Grade 10-Mathematics Fetena Net 6731

MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS
STUDENT’S TEXTBOOK
GRADE 10 STUDENT’S TEXTBOOK
GRADE 10
STUDENT’ S TEXTBOOK GRADE 10
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
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MATHEMATICS
STUDENT TEXTBOOK
GRADE 10
Authors:
Tadele Mekonnen Yihun (MSc)
Mamo Teketel Mekasha (MSc)
Editors:
Mohammed Yiha Dawud (PhD) (Content Editor)
Akalu Chaka Mekuria (MA) (Curriculum Editor)
Endalfer Melese Moges (MA) (Language Editor)
Illustrator:
Bahiru Chane Tamiru (MSc)
Designer:
Aknaw H/mariam Habte (MSc)
Evaluators:
Dawit Ayalneh Tebkew (MSc)
Matebie Alemayehu Wasihun (MED)
Mustefa Kedir Edao (BED)
Tesfaye Sileshi Chala (MA)
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
Welcoming Message to Students.
Dear grade 10 students, you are welcome to the second grade of secondary level
education, which is a golden opportunity in your academic career. This is a
continuation and advancement of grade 9 Mathematics education. In this stage, you
are expected to get more advanced knowledge and experiences which can help you
enhance your academic, social, and personal growth in the field of Mathematics. You,
therefore, need to bring your textbook to class and practice exercises regularly.
Enjoy it!
Introduction on Students’ Textbook.

Dear students, this textbook has 7 units namely: Relations and Functions, Polynomial
functions, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions, Trigonometric functions, Circles,
Solid Figures and Coordinate Geometry respectively. Each of the units is composed of
introduction, objectives, lessons, key terms, summary, and review exercises. Each unit
is basically unitized, or lesson based, and each lesson has four components: Activity,
Definition, Examples, and exercises (ADEE).
The most important part in this process is to practice problems by yourself based on
what your teacher shows and explains. Your teacher will also give you feedback,
assistance, and facilitate further learning. In such a way, you will be able to not only
acquire new knowledge and skills but also develop them further.
Activity
This part of the lesson demands you to revise what you have learnt or activate your
background knowledge on the topic. The activity also introduces you to what you are
going to learn in a new lesson topic.
Definition/Theorem/Note
This part presents and explains to you new concepts. However, every lesson may not
begin with definition, especially when the lesson is a continuation of the previous
one.
Example and Solution
Here, your teacher will give you specific examples to improve your understanding of
the new content. In this part, you need to listen to your teacher’s explanation
carefully and participate actively. Note that your teacher may not discuss all of the
examples in the class. In this case, you need to attempt and internalize the examples
by yourself.
Exercise
Under this part of the material, you will solve the exercises and questions individually,
in pairs or groups to practice what you learnt in the examples. When you are doing the
exercise in the classroom either in pairs or groups, you are expected to share your
opinions with your friends, listen to others’ ideas carefully and compare yours with
others. Note that you will have the opportunity of cross checking your answers to the
questions given in the class with the answers of your teacher. However, for the
exercises not covered in the class, you will be given as a homework, assignment, or
project. In this case, you are expected to communicate your teacher for the solutions.
Contents
Unit 1 Relations and Functions ……………........... 1
1.1 Relations ………………………………………... 2

1.2 Functions ……………………………………… 17
1.3 Applications of Relations and Functions . 50
Summary ………………………………………… 62
Review Exercise ……………………………… 64
Unit 2 Polynomial Functions ……………………… 67

2.1 Definition of Polynomial Function ………. 68
2.2 Operations on polynomial functions …… 74
2.3 Theorem on polynomial functions ……… 84
2.4 Zeros of polynomial functions …………… 93
2.5 Graphs of polynomial functions.…………. 101
2.6 Applications ……………………................... 112
Summary ………………………………………… 116
Review Exercise ………………………………. 118
Unit 3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions… 121
3.1 Exponents and Logarithms ………………… 122
3.2 The Exponential Functions and Their
Graphs…………………………………………..... 153
3.3 The Logarithmic Functions and Their
Graphs……………………………………...…….. 163
3.4 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic
Equations………………………………….......... 172
3.5 Relation between Exponential and
Logarithmic functions ………………………. 178
3.6 Applications …………………………………… 182
Summary ………………………………………… 191
I
Unit 4 Trigonometric Functions …………………… 199
4.1 Radian Measure of angle………………….… 200
4.2 Basic Trigonometric Function ……………. 207
4.3 Trigonometric Identities & Equation……. 234
4.4 Application ………………………................... 242
Summary ………………………………………… 245
Unit 5 Circles ………………………………………… 251

5.1 Symmetrical properties of circles..……….. 252
5.2 Angle properties of circles …………………. 258
5.3 Arc length, perimeters and areas of
segments and sectors Arc length………… 268
5.4 Theorems on angles and arcs determined
by lines intersecting inside, on and
outside a circle…….……………………………
275
Summary ………………………………………… 281
Unit 6 Solid Figures …………………………………. 287
6.1 Revision of Cylinders and Prisms………… 288

6.2 Pyramids, cones and Spheres……………… 294
6.3 Frustum of pyramids and cones…………… 321
Surface areas and volumes of composed
6.4 solids……………………………………………… 331
6.5 Applications …………………………………… 336
Summary ………………………………………… 340
II
Unit 7 Coordinate Geometry ……….………………. 345
7.1 Distance between two points …….……….. 347
7.2 Division of a line segment………………….. 351
7.3 Equation of a line…………………..…………. 356
7.4 Slopes of parallel and perpendicular
lines………………………………………………... 365
7.5 Equation of a Circle…………………………… 370
7.6 Applications …………………………………… 375
Summary ………………………………………… 378
III
Unit 1: Relations and Functions
UNIT
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
1
Unit Outcomes
Define relation.
Define function.
Identify types of functions.
Sketch graphs of various types of relations and functions.
Unit Contents
1.1 Relations
1.2 Functions
1.3 Applications of Relations and Functions
Summary
Review Exercise
1
✓ leading coefficient ✓ vertex
✓ linear function ✓ x-intercept
✓ quadratic function ✓ y-intercept
✓ constant function ✓ relation ✓ parabola
✓ coordinate system ✓ range ✓ turning point
✓ combination of functions ✓ slope ✓ Function
✓ axis(orthogonal-axis) ✓ axis of symmetry ✓ domain
1.1 Relations
Introduction:
In order to continue our study of functions, we introduce the more general idea of a
relation. As its name suggests, the concept of a relation is a familiar one. In our daily
life, we come across many patterns that characterize relations with brothers and sisters,
mother and daughters, father and sons, teachers and students etc. In mathematics also,
we come across many relations such as number 𝑚 is greater than number 𝑛; line 𝑛 is
perpendicular to line 𝑚 etc... The concept of relation is established in mathematical
form. The word “function” is introduced by Leibnitz in 17𝑡ℎ century. Function is
defined as a special type of relation. In the present unit, we shall discuss Cartesian
coordinates, conditions for a relation to be a function, different types of functions and
their properties.
1.1.1 Revision of patterns
Activity 1.1
1. Write the numbers which come next in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ________

2. Which of the following arrows in figure1.1 under column four can fill in the
blank space under the column three to continue the service below?
2
Figure 1.1
3. Create a table of values for the set of values given in the first row of Table1.1
by evaluating the algebraic expression 2𝑛 + 3.
Table 1.1
Input 𝑛 1 2 3 4 5 6
Output = 2𝑛 + 3
4. What relationship can be represented by the table given below?

Table 1.2
Input 1 2 3 4 5
Output 2 5 8 11 14
A pattern is a regularity in the world in human-made design or in abstract ideas. As

such, the elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner.
Patterns are defined as regular, repeated, recurring forms or designs identifying
relationships, finding logic to form generalizations and make predictions.
Example 1
Even numbers pattern: 2, 4, 6, 8 …

Odd numbers pattern: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 …
Arithmetic pattern
The arithmetic pattern is also known as the algebraic pattern. In an arithmetic pattern,
3
the sequences are based on the addition or subtraction of the terms. If two or more
terms in the sequence are given, we can use addition or subtraction to find the
arithmetic pattern.
For example, consider the pattern 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, __, 14, __. Now, we need to find the
missing term in the pattern.
Here, we can use the addition process to figure out the missing terms in the patterns.
In the pattern, the rule used is “Add 2 to the previous term to get the next terms”.
First missing term: The previous term is 10. Therefore, 10+2 = 12.
Second missing term: The previous term is 14. So, 14+2 = 16
Hence, the complete arithmetic pattern is 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16.
Geometric pattern
The geometric pattern is defined as the sequence of numbers that are based on the
multiplication and division operation. Similar to the arithmetic pattern, if two or more
numbers in the sequence are provided, we can easily find the unknown terms in the
pattern using multiplication and division operation.
For example, consider the pattern 2, 4, 8, __, 32, __.
It is a geometric pattern, as each term in the sequence can be obtained by multiplying
2 with the previous term. 8 is the third term in the sequence, which is obtained by
multiplying 2 with the previous term 4.
First missing term: The previous term is 8. Multiply 8 by 2, we get 16.
Second missing term: The previous term is 32. Multiply 32 by 2, we get 64.
Hence, the complete geometric pattern is 2, 8, 16, 32, and 64.
Exercise 1.1
1. Fill the blank spaces using the following pattern.
65, 60, 55, 50, 45, ___, 35, ___.
2. Identify the type of pattern for the sequence 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, …
3. Fill the bank spaces using the following pattern.
15, 22, 29, 36, 43, ___, 57, 64, 71, 78, 85, ___.
4
4. Find the missing value for the geometric

pattern: 96, 48, 24, __, 6, __.
5. In figure1.2, how many sticks are in the
next diagram? How many sticks are in the
tenth diagram? Write an algebraic
expression to describe this system?
Figure 1.2 Linear patterns
1.1.2 Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions

The Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular
coordinate system) is defined by an ordered pair of perpendicular lines (axes). It has a
single unit of length for both axes and an orientation for each axis. The point where
the axes meet is taken as the origin for both and used as a turning point for each axis
into a number line. For any point (P), a line
drawn through 𝑃 perpendicular to each axis
and the position where it meets the axis is 𝑃(3, 2)
2
interpreted as a number. The two numbers in
that chosen order are the Cartesian coordinate 3
of P . The first and second coordinates are Origin
𝑃(3, 2)
called the abscissa and the ordinate of P,
respectively and the point where the axes meet Abscissa Ordinate
is called the origin of the coordinate system. The coordinates are usually written as two
numbers in parentheses in that order separated by a comma, as in (3, 2). Thus the origin
has coordinates (0, 0), and the points on the positive half-axes which is one unit away
from the origin and have coordinates (1, 0) and (0, 1).
In mathematics, physics, and engineering, the first axis is usually defined or depicted
as horizontal and oriented to the right. The second axis is vertical and oriented
upwards. The origin is often labeled O, and the two coordinates are often denoted by
5
the letters 𝑿 and 𝒀, or 𝒙 and 𝒚. The axes may then

be referred to as the and -axis. The choices of
letters come from the original convention which is
to use the latter part of the alphabet to indicate
unknown values. Therefore, this coordinate system
is also called -coordinate. A plane with
coordinate axes is called -plane. The coordinate
plane is divided into 4 parts, namely Quadrant I, II,
III, and IV as shown in the figure1.3.
Figure 1.3
Activity 1.2
1. Complete the following table with +, − or 0 that applies to each coordinate of

a point 𝑃 ( , ).
Table 1.3
Quadrants axes
Quadrant-I
Quadrant-II
Quadrant-III
Quadrant-IV
Positive - 𝑎 𝑖𝑠
Negative -axis
Positive -axis
Negative -axis
2. Plot the points 𝑃(−2, 2), Q(2, 4), R(0, −3), S(−2, 1) and T(−5, −3) on the
coordinate. system.
6
A system in which the location of a point is given by coordinates that represent its
distances from perpendicular lines that intersect at a point called the origin. A Cartesian
coordinate system in a plane has two perpendicular lines (the x-axis and y-axis).
In mathematics, the Cartesian coordinate system (or rectangular coordinate

system) is used to determine each point uniquely in a plane through two numbers,
usually called the -coordinate and the
-coordinate of the point. To define the
coordinates, two perpendicular directed lines
(the -axis or abscissa, and the -axis or
ordinate), are specified, as well as the unit
length, which is marked off on the two axes
(see Figure1.4).
Figure 1.4 the -plane

Figure 1.4 shows the location of the point 𝐴 (1, 1) in the -plane. You may note that
the position of the ordered
pair 𝐵 (−1, 2) is different from that of 𝐶 (2, −1) Thus, we can say that ( , )
and ( , ) are two different ordered pairs representing two different points in a plane.
Exercise 1.2
Plot the points whose coordinates are given on a Cartesian coordinate system.
𝑃 (−3, −5), 𝑄 (−4, 3), 𝑅 (0, 2), 𝑆 (−2, 0).
1.1.3 Basic concepts of relations

In order to continue our study of functions, we introduce the more general idea of a
relation, as its name suggests, the concept of relation is a familiar one. Everyone has
relatives or relations -father, mother, brothers, and sisters etc. What may come as a
surprise, however, is that this concept has an important place in mathematics. Let us
7
start with an example taken from everyday life in the relationship of fatherhood. The
problem we set for ourselves is to describe this relation in mathematical terms.
If you think about this problem for a few minutes, you will probably find it somewhat
more difficult than you expected. Although everyone knows what it means to say that
is a father of , it is not quite so clear how to put this in the language we use in
mathematics.
In our daily life, we usually talk about relations between various things. For example,
7 is less than 9; Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia; Walia Ibex is endemic to
Ethiopia, and so on. In all these cases, we find that a relation involves pairs of objects
in some specific order. In this unit, you will learn how to link pairs of objects from two
sets and then introduce relations between the two objects in the pair. You also learn
here about special relations which will qualify to be functions.
Activity 1.3
Let set 𝐴 contains the elements 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 and set 𝐵 contains the elements 3, 5, 7,
8, 9, 12. List all the ordered pairs ( , ) which satisfy each of the following
sentences where is an element of 𝐴 and is an element of 𝐵.
a. is greater than . c. is a multiple of .
b. The sum of and is odd. d. is half of .
Note
In activity 1.1 we have observed the following:
1. In the case of relations between objects and patterns, order is important.
2. A relation establishes pairing between objects.
Therefore, from a mathematical standpoint, the meaning of a relation is given below.
Definition 1.1
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. It is denoted by 𝑅.
8
Example 1
Given a relation 𝑅: The set of all ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers where 𝑖s greater
than ,
1. Which of the following ordered pairs belong to this relation?

