Journal of Mammalogy, 88(4):840–849, 2007

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE NEW WORLD FLYING

SQUIRRELS: PHYLOGENY, BIOGEOGRAPHY, AND
CONSERVATION GENETICS
BRIAN S. ARBOGAST*
Department of Biological Sciences and Vertebrate Museum, Humboldt State University,
1 Harpst Street, Arcata, CA 95521, USA

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I summarize our current understanding of the evolutionary origin and biogeographic history of the New World
flying squirrels (Glaucomys). The emerging synthesis of flying squirrel systematics supports a monophyletic
origin for the group in the early Miocene followed by a divergence of New World and Eurasian flying squirrels
in the late Miocene. Today, the New World flying squirrels consist of 2 recognized species, G. sabrinus and
G. volans. These 2 species are closely associated with the northern coniferous and deciduous hardwood forest
biomes of North America, respectively, making them especially useful as biogeographic indicator species for
these 2 forest types. Molecular systematic studies have revealed the presence of 2 distinct evolutionary lineages
within G. sabrinus (a widespread Continental lineage and a more geographically restricted Pacific Coastal
lineage). Bacular morphology and data from nuclear loci suggest recent or ongoing gene flow between these 2
lineages where they meet in the Pacific Northwest of North America. Populations of G. volans from eastern North
America represent a 3rd distinct lineage within the genus. Mesoamerican flying squirrels (traditionally considered
to be southern forms of G. volans) have not been examined with molecular data and may represent 1 or more
additional lineages. From a biogeographic perspective, Quaternary climatic fluctuations and associated changes
in the location and extent of forest habitats appear to have been important factors in promoting early evolutionary
diversification within the genus; structuring of intraspecific patterns of genetic variation; and producing
geographically isolated peripheral populations in high-elevation habitats at the southern extremes of each species’
range, several of which are now of conservation concern. These results have broad implications for understanding
the Quaternary biogeography of the coniferous and deciduous forest biomes of North America.

Key words: biogeography, boreal forest, comparative phylogeography, flying squirrel, Glaucomys sabrinus, Glaucomys
volans, phylogeography, Pleistocene, Pteromyini

Flying squirrels are a diverse group of nocturnal, arboreal a uropatagium extending between their ankles and the base
rodents that are highly adapted for gliding locomotion. They of the tail. This feature is lacking or greatly reduced in the
range in size from the 24-g pygmy flying squirrels (Petaurillus) smaller species.
to the 1.5-kg giant flying squirrels (Petaurista—Thorington Currently, 15 genera and 44 species of flying squirrels are
and Heaney 1981). All flying squirrels are characterized by recognized, with the majority (14 of the 15 genera and 42 of
the presence of a membrane of skin between their wrists and the 44 species) occurring in Eurasia, especially Southeast Asia
ankles (a patagium) that they extend when gliding. There are (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). The only genus to occur
2 basic types of tail morphology (Thorington et al. 2002). In outside of Eurasia is Glaucomys; this genus is restricted to
the smaller species (those less than approximately 1 kg), the North America and Mesoamerica (Mexico plus Central
lateral hairs of the tail are much longer than the dorsal and America) and comprises 2 species, the northern flying squirrel
ventral hairs, resulting in a flattened, featherlike tail; in the (G. sabrinus) and the southern flying squirrel (G. volans).
larger species (those greater than approximately 1 kg), the tail In this paper, I summarize our current understanding of the
is round in cross section. The larger species also have evolution, biogeography, and conservation genetics of the New
World flying squirrels. I begin with an overview of the
phylogeny and taxonomy of flying squirrels in general, briefly
* Correspondent: bsa2@humboldt.edu synthesizing existing morphological and molecular studies of
the group. I then focus on Glaucomys in particular, highlighting
Ó 2007 American Society of Mammalogists recent phylogeographic and conservation genetics research on
www.mammalogy.org the genus. In keeping with the spirit of this symposium, I have
840
August 2007 SPECIAL FEATURE—HISTORY OF NEW WORLD FLYING SQUIRRELS 841

focused primarily on the northern flying squirrel. The close to Glaucomys (see Thorington et al. 2002; Fig. 1). Although
association of this species with the northern coniferous forests not all relationships were well resolved, Thorington et al.
of North America makes it especially useful as a biogeographic (2002) recovered a ‘‘Glaucomys group’’ comprising the genera
indicator species. Indeed, insights gained from studies of G. Glaucomys, Eoglaucomys, Iomys, Petinomys, Hylopetes,
sabrinus have been instrumental in shaping our current and Petaurillus. Within this group, Glaucomys and Eoglauc-
understanding of the Pleistocene biogeography of the boreal omys occupied basal positions, suggesting that the North
forest biome of North America in general. To a lesser degree, I American and Asian flying squirrels diverged from one an-
also focus on the southern flying squirrel. Because this species other relatively early in the radiation. The Glaucomys group
is closely associated with the deciduous hardwood forests of recovered by Thorington et al. (2002) was identical to that
eastern North America and the highlands of Mesoamerica, it proposed by Thorington and Darrow (2000), but differed from
serves as a biogeographic indicator species for this forest type, those of McKenna (1962) and Mein (1970). Thorington et al.

