physical treatment, but shredded used tyres are

banned from landfill disposal. Precipitation and subsequent dewatering of a waste might be an

adequate physico-chemical treatment but the solid fraction must meetthe relevant waste acceptance

criteria before it is landfilled and the liquid fraction is prohibited.

2. Change characteristics

The characteristics of a waste are those key properties thataffect its potential impact on human
health or the environment in a landfill. Examples of the characteristics which may be changed

during a treatment are

Solubility Changing, Leachability , Biodegradability, Combustibility

Volatility Chemical composition

Physical form Changing, Hazardousness ,Homogeneity/Heterogeneity Separation processes are

likely to lead to the ability to recover one or

more of the separated streams. Homogenous wastes are also often

more amenable to chemical treatment, and homogenous

biodegradable wastes will decompose more rapidly.

To meet the treatment requirement, the change in characteristics must bring about

compliance with the third criteria. This means that although changing a specific

characteristic of one waste may satisfy the LfD, the same change for another waste

may not. For example, a change in particle size may enhance recovery of landfill gas

for some wastes, but not for others.

3. Outcome

a. Reduce volume

We consider that processes that reduce the volume ofthe waste by compaction -

such as compacting household waste in a refuse collection vehicle (or elsewhere) -

do not change the characteristics of the waste so don’t meet the second criterion.

The intent of the LfD is to reduce the quantity of waste landfilled. Examples of

processes that change the characteristics of the waste in order to reduce the

quantity landfilled include: the incineration of waste; the sorting of waste to divert a

stream from landfill; or the composting of waste to remove organic matter. Reducing

volume is therefore most likely to be achieved by removing an element of the waste

for preparation for re-use, recycling or other forms of recovery.

b. Reduce hazardous nature

You must interpret this criterion in relation to the waste being landfilled. A separation

process may result in a concentrated hazardous stream for further treatment and a

less hazardous stream for landfill. This will reduce the hazardousness of the
landfilled waste.

The simplest way to demonstrate a reduction in hazardousness is to treat hazardous

waste, for example to,

• remove one or more of the hazards associated with the waste

• reduce one of the hazards to a lower hazard

o corrosive to irritant

o very toxic to harmful

o toxic to harmful

For non-hazardous waste, reducing hazardous nature may include removing

biodegradable waste to reduce the residual wastes impact on methane production

and thus on climate change.

In reducing hazardous nature, dilution is not acceptable.

c. Facilitate handling

Government’s view is that when the LfD refers to a treatment changing the

characteristics of waste in order to facilitate handling, this means:

• the handling which takes place during the placement of the waste in the

landfill; or

• any foreseeable subsequent handling; but

• nothandling prior to landfilling.

Where the proposed treatment is to facilitate handling,the change in characteristics

that will facilitate handling should reduce the negative effects on the environment or

health arising from landfilling the waste. Examples include treatments that cause

long-term change in the characteristics of the source term in terms of leachability,

generation of gas, volatile compounds or odour.

d. Enhance recovery

The key provision is that the requirement is ‘in order to’ enhance recovery. Sorting or

segregation does not of itself enhance recovery– you must intend to recover part or

all of the waste. It is not acceptable to sort wastes and then landfill all the sorted

materials as none of the waste would be recovered. Sorting, then disposal will also
not meet objectives ofthe waste hierarchy.

Some wastes being landfilled may already be the product of a treatment process,

e.g. bottom ash from incineration. You do nothave to provide additional treatment for

such wastes.

There are two exceptions to the need for treatment (as outlined bythe LfD, article

6(a)) because there are sometimes no treatments available that would contribute

towards the aim of the LfD.These exceptions are:

a. inert waste for which treatmentis not technically feasible;

b. waste other than inert waste where treatment would not reduce its quantity

or the hazards that it poses to human health or the environment.

Sorting and segregation - the need to meet all three criteria

Sorting is specified in the LfD as an acceptable process. For example, if paper and

plastic are mixed at source and are then sorted at a materials recovery facility

(MRF), this clearly meets the first criterion. In our view, it would defeat the purposes

of the LfD if ensuring that the waste streams are not mixed at the outset were not

regarded as a treatment. Therefore, subject to the following considerations, we

regard source segregation in such circumstances as an acceptable physical

treatment process.