1 1 2 3
(2, 4), (4, 3), (1.1, 1.11), (1.1, −3), (−5, −3), (7, 7), ( 2 , 2) , ( 3 , 2) , (0.45, 0.46)
2. Find a number 𝑐 such that

a. (4, 𝑐) is in the relation;
b. (−4, 𝑐) is in the relation;
c. (4, 𝑐) and (𝑐, 4) are both in the relation.
Solution:
2 3
1. (2, 4), (1.1, 1.11), (−5, −3), ( , ) and (0.45, 0.46) belongs to the relation 𝑅.
3 2
2. a. the set of real numbers 𝑐 > 4

b. the set of real numbers 𝑐 > −4
c. there is no real number 𝑐 that satisfies the relation 𝑅.
Is there more than one answer to each of these questions? Why? As seen from the
above example 1, question number 1 has only one solution, question number 2, a and
b have many solutions and question number 2c has no solution. Since an ordered pair
of real numbers can be pictured as a point
on the graph, we can use graphs to
represent relations 𝑅 as:
𝑅 is the set containing ordered pairs such
that (−3, −3), (−3, 3), (−2, 2), (−1, 2),
(1, 2), (3, 2), (−2, −2), (2.6, 0.6), (1, 0.6)
Figure 1.5 Graph of relation 𝑅
9
Exercise 1.3
Given a relation 𝑅 of set of all ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers where is less
than .
a. Which of the following ordered pairs belong to the relation?
(2, 1), (−4, 3), (−2, 0), (0.2,0.21), (−0.2, −0.21), (7, 7), (−2, −3), (0, − 5)
b. Find a number 𝑛 such that (i) (𝑛, 0) (ii) (0, 𝑛)
Example 2
Let 𝑅 be a relation of the set of all ordered pairs ( , ) of natural numbers where is a
multiple of , then which of the following ordered pairs belong to 𝑅 ?
(2, 4), (4, 3), (3, 9), (18, −3), (9, 3), (7, 7), (3, 12), (6, 18), (30, 5)
Solution:
(2, 4), (3, 9), (7, 7), (3, 12) and (6, 18) belong to the relation R.
Example 3
2
1. Let 𝑅 denote the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers, where = .
a. Find the ordered pairs belong to 𝑅 which have the following first
1
entries: 0, 1, −1, −2, 5
, 3, −3.
b. Find the ordered pairs belong to 𝑅 which have the following second
1 1
entries: 4, 1, 0, 4
, 25
.
Solution:
1 1
a. (0,0), (1,1), (−1,1), (−2,4), ( 5 , 25) , (3,9), (−3,9).
1 1 1 1
b. (2,4), (1,1), (0,0), ( 2 , 4) , ( 5 , 25).
Exercise 1.4
1. If 𝑅 is a relation of a set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers such that
= 3 − 2, then list some of the ordered pairs belong to 𝑅.
3
2. Let 𝑅 denote the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers, where = .
10
a. Find the ordered pairs belong to 𝑅 which have the following first
1
entries: 0, 1, 2, −2, 8, 5
, 3, −3.
b. Find the ordered pairs belong to 𝑅 which have the following second
1
entries: 8, −1, − 8, −27, 27
.
Domain and range of a relation

Any set of ordered pairs ( , ) is called a relation in and y.
The set of first components in the ordered pairs is called the domain of the relation.
The set of second components in the ordered pairs is called the range of the relation.
Activity 1.4
For the relation 𝑅 of the set of ordered pairs (5, 3), (– 2, 4), (5, 2), (– 2, 3)
determine the domain and the range.
In Activity 1.4, the first ordered pairs of R are 5, -2 and the second ordered pairs of R
are 2, 3, 4
Definition 1.2
Let 𝑅 be a relation from a set A to a set B. Then
i. Domain of 𝑅 = { : ( , ) belongs to R for some }
ii. Domain of 𝑅 = { : ( , ) belongs to R for some }
Example 1
Determine the domain and range of the relation with ordered pairs
(−2, 1), (−1, 0), (0, 0), (4, 2), (3, 5).
Solution:
The domain of the relation is -2, -1, 0, 4 and 3. The range of the relation are 1, 0, 2
and 5.
Example 2
Write some ordered pairs that belong to the relation 𝑅 which contains the set of
11
ordered pair ( , ) such that = 2 , and are members of integers. Find also the
domain and range of 𝑅.
Solution:
𝑅 contains some set of ordered pairs (−2, −4), (−1, −2), (0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 4).
The domain of the relation R is the set of all integers and the range of the relation R is
the set of all even integers.
Example 3
Find the domain and the range of each of the following relations:
a. 𝑅 is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) such that is the square root of .
b. 𝑅 is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) such that is the square of .
Solution:
a. Domain is the set of real numbers : is greater than or equal to zero and
Range is the set of real numbers : is greater than or equal to zero.
b. Domain is the set of all real numbers and Range is the set of all real numbers
: is greater than or equal to zero.
Exercise 1.5
1. Determine the domain and range of the relation with ordered pairs (−1, 4),
(0, 7), (2, 3), (3, 3), (4, −2).
2. Write some ordered pairs that belongs to the following relation 𝑅; and find also
the domain and range of this relation.
a. The set of ordered pair ( , ) such that =3 : and are members of
integers.
b. The set of ordered pair ( , ) such that = −2 : and are members of
integers.
3. Let 𝑅 be a relation of the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers such that the
sum of whose squares is one.
a. Identify the ordered pairs which belong to R:
12
√2 √2 −√2 √2 √3 1
(1, 1), (0, 1), (0, −1), (2, −1), ( , − 2 ), ( , 2 ), (0, 0), (− , − 2),
2 2 2
1 √3
(2 , 2
).
b. Find the domain and range of R.
1.1.4 Graphs of Relations

By now, you have understood what a relation is and how it can be described using
Cartesian coordinates. You will now see how relations can be represented through
graphs. You may graphically represent a relation 𝑅 from domain to range by locating
the ordered pairs in a coordinate system.
Discuss the following:
i. A Cartesian coordinate system (or -coordinate system).
ii. A point on a Cartesian coordinate system
iii. A region on a Cartesian coordinate system
From section 1.1.2, remember that the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers such
that is in the domain of the relation and is in the range of the relation is represented
by the set of points in the -coordinate.
Example 1
Sketch the graph of the relation R if R is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real
numbers and such that = .
Solution:
We take the values of , calculate the
corresponding values of , plot the resulting
points ( , ) and connect the points.
Table 1.4
-2 -1 0 1 2
-2 -1 0 1 2
Figure 1.6 the graph of =
13
In general, to sketch graphs of relations involving inequalities, do the

following steps
1. Draw the graph of the line(s) in the relation on the -coordinate system.
2. If the relating inequality is ≤ 𝑜𝑟 ≥, use a solid line; if it is < 𝑜𝑟 >, use a broken
line.
3. Then take arbitrary ordered pairs represented by the points.
4. The region that contains these points representing the ordered pair satisfying the
relation will be the graph of the relation.
Example 2
Sketch the graph of the relation R if R be the

set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers
and such that > .
Solution:
To sketch the graph
1. Draw the line = .
Figure 1.7 the graph of the relation > .

2. Since the relation involves > , use the broken line: “the points on the line
= are not included.”
3. Take points representing ordered pairs, say (0, 3) and (0, −2) from above and
below the line = .
4. The ordered pair (0, 3) satisfies the relation. Hence, points above the line =
are members of the relation 𝑅.
Example 3
Sketch the graph of the relation 𝑅 if 𝑅 be the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real
numbers and such that ≤ + 2.
14
Solution:
1. Draw the line = + 2.
2. Since the relating inequality is ≤ use the
solid line.
3. Select two points representing ordered
pairs one from one side and another from
the other side of the line. For example,
points with coordinates (0, 4) and (1, 0).
Obviously, (1,0) satisfies the relation 𝑅
Figure 1.8 the graph of
is ≤ + 2, as 0 ≤ 1 + 2.
the relation ≤ + 2.
4. Shade the region below the line, = +2
which contains the point(1, 0). Hence, the graph is the shaded region in figure1.8.
Exercise 1.6
For each of the following relations, sketch the graph.
a. The relation 𝑅 is set of ordered pairs ( , ): < .
b. The relation 𝑅 is set of ordered pairs ( , ): < − + 7.
c. The relation 𝑅 is set of ordered pairs ( , ): ≤ 3 − 4.
d. The relation 𝑅 is set of ordered pairs ( , ): ≥ 2 + 5.
Example 4
Sketch the graph of the relation 𝑅 and determine its domain if 𝑅 be the set of ordered
pairs ( , ) of real numbers and such that < and > − + 2.
Solution:
Sketch the graphs of < and > – + 2 on the same coordinate system. The two
regions have some overlap. The intersection of the two regions is the graph of the
relation. So, taking only the common region, we obtain the graph of the relation as
15
shown in figure 1.9. To obtain the intersection point solve the equations = and
= – + 2.
Note that these two lines divide the coordinate system into four regions. Take any
points one from each region and check if they satisfy the relation. Say (2, 0), (0, 1),
(– 1, 0) and (0, – 1).
The point (2, 0) satisfies both inequalities of the relation. So, the graph of the relation
is the region that contains (2, 0). Hence, Domain of the relation is the set of real
number : > 1 and Range of R is the set of all real numbers .
Figure 1.9 the graph of the relation 𝑅
Example 5
From the graph of each of the following

relations, represented by the shaded region,
specify the relation and determine the
domain and the range:
Solution:
𝑅 = {( , ): ≤ and ≤ 4};
Domain = { : ≤ 4} and
Range = { : ≤ 4}.
Figure 1.10
16
Note
A graph of a relation when the relating phrase is an inequality is a region on the
coordinate system.
Exercise 1.7
1. Sketch the graph of the following relations.
a. R is set of ordered pairs ( , ): ≥ + 2 and <− .
b. R is set of ordered pairs ( , ): ≥ 2 and < − .
c. R is set of ordered pairs ( , ): < − − 2 and ≤ −2.
2. From the graph of the following relation, represented by the shaded region,
specify the relation and determine its domain and range.
Figure1.11
1.2 Functions
In this section, you shall learn about special types of relations which are called
functions, the domain and range of function, and combination of functions. The
concept of function is the most important point in mathematics. There are terms such
as ‘map’ or ‘mapping’ used to denote a function.
17
1.2.1 The notion of function
Activity 1.5
Consider the following relations:
𝑅1 is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers and such that (2, 3), (4, 5),
(3, 6), (6, 7) and (5, 8) are members of the relation.
𝑅2 is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers and y such that (2, 3), (4, 3)
,(3, 6), (7, 6) and (5, 8) are members of of the relation.
𝑅3 is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers and such that (2, 3), (2, 5),
(3, 6), (3, 7) and (5, 8) are members of the relation.
a. Construct the arrow diagram.
b. How the first elements of the ordered pair are related with the second
elements of the ordered pair?
c. In each relation, are there ordered pairs with the same first coordinate?
Definition 1.3
A function 𝑓 is a set of ordered pairs with the property that whenever ( , )
and ( , 𝑧) belong to 𝑓, then = 𝑧.
Or
It is a relation in which no two distinct ordered pairs have the same first element.
Example 1
Consider the following relation 𝑅1 . 𝑅1 is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real

numbers and such that (4, 5), (6, 6), (3, 1), (9, 7) and (5, 2) are members of the
relation. This relation is a function because no two distinct ordered pairs have the same
first element.
18
Example 2
Consider the relation 𝑅 which is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers and
such that (2, 3), (5, 3), (3, 6), (7, 6) and (5, 8) are members of the set. Since
(5, 3) and (5, 8) belong to the relation 𝑅 and 3 ≠ 8 the relation R is not a function.
Example 3
Look at table 1.5

Table 1.5
1 1 3 3 7
y 5 5 −8 −8 4
Is R which has members of the ordered pairs (1, 5), (1, 5), (3, −8), (3, −8) and (7, 4)
a function?
Solution:
Those -values are repeated still it is a function because they are associated with the
same value of . Here the ordered pairs (1, 5) and (3, −8) are written twice. We can
rewrite it by taking a single copy of the repeated ordered pairs. So “ 𝑅” is a function.
Example 4
Consider the following arrow diagrams in figure1.12
Figure 1.12
Which of the relations 𝑅1 ,𝑅2 and 𝑅3 represent as a function of ?
19
Solution:
𝑅1 and 𝑅3 are functions, but 𝑅2 is not a function because 2 and 6 are both mapped
onto two numbers.
Note
𝑓, 𝑔 and ℎ are the most commonly used letters to represent a function; however,
any letter of the alphabet can be used.
Exercise 1.8
Determine whether each of the following relation is a function or not, and give
reasons for those that are not functions.
a. 𝑅 is a set of ordered pairs ( , ) which
contains (6, 7), (1, 9), (−1, 7), (0, 0), (4, −4).
b. 𝑅 is a set of ordered pairs ( , ) which contains
(−3, 7), (−5, 9), (−1, 4), (2, 0), (−5, 3)
c. The relation R is a set of ordered pairs ( , ): y is a multiple of .
d. The relation R is a set of an ordered pairs ( , ): y 2 = .
e. R is a set of ordered pair (x, y): y is the area of triangle x.
Domain, codomain and range of a function
Activity 1.6
Consider the following arrow diagram of a
function 𝑓 and find the algebraic rule for 𝑓.
Figure 1.13
The domain of a function 𝑓 is the set of all values of for which 𝑓 is defined and this
20
corresponds to all of the -values on the graph in the -plane. Domain – The set of
all possible values which qualify as inputs to a function is known as the domain of
the function. In other words, the domain of a function can be defined as the entire set
of values possible for independent variables. Co-Domain – The set of all the outputs
of a function is known as the range of the function or after substituting the domain,
the entire set of all values possible as outcomes of the dependent variable. The range
of the function 𝑓 is the set of all values 𝑓( ) which corresponds to the values on
the graph in the -plane.
Notation: If is an element in the domain of a function 𝑓, then the element in the

range that is associated with is denoted by 𝑓( ). This is called an image of under
the function 𝑓. The notation 𝑓( ) is referred to function value and we read as ‘ 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 ’
and is the pre-image of 𝑓( ). We can define a function 𝑓( ) = 2 with a domain
and codomain of integers. But by thinking about it we can see that the range is just the
even integers. The range is a sub-set of the co-domain.
Example 1
For each of the following functions, find the domain, co-domain and the range.
a. 𝐹 is a set of ordered pairs such that (3, −2), (5, 4), (1, 2) and (−3, 7) are
members of 𝐹
b. 𝑅 is a set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real numbers such that = .
Solution:
a. Domain of 𝐹 is a collection of −3, 1, 3 and 5 , Co-domain of F is a collection
of −2, 2, 4 and 7, and the range of 𝐹 is a collection of −2, 2, 4 and 7.
b. Domain of 𝑅 is a set containing all real numbers and the co-domain and range
is the set containing all real numbers .
A function from 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 can sometimes be denoted as 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, where the domain of

the function 𝑓 is 𝐴 and the range of the function 𝑓 is contained in 𝐵, in which we say
𝐵 contains the image of the elements of 𝐴 under the function of 𝑓.
21
Example 2
Consider 𝑓( ) = 3 + 4. Find the domain and the range of the function 𝑓.