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much in the same way as G. sabrinus does for the northern (2002) also found support for 2 additional clades of flying
coniferous forest. Examining both species together therefore squirrels: one comprising Trogopterus, Aeromys, Belomys, and
provides a broad perspective on the Quaternary biogeography Pteromyscus and the other comprising Petaurista, Pteromys,
of 2 of North America’s most extensive forest types. In the end, Eupetaurus, and Aeretes. Together, these latter 2 clades con-
I highlight what I view as important, and as yet unanswered, tain the 8 genera recognized as the ‘‘Petaurista group’’ by
questions regarding the evolutionary history and biogeography Thorington and Darrow (2000).
of the New World flying squirrels. Two recent molecular studies (Mercer and Roth 2003;
Steppan et al. 2004) have greatly clarified the phylogeny of
squirrels, and that of flying squirrels in particular (Fig. 1).
PHYLOGENY AND TAXONOMY OF LIVING These researchers conducted phylogenetic analyses of sev-
FLYING SQUIRRELS eral relatively slowly evolving genes (the 12S mitochondrial
Flying squirrels traditionally have been considered a sub- gene and the IRBP, RAG1, and Cmyc nuclear gene regions).
family (Pteromyinae) within the family Sciuridae, which also Their results agree in strongly supporting a monophyletic
contains tree and ground squirrels (subfamily Sciurinae; see origin of flying squirrels. In addition, a sister relationship
Thorington et al. [2002] for a detailed review of the taxonomic between flying squirrels and tree squirrels (specifically the New
history of flying squirrels). However, the phylogenetic position World tree squirrels) is strongly supported (Fig. 1). The orig-
and taxonomy of flying squirrels has been the subject of ination of flying squirrels therefore appears to be relatively
considerable debate. One major issue has been whether flying recent, approximately 18–20 million years ago (early Miocene—
squirrels arose from an ancestral lineage of tree squirrels or Mercer and Roth 2003). The divergence of the New World
from an independent lineage of Eocene pyramyid rodents (de flying squirrels (Glaucomys) from Asian flying squirrels is
Bruijn and Ünay 1989; Mein 1970). A 2nd issue has been estimated to have followed 4–6 million years later (Mercer and
whether flying squirrels are monophyletic or if gliding may Roth 2003).
have arisen multiple times in the group (see Black 1963, 1972; The results of the molecular phylogenetic studies of Mercer
Ellerman 1940; Hight et al. 1974; Major 1893; Thomas 1908; and Roth (2003) and Steppan et al. (2004) have shaped our
Thorington 1984). There also has been disagreement among current understanding of flying squirrel evolution, biogeogra-
researchers on the phylogenetic relationships among the 15 phy, and taxonomy in several important ways. First, a Miocene
extant genera of flying squirrels and how these genera are origin of flying squirrels suggests that dental characters linking
related to fossil forms (McKenna 1962; Mein 1970; Thorington earlier Oligocene fossil teeth to modern flying squirrels may be
and Darrow 2000; Thorington et al. 1996). The relationship misleading, echoing the concerns of Thorington et al. (2005).
among living and fossil forms, as well as the 1st appearance of Second, the molecular data (Mercer and Roth 2003; Fig. 1B)
flying squirrels in the fossil record, is complicated by the fact support the same basic relationships among living genera of
that dental features once considered diagnostic of fossil flying flying squirrels as that proposed by Thorington and Darrow
squirrels (e.g., those described by James [1963]) have been (2000) and Thorington et al. (2002) based on morphological
documented in tree and ground squirrels as well (Thorington data. In particular, both sources of data support the existence
et al. 2005). of a monophyletic Glaucomys group containing the same 6
Thorington et al. (2002) examined intergeneric relation- genera, and both indicate that the divergence of the New World
ships among flying squirrels by conducting a cladistic analysis flying squirrels from their Asian relatives occurred early within
of 75 dental and postcranial morphological characters. They the radiation of this Glaucomys group. Using a fossil-calibrated
also used a constrained-tree approach to compare their results sciurid-specific molecular clock and 3 genes, Mercer and Roth
to 3 published hypotheses of flying squirrel relationships— (2003) estimated that this divergence occurred approximately
those of McKenna (1962), Mein (1970) and Thorington and 14 million years ago. This is consistent with palynological data
Darrow (2000). McKenna (1962) and Mein (1970) used dental indicating that Beringia was both emergent and forested at this
characters to formulate their hypotheses, whereas Thorington time and therefore could have provided a link between Asia
and Darrow (2000) relied primarily on postcranial anatomy. and North America suitable for dispersal of flying squirrels
The 3 hypotheses in question vary in several respects, in- (Mercer and Roth 2003; Wing 1998). Third, the finding that
cluding which genera are considered to be most closely related flying squirrels are sister to the New World tree squirrels has
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FIG. 1.—Phylogenies of flying squirrels. A) Summary of phylogenetic relationships among major lineages of squirrels showing position of
flying squirrels (tribe Pteromyini) as sister to North American tree squirrels. Adapted from Steppan and Hamm (The Tree of Life Web Project,
http://tolweb.org/Sciuridae/16456/2006.05.13). B) Detailed phylogenetic relationships among 14 extant genera of flying squirrels (black lines) and
New World tree squirrels (gray lines) based on the molecular analysis of Mercer and Roth (2003). Arrow indicates the node defining the
‘‘Glaucomys group’’ (sensu Thorington and Darrow [2000] and Thorington et al. [2002]).