We do not regard sorting orsegregation as an acceptable process if the wastes

would not normally be expected to be mixed in the first place. Similarly, we would not

accept the deliberate mixing and subsequent separation of wastes.

Sorting or segregation must still meet the other two criteria. The characteristics of the

waste will change (second criterion) because two or more wastes will replace the

single mixed waste, each ofthem less heterogeneous than that single waste.

With regard to the third criterion (for both sorting and segregation), one or more of

the separated streams must then be further treated before landfill. If the separate

streams are all landfilled without treatment, then the third criterion will not have been

met — there will have been no reduction in quantity or hazardousness, no

enhancement of recovery. In rare circumstances a treatment may meet the third

criterion by facilitating handling (see below). An example mightbe a dusty waste,

where the dust was separated and landfilled with additional controls.

Some wastes arise as a single, uncontaminated stream and therefore cannot be

segregated. For example, a waste might consist wholly of plastic off-cuts. Such

plastic from a segregated source or materials recovery facility (MRF) could,

assuming the other waste fraction is treated, be landfilled. It might therefore be

suggested that it is unreasonable to requiretreatment of the single waste stream.

However, it will normally be appropriate to recover or treat this waste whether or not

it has been segregated or sorted. Failure to recover or otherwise treat (for example,

by incineration) such a waste must be justified because it is not technically feasible

or does not contribute to the objectives of the LfD. The justification can be included

in the duty of care written declaration.

How much waste must be segregated?

Does the segregation of a small proportion of material for recovery make the rest of

the waste stream a treated waste? In such cases a landfill operator is likely to be

faced with residual waste which shows no physical evidence of treatment and a

declaration by the holder that the waste is treated waste. Asthe aim of the legislation

is to encourage re-use, recycling and recovery and reduce the amount of waste

being landfilled you should aim to recover as much as possible. This will also reduce

the amount of landfill tax you pay.

• Waste disposal in developing countries and problems associated with domestic waste

Proper management of solid wastes continues to be a serious problem world wide and especially

in the economically developing countries. Growing population, rising standards of living and

life-style, industrialization, and production and consumption of new products are acting in

concert to generate increasingly greater quantities of solid wastes, and this in turn is creating

serious problems of their management and proper disposal. Being aware of the implications of

the problems of improper management and disposal, the developed countries have established

their regulatory programmes. But the economically developing countries continue to manage

solid wastes in what may be described as primitive ways such as throwing into open and
unregulated dumps.

• Costs and the impact of landfill and aggregate taxes.

The costs of developing and operating MSW landfills are ultimately covered by tipping fees,

general tax revenues, or a combination of the two. Tipping fees ultimately reflect many aspects of

MSW disposal. Population and economic growth, recycling rates, operating and transportation

costs, land values, and legislation all contribute to how much waste disposal facilities charge for

the privilege of waste disposal (Chartwell, 1998).

Without an effective mechanism for transmitting cost information, waste generators have no

incentive to reduce their generation rates. Second, tax-supported facilities are typically

underfunded relative to actual disposal costs, resulting in poorer operation than fully funded

landfills supported by tipping fees (U.S. EPA, OSWER, 1989). Factors that influence the choice

of revenue sources include landfill size and ownership. Landfills receiving small quantities of

waste are likely to rely heavily on taxes for their revenue while larger landfills rely on both taxes

and tipping fees. Not surprisingly, private owners of landfills rely heavily on tipping fees relative

to other landfill owners. It remains unclear whether private landfills rely on tipping fees because

they are larger, or larger landfills rely heavily on tipping fees because they are private. A distinction

must be drawn between tipping fees and the actual costs of landfilling. Communities often set

tipping fees to cover current operating costs without regard to amortization of capital expenditures

(capital equipment, land, closure, and long-term care costs).