Solution:
Since 𝑓( ) = 3 + 4 is defined for every real number , the domain of the function is
the set of all real numbers. The range is also the set of real numbers since every real
number has a pre-image of a real number such that = 𝑓( ) = 3 + 4.
Exercise 1.9
1. Find the domain and the range of 𝐹 where 𝐹 is a set of ordered pairs such
that (2, −1), (0, 0), (−4, 2) and (−5, 3) are members.
2. For each of the following functions, find the domain and range.
a. 𝑓( ) = +1 b. 𝑓( ) = 2 − 3
2 2
c. 𝑓( ) = d. 𝑓( ) = +1
Example 1
If 𝑓( ) = √ − 2, then find the domain and range of 𝑓.

Solution:
Since the expression in the radical must be non-zero, − 2 ≥ 0. This implies ≥ 2.
Hence, the domain of the function is the set of real numbers greater than or equal to 2.
The range of the function is greater than or equal to zero.
Remark: If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function, then, for any included in 𝐴 (the first coordinate),
the image of under 𝑓, 𝑓( ) is called the functional value 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 .
For example, if 𝑓( ) = + 5, then 𝑓 at = 4 is 𝑓(4) = 4 + 5 = 9.
Finding the functional value of 𝑓 at is called evaluating the function at .
Example 2
For the function 𝑓( ) = 1 − 3 ,

a. determine the domain and range of 𝑓.
b. find the value of 𝑓(2)and 𝑓(−1).
22
Solution:
a. The function 𝑓( ) = 1 − 3 is defined for every real number ; the domain
and range of the function 𝑓 is the set all of real numbers.
b. 𝑓(2) = 1 − 3(2) = 1 − 6 = −5 and 𝑓(−1) = 1 − 3(−1) = 1 + 3 = 4.
Exercise 1.10
1. For the function 𝑓( ) = − + 4
a. Determine the domain and the range of 𝑓.
b. Find the value of 𝑓(4) and 𝑓(9).
2. For the function 𝑓( ) = √
a. Determine the domain and the range of 𝑓.
b. Find the value of 𝑓(4) and 𝑓(9).
3. Find the domain and range of each of the following functions.
2
a. 𝑓( ) = 1 −
b. 𝑓( ) = | | + 1
c. 𝑓( ) = √2 −
4. If 𝑓( ) = 2 + √4 − , then evaluate
a. 𝑓(−5) b. 𝑓(2)
1.2.2 Combination of functions

Just as two real numbers can be combined by the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division to form other real numbers, two functions can be combined
to create a new function.
Activity 1.7
Consider the functions 𝑓( ) = 2 − 3 and 𝑔( ) = −1. Then,

𝑓
a. find 𝑓 + 𝑔; 𝑓 − 𝑔; 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 and 𝑔.
b. determine the domain and range of 𝑓 and 𝑔.
23
A. Sum of functions
Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions with overlapping domains. Then, for all common to
both domains, the sum of 𝑓 and 𝑔 defined as follows:
(𝑓 + 𝑔)( ) = 𝑓( ) + 𝑔( )
Example 1
Given 𝑓( ) = 2 + 4 and 𝑔( ) = 3 − 1. Find (𝑓 + 𝑔)( ) and evaluate the sum

when = 2.
Solution:
We know from above the sum of functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 is
(𝑓 + 𝑔)( ) = 𝑓( ) + 𝑔( )
= (2 + 4) + (3 − 1)
=5 +3
and, (𝑓 + 𝑔)(2) = 5(2) + 3
= 10 + 3 = 13
B. Difference of functions
Let 𝑓and 𝑔 be two functions with overlapping domains. Then, for all common to
both domains the difference of 𝑓and 𝑔 is defined as follows:
(𝑓 − 𝑔)( ) = 𝑓( ) − 𝑔( ).
Example 2
2
Given 𝑓( ) = 2 + 1 and 𝑔( ) = + 2 − 1. Find (𝑓 − 𝑔)( ) and evaluate the
difference when = 2.
Solution:
The difference of the function 𝑓and 𝑔 is

(𝑓 − 𝑔)( ) = 𝑓( ) − 𝑔( )
2
= (2 + 1) − ( + 2 − 1)
24
2
=− + 2.
and, (𝑓 − 𝑔)(2) = −22 + 2
= −4 + 2 = −2.
Exercise 1.11
1. Given 𝑓( ) = 3 + 3 and 𝑔( ) = − 1.
a. Find (𝑓 + 𝑔)( ) and evaluate the sum when = 2.
b. Find (𝑓 − 𝑔)( ) and evaluate the difference when = 2.
2. Let 𝑓( ) = 2 − 5 and 𝑔( ) = 4 + 1. Then, evaluate

a. (𝑓 + 𝑔)( )
b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)( )
C. Product of functions
both domains the product of 𝑓and 𝑔 is defined as follows:
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)( ) = 𝑓( ) ∙ 𝑔( )
Example 1
2
Given: 𝑓( ) = and 𝑔( ) = − 3, find (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)( ) and then evaluate the product
when = 4.
Solution:
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)( ) = 𝑓( ) ∙ 𝑔( )
2
= ( − 3)
3 2
= −3 .
If = 4, the value of this product is (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(4) = 43 − 3(42 )
= 64 − 48 = 16.
D. Quotient of functions
both domains the quotient of 𝑓and 𝑔 is defined as follows:
25
𝑓 𝑓( )
( )= , 𝑔( ) ≠ 0.
𝑔 𝑔( )
Example 2
If 𝑓( ) = 4 and 𝑔( ) = − 3, then the quotient of 𝑓 and 𝑔 is

𝑓 𝑓( ) 4
( 𝑔) ( ) = 𝑔( )
= −3
.
Exercise 1.12
2
Given 𝑓( ) = − 1 and 𝑔( ) = ,
a. Find(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)( ) and then evaluate the product when = 3.
𝑓
b. Find ( 𝑔) ( ) and then evaluate the quotient when = 3.
𝑔
c. Find ( 𝑓) ( ) and then evaluate the quotient when = 3.
The domain of combination of functions
Activity 1.8
Consider the functions 𝑓( ) = − 3 and 𝑔( ) = + 1. Then,

𝑓
a. find 𝑓 + 𝑔; 𝑓 − 𝑔; 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 and 𝑔.
b. determine the domain and the range of each function 𝑓 and 𝑔.

c. is the domain of f and 𝑔 the same as the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔? Why?
The domain of an arithmetic combination of functions f and 𝑔 (𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔

𝑓
and 𝑔
) consists of real numbers common to the domain of f and 𝑔. In the case of
𝑓(𝑥)
quotient of functions 𝑔(𝑥), there is further restriction that 𝑔( ) is not equal to zero.
Example 1
Given 𝑓( ) = − 5 and 𝑔( ) = 2 + 1. Find the domain of(𝑓 + 𝑔) ( ) and

(𝑓 − 𝑔)( ).
26
Solution:
The domain 𝑓 and 𝑔 is the set of all real numbers. So, the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 and
𝑓 − 𝑔 is the set of all real numbers.
Example 2
2 𝑓(𝑥)
Given: 𝑓( ) = 2 and 𝑔( ) = , find (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)( ) and 𝑔(𝑥)
Solution:
𝑓
The domain 𝑓 and 𝑔 is the set of all real numbers. So, the domain of 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 and 𝑔 is the
𝑓
set of all real numbers. Here, 𝑔 cannot be zero. So, the domain of 𝑔
is ℝ/{0} (the set
of real numbers without zero) since 𝑔 cannot be zero.

Example 3
𝑓 𝑔
Find 𝑔 ( )and 𝑓
( ) for functions given by 𝑓( ) = √ and 𝑔( ) = √4 − 2. Then,
𝑓 𝑔
find the domain of 𝑔 and 𝑓 .
Solution:
𝑓 𝑓 ( )
The quotient of 𝑓 and 𝑔 is given by ( 𝑔) ( ) = 𝑔( ) = √ √ and the quotient of 𝑔 and
4− 2
𝑔 𝑔( ) √ 4− 2
𝑓 is ( 𝑓) ( ) = 𝑓( ) = √
.
The domain of 𝑓is [0, ∞)and the domain of 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 [−2, 2]. The intersection of these
𝑓
domains is ⌈0, 2⌉. Here, 𝑔 cannot be zero. So, the domain of 𝑔
𝑖𝑠 [0,2) and domain
𝑔
of 𝑓
𝑖𝑠 (0,2] since f cannot be zero.
Exercise 1.13
1. Let 𝑓( ) = 2 − 5 and 𝑔( ) = + 1, then evaluate
a. (𝑓 + 𝑔)( ) b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)( )
𝑓
c. (𝑓𝑔)( ) d. ( 𝑔) ( )
𝑓
e. the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 , 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 and 𝑔
27
2
2. Let 𝑓( ) = + 5 and 𝑔( ) = √1 − . Find
a. (𝑓 + 𝑔)( ) b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)( )
𝑓
c. (𝑓. 𝑔)( ) d. ( 𝑔) ( )
𝑓
e. the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔 , 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 and 𝑔.
Example 1
Given: 𝑓( ) = 7 − 2 and 𝑔( ) = − − 6. Determine:

a. 3𝑓 + 𝑔 𝐛. 4𝑔 − 3𝑓
4𝑔
𝐜. (4𝑓)𝑔 d.
5𝑓
Solution:
a. (3𝑓 + 𝑔)( ) = 3𝑓( ) + 𝑔( )
= 3(7 − 2 ) + (− − 6)
= 21 − 6 − − 6 = 15 − 7 .
b. (4𝑔 − 3𝑓)( ) = 4𝑔( ) − 3𝑓( ) = 4(− − 6) − 3(7 − 2 )
= −4 − 24 − 21 + 6 = 2 − 45.
c. [(4𝑓) ∙ 𝑔]( ) = 4𝑓( ) ∙ 𝑔( )
= 4(7 − 2 )(− − 6)
2
= 4(−7 − 42 + 2 + 12 )
2 2
= 4(2 + 5 − 42) = 8 + 20 − 168.
4𝑔 4(−𝑥−6) −4𝑥−24 4𝑥+24
d. 5𝑓
= 5(7−2𝑥)
= 35−10𝑥
= 10𝑥−35.
Exercise 1.14
1. Given: 𝑓( ) = 2 − and 𝑔( ) = −2 + 3.
a. Determine 𝑓 + 2𝑔 and evaluate (𝑓 + 2𝑔)(2).
b. Determine 2𝑓 − 𝑔 and evaluate (2𝑓 − 𝑔)(2).
c. Determine 2𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 and evaluate (2𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(2).
3𝑓 3𝑓
d. Determine and evaluate 2𝑔 (2)
2𝑔
28
𝑓
2. If f and g are any functions, is the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 and 𝑔
differ
from the domain of 𝑓 and 𝑔? If your answer is yes, why?
Note
A numerical relation 𝑅 is a function if and only if no vertical line in the plane
intersects the graph of 𝑅 in more than one point.
Vertical Line Test:

Vertical line test is used to determine whether a graph of a curve is a function or not.
If any curve cuts a vertical line at more than one point then the curve is not a function.
Example 1
The figure1.14 describes the graph is not a function.
Figure 1.14
1.2.3 Types of functions

There are different types of function. These are
● One-to-one function (Injective function)
● Onto function (Surjective function)
● One-to-one correspondence (Bijective)
One-to-one function (Injective function)
If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct
image in the co-domain, then the function is said to
be one -to- one function. Figure 1.15
29
Definition 1.4
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called one-to-one if and only if for all 1, 2 ∈ 𝐴,
𝑓( 1 ) = 𝑓( 2 ) implies 1 = 2.
Example 1
Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 given by 𝑓( ) = 3 + 5. Show that 𝑓 is one-to-one.