necessitated a change in the traditional taxonomy for the family Together, the sister relationship of the Pteromyini with the
Sciuridae, which treated flying squirrels as a distinct subfamily New World tree squirrels (Sciurinae), the current geographic
(Pteromyinae) sister to all other living squirrels. Thorington distribution of the Pteromyini (which includes both Asia and
and Hoffmann (2005) recently revised the classification of North America), and the phylogenetic position of Glaucomys
squirrels accordingly; the 5 major lineages identified by Mercer (Fig. 1) relative to Asian forms, suggest that trans-Beringian
and Roth (2003) and Steppan et al. (2004) are now treated as dispersal has played an important role in shaping the evolu-
subfamilies (Ratufinae, Sciurillinae, Sciurinae, Xerinae, and tionary history of flying squirrels.
Callosciurinae) and the flying squirrels are now considered
a tribe (Pteromyini) within the subfamily Sciurinae (Fig. 1A).
The emerging synthesis of flying squirrel phylogeny there- SYSTEMATICS, BIOGEOGRAPHY, AND
fore indicates that flying squirrels are monophyletic and CONSERVATION GENETICS OF GLAUCOMYS
most closely related to the New World tree squirrels. Flying The 2 species of New World flying squirrels are morpho-
squirrels appear to have originated in the early to middle logically similar to one another in many respects (see Dolan
Miocene. The New World flying squirrels (Glaucomys) appear and Carter 1977; Wells-Gosling and Heaney 1984). However,
to have diverged from Asian flying squirrels relatively early G. sabrinus is considerably larger than G. volans (approxi-
in the history of the group, most likely in the late Miocene. mately 75–140 g for the former versus 46–85 g for the latter)
August 2007 SPECIAL FEATURE—HISTORY OF NEW WORLD FLYING SQUIRRELS 843

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FIG. 2.—Geographic distributions of the New World flying squirrels (Glaucomys). A) Geographic distribution of the northern flying squirrel
(G. sabrinus) with the Pacific Coastal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA clade) shown in black and the Continental mtDNA clade shown in gray. The
2 clades overlap geographically in a narrow region in northwestern North America (see text). Subspecies of G. sabrinus that are listed as
endangered at the state, federal, or international level are labeled. More detailed maps (insets) are provided for G. s. fuscus and G. s. coloratus
from the Appalachian Mountains and G. s. griseifrons from the Alexander Archipelago of southeastern Alaska (note that in the latter, flying
squirrels have not been documented to occur on the lightly shaded islands). B) Geographic distribution of the southern flying squirrel (G. volans).
All populations of G. volans surveyed from eastern North America belong to a single mtDNA clade (gray). The disjunct populations of G. volans
in Mesoamerica (black) have not been examined with molecular data. Geographic distributions of taxa and mtDNA clades are modified from
Wilson and Ruff (1999), Arbogast (1999), Bidlack and Cook (2001), and Arbogast et al. (2005).