In addition to tax subsidies, tipping fees do not cover the actual costs to society of disposal because

landfill costs usually do not include three important social costs

(1) Depletion costs of existing landfills (i.e., discounted present value of the difference in landfill

costs today and the future costs of a replacement landfill),

(2) Opportunity costs of land used in landfills, and

(3) Environmental costs (risk of environmental damage from landfills).

a landfill tax has a significant effect on the amount of waste landfilled. The higher the landfill tax

the more waste will be recycled or incinerated. The model predicts that municipalities will start to

incinerate all their waste if the landfill tax becomes too high. In municipalities that charge a flat

fee for waste collection, households will not have an incentive to recycle more waste. Recycling
efforts, however, are low regardless of the pricing system for waste collection. The increase in the

landfill tax will only provide a small price incentive to recycle. Most of the municipal solid waste

is already incinerated so the price increase of waste collection due to the landfill tax will be slight.

6.5 Risks associated with contaminated land

• The potential effects of contaminated land to the environment

Land disposal has been used by humankind as a primary means of discarding waste materials. As

society advanced through the industrial, and into the modern technological ages, the many

materials used in this forward progress have become increasingly toxic, so too are the types of

wastes generated by this development. Despite this fact, landfills continued to be used as a legacy

of waste management. Only in recent decades have people become aware of the inherent dangers

posed by the disposing of toxic wastes in traditional uncontrolled landfills. Most important is the

understanding of the detrimental impacts that landfills cause to the subsurface environment,

most particularly groundwater resources. Groundwater is a critical resource that is closely

interconnected with many important surface based ecological environments such as lakes, rivers

and wetlands. Groundwater serves as a source of water supply to these sensitive ecological systems

and as a water supply source for human consumption. Landfills also occupy large tracts of land

that could be better used to support other more beneficial purposes. As people’s awareness to the

dangers of landfilling has increased it has become apparent that this form of waste disposal is no

longer acceptable. Until recent times, landfills were not constructed with protective measures to

prevent the critical constituents they contained from leaching downward through the soils,

contaminating both the subsurface soils and the groundwater under the landfill. Unfortunately,

even with the current state of the art standards to which landfills must be constructed, in time these

landfills will fail and will leak contaminants into the underlying soils and groundwater. Today

scientists are more sharply aware of the close interaction between surface and groundwater, and

the dynamics of groundwater flow as part of the greater hydrologic cycle. Groundwater systems

are not static, but can flow great distances below the surface, often carrying and spreading any

pollutants that may have leached downward from a landfill into an aquifer. In recent decades, there

have been enormous advancements in the geological, hydrogeological, and geochemical sciences

that have done much to reveal the extent of the landfill problem. Moreover, these same advances
in geological sciences play a pivotal role in remedying damage to subsurface environment.

• Liabilities of an organisation from contaminated land, ie, remediation, costs (link

to Element 1.2).

Soil pollution is a serious problem of modern society. Most countries in Europe, in particular

industrialized countries, are confronted with problems of soil contamination. A number of

incidents (Lekkerkerk, Mellery, Love Canal...) raised public consciousness about the potentially

very grave consequences of contaminated soil. In addition to health and environmental hazards,

the cost of clean-up can run into billions. To a large extent soil pollution is of historic origin.

Substantial soil pollution took place as of the second half of the 19th century as a result of the

industrial revolution and the application of new techniques without always paying attention to the

negative impact upon the environment. Industrial activities and the fulfilment of certain tasks of

public interest (eg. public dump sites) have been the main causes of soil pollution. Presently, the

sources of pollution are diverse. They include, among others, spills, storage and transport of

products (e.g. underground storage tank or pipelines), deposit of waste (e.g. industrial waste on

plant sites, household waste on communal dump sites) or in the general use of polluting products.

Also the use of waste as secondary raw materials (e.g. the use of polluted building materials for

the construction of parking lots) may lead to soil pollution. Further, atmospheric deposition (eg.

deposit of dioxines as a result of industrial incineration) and polluted surface water may cause soil

pollution in an indirect way. Postponing the clean-up or control of polluted sites will cause a further

dispersion of the pollution and will constitute a threat to man and the environment. For the future,

a preventive policy must be conducted in order to avoid as much as possible additional soil

pollution.