Solution:
Let 1, 2 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑓( 1 ) = 𝑓( 2 ) implies 3 1 +5=3 2 + 5 implies 1 = 2
Therefore, 𝑓 is one-to-one.
Example 2
In figure 1.16, which of the following sets of values represent a one-to-one function?
Figure 1.16
Solution:
For the first set 𝑓( ), we can see that each element from the right side is paired up
with a unique element from the left. Hence, 𝑓( ) is a one-to-one function.
30
The set 𝑔( ), shows a different number of elements on each side. This alone will tell
us that the function is not a one-to-one function.
Some values from the left side correspond to the same element found on the right, so
𝑚( ) is not a one-to-one function as well.
Each of the elements on the first set corresponds to a unique element on the next,
so 𝑛( ) represents a one-to-one function.
Onto function (Surjective Function)
A function is called an onto function if each element in the co-domain has at least one
pre-image in the domain (see figure 1.17).
Figure 1.17
One-to-one correspondence (Bijective function)

A function 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 is said to be a one-to-one correspondence if 𝑓 is both one-to-one
and onto.
Figure 1.18
31
Example 3
Which of the following sets of values represents an injective and surjective function?
a. b.
c. d.
Figure 1.19
Solution:
a. Not one-to-one but it is an onto (surjective) function.
b. Both one-to-one and onto function.
c. An injective non-surjective function (injection).
d. A non-injective non-surjective function.
Example 4
2
The function 𝑓( ) = from the set of positive real numbers to the set of positive real
numbers is both injective and surjective. Thus, it is also a bijective. Is it true that
whenever 𝑓( ) = 𝑓( ) , = ? Imagine = 3, then 𝑓( ) = 9. Now I say that
𝑓( ) = 9, what is the value of ? It is 3, so = .
32
Exercise 1.15
1. Which of the following mappings are injective, surjective, bijective function?
Figure 1.20
2. Which of the following are one-to-one functions?
a. 𝐴 is the set of ordered pair ( , ): = | − 2|.
b. 𝐵 = 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 given by 𝑓 ( ) = .
3. Which of the following functions are onto?
a. 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, 𝑓 ( ) = 2 – 3
2
b. 𝑔: [0, ∞) → ℜ, 𝑔( ) =
4. Identify if the following function is an injective, surjective, and/or bijective
function?
a. 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, 𝑓( ) = +1 b. 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, 𝑓( ) = 2
1.2.4 Graphs of functions

In this section, you will learn how to draw graphs of functions such as =𝑎 +𝑏
2
and =𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 with special emphasis on linear and quadratic functions. You
will study some of the important properties of graphs as in the following:
33
Definition 1.5
If 𝑓 is a function with domain 𝐴, then the graph of 𝑓 is the set of all ordered
pairs {( , 𝑓( )), ∈ 𝐴}
That is, the graph of 𝑓 is the set of all points ( , ) such that 𝑓( ) = . This is the
same as the graph of the equation𝑓( ) = discussed in Cartesian coordinates. The
graph of a function allows us to translate between algebra and pictures or geometry.
Graph of linear function:
Definition 1.6
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are fixed real numbers, 𝑎 ≠ 0, then 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 for every real
number is called a linear function. If 𝑎 = 0, then 𝑓( ) = 𝑏 is called a constant
function. Sometimes linear functions are written in the form = 𝑎 + 𝑏.
Example 1
𝑓( ) = 2 + 1 is a linear function with 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = 1
Example 2
𝑓( ) = 2 is a constant function.
To work on graphic functions, you can pick a few values of and calculate the
corresponding values of or 𝑓( ), plot the resulting points ( , 𝑓( )) and connect the
points.
Example 3
Draw the graph of 𝑓( ) = 2

Solution:
Construct a table for the value of the function; plot the ordered pairs and draw a line
through the points to get the required graph.
34
Table 1.6
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓( ) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Figure 1.21 Graph of the constant function 𝑓( ) = 2
Example 4
Fill in the tables shown in Table 1.7 for the function 𝑓( ) = and draw its graph.
Table 1.7
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓( )
If 𝑓(−3) = −3, 𝑓(−2) = −2, 𝑓(−1) = −1, 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(2) = 2,

𝑓(3) = 3.
So, the table becomes
Table 1.8
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓( ) −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
When you plot the corresponding points on the Cartesian plane and connect the
points to get a picture of the graph of function, the ordered pairs will give you a
35
graph in the shape shown in Figure 1.22. The domain is the set of all real number
and the range is the set of all real numbers .
Figure 1.22 the graph of 𝑓( ) =
Example 5
Consider the linear function 𝑓( ) = + 3 and evaluate the values of the function for
the values in Table 1.9 and draw its graph.
Table 1.9
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑓( ) = +3
If = −4, 𝑓(−4) = −1, 𝑓(−3) = 0, 𝑓(−2) = 1, 𝑓(−1) = 2, 𝑓(0) = 3, 𝑓(1) = 4,

𝑓(2) = 5, the table becomes
Table 1.10
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑓( ) = +3 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Table 1.10 is pairing the values of and 𝑓( ). This is taken as a representation of set
of ordered pairs (−4, −1), (−3, 0), (−2, 1), (−1, 2), (0, 3), (1, 4) and (2, 5). Now
you can plot these points in a coordinate system to draw the graph of the given function.
36
Figure 1.23 the graph of 𝑓( ) = +3
Example 6
Draw the graph of the linear function 𝑓( ) = −2 + 6.
Table 1.11
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓( ) = −2 + 6 10 8 6 4 2 0
Figure 1.24 the graph of 𝑓( ) = −2 + 6
37
Exercise 1.16
Construct tables of values of the following functions for the given domains:
a. 𝑓( ) = 4 + 1; = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3
b. 𝑓( ) = −2 + 5; = −1, −0.5, 0, 2, 3, 4
c. 𝑓( ) = 7 − 3 ; = −1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ,4
𝑥
d. 𝑓( ) = 4 + 1; = −8, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4
Example 1
Draw the graph of the following functions in the same Cartesian coordinate system.
a. 𝑓( ) = +2 b. 𝑔( ) = − + 2
c. ℎ( ) = 2 + 2 d. 𝑘( ) = −2 + 2
Solution:
We need two points to draw a line. However, we generally choose three, and the
third point is a good check that we do not make a mistake.
a. 𝑓( ) = + 2: 𝑓(0) = 2,
𝑓(1) = 3, 𝑓(2) = 4,
b. 𝑔( ) = − + 2 : 𝑔(0) = 2,
𝑔(1) = 1, 𝑔(2) = 0,
c. ℎ( ) = 2 + 2 : ℎ(0) = 2,
ℎ(1) = 4, ℎ(2) = 6,
d. 𝑘( ) = −2 + 2 : 𝑘(0) = 2,
𝑘(1) = 0, 𝑘(2) = −2.
Figure 1.25 the graph of four functions 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ, 𝑘 intersecting at a point (0,2).
As indicated on Fig.1.25, the graphs of the four functions cross the -axis at =2
because the value of b is always 2 for the equation = 𝑎 + 𝑏 where b is the y-
intercept. Thus, you can see that if 𝑎 > 0 then the straight line goes up as increases,
38
and the bigger 𝑎 gets the faster the line goes up. Similarly, if 𝑎 < 0 then the line goes
down as increases, and the bigger 𝑎 gets in absolute terms, the faster the line goes
down.
From the graphs given above, you have noticed that:
a. Graphs of linear functions are straight lines.
b. If 𝑎 > 0, then the graph of the linear function 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 is increasing.
c. If 𝑎 < 0, then the graph of the linear function 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 is decreasing.
d. If 𝑎 = 0, then the graph of the linear function 𝑓( ) = 𝑏 is a horizontal line.
Exercise 1.17
Draw the graph of the following functions in the same Cartesian coordinate system.
a. 𝑓( ) = 2 + 1 b. 𝑔( ) = 2 − 1
c. ℎ( ) = −2 + 1 d. 𝑘( ) = −2 − 1
e. 𝑚( ) = 1 f. 𝑛( ) = −1
Slope and intercept:

The slope indicates the steepness of a line and the intercept indicates the location where
it intersects an axis. Linear functions are written in the form = 𝑎 + 𝑏 and 𝑎 is
called its slope and 𝑏 is its -intercept.
Example 1
If 𝑓( ) = 3 − 6, then find the and -intercepts.

Solution:
To find - intercept, put 𝑓( ) = = 0 and then solve for as:
0 = 3 − 6,
= 2.
So, the - intercept is (2, 0).
To find -intercept, put = 0. And solve, you have 𝑓(0) = −6.
So, the - intercept 𝑖𝑠 (0, −6).
39
Example 2
Draw the graph of the function 𝑓( ) = 2 − 3.

Solution:
Find the and - intercept.The - intercept
3
is the ordered pair where = 0 that is (2 , 0).
And the - intercept is the ordered pair where

= 0 that is (0, −3). Plot these intercepts on
a coordinate system and draw a line that
passes through them.
Figure 1.26 the graph of 𝑓( ) = 2 − 3
Example 3
If 𝑓( ) = 2 − , is the graph of the function increasing or decreasing function?
Solution:
Since 𝑓( ) = 2 − is the same as 𝑓( ) = − + 2 and the coefficient of is −1,

the graph the function is decreasing.
Exercise 1.18
1. Determine the slope, -intercept and -intercept of the following linear functions:
a. + −2=0 b. 2 + 2 = 3
c. 𝑓( ) + 7 = 2 d. 𝑓( ) = −3 − 5
2. Given the following functions:
𝑓( ) = 3 − 1, 𝑔( ) = − + 2, ℎ( ) = −2 and 𝑘( ) = 1.
a. Which one is a decreasing function?
b. Find slope and -intercept and -intercept of each function.
40
3. Sketch the graph of each of the following using intercepts:

a. =2 +4 𝑏. 3 + 4 = 5 𝑐. = −4 + 3
Graphs of quadratic functions

2
A function defined by 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real numbers and 𝑎 ≠
0 is called a quadratic function. The point 𝑎 is the leading coefficient of 𝑓.
Example 1
2
𝑓( ) = 3 − 2 + 5 is a quadratic function with 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −2 and 𝑐 = 5.
Quadratic functions are useful in many applications in mathematics when a linear
function is not sufficient. For example, the motion of an object thrown either upward
or downward is modeled by a quadratic function. The graph of a quadratic function is
a curve called a parabola. Parabolas may open upward or downward and vary in”
width” or” steepness”, but they all have the same basic” U” shape. All parabolas are
symmetric with respect to a line called the axis of symmetry. A parabola intersects its
axis of symmetry at a point called the vertex of the parabola.
Many quadratic functions can be graphed easily by hand using the techniques of
2
stretching/ shrinking and shifting (translation) the parabola = .
Note
2
The simplest form of a quadratic equation is = when 𝑎 = 1 and
𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0.
Activity 1.9
2
a. Make a table of ordered pairs that satisfy the function 𝑓( ) = .
b. Find the and intercepts of 𝑓.
2)
c. Plot the points ( , on -coordinate system.
d. Find the domain and range of 𝑓.
41
2
The following are observations of the graph of ℎ( ) = .
➢ Since squaring any number gives a positive number, the values of are all
positive, except when = 0, in which case = 0.
2 2
➢ As increases in size, so does but the increase in the value of is ‘faster’
than the increase in .
2
➢ The graph of = is symmetric about the
-axis ( = 0). For example, if = 3, the
corresponding value is 32 = 9. 𝐼𝑓 = −3,
then the value is (−3)2 = 9. The two -
values are equidistant from the -axis: one to
the left and one to the right, but the two
values are in the same height above the -
2
axis. Figure 1.27 the graph of =
Referring to figure1.27, we observe the following
➢ the line = 0 ( -axis) is called the line of symmetry for this quadratic
function.
➢ the line = 0 ( -axis) is called the orthogonal axis for this quadratic function.
2
If the equation is, say, = then the
2
graph will be similar to that of =2
but will lie above it. For example, when
2
= 1 the value of is 1, but the
2
value of 2 is 2. The value for =
2 2
2 is above that of = . Similarly,
𝑥2
for the equation = 2
, the graph is
2 2
similar to that of = except lying below. Figure 1.28 the graph of =𝑎
2
Sketch of =𝑎 for different positive values of 𝑎 are shown in Figure 1.28.
42
2
Consider now the choice 𝑎 = −1, with the equation =− . In this case the graph
of the equation will have the same shape but now, instead of being above the -axis it
is below. When = 1 the corresponding value is−1.
Table 1.12
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
2
𝑓( ) = − −9 −4 −1 0 −1 −4 −9
2
𝑔( ) = −2 −18 −8 −2 0 −2 −8 −18
1 2
9 1 1 9
ℎ( ) = − − −2 − 0 − −2 −
2 2 2 2 2
2
Examples of =𝑎 for various negative values of 𝑎 are sketched in figure 1.29.
2 1
Figure 1.29 the graph of =𝑎 , 𝑎 = −2, − 2 , −1
Exercise 1.19
Draw the graph of the following functions by constructing tables of values:
= −2, −1, 0, 1, 2.
1 2 1
a. 𝑓( ) = b. 𝑔( ) = − 4 2
4
3 2 3 2
c. ℎ( ) = 2 d. 𝑘( ) = − 2
43
Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄.
This type of quadratic function is
similar to the basic ones of the previous
functions discussed but with a constant
2
c added in the function =𝑎 , i.e.,
having the general form
2
= 𝑎 + 𝑐 . As an example of this,
2
= + 2. Comparing this with the
2
function = , the only difference is
the addition of 2 units. When = 1, Figure 1.30
2 2 2
= 1, but + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3. When = 2, = 4,
2
but + 2 = 4 + 2 = 6.
2
That is the values of = have been lifted by 2 units. This happens for all of the
values so the shape of the graph is unchanged but it is lifted by 2 units. Similarly, the
2
graph of = – 2 will be lowered by 2 units.
Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒌)𝟐
In the examples considered so far, the axis of symmetry is the -axis, i.e., the line
= 0. The next possibility is a quadratic function which has its axis of symmetry not
on the -axis.
A case in point to this function: = ( − 3)2
has the same shape and the same orthogonal
2
axis as = but the axis of symmetry is
the line = 3. i.e., shift to the right by 3 units.
The points = 0 and = 6 are equidistant
from 3. When = 0 the value is 9. When
= 6 the value is (6 − 3)2 = 9.
The points on the curve at these values are
both 9 units above the -axis. Figure 1.31 the graph of = ( − 3)2
This is true for all numbers which are equidistant from 3.
44
From the graph of quadratic functions of the form 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +
𝒄, 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒄 is any real number, we can summarize:
1. If 𝑎 > 0, the graph opens upward and if 𝑎 < 0, the graph opens downward.
2 2
2. The vertex is (0,0) for 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 and (0, 𝑐) for =𝑎 + 𝑐.
3. The domain is all real numbers.
4. The vertical line that passes through the vertex is the axis of the parabola (or the
axis of symmetry).
2
5. If 𝑎 > 0, the range is the set of non- negative real number for 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 and
2
the set of real number such that ≥ 𝑐 for =𝑎 +𝑐
2
6. If 𝑎 < 0, the range is the set of non- positive real number for𝑓( ) = 𝑎 and
2
the set of real number such that ≤ 𝑐 for =𝑎 +𝑐
Exercise 1.20
Draw the graph of the following functions.
2 2
a. 𝑓( ) = +1 b. 𝑔( ) = −3
2
c. ℎ( ) = 2 +2 d. 𝑘( ) = ( − 1)2
e. 𝑚( ) = ( + 1)2
Graphs of = 𝑎( − 𝑘)2 + 𝑚 (𝑎 < 0).