and males of the 2 species have highly differentiated bacula that G. sabrinus (a widespread Continental lineage and a Pacific
are considered diagnostic. In most cases, the 2 species also Coastal lineage) and at least 1 within G. volans (Figs. 2 and 3).
occupy different forest types; G. sabrinus tends to be closely These 3 lineages within Glaucomys appear to have diverged
associated with northern coniferous forests and adjacent from one another in the early to middle Pleistocene (Arbogast
ecotones, whereas G. volans is found primarily in deciduous 1999). This estimate is relatively recent given the late-Miocene
hardwood forests. As a result, the 2 species have largely non- date estimated for the divergence of Glaucomys and Asian
overlapping geographic distributions (Fig. 2). However, areas of flying squirrels (Mercer and Roth 2003). However, little is
sympatry do exist where northern coniferous and deciduous known about the evolution of North American flying squirrels
hardwood forest types come into contact, such as in northeastern in the intervening period because of a lack of pre-Pleistocene
North America and in the Appalachian Mountains. The geo- fossils that can be conclusively diagnosed as ancestral to
graphic distributions of both species are characterized by the Glaucomys (Wells-Gosling and Heaney 1984).
presence of multiple disjunct populations at the southern edge of The mitochondiral DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny of Glaucomys
their respective ranges. In the case of G. sabrinus, this includes (Fig. 3) reveals that the Continental and Pacific Coastal clades
several subspecies that are listed as endangered at the federal of G. sabrinus are not sister to one another. Rather, the former
or state level (e.g., G. s. californicus, G. s. fuscus, and G. s. appears to be sister to a clade comprising G. volans from the
coloratus; Fig. 2). In the case of G. volans, this includes 6 sub- eastern United States. Minimum levels of corrected pairwise
species that occur only in disjunct areas of high-elevation oak sequence divergence in the mtDNA cytochrome-b gene (Cytb)
and oak–pine habitat in Mesoamerica (Dolan and Carter 1977). between all 3 clades are similar (approximately 4%), suggest-
Systematics.— Over the last decade, several studies (e.g., ing that they diverged from one another within a relatively
Arbogast 1999; Arbogast et al. 2005; Bidlack and Cook 2001, short period of time in the early to middle Pleistocene
2002; Demboski et al. 1998a; Petersen and Stewart 2006) have (Arbogast 1999). Although examination of these data hints
used molecular genetic approaches to examine the evolutionary that G. sabrinus may comprise 2 cryptic species, subsequent
history, biogeography, and conservation genetics of Glauc- comparisons of bacular morphology (R. W. Thorington, Jr.,
omys. Together these analyses have revealed that Glaucomys and B. S. Arbogast, in litt.) and analysis of nuclear markers
is monophyletic relative to Asian flying squirrels and that (Arbogast et al. 2005) have failed to detect species-level
the genus comprises at least 3 distinct lineages: 2 within differences between the Continental and Pacific Coastal
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FIG. 3.—Neighbor-joining tree showing evolutionary relationships among populations of the 2 species of Glaucomys based on analysis of the
mitochondrial DNA cytochrome-b gene (adapted from Arbogast et al. 2005). This tree is presented as a phylogram (branch lengths are
proportional except for that between Hylopetes and the ingroup taxa). Bootstrap values . 50% for the outgroup analysis are shown above the line
at each node, followed parenthetically by those estimated with the outgroup taxon removed (see Arbogast et al. [2005] for details). Localities (state
or province abbreviations and number of individuals showing a given haplotype) are indicated at each terminal branch. Haplotypes found in the
endangered southern Appalachian subspecies of G. sabrinus are indicated by asterisks.

mtDNA clades of this species. Therefore, recent or ongoing northern distributional limits of North American forests may
gene flow between these 2 clades seems likely, and they appear have approached those of today; however, the distributions of
to represent a single biological species despite their well- both coniferous and deciduous forest types would have been
differentiated mitochondrial genomes. In contrast, both nuclear pushed far to the south of their present ranges during glacial
and mtDNA markers clearly distinguish G. volans from both periods (J. M. Adams and H. Faure [eds.], QEN members, Oak
clades of G. sabrinus (Arbogast et al. 2005). Given that the 3 Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, Review and atlas of
mtDNA clades of Glaucomys appear to have diverged from one palaeovegetation: preliminary land ecosystem maps of the
another relatively recently, and that nuclear markers support world since the last glacial maximum, http://www.esd.ornl.-
current taxonomy, the paraphyly of G. sabrinus observed in the gov/ern/qen/adams1.html). Examination of the mtDNA data
mtDNA gene tree (Fig. 3) may simply represent incomplete suggests that contemporary populations of Glaucomys are
lineage sorting (Arbogast 1999). derived from ancestral populations isolated in 3 separate
Biogeography.— The contemporary large-scale population forested refugia (1 corresponding to each of the 3 mtDNA
genetic structures of both G. sabrinus and G. volans appear to clades in Fig. 3). Based on a molecular clock estimated for
have been strongly influenced by historical changes in the Cytb of rodents, Arbogast (1999) proposed that these clades
distribution of North American forests throughout the Quater- initially diverged in the early- to middle-Pleistocene; if correct,
nary (Arbogast 1999). Over the past 2 million years, North this would implicate a pre-Wisconsinan vicariant event(s), such
America has experienced 20 or more glacial–interglacial cycles as one of the earlier glacial cycles of the Pleistocene, as the
(Cox and Moore 2005). During interglacial periods, the source of the initial diversification within Glaucomys.
August 2007 SPECIAL FEATURE—HISTORY OF NEW WORLD FLYING SQUIRRELS 845