So far, two separate cases have been discussed: first a standard quadratic function has
its orthogonal axis shifted up or down; second a standard quadratic function has its
axis of symmetry shifted left or right. The next step is to consider quadratic functions
that incorporate all shifts.
Example 1
2
The quadratic function = is shifted so that its axis of symmetry is at = 3 and
its orthogonal axis is at = 2.
a. Write down the equation of the new curve.
b. Find the coordinates of the point where it crosses the -axis.
45
2
c. Sketch the new curve shifted from =
Solution:
a. The new curve = ( − 3)2 is symmetric about = 3 and is shifted up by
2 units, so its equation is = ( − 3)2 + 2.
b. The curve crosses the -axis, when = 0. Putting this into the equation
= ( − 3)2 + 2, the corresponding value of is
= (0 − 3)2 + 2 = 11,
so, the curve crosses the −axis at = 11.
c. The curve is shown in figure 1.32.
Figure 1.32 the graph of = ( − 3)2 +2

Note that the vertex of the graph of 𝑓( ) = ( − 𝑘)2 + 𝑐 is (𝑘, 𝑐).
Exercise 1.21
2
1. The curve = −2 is shifted so that its axis of symmetry is the line = −2 and
its orthogonal axis is = 8.
b. Find the coordinates of the points where this new curve cuts the and axes.
c. Sketch the curve
2. Find the vertex and draw the graph of the following functions.
a. 𝑓( ) = ( − 1)2 + 2 b. 𝑔( ) = ( − 2)2 − 3
c. ℎ( ) = ( + 1)2 + 1
46
The final section is about sketching general quadratic functions, i.e., one of the forms
2
=𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐 .
The algebraic expression must be rearranged so that the line of symmetry and the
orthogonal axis can be determined. The procedure required is completing the square.
Example 1
2
A quadratic function is given by = + 6 + 11.
a. Apply completing the square method, and find the vertex of the function.
b. Use this to determine the axis of symmetry and the orthogonal axis of the
curve.
c. Find the points on the and axes where the curve crosses them.
d. Sketch the function.
Solution:
a. Completing the square:
2
= +6 + 11
2
= + 6 + 9 − 9 + 11
= ( + 3)2 + 2.
Thus, the vertex is (−3, 2).
2
b. This is the function = moved to the left so that its axis of symmetry is
= −3 and shifted up by 2, i.e., its orthogonal axis is = 2.
c. The function is = ( + 3)2 + 2. It will not cross the x-axis, i.e., the graph has
not -intercept. Putting = 0 into
the original form of the function
2
= + 6 + 11, gives = 11,
i.e., it crosses the -axis at = 11.
d. The function is shown in
figure1.33.
2
Figure 1.33 the graph of the function = + 6 + 11
47
Exercise 1.22
2
1. A quadratic function is given as = + 4 + 11.
a. completes the square on this function and find the vertex.
b. use this to determine the axis of symmetry and the orthogonal axis of the
curve.
c. finds the points on the and axes where the curve crosses them.
2
2. A quadratic function is given as = − 8 + 14, and find the vertex.
a. completes the square on this function.
b. Sketch the function.
3. Sketch each of the following quadratic functions.
2 2 2
a. = +2 +1 b. = −6 +5 c. = +2 +5
Graphs of = 𝑎( − 𝑘)2 + 𝑚 (𝑎 < 0).
Example 1
2
A quadratic function is given as = − + 2 + 3.
a. Complete the square on this function.
b. Use this to determine the axis of symmetry and the orthogonal axis of the
curve.
c. Find the points on the x and y axes where the curve crosses them.
Solution:
2
a. =− + 2 + 3
2
= −( − 2 )+ 3
= −(( − 1)2 − 1) + 3
= −( − 1)2 + 1 + 3
= −( − 1)2 + 4
2
b. This is the function = − moved to right so that its axis of symmetry is
48
= 1 and shifted up by 4, i.e., its orthogonal axis is = 4.

c. The function is = −( − 1)2 + 4. This will cross the -axis when =0
i.e. when −( − 1)2 + 4 = 0
4 = ( − 1)2
taking square roots yields − 1 = ±2 implies x = 1 ± 2, i.e.,
= −1 or 3. Putting = 0 into the original form of the function at the
2
=− + 2 + 3. This gives = 3, i.e., it crosses the -axis at = 3.
d. The function is shown in figure1.34.
2
Figure 1.34 the graph of =− +2 +3
Exercise 1.23
2
1. A quadratic function is given as = − − 2 + 1.
b. use this to determine the axis of symmetry and the orthogonal axis of the
curve.
c. finds the points on the x and y axes where the curve crosses them.
2
2. A quadratic function is given as = − − 2 − 1.
b. Sketch the function.
3. Sketch each of the following quadratic functions.
2 2
a. =6− b. =4 −
49
4. Find the and - intercepts, axis of symmetry and orthogonal axes of the
following functions.
2 2
a. = −2 − 8 b. =− +6 +7
Note
1. The graph of 𝑓 ( ) = ( + 𝑘)2 + 𝑐 opens upward.
2. The graph of 𝑓 ( ) = −( + 𝑘)2 + 𝑐 opens downward.
3. The vertex of the graph of 𝑓 ( ) = ( + 𝑘)2 + 𝑐 is (– 𝑘, 𝑐) and the vertex
of the graph of 𝑓 ( ) = ( – 𝑘)2 – 𝑐 is (𝑘, – 𝑐). Similarly, the vertex of the
graph of 𝑓 ( ) = ( + 𝑘)2 – 𝑐 is (– 𝑘, – 𝑐) and the vertex of the graph of
𝑓 ( ) = ( – 𝑘)2 + 𝑐 is (𝑘, 𝑐).
1.3 Applications of Relations and Functions
Applications involving relations
Example 1
The data in table1.13 depicts the length of a woman’s femur and her corresponding
height. Based on these data, a forensics specialist can find a linear relationship
between heights inch and femur 𝑐𝑚: = 2,47 + 54, 40 ≤ ≤ 55.
Table 1.13
Length of
femur (cm) Height (cm)
45 164
48 173
42 158
46 167
50 178
50
From this type of relation, the height of a woman can be inferred based on skeletal
remains.
a. Find the height of the woman whose femur is 44 𝑐𝑚.
b. Find the height of the woman whose femur is 51 𝑐𝑚.
Solution:
a. = 2.47 + 54
= 2.47(44) + 54
= 162.68
The woman is approximately 163 cm tall.
b. = 2.47 + 54
= 2.47(51) + 54
= 179.97
The woman is approximately 180 cm tall.
Example 2
2
If the equation + 18 + 81 represents the area of the square, what is the perimeter
of the square if = 10?
Solution:
2
+ 18 + 81 factors into ( + 9)( + 9)
Since this represents the area of a square where length = width, then
( + 9) = length and ( + 9) =width
Perimeter of a square = 2(length + width) = 2( + 9 + + 9)
= 2(2 + 18) = 4 + 36
for = 10, Perimeter 4(10) + 36 = 40 + 36 = 76
Example 3
The width of a square is 1 less than twice its width. What is its length?
Solution:
When 1 less than a number, the algebraic symbol is is −1
51
Let the width be

when is 1 less than 2
1=2 − and = 1. In a square, length = width. So, the length is 1.
Exercise 1.24
1. There is 8m wire. With this wire, make a rectangle with length m on one side.
a. Express the width using .
b. Express the area S of the rectangle using .
c. If 𝑓( ) = 𝑆, draw the graph 𝑓( ).
d. Determine the domain and range of 𝑓( ).
2. There is an isosceles triangle with height 4cm.
a. If the base is cm and express the area S using .
b. If 𝑓( ) = 𝑆, draw the graph of 𝑓( ).
c. Determine the domain and range of 𝑓( ).
Minimum and Maximum values of quadratic functions

Suppose you throw a stone upward. The stone turns down after it reaches its maximum
height. Similarly, a parabola turns after it reaches a maximum or a minimum y value.
Activity 1.10
Let 𝑓 ( ) be a quadratic function. Discuss how to determine the maximum or
minimum value of 𝑓 ( ).
Example 1
The minimum value of a quadratic function expressed as

𝑓( ) = ( + 𝑘)2 + 𝑐 is 𝑐.
Similarly, the maximum value of 𝑓 ( ) = −( + 𝑘)2 + 𝑐 is c.
52
Example 2
2
Find the maximum value of the function 𝑓 ( ) = – + 6 – 8, and sketch its
graph.
Solution:
2
𝑓( ) =– + 6 –9 + 9 − 8
2
=– ( − 6 + 9) + 1;
𝑓 ( ) = – ( − 3)2 + 1.
The graph of 𝑓 ( ) = – ( − 3)2 + 1
has vertex (3, 1) and hence the
maximum value of f is 1.
In this case, the range of the function is
{ : ≤ 1} = (– ∞, 1]
Figure 1.35 the graph of 𝑓 ( ) = – ( − 3)2 + 1
Exercise 1.25
1. Find the vertex and the axis of symmetry of the following functions
a. 𝑓 ( ) = ( – 4)2 – 3
2
b. 𝑓 ( ) = –5 + 8
2. Determine the minimum or the maximum value of each of the following functions
and draw the graphs:
2
a. 𝑓 ( ) = + 4 + 1
2
b. 𝑓 ( ) = 4 + 2 +4
2
c. 𝑓 ( ) = – –4
2
d. 𝑓( ) = −6 – –4
3. A metal wire 40 cm long is cut into two and each piece is bent to form a
square. If the sum of their areas is 58 sq.cm, how long is each piece?
53
Graphical method of solving quadratic equations
Activity 1.11
2
For the quadratic function: = , complete the table, and plot the pair of
coordinates on the coordinate plane to draw the graph.
Table 1.14
… -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …
… 9 4 1 0
In general, the graph of quadratic function has u-shaped curve and one extreme point,
called vertex. In the Activity, the vertex of the function is (0, 0). In order to find the
solutions of a quadratic equation using a graph:
1. Rearrange the equation so that one side is equal to zero (if necessary).
2. Draw the graph of the quadratic function.
3. Read off the -coordinate(s) of the point(s) where the curve crosses the -axis.
The quadratic function is transformed using completing the square method as
follows:
𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑏 2 𝑏2
2
=𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 ( + 2𝑎) + 𝑐 − 𝑎 ∙ 4𝑎2 = 𝑎 ( + 2𝑎) + 𝑐 − 4𝑎
𝑏 2 4𝑎𝑐− 𝑏 2
= 𝑎 ( + 2𝑎) + 4𝑎
𝑏 4𝑎𝑐− 𝑏 2
Hence, the vertex of the function is (− 2𝑎 , ).
4𝑎
2 𝑏 4𝑎𝑐− 𝑏2
(That is, translate =𝑎 by − 2𝑎 in -axis direction, and by in -axis
4𝑎
direction.
𝑏 4𝑎𝑐−𝑏 2
It uses the vertex formula (− 2𝑎 , ) to get the vertex which gives an idea of what
4𝑎
values to choose to plot the points. If the graph of the quadratic function crosses the -
axis at two points then we have two solutions. The -intercept(s) of a graph is/are the
solution(s) of the equation. If the graph touches the -axis at one point then we have
54
one solution. If the graph does not intersect with the -axis then the equation has no
real solution.
Example 1
2
Find the solutions of the equation − 4 = 0 graphically.
Solution:
2
Draw the graph of the quadratic function, = −4
Read off the 𝒙-coordinate(s) of the point(s)
where the curve crosses the 𝒙-axis.
The roots are = −2 and =2
2
These are the solutions of −4 =0
2
Figure 1.36 the graph of = −4
Example 2
2
Solve − 2 − 3 = 0 graphically.
Solution:
2
The solution for the equation − 2 − 3 = 0 can be obtained by looking at the points
2
where the graph = − 2 − 3 cuts at
the -axis (i.e., = 0).
2
= − 2 − 3 = ( − 1)2 − 4, hence
the vertex is (1, −4)
In addition to the vertex, plot some points,
such as y-intercept (0, −3) and other
points (−1, 0), (2, −3), (3, 0) to draw
graph.
2
Figure 1.37 the graph of = − 2 − 3.
55
2
The graph = − 2 − 3 cuts the -axis at = −1 and = 3. So, the solution for
the equation is = −1 and = 3.
Example 3
2
Solve − + 6 − 9 = 0 graphically.
Solution:
2
The solution for the equation − + 6 − 9 = 0 can be obtained by looking at the
2
points where the graph = + 6 − 9 cuts at the -axis (i.e., = 0).
2
=− + 6 − 9 = −( − 3)2 , hence the vertex is (3, 0)
Plot other points, y-intercept (0, −9), and (1, −4), (2, −1), (4, -1) to draw
graph.
2
The graph =− + 6 − 9 = 0 cuts the − 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 only at = 3. So, the solution
for the equation is = 3.
2
Figure 1.38 the graph of the function =− +6 −9
Example 4
2
Solve + 4 + 8 = 0 graphically.
Solution:
2
The vertex for = + 4 + 8 is given by using completing the square method as
follows:
56
2
= + 4 + 8 = ( + 2)2 + 4
2
Then the vertex is (-2, 4). Furthermore, coefficient of is positive. Therefore, there
2
is no -intercept and hence, no real solution to the equation +4 +8=0
2
Figure 1.39 the graph of the function = +4 +8
Note
In the graphs of quadratic functions, the sign on the coefficient 𝑎 affects whether
the graph opens up or down. If 𝑎 > 0, then the graph opens up and if 𝑎 < 0, then
the graph opens down.
Exercise 1.26
1. Use graphical method to solve the following.
2 2
a. −1=0 b. +2 +1=0
2 2
c. +3 −4=0 d. −4 +6=0
2. The quadratic function f intersects the -axis at the points (1, 0) and (−4, 0).
What is the solution set of the equation 𝑓( ) = 0?
3. At what values of does the graph of the equation = ( + 2)( − 6) cross the
x-axis?
57
Graphical method of solving quadratic inequalities (1)
Activity 1.12
Given the following inequalities:

a. > 2 b. < 2
c. > 2
+4
2 2 2
d. ≥1− e. ≤ +2 f. ≥ −4
1. Find the -intercept and -intercept of their respective equation.
2. Which region (inside or outside the parabola satisfy the inequality)?
In solving a quadratic inequality graphically, the following steps shall be

followed.
2 2
1. Write the quadratic inequality in standard form + 𝑏 + 𝑐 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 +𝑏 +
𝑐 ≤ 0.
2
2. Graph the function 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 using properties or transformations.
3. Determine the solution from the graph.
2
The graph of a quadratic function 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 is a parabola. When we ask
2
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 < 0, 𝑓( ) < 0 (Figure 1.40). We want to know when the parabola is
2
below the x -axis. When we ask 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 > 0, we are asking when 𝑓( ) > 0
(Figure 1.41). We want to know when the parabola is above the x -axis.
2
Figure 1.40 the graph of the function =𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 for 𝑎 > 0
58
2
Figure 1.41 the graph of the function =𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 for 𝑎 < 0
Example 1
2
Solve −6 +8<0
Solution:
Step 1: Write the quadratic inequality in standard form. The inequality is in standard
form.
2
Step 2: Graph the function 𝑓( ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 using properties or
transformations.
We will graph using the properties.
2
Look at a in the equation 𝑓( ) = − 6 + 8. 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −6, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 8.
Since a is positive, the parabola opens upward.
2
𝑓( ) = − 6 + 8 = ( − 3)2 − 1. The vertex is (3, −1). Using table to find
other points.
1 2 3 4 5
2
𝑓( ) = −6 +8 3 0 −1 0 3
The -intercepts are (2,0) and (4, 0) . We graph the -intercepts, and the y-intercept.
We connect these points to sketch the parabola (Figure 1.42).
59
2
Figure 1.42 the graph of the function = −6 +8
Step 3: Determine the solution from the graph.
The inequality asks for the values of which make the function less than 0. Which
values of make the parabola below the -axis? We do not include the values 2, 4 as
the inequality is less than only. The solution, in interval notation is (2, 4) or
2
{ :2 < < 4} for the quadratic inequality − 6 + 8 < 0.
Exercise 1.27
Solve the following quadratic inequalities graphically. Use the previous methods to
check the answers.
2 2
a. +6 +5<0 b. +6 −7≥0
2 2
c. − 10 + 16 > 0 d. −3 +4>0
2
e. − 2 − 15 ≤ 0
Graphical method of solving quadratic inequalities (2)

Example 2
2
Solve − − 8 − 12 ≤ 0 graphically. Write the solution in interval notation.
Solution:
2
Consider the equation 𝑓( ) = − − 8 − 12. 𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = −8, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = −12.
Since a is negative, the parabola opens downward.
We find 𝑓(0) = −12. Hence (0, −12) is the -intercept.
60
2 2
𝑓( ) = − − 8 − 12 = −( + 8 + 12)
= −( + 4)2 + 4.
The vertex is (−4, 4). Find other points using the table.
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2
2
𝑓( ) = − − 8 − 12 0 3 4 3 0
So, the x-intercepts are (−6, 0) and (−2, 0). We graph the vertex, intercepts. We
connect these points to sketch the parabola (Figure 1.43).
2
Figure 1.43 the graph of the function =− − 8 − 12 ≤ 0.
The inequality asks for the values of which make the function less than or equal to 0.
We include the values −6,and −2 as the inequality is less than or equal to 0. The
solution, in interval notation is (−∞, −6] ∪ [−2, ∞) or { : ≤ −6 𝑜𝑟 ≥ −2} for
the quadratic inequality
2
− − 8 − 12 ≤ 0.
Exercise 1.28
Solve the following quadratic inequalities graphically. Use the previous
methods to check the answers.
2 2
a. − + + 12 ≥ 0 b. − − 2 + 17 < 0
2 2
c. − −6 −5<0 d. − +2 +1≥0
2
e. − + 8 − 14 < 0
61
Summary and Review Exercise
Summary
1. A Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular
coordinate system) is defined by an ordered pair of perpendicular lines (axes), a
single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis.
2. In relation, two things are related to each other by a relating phrase.
3. A relation is the set of ordered pairs.
4. The set of first components in the ordered pairs is called the domain of the
relation. The set of second components in the ordered pairs is called the range
of the relation.
5. A function is a special type of relation in which no two distinct ordered pairs
have the same first element.
6. A function from 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 can sometimes be denoted as 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, where the
domain of the function 𝑓 is 𝐴 and the range of the function 𝑓 is included in 𝐵,
in which we say 𝐵 contains the image of the elements of 𝐴 under the function 𝑓.
7. A numerical relation 𝑅 is a function if and only if no vertical line in the plane
intersects the graph of 𝑅 in more than one point.
8. If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct image in the co-
domain, then function is said to be one -to- one function.
9. A function is called an onto function if each element in the co-domain has at
least one pre – image in the domain.
10. A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be a one- to-one correspondence if 𝑓 is both one to
one and onto.
11.Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions with overlapping domains. We define the sum,
difference, product, and quotient as:
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) ( 𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) ,𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
62
12.If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are fixed real numbers, 𝑎 ≠ 0,then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 for every real
number 𝑥 is called a linear function.
13.In 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 for 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑥𝜖/𝑅, 𝑎 represent the slope, (0, 𝑏) represents the
𝑏
𝑦- intercept and (− 𝑎 , 0) represent the 𝑥- intercept.
14.A function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real numbers and

𝑎 ≠ 0 is called a quadratic function. The point 𝑎 is the leading coefficient of 𝑓.
15.We can sketch the graph of a linear function by using either a table of values, or
the 𝑥 and 𝑦 − intercepts.
16.We can sketch the graph of a quadratic function by using either a table of
values, or shifting rule.
17.The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 opens upward if 𝑎 > 0 and downward if
𝑎 < 0.
18.The vertex is the point on the coordinate system at which a graph of a quadratic
function turns either upward or downward.
19.The axis of symmetry is a vertical line that passes through the vertex of the
parabola.
20.The domain and range of linear functions are the set of real numbers.
21.The domain of a quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐 is the set of real numbers,
whereas the range is;
{𝑦: 𝑦 ≥ 𝑐} if the leading coefficient is positive and c is the value of
𝑦 at the vertex.
{𝑦: 𝑦 ≤ 𝑐} if the leading coefficient is negative and 𝑐 is the value of 𝑦 at the
vertex.
𝑏 2 (𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐. In this case, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 (𝑥 + 2𝑎) − 4𝑎
. The
𝑏 (𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐)
coordinate of the vertex is (− 2𝑎 , − 4𝑎
). If 𝑎 > 0, the range is
𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
{𝑦: 𝑦 ≥ 4𝑎
}. If 𝑎 < 0, the range is{𝑦: 𝑦 ≤ 4𝑎
}.
63
Review Exercise
1. Which of the following sets of ordered pairs are functions?

a. (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)
b. (4, 3), (2, 2), (−3, 4), (−3, −3)
c. (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (4, 5)
d. (1, −1), (1, −6), (4, 2), (2, −3)
2. Let 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑥}.
a. Does(𝑥, 𝑥) belong to the relation? Why?
b. Is true that if (𝑥, 𝑦) belongs to 𝑅, then (𝑦, 𝑥) belongs to 𝑅?
c. If (𝑥, 𝑦) and (𝑦, 𝑧) belong to 𝑅, then is it true that (𝑥, 𝑧) belongs to 𝑅?
3. Find the domain and range of each of the following relations:
a. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = −3𝑥.
b. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 contains
−2, −1, 0, 1, 3, 5 and 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥
c. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2 .
d. The set of ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑦 is a sister of 𝑥.
e. The set of ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), where a pupil in 𝑦′𝑠 class is 𝑥.
4. Sketch the graph of each of the following relations and find the domain and range.
a. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .
b. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 ≤ −𝑥 − 1.
c. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 > 3𝑥 − 1.
d. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 ≥ 2𝑥 − 3.
e. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 ≥ 2𝑥 and 𝑦 <
𝑥 + 1.
f. R is the relation which contains the set of order pairs (𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 < −𝑥 + 2
and 𝑦 > 𝑥 − 3.
64
5. For the following graph (Figure 1.44),

specify the relation and write down
the domain and range:
6. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 −5𝑥 − 3 and
𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 7
a. Find:
i) 𝑓 + 𝑔 ii) 𝑓 − 𝑔
iii) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(−1) iv) (2𝑓 − 𝑔)(3)
b. Determine the domain of 𝑓 − 𝑔.
7. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 1 and
Figure 1.44
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3, then
a. Evaluate: i) 𝑓𝑔 ii) 𝑔 iii) (𝑓𝑔)(2) iv) ( 𝑔) (5)

𝑓 𝑓
b. Find the domain of 𝑔.

𝑓
2𝑥−3
8. If 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+8
𝑥−1
and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥
, then
a. find: i) 𝑓𝑔 ii) 𝑔 iii) domain of 𝑓𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑓 𝑓
𝑔
b. evaluate: i) (𝑓𝑔)(−3) ii) ( 𝑔) (3) iii) (3𝑓 − 𝑔) (−1)

𝑓 𝑓
9. Determine which of the following pairs of formulas define the same function.
a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ; 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 𝑜.
b. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 − 2) ; 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 2 .
1
c. 𝑦 = 𝑥 ; 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +𝑥 .
𝑥+1
d. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ; 𝑦 = 𝑥 .
𝑥 2 −1
e. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1; 𝑦 = 𝑥−1
.
f. 𝑦 = 𝑥; 𝑦 = √𝑥 2
g. 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = √𝑥 3 .
3
2𝑥+1 2𝑥 2 +7𝑥+3
h. 𝑦 = 𝑥
; 𝑦= 𝑥 2 +3𝑥
, 𝑥 > 0.
65
10.Construct tables of values and sketch each of the following:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5 b. 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3 = −5
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 7 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 4𝑥
11.The curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is shifted so that its axis of symmetry is the line 𝑥 = 1 and
its orthogonal axis is 𝑦 = −4.
b. Find the coordinates of the points where this new curve cuts the
𝑥 and 𝑦 axes.
c. Sketch the curve
12.The curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is shifted so that its axis of symmetry is the line 𝑥 = 1 and
its orthogonal axis is 𝑦 = 3.
b. Find the coordinates of the points where this new curve cuts the 𝑥 and 𝑦
axes.
c. Sketch the curve
13.The curve 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 is shifted so that its axis of symmetry is the line 𝑥 = 1 and
its orthogonal axis is 𝑦 = 3.
b. Find the coordinates of the points where this new curve cuts the 𝑥 and 𝑦
axes.
c. Sketch the curve
14.By using shifting rule, sketch the graph of each of the following:
a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2
b. 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 8
15.A mobile phone technician uses the linear function 𝐶(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 100 to
determine the cost of repair where the time in the hours is 𝑡 and 𝐶(𝑡) is the cost
in Birr. How much will you pay if it takes him 3 hours to repair your mobile?
66
Unit 2: Polynomial Functions
UNIT
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
2
Unit Outcomes
Define polynomial functions.

Perform the four fundamental operations on polynomials.
Apply theorems on polynomial functions to solve related problems.
Determine the rational and irrational zeros of polynomials.
Sketch the graphs of polynomial functions.
Unit Contents
2.1 Definition of Polynomial Function
2.2 Operations on polynomial functions
2.3 Theorems on polynomials
2.4 Zeros of a polynomial function
2.5 Graphs of polynomial functions
2.6 Applications
Summary
Review Exercise
67
✓ Linear function ✓ Domain
✓ Location Theorem ✓ Turning point
✓ Zero(s) of polynomial ✓ x-intercept
✓ Remainder theorem ✓ Polynomial Division Theorem ✓ y-intercept
✓ Factor theorem ✓ Polynomial Function ✓ Multiplicity
✓ Leading Coefficient ✓ Rational root test ✓ Degree
✓ Constant function ✓ Constant term
Introduction
In unit one of this textbook, you saw functions of the form 𝑦 = 𝑏, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
and 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐. You also attempted to sketch their graphs. These functions are
parts of a large class of functions called polynomial functions. Polynomial functions
are functions that involve only one variable x, consisting of the sum of several terms;
each term is a product of two factors; the first being a real number coefficient and the
second being x raised to some non-negative integer power. In this unit, you will be
looking at the different components of polynomial functions like degree, leading
coefficient, zeros of a polynomial function, theorems on polynomial functions and
properties of graphs of polynomial function. You will see how the leading coefficient
and the degree of a polynomial function determine the end property of the graph of the
function.
2.1 Definition of Polynomial Function

You are familiar with functions like constant functions, linear functions and quadratic
functions in unit one.
68
Activity 2.1
Classify the following functions as constant function, linear function, quadratic
function or none of these:
2
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4 b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥
𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0 ℎ(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 9
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = ȁ𝑥ȁ = ൜ d.
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 − 5 f. 𝑘(𝑥) = 5
9
g. ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) h. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6 + 𝑥 + 4𝑥 2
5
i 𝑓(𝑥) = −ξ 5𝑥 + ξ 2 j. 𝑙(𝑥) = 3ξ 𝑥 + ξ 3
A function 𝑓 is a constant function if it can be written in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏, where

𝑏 is a real number. The domain of 𝑓 is the set of all real numbers and the range is the
set containing only the number 𝑏.
A function 𝑓 is a linear function if it can be written in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, where
𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑎 ≠ 0. The domain of 𝑓 is the set of all real numbers and
the range is also the set of all real numbers.
A function 𝑓 is a quadratic function if it can be written in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +

𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are real numbers and 𝑎 ≠ 0. The domain of 𝑓 is the set of all real
numbers and the range is not the set of all real numbers and it depends on the values
of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.
Definition of Polynomial Function
Definition 2.1
Let 𝑛 be non-negative integer and let 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , . . . , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 be real numbers

with 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0. The function 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 +
𝑎0 is called a polynomial function in one variable 𝑥 of degree 𝑛.
69
In the above definition of polynomial function

i. 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , . . . , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are called the coefficients of the polynomial
function (or simply the polynomial).
ii. The number 𝑎𝑛 is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial and 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
is the leading term.
iii. The number 𝑛 (the exponent of the highest power of 𝑥) is the degree of the
polynomial.
iv. The number 𝑎0 is called the constant term of the polynomial.
Domain of Polynomial function: The domain of a polynomial function is the set of

all real numbers.
Note
• The constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏, 𝑏 ≠ 0 is polynomial function with degree
zero.
• The constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is called the zero polynomial with no degree
assigned to it.
Example 1
Find the degree, leading coefficient and constant term of the following polynomial
functions.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 5
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3
3
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2
d. ℎ(𝑥) = −5𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7
2
e. 𝑔(𝑥) = −2 + 3𝑥 3 + 5 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 5 + 5𝑥
1
f. 𝑔(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 4 + 2 𝑥 2 − 2) + 𝑥 + 𝑥 4 + 1
Solution:
a. It is a polynomial function with degree 1, leading coefficient -2 and constant term
5.
70
b. It is a polynomial function with degree 2, leading coefficient 3 and constant term −3.
3
c. It is a polynomial function with degree 3, leading coefficient 3 and constant term 2.
d. It is a polynomial function with degree 4, leading coefficient -5 and constant term 7.

e. You can rearrange the polynomial function 𝑔 as
2
𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 5 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 and it is a polynomial function with
degree 5, leading coefficient 4 and constant term −2.