The phylogeographic structures of G. sabrinus and G. volans consequence of the Laurentide ice sheet of eastern North
suggest that the most recent (Wisconsinan) glaciation also had America retreating earlier or more quickly than the Cordilleran
important impacts on the biogeographic histories of these ice sheet of western North America (Cox and Moore 2005).
species. For example, today most of northern North America is Today, the Continental and Pacific Coastal clades of G.
occupied by the Continental mtDNA clade of G. sabrinus sabrinus, although largely nonoverlapping geographically, do
(Figs. 2 and 3). Within this clade, haplotypes from the come into contact in a narrow region of the Pacific Northwest
Appalachian Mountains are basal and there is a general of North America (Fig. 2A). Specifically, the 2 clades appear
southeast-to-northwest geographic structuring of haplotypes. to meet (and even overlap) in the Puget Sound region of
This pattern is consistent with a northward and westward post- northwestern Washington and in the southern Okanogan
Wisconsinan range expansion from a southeastern refugium. Highlands of southwestern British Columbia, Canada (B. S.
Allozyme data also support this scenario (Arbogast et al. 2005); Arbogast, in litt.). This area of the Pacific Northwest of North

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populations from Alaska at the far northwestern extreme of the America has been identified as having a relatively high
range of G. sabrinus exhibit much lower levels of poly- incidence of hybridization (between nominal species and
morphism and average individual heterozygosity than those subspecies) across a diverse array of animals, and it has been
from further to the south and east, and private alleles occur only considered an important ‘‘suture zone,’’ or zone of secondary
within the southern Appalachian populations of G. sabrinus, at contact between previously isolated biotas (Remington 1968).
the far southeastern extreme of the species’ range. This type of Comparative phylogeographic studies have revealed that many
geographic structuring of allozyme variation is predicted to mammals associated with the northern coniferous forests of
occur in species that have undergone an ice-age cycle of range North America (e.g., the American black bear [Ursus
contraction and expansion (Hewitt 1996). Analyses of mtDNA americanus], the American marten [Martes americana], voles
and microsatellite variation in populations of G. sabrinus from of the genus Clethrionomys [now referred to Myodes], and tree
Alaska are consistent with a late-Pleistocene–Holocene recolo- squirrels of the genus Tamiasciurus) exhibit a similar phylo-
nization of the region (Bidlack and Cook 2001, 2002). Both geographic discontinuity in the Northwest (Arbogast and
pollen and fossil evidence also are consistent with the Kenagy 2001; Demboski et al. 1999; Stone and Cook 2000;
hypothesis that the Continental clade of G. sabrinus underwent Wooding and Ward 1997). The geographically congruent
a rapid postglacial expansion out of a southeastern refugium. phylogeographic discontinuities in these mammals suggest that
For example, the pollen record indicates that although boreal they may have responded in a concerted fashion to vicariance
tree species such as spruce (Picea) were restricted to the south- in the environmental history of the region; this realization has
central United States during the Wisconsinan glacial maxi- had important implications for understanding the historical
mum, they expanded quickly to recolonize Alaska by assembly of the contemporary community of boreal forest
approximately 8,000 years ago (Ritchie 1987). Similarly, late mammals in North America (see Arbogast and Kenagy 2001).
Pleistocene remains of G. sabrinus have been found in several Relationships among haplotypes within the mtDNA clade
localities in the eastern and southeastern United States, corresponding to G. volans (Fig. 3) suggest a south-to-north
including Peccary Cave, Arkansas, far to the south of the pattern of postglacial recolonization in this species as well
current range of the species (Kurtén and Anderson 1980; (Arbogast 1999; Arbogast et al. 2005). Haplotypes from
Wells-Gosling and Heaney 1984). The disjunct populations of Florida and Louisiana are basal in this clade, and more northern
G. sabrinus currently found in the Appalachian Mountains haplotypes are all closely related to one another. A recent
(Fig. 2A) thus appear to be late Pleistocene relicts, isolated analysis of mtDNA variation in G. volans that included
from more northern, continuous populations of the species as populations of this species from southeastern Canada (Petersen
the distribution of boreal forest shifted northward following the and Stewart 2006) confirms this geographic pattern. These
most recent glacial retreat (Arbogast 1999; Arbogast et al. results are consistent with the paleovegetation record (Davis
2005; Weigl 1969). 1983) in supporting a northward postglacial recolonization of
The Pacific Coastal mtDNA clade of G. sabrinus, compris- eastern North America by G. volans out of a southeastern
ing populations currently found west of the Cascades and deciduous forest refugium that existed in the Gulf Coast region
Sierra Nevada in Washington, Oregon, and California, appears of North America during the most recent glacial maximum.
to be derived from an ancestral population that persisted in Adams and Faure (http://www.esd.ornl.gov/ern/qen/adams1.
a coniferous forest refugium that existed along the Pacific html) suggested that such a refugium may have been smaller
Coast of the United States (Arbogast 1999). Within this clade, and more fragmented than previously thought (Davis 1983).
haplotypes from Oregon are basal, suggesting that this may However, because the genetics of populations of G. volans
have been an important refugial area (Fig. 3). In contrast to the from Mesoamerica have not been examined, it remains to be
evidence supporting a rapid post-Wisconsinan range expansion seen how they will contribute to the overall historical biogeo-
of the Continental mtDNA clade of G. sabrinus, the Pacific graphic picture for Glaucomys.
Coastal mtDNA clade appears to have expanded its range only Conservation genetics.— Several studies have examined the
slightly northward following glacial retreats—a pattern char- genetics of populations of Glaucomys that are of conservation
acteristic of those taxa comprising the contemporary Pacific concern. In the southern Appalachians, 2 subspecies of G.
Coast mammalian fauna (Dalquest 1948). This apparent sabrinus (G. s. coloratus and G. s. fuscus) that are restricted to
asymmetry of postglacial recolonization may be a direct isolated stands of high-elevation boreal forests (Fig. 2A) are
846 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Vol. 88, No. 4