1
f. 𝑔(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 4 + 2 𝑥 2 − 2) + 𝑥 + 𝑥 4 + 1 = 2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 4 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 4 + 1
= 3𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3.
Therefore, the degree is 4, the leading coefficient is 3 and the constant term is −3.
Exercise 2.1
Find the degree, leading coefficient and constant term of the following polynomial
functions.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 9
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4
c. ℎ(𝑥) = −7𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 3 − 10
d. 𝑔(𝑥) = −4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 − 5 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 4
2
e. ℎ(𝑥) = −3𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 3 (2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 3)
Note
There are two ways to check whether a given function is not polynomial function.
• Its domain is not all real numbers.
• It does not take the form or unable to transform it to the form
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , where n is non-
negative integer ( 0 or positive integers) and 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , . . . , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are
real numbers with 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0.
71
Example 2
Determine if the following are polynomial function or not.
1. 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 −2 + 3𝑥 −1 − 7 2. ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥
Solution:
1. 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 −2 + 3𝑥 −1 − 7 is not a polynomial function because −2 and −1 are
not positive integers.
2. ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥 is not a polynomial function because it can’t take the form of the
general polynomial function.
Example 3
Which of the following are polynomial functions? For those which are polynomials,
find the degree, leading coefficient and constant term.
2
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 3 + 5 𝑥 b. 𝑔(𝑥) = (2 − 𝑥)(2 + 𝑥)`
c. ℎ(𝑥) = 5𝑥 −4 + 6𝑥 2 + 3 d. 𝑘(𝑦) = √ 𝑦
1 1
2
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5 f. 𝑓(𝑥) = ξ 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − √ 7
Solution:
2
a. You can rearrange it as 𝑓(𝑥) = −9𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥 and it is a polynomial
function with degree 3, leading coefficient −9 and constant term 0.

b. 𝑔(𝑥) = (2 − 𝑥)(2 + 𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2 , it is a polynomial function with degree 2,
leading coefficient −1 and constant term 4.
c. ℎ(𝑥) = 5𝑥 −4 + 6𝑥 2 + 3 is not a polynomial function because in the term
5𝑥 −4 , 𝑛 = −4 is not a positive integer.
d. 𝑘(𝑦) = √ 𝑦 is not a polynomial function because it cannot be written in the
general form of polynomial function, because the variable 𝑦 is inside a radical
sign.
72
1 1
1 1
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5 is not a polynomial function because 3
and 2
are
not integers.
f. It is a polynomial function with degree 3, leading coefficient ξ 2 and constant
2
term −√ 7.
Exercise 2.2
Which of the following are polynomial functions? For those which are polynomials,
find the degree, leading coefficient and constant term.
3
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 5 b. 𝑘(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2
8
c. 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 −3 − 7𝑥 −2 + 𝑥 −1 − 8 d. ℎ(𝑡) = ξ 2𝑡 + ξ 3
1 1
e. ℎ(𝑦) = ξ 6𝑦 2 + ξ 2𝑦 + 5 f. 𝑓(𝑥) = + +1
𝑥2 𝑥
2 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1)
g. 5 2
𝑘(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 − h.
3
i 𝑓(𝑥) = √(𝑥 2 + 5)4 j. 𝑓(𝑥) = ȁ2𝑥 2 + 7ȁ
Definition 2.2
A polynomial expression is an expression of the form 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +
. . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 where 𝑛 is non negative integer and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0. Each
individual expression 𝑎𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 making up the polynomial is called a term.
Example 4
8−3𝑥 3 +4𝑥 4
Consider the expression − 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 2 .
4
a. Is it a polynomial expression?
b. Find the degree, leading coefficient and the constant term.
c. What is the coefficient of 𝑥 3 ?
Solution:
73
8−3𝑥 3 +4𝑥 4
First, write − 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 2 in the general form of a polynomial expression,
4
8−3𝑥 3 +4𝑥 4 8 3 4
− 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 2 = 4 − 4 𝑥 3 + 4 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 2
4
3 3
= 2 − 4 𝑥 3 + (𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 4 ) + 5𝑥 2 = 2 − 4 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 2
3
= −2𝑥 4 − 4 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 2.
a. Yes, it is a polynomial expression.
b. The degree is 4, the leading coefficient is −2 and the constant term is 2.

3
c. − 4
Exercise 2.3
6𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +9
Consider the expression 3
+ 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
a. Is it a polynomial expression?
b. Find the degree, leading coefficient and constant term.
c. What is the coefficient of 𝑥 2 ?
2.2 Operations on Polynomial Functions

Recall in algebra that we can combine two real numbers using the operations addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division to find another real number. You know the
restriction we have to make when we use the operation division. Here, we will combine
two or more polynomial functions using the operations addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division and discuss the results obtained by the combination. To
combine polynomial functions the knowledge of commutative, associative and
distributive laws and like and unlike terms is very important.
74
Activity 2.2
1. Which of the following pairs contain like terms?
a. 2𝑥 and 5𝑥 b. 5𝑎2 and 6𝑎2
c. 𝑥 2 and 2𝑥 3 d. 3𝑥 2 and 2 𝑦 2
e. 3 and 𝑦 f. 𝑥 5 and 6𝑥 5
2. For any three real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐, determine whether each of the following
statements is true or false. Give reason for your answer.
a. 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 b. 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑏 − 𝑎
c. (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) d. (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)
e. 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 f. 𝑎 − (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐
g. 𝑎 − (𝑏 − 𝑐) = 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 h. (𝑎 − 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (−𝑏 + 𝑐)
Addition of Polynomial Functions
Definition 2.3
The sum of two polynomial functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 is written as 𝑓 + 𝑔 and is defined
as: (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) for all real numbers 𝑥.
Note
The sum of two polynomial functions is found by adding the coefficients of like
terms.
Example 1
In each of the following, find the sum of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 9

1 4 3 2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 − 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2
𝑥2 − 3 𝑥 + 3
75
Solution:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
= (2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 4 ) + (−3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 9)
= 2𝑥 4 + (5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 3 ) + (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 ) + (9𝑥 − 5𝑥) + (4 − 9)
(Grouping like terms)
= 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 (Adding like terms)
1 4 3 2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = ( 2 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 − 5 ) + (2 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 + 3)
1 3 4 2
= ( 2 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 2 ) + ( 3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥) + (−5 + 3)
(Grouping like term)

4 2 2
=
2
𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 − 2 = 2𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 − 2 (Adding like terms)
Observation:
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) have different degrees, the degree of 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) is the same as
the degree of 𝑓(𝑥) or the degree of 𝑔(𝑥) whichever has the highest degree.
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) have the same degree, the degree of the sum may be lower than
or equal to the common degree.
3. The sum of two polynomial functions is a polynomial function.
Exercise 2.4
Find the sum of the polynomial functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥).

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 −7𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5 + 7𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 .
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 + 4𝑥 − 5𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 4 .
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = ξ 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − ξ 3 and
𝑔(𝑥) = ξ 3 − 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3 − 2ξ 2𝑥 4 .
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Subtraction of Polynomial Functions
Definition 2.4
The difference of two polynomial functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 is written as 𝑓 − 𝑔, and is

defined as (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) for all real numbers x.
Example 2
In each of the following, find 𝑓 − 𝑔:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 7.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 3.
Solution:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = (−2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2) − (−2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 7)
= −2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 + 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7
(Removing brackets)
= (−2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 3 ) + (5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 2 ) + (3𝑥 − 8𝑥) + (2 + 7)
(Grouping like terms)
= 0𝑥 3 + 1𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 9 (Adding like terms)
= 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 9.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = (6𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 ) − (5𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 −
3𝑥 − 3)
= 6𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 − 5𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3
(Removing Brackets)
= 6𝑥 5 + (5𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 4 ) + (2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 ) + (−𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 2 ) +

(4𝑥 + 3𝑥) + (−3 + 3) (Grouping like terms)
= 6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 + 1𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 0 (Adding like terms)
= 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 7𝑥
77
Exercise 2.5
1. In each of the following find 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥).

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 12 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 9𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 3.
1 3 1 7
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = − 3 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 5 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥 + 5
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = −5𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 + 4𝑥 − 5𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 4 .

d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3ξ 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5ξ 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = ξ 3 − 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3 −
2ξ 3𝑥 4 .
2. The degree of 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) is equal to the degree of 𝑓(𝑥) or the degree of 𝑔(𝑥)
whichever has the highest degree. (True/False)
3. Is there a possibility for the degree of 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) to be lower than the degree of
𝑓(𝑥) or the degree of 𝑔(𝑥)? When?
4. Is the difference of two polynomial functions a polynomial function?
Multiplication of Polynomial Functions
Definition 2.5
The product of two polynomial functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) is written as 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔, and
is defined as:
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) for all real numbers x.
The product of two polynomials 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) is found by multiplying each term
of one by every term of the other as shown in the following example.
Example 3
1. Find 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) where 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6.

2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 then
a. Find 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥).
b. Find the degree of 𝑓, 𝑔 and 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔.
78
c. Is the degree of 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 equal to the sum of the degrees of 𝑓 and 𝑔?

Solution:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 3)( 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6)
= 2𝑥( 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) + 3( 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) (Distributive property)
= ( 2𝑥)(3𝑥 2 ) + (2𝑥)(−5𝑥) + (2𝑥)(6) + (3)(3𝑥 2 ) + (3)(−5𝑥) + (3)(6)
(Distributive property)
= 6𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 9𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 18
= 6𝑥 3 + (−10𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 2 ) + (12𝑥 − 15𝑥) + 18
= 6𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 18
2. a. 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 )( 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 )
= 𝑥 2 ( 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1) + (−2𝑥)( 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 +
1) + 2(2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1) (Distributive property)
= 2𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 +
4𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 2 (Distributive property)
= 2𝑥 5 + (−4𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 4 ) + (−5𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 3 ) +
(𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 2 ) + (−2𝑥 − 10𝑥) + 2
= 2𝑥 5 − 8𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 2
b. Degree of 𝑓 is 2, degree of 𝑔 is 3 and degree of 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 is 5.
c. Yes.
Exercise 2.6
1. In each of the following find 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥).

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 − 4, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3 .
a. Find 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥).
b. Find the degree of 𝑓, 𝑔 and 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔.
79
c. Is the degree of 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 equal to the sum of the degrees of 𝑓 and 𝑔?
To find the product of two polynomial functions, we can also use a vertical
arrangement for multiplication.
Example 4
Find (𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) , if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2.
Solution:
We arrange the polynomials in a vertical column and multiply each term of the second
polynomial by each term of the first polynomial as indicated along with the following
solution.
𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5 }
3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2
2𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 10 (Multiplying by 2)
−4𝑥 6 − 8𝑥 5 + 12𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 (Multiplying by −4𝑥)

3𝑥 7 + 6𝑥 6 − 9𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 (Multiplying by 3𝑥 2 )
3𝑥 7 + 2𝑥 6 − 6𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 3 − 17𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 − 10 (Adding like terms

vertically)
Thus, 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 7 + 2𝑥 6 − 6𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 3 − 17𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 − 10.
Exercise 2.7
Find the product of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) using vertical arrangement.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 .
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3.
Observation
1. For any two non-zero polynomial functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, the degree of 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 is 𝑚 + 𝑛
if the degree of 𝑓 is 𝑚 and the degree of 𝑔 is n.
80
2. If either 𝑓 or 𝑔 is the zero polynomial then 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 becomes the zero polynomial and
has no degree.
3. The product of two polynomial functions is a polynomial function.
Division of Polynomial Functions

𝑎
A number that takes the form 𝑏, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers and 𝑏 ≠ 0 is called a
rational number. If 𝑏 is positive integer, we can divide 𝑎 by 𝑏 to find two other integers
𝑎 𝑟
q and 𝑟 with 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏 such that 𝑏
= 𝑞 + 𝑏. Here, 𝑎 is called the dividend, 𝑏 is called
the divisor, 𝑞 is called the quotient and 𝑟 is called the remainder.
For example, to find 𝑞 and 𝑟 when 50 is divided by 3, you usually use a process called
long division as follows:
50 2
Hence, 50 ÷ 3 = 3
= 16 + 3.
Here, 50 is the dividend, 3 is the divisor, 16 is the

quotient and 2 is the remainder.
In almost a similar way, we can divide one
polynomial by another polynomial.
Activity 2.3
For each of the following, divide the number a by the number b to find two numbers
𝑎 𝑟
q (quotient) and r (remainder) with 𝑟 < 𝑏 such that 𝑏
= 𝑞 + 𝑏 if
i. 𝑎 = 97 and 𝑏 = 8. ii. 𝑎 = 168 and 𝑏 = 5.