listed as endangered at the federal level (Demboski et al. the region include provisions to maintain healthy and viable
1998b; Weigl 2007). Analysis of allozyme variation has populations of this unique subspecies of flying squirrel.
revealed that these 2 subspecies possess several private alleles, Several additional subspecies of G. sabrinus are of con-
making them genetically distinct and important contributors to servation concern. One subspecies, G. s. californicus, is
the overall genetic variability of the species (Arbogast et al. considered a federal C2 candidate taxon and a species of
2005). Analysis of mtDNA variation indicates that these special concern in the state of California; this subspecies is
populations contain some haplotypes that are unique and some found only in the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains
that also occur outside the Appalachian region (e.g., Michigan; (and possibly the San Gabriel Mountains) of southern California
Fig 3). Based on this combined information, Arbogast et al. (Demboski et al. 1998b). The current population status and
(2005) argued that the endangered southern Appalachian levels of genetic variability of these high-elevation populations
populations of G. sabrinus should be considered distinct is unknown, but their small and fragmented distribution makes

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management units for conservation purposes (sensu Moritz them susceptible to many of the same problems as those
1994). Together, examination of available mtDNA and described above for the endangered Appalachian and Prince of
allozyme data indicates that levels of genetic variability within Wales subspecies. Other populations of G. sabrinus that are of
the endangered Appalachian subspecies of G. sabrinus are potential conservation concern include those found in the Black
reduced relative to conspecific populations, but are not low Hills of South Dakota (G. s. bangsi) and the Rocky Mountains
compared to populations of the widespread southern flying of southern Utah (G. s. murinauralis and G. s. lucifugus). These
squirrel (Arbogast et al. 2005) Although future decreases in subspecies also have highly fragmented, islandlike distributions
genetic variability are a potential problem for populations of at the southern periphery of the species’ range (Wells-Gosling
G. sabrinus from the spruce–fir islands of the southern Appa- and Heaney 1984). Their current population, genetic, and
lachians, the most immediate threat to the persistence of these conservation status is unknown.
populations is likely to be habitat loss (Weigl 2007; Weigl et al. In the case of G. volans, multiple studies (e.g., Arbogast
1999). The spruce–fir and spruce–fir–hardwood ecotonal hab- 1999; Arbogast et al. 2005; Petersen and Stewart 2006) have
itats of G. s. fuscus and G. s. coloratus are being negatively documented levels of genetic variability across the range of
impacted by introduced pests, acid precipitation, and distur- the species in eastern North America that are surprisingly low,
bance of upland hardwoods by human activities. especially given the large, relatively contiguous distribution
In southeastern Alaska, the Prince of Wales flying squirrel of many of the populations in question. However, low levels
(G. s. griseifrons) has been the subject of similar conservation of genetic variability, a lack of phylogeographic structuring, or
concern (Demboski et al. 1998b). This endemic subspecies is both also have been observed in a broad array of other animal
restricted to Prince of Wales and several nearby islands in the and plant taxa from this geographic region (Soltis et al. 2006).
southwestern portion of the Alexander Archipelago (Bidlack Examination of the genetic data for G. volans suggests that this
and Cook 2001, 2002; Fig. 2). Large portions of suitable habi- species may have experienced repeated or severe historical
tat (nearly 50% on some islands) have been logged over the bottlenecks associated with a reduction in suitable deciduous
past half-century and many remaining areas are not protected forest habitat in eastern North America during glacial cycles of
(Demboski et al. 1998b; Smith and Nichols 2003). Analyses of the Pleistocene (Arbogast et al. 2005). This scenario also may
microsatellite and mtDNA markers (Bidlack and Cook 2001, explain why other sciurids closely associated with the hard-
2002; Demboski et al. 1998a) have confirmed the original wood forest biome of eastern North America, such as Sciurus
description of G. s. griseifrons (based on morphological niger and S. carolinensis, also exhibit relatively low levels of
characters—Howell 1934). There appears to be no contempo- genetic variability (Moncreif 1998). However, it also is
rary gene flow between flying squirrels inhabiting the Prince of possible that contemporary populations of G. volans in eastern
Wales Island complex and other populations in southeastern North America are the result of a late Pleistocene range ex-
Alaska (Bidlack and Cook 2002). These genetic analyses pansion following a founder event from Mesoamerica; this too
(Bidlack and Cook 2001, 2002; Demboski et al. 1998a) also would lead to limited genetic variation across the eastern North
have revealed that populations of G. s. griseifrons have se- American portion of the species’ range. A lack of genetic data
verely reduced genetic variation, likely as the result of an early for the Mesoamerican populations of G. volans prevents
Holocene founder event from a mainland source population. definitively distinguishing between these 2 scenarios at this
Glaucomys s. griseifrons was listed as a federal C2 time. Regardless of the underlying cause, the relatively low
candidate in 1974, but was delisted by the United States Fish levels of genetic variability present in G. volans from eastern
and Wildlife Service in 1986; however, the most recent North America could have important implications for future
assessment of this subspecies considers it to be ‘‘endangered’’ management and conservation of the species. This is especially
on the basis of the subspecies’ highly restricted distribution true for small and geographically isolated populations at the
and immediate threats to its habitat (Demboski et al. 1998b; northern periphery of the species’ range, such as that found in
IUCN red list of threatened species, Glaucomys sabrinus, Nova Scotia, Canada (Petersen and Stewart 2006).
http://www.iucnredlist.org). Given that both genetic and Compared to populations in eastern North America, little
morphological data indicate that G. s. griseifrons is a distinct is known about the conservation status or genetics of the
and endemic taxon (Bidlack and Cook 2001, 2002; Demboski disjunct populations of G. volans occupying the highlands
et al. 1998a), it is essential that forest management plans for of Mesoamerica. The montane oak–pine forests of the region
August 2007 SPECIAL FEATURE—HISTORY OF NEW WORLD FLYING SQUIRRELS 847

are considered to be one of the most highly threatened habitats isolates of G. sabrinus (e.g., those in the San Bernardino and
in the world (World Wildlife Fund, 2006, WWF Global 200: San Jacinto mountains of southern California, the Black Hills of
a science-based global ranking of the Earth’s most biologi- South Dakota, and Rocky Mountains of southern Utah) are not
cally outstanding terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats, well documented and should be investigated. Finally, in terms
http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/ of their phylogenetic position and biogeographic history, the
about/index.cfm), and it is likely that populations of flying Mesoamerican populations of Glaucomys remain enigmatic.
squirrels have gone locally extinct in some formerly occupied These populations are considered to represent subspecies of G.
areas. However, given the paucity of specimens and distribu- volans, and morphological analyses tend to support this view
tional data for G. volans in Mesoamerica, it seems likely that (Braun 1988). However, several recent genetic studies of small
this species may occur in a number of areas where it has not mammals from the highlands of Mesoamerica have revealed
yet been documented (Dolan and Carter 1977). Clearly, of all a surprising number of cryptic species. Examples include mice

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the New World flying squirrels, the Mesoamerican populations of the genera Peromyscus and Reithrodontomys (Sullivan et al.
represent the most serious and substantial gap in terms of our 1997, 2000) and pocket gophers of the genera Cratogeomys and
current knowledge of basic distributional data, population Pappogeomys (Demastes et al. 2002). This suggests that there
status, and conservation genetics. could be similar cryptic diversity within the flying squirrels of
Mesoamerica. Therefore, in the absence of genetic information,
it remains unclear whether the Mesoamerican flying squirrels
UNANSWERED QUESTIONS AND are the result of a recent dispersal from eastern North America,
FUTURE DIRECTIONS or vice versa. It is also possible that Mesoamerican flying
The last decade has brought many new insights into the squirrels represent a more divergent, cryptic lineage(s) that has
evolution and biogeography of flying squirrels in general, and retained ancestral morphological similarities to G. volans.
the New World flying squirrels in particular. However, many Answering these questions is central to fully appreciating the
intriguing questions remain. First, there is a gap of more than 12 evolution and biogeographic history of the New World flying
million years between the divergence of Glaucomys and Asian squirrels and the forest biomes with which they are associated.
flying squirrels in the late Miocene (Mercer and Roth 2003) and
the Pleistocene diversification of the 3 major mtDNA lineages
within Glaucomys (Arbogast 1999). What was happening CONCLUSIONS
during this intervening period remains a mystery. Second, the The New World Flying squirrels are a unique component of
Pacific Coastal and Continental mtDNA clades of G. sabrinus the forest ecosystems of North and Central America. Their
appear to be in secondary contact in the Pacific Northwest origin can be traced back to an initial divergence of all flying
(Arbogast et al. 2005). Examination of allozyme data suggests squirrels from tree squirrels in the Miocene, followed sub-
recent or ongoing gene flow between the 2 clades. However, the sequently by divergence of New World and Asian forms in the
emergence of new molecular approaches for assaying variation late Miocene. An important period of diversification occurred
in the nuclear genomes of mammals (Avise 2004) provides an within Glaucomys in the early to middle Pleistocene, resulting
opportunity to examine patterns of gene flow in this geographic in at least 3 distinct evolutionary lineages and 2 biological
region in much finer detail. These types of approaches should species within Glaucomys. The most recent glacial cycle also
allow researchers to document the extent and directionality of appears to have had an important impact on contemporary
gene flow and to address fundamental questions about the patterns of genetic variation within Glaucomys. Multiple lines
relative roles of geographic, genetic, and ecological factors in of evidence support a scenario wherein distinct lineages of
shaping the evolution of this species. Third, the Pacific Glaucomys were isolated in separate forest refugia during the
Northwest phylogeographic discontinuity within G. sabrinus Wisconsinan glacial maximum, followed by northward expan-
has been important in developing hypotheses about the sion as glaciers retreated. In the case of G. sabrinus, this has
historical assembly of the boreal forest biome of North America resulted in a zone of secondary contact and gene flow in the
(Arbogast and Kenagy 2001). However, despite the existence of Pacific Northwest of North America. Although many questions
distinct Pacific Coastal and Continental mtDNA clades in remain, G. sabrinus and G. volans have emerged as important
G. sabrinus and a variety of other boreal forest taxa, it has not biogeographic model species for northern coniferous and
been possible to determine if these patterns are all the result of deciduous hardwood forests, respectively; future work on
a single event, or if they have been produced at different times these species promises to generate many additional insights and
in the past. The cyclic nature of Pleistocene glacial cycles hypotheses regarding the evolution and biogeography of 2 of
makes the latter a distinct possibility. The development of the New World’s most extensive forest types.
multilocus coalescent approaches (Hickerson et al. 2006;
Jennings and Edwards 2005) raises the exciting possibility of
being able to test these competing hypotheses within a rigorous ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
statistical framework. This will be essential to understanding I thank the many friends and colleagues that have contributed to
the evolution of the boreal forest ecosystem of North America my own work on Glaucomys over the years, especially my mentors
and the place of flying squirrels within it. Fourth, the genetics, P. Weigl, M. Hafner, R. Browne, and G. J. Kenagy. I also thank
ecology, and conservation status of several southern peripheral the numerous museums that have provided specimens and tissues for
848 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Vol. 88, No. 4

study. B. Blake, J. Cook, L. Heaney, and fellow participants in this DEMBOSKI, J. R., K. D. STONE, AND J. A. COOK. 1999. Further
symposium (W. Smith, J. Scheibe, R. Thorington, and P. Weigl) perspectives on the Haida Gwaii glacial refugium. Evolution
provided many valuable comments that helped improve the manu- 53:2008–2012.
script and A. Schwandt-Arbogast provided assistance with preparation DOLAN, P. G., AND D. C. CARTER. 1977. Glaucomys volans.
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ELLERMAN, J. R. 1940. The families and genera of living rodents.
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