iii. 𝑎 = 287 and 𝑏 = 15. iv. 𝑎 = 355 and 𝑏 = 11.
Definition 2.6
The division (Quotient) of two polynomial functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 is written as 𝑓 ÷ 𝑔,
and is defined as (𝑓 ÷ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ÷ 𝑔(𝑥) for all real numbers 𝑥 and
𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0(zero polynomial).
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It is possible to divide one polynomial by another using a long division process. When
you are asked to divide one polynomial function by another, stop the division process
when you get a quotient and remainder that are polynomial functions and the degree
of the remainder polynomial is less than the degree of the divisor polynomial.
Example 5
Find (𝑥) ÷ 𝑔(𝑥) , where 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1.
Solution:
So, dividing 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 by 2𝑥 − 1 gives a quotient 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 and a

remainder 5.
Exercise 2.8
In each of the following, find the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) when 𝑓(𝑥) is
divided by 𝑔(𝑥).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1.
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 1.
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Example 6
Find (𝑥) ÷ 𝑔(𝑥) , where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 7 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1.
Solution:
So, dividing 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 7 by 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 gives a quotient 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 +

8𝑥 − 16 and a remainder 24𝑥 + 23.
𝑥 5 +5𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +7 24𝑥+23

Therefore, 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
= 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 16 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1.
Exercise 2.9
In each of the following, find the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) when 𝑓(𝑥) is
divided by 𝑔(𝑥) and write the result as
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
= 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5; 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7; 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 8𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 5 ; 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 1
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2.3 Theorems on Polynomials
Polynomial Division Theorem
Activity 2.4
For each of the following, divide the number a by the number b to find two numbers
q (quotient) and r (remainder) with 𝑟 < 𝑏 such that 𝑎 = 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑟 if
i. 𝑎 = 88 and 𝑏 = 5.
ii. 𝑎 = 305 and 𝑏 = 6.
iii. 𝑎 = 354 and 𝑏 = 17.
iv. 𝑎 = 444 and 𝑏 = 111.
Theorem 2.1 Polynomial Division Theorem

If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑑(𝑥) are polynomials such that 𝑑(𝑥) ≠ 0, and the degree of 𝑑(𝑥) is
less than or equal to the degree of 𝑓(𝑥), then there exist unique polynomials 𝑞(𝑥)
and 𝑟(𝑥) such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)
where, 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 or the degree of 𝑟(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑑(𝑥). If the
remainder 𝑟(𝑥) is zero, 𝑑(𝑥) divides 𝑓(𝑥) exactly.
Proof:
Existence of the polynomials 𝒒(𝒙) and 𝒓(𝒙)
Since 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑑(𝑥) are polynomials, long division of 𝑓(𝑥) by and 𝑑(𝑥) will give a
quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and remainder 𝑟(𝑥), with degree of 𝑟(𝑥) < degree of 𝑑(𝑥) or
𝑟(𝑥) = 0.
To show uniqueness of 𝒒(𝒙) and 𝒓(𝒙)
To prove that 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) are unique, suppose that 𝑞′(𝑥) and 𝑟′(𝑥) are polynomials
satisfying
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𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞 ′ (𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟′(𝑥) and
𝑟 ′ (𝑥) = 0 or degree of 𝑟′(𝑥) < degree of 𝑑(𝑥).

Then we would have
𝑞(𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞 ′ (𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟′(𝑥)
This implies 𝑞(𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑞′ (𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟′(𝑥)
𝑑(𝑥)(𝑞(𝑥) − 𝑞 ′ (𝑥)) = 𝑟 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑟(𝑥) . . . (∗)
If 𝑞(𝑥) − 𝑞 ′ (𝑥) ≠ 0, then the degree of the polynomial on the left-hand side of (*) is
greater than or equal to the degree of 𝑑(𝑥). But since the polynomials 𝑟 ′ (𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥)
are either zero or have degree strictly less than that of 𝑑(𝑥), the right-hand side of (*)
must have degree strictly less than that of 𝑑(𝑥). Thus, unless 𝑞(𝑥) − 𝑞′ (𝑥) = 0 the
degree of the two sides of (*) cannot be the same; that is, we have a contradiction.
Therefore, 𝑞(𝑥) − 𝑞 ′ (𝑥) = 0 or 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑞 ′ (𝑥).
This implies the left-hand side of (*) is zero. That is, 0 = 𝑟 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑟(𝑥) or
𝑟 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑟(𝑥). Thus, the polynomials 𝑞′(𝑥) and 𝑟′(𝑥) are unique.
Note
If the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) is zero then 𝑑(𝑥) divides 𝑓(𝑥) exactly and we say the
division is exact.
Example 1
For each of the following pairs of polynomials, find polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such
that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 ; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7 ; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1.
Solution:
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a.
𝑞(𝑥)) = 𝑥 22 + 𝑥 + 1
1 and 𝑟(𝑥) 0. Since 𝑟(𝑥)
( ) = 0. 0 we say that 𝑥 3 − 1 is exactly
( )=0
divisible by 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑥 3 − 1 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)+0 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1).
b.
The quotient is 𝑞(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 1 and the remainder is 𝑟(𝑥) = −5𝑥 + 8 such that
−2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7 = (−2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 1) + (−5𝑥 + 8).
Exercise 2.10
For each of the following pairs of polynomials, find the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and the
remainder 𝑟(𝑥) that satisfy the polynomial division theorem.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 6; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1.
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c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 + 3; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1

d. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 ; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1.
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 4 ; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2.
Remainder Theorem
Activity 2.5
Find the remainder when the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by the polynomial 𝑥 − 𝑐
for the given number 𝑐. Compare the result obtained with 𝑓(𝑐).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3; 𝑐 = −2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5 ; 𝑐 = 1
Theorem 2.2 Remainder Theorem

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and let 𝑐 be any real
number. If 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by the linear polynomial (𝑥 − 𝑐), then the remainder
is 𝑓(𝑐).
Proof:
When 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑐 , the remainder is always a constant. Because we
continue to divide until the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the
divisor.
By the polynomial division theorem,
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑘,
where 𝑘 is a constant. This equation holds for every real number 𝑥. Thus, it holds
when 𝑥 = 𝑐.
That is 𝑓(𝑐) = (𝑐 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑘
= 0. 𝑞(𝑐) + 𝑘 = 0 + 𝑘 = 𝑘.
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It follows that the value of the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 is the same as the
remainder 𝑘 obtained when you divide 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑥 − 𝑐.
Example 2
In each of the following pairs of polynomials, use remainder theorem to find the
remainder when 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑑(𝑥).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 3 ; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2.
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 35 + 5𝑥 24 − 𝑥 9 + 9; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1.
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 55𝑥 201 + 100; 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1.
Solution:
a. 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 − (−1). Therefore, 𝑐 = −1 and the remainder is
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(−1) = 2.
b. 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2, therefore 𝑐 = 2 and the remainder is 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(2) = 19.
c. 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1, therefore 𝑐 = 1 and the remainder is
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(1) = 135 + 5(1)24 − 19 + 9 = 14
d. 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 − (−1), therefore 𝑐 = −1 and the remainder is
𝑓(−1) = 55(−1)201 + 100 = 45.
Exercise 2.11
In each of the following, use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when 𝑓(𝑥)
is divided by 𝑑(𝑥).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4, 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1
b. 𝑓 (𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2, 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2
c. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥17 − 4𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 32, 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1
d. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥16 + 8𝑥 3 + 99, 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
1
e. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2, 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2
88
Example 3
a. When 3𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑏 − 5 is divided by 𝑥 − 2, the remainder is 10.

Find the value of b.
b. Find the value of a and b such that when 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 9 is divided by
𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 − 2 the remainder is 4 and -5 respectively.
Solution:
a. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑏 − 5, by the remainder theorem when 𝑓(𝑥) is
divided by 𝑥 − 2 the remainder is 𝑓(2) = 3(2)3 − 4(2)2 + 𝑏 − 5 = 𝑏 + 3.
Since the remainder is given as 10, we have 𝑏 + 3 = 10 and solving for 𝑏,
we have 𝑏 = 7.
b. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 9. When 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 + 1 the
remainder is 𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + 𝑎(−1)2 + 𝑏(−1) − 9 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 10.
Since the remainder is 4, 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 10 = 4,
𝑎 − 𝑏 = 14 . . . (1).
When 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 2 the remainder is
𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 𝑎(2)2 + 𝑏(2) − 9 = 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 1.
Since the remainder is -5, 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 1 = −5,

4𝑎 + 2𝑏 = −4
2𝑎 + 𝑏 = −2 . . . (2).
From (1) and (2) we have 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑏 = −10.
Exercise 2.12
1. When 5𝑥 3 − 𝑏𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 1 is divided by 𝑥 + 1, the remainder is 15. Find the

value of 𝑏.
2. Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that when 𝑎𝑥 3 − 𝑏𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 is divided by
𝑥 − 1 and 𝑥 + 1 the remainder is 4 and 6, respectively.
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Factor Theorem
Remember that in the case of multiplication of polynomials, we multiply two or more
polynomials to find another polynomial.
For example, (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1.
The polynomial 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 is called product or multiple and (𝑥 + 1) and (2𝑥 − 1)
are called factors. Factoring a polynomial means writing it as the product of its
polynomial factors. The following theorem is known as the factor theorem. It is very
helpful to check whether a linear polynomial is a factor of a given polynomial or not.
Activity 2.6
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6.
a. Find 𝑓(1).
b. Find the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) when 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by
𝑥 − 1.
c. Express 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥).
d. Is (𝑥 − 1) a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)?
Theorem 2.3 Factor Theorem

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one, and let 𝑐 be any
real number, then
1. if 𝑓(𝑐) = 0 then 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
2. if 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) then 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.
Proof:
1. Suppose 𝑐 is a real number and 𝑓(𝑐) = 0 and consider the polynomial 𝑥 − 𝑐.
By the polynomial division theorem when a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑐,
there exist unique polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such that
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥),
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where 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 or the degree of 𝑟(𝑥) is less than “the degree of 𝑥 − 𝑐” = 1.

But, degree of 𝑟(𝑥) < 1, means “degree of 𝑟(𝑥)” = 0 that is 𝑟(𝑥) is a constant
polynomial.
Let 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑘, since 𝑓(𝑐) = (𝑐 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑐) + 𝑟(𝑐) = 0, 𝑟(𝑐) = 0 = 𝑘.
Thus, 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 and this implies 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥), thus 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of
𝑓(𝑥).
2. Suppose 𝑐 is a real number and 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then there is a
polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥). From this
𝑓(𝑐) = (𝑐 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥) = 0.
Example 4
a. Show that 𝑥 + 2 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6.

b. Show that 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 − 2 are factors but 𝑥 + 2 is not factor of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2.
Solution:
a. Since 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − (−2) has the form 𝑥 − 𝑐, the value of 𝑐 = −2.
Now, 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 + 5(−2) + 6 = 0, then by the factor theorem
𝑥 + 2 is a factor of 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6.
b. Since 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 − (−1) has the form 𝑥 − 𝑐, the value of 𝑐 = −1.
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(−1) = (−1)4 − (−1)3 − (−1)2 − (−1) − 2 = 0. Then by the factor
theorem 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Since 𝑥 − 2 has the form 𝑥 − 𝑐, the value of 𝑐 = 2.
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(2) = (2)4 − (2)3 − (2)2 − (2) − 2 = 0. Then by the factor theorem
𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Since 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − (−2) has the form 𝑥 − 𝑐, the value of 𝑐 = −2.
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(−2) = (−2)4 − (−2)3 − (−2)2 − (−2) − 2 = 20 ≠ 0. Then by the
factor theorem 𝑥 + 2 is not a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
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Exercise 2.13
1. Show that 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6.

2. Which of the following is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6?
a. 𝑥 − 1 b. 𝑥 − 3 c. 𝑥 + 1 d. 𝑥 + 2
3. In each of the following, determine whether 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6; 𝑐 = 1.
1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3; 𝑐 = − 2.
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3; 𝑐 = 2.
Example 5
a. Find the number 𝑘 such that 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑘𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑘𝑥 + 2.
b. Find the values of a and b in the polynomial 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 6 such that 𝑥 + 1
and 𝑥 − 2 are its factors.
Solution:
a. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑘𝑥 + 2.
𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 − (−1) is a factor of 𝑓 implies 𝑓(−1) = 0.
That is, 𝑓(−1) = 0
𝑘(−1)3 + 2(−1)2 − 3𝑘(−1) + 2 = 0
−𝑘 + 2 + 3𝑘 + 2 = 0
2𝑘 + 4 = 0
𝑘 = −2
b. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 6.
𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) implies 𝑓(−1) = 0.
On the other hand,
𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + 𝑎(−1)2 + 𝑏(−1) + 6 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 5.
Therefore, 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 5 = 0
𝑎 − 𝑏 = −5 . . . (1)
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𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) implies 𝑓(2) = 0.

On the other hand,
𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 𝑎(2)2 + 𝑏(2) + 6 = 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 14.
Therefore, 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 = −14
2𝑎 + 𝑏 = −7 . . . (2)
From (1) and (2) we have 𝑎 = −4 and 𝑏 = 1.
Exercise 2.14
1. In each of the following, find a number 𝑘 satisfying the given condition.

a. 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 2𝑥 3 + 𝑘𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1.
b. 𝑥 + 3 is a factor of 𝑥 4 + 2𝑘𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 5𝑘𝑥 + 6.
2. Find the values of a and b in the polynomial 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 2𝑏𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 6
such that 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 − 2 are its factors.
2.4 Zeros of a Polynomial Function

From your grade 9 mathematics lesson, you know how to find the solution or root of
linear and quadratic equations.
Activity 2.7
Find the solution of the following equations.
2 5 1
a. 2𝑥 + 3 = −5 + 3𝑥 b. 3
𝑥 + 4 = 2(𝑥 − 8)
c. (2𝑥 − 3)(4 + 2𝑥) = 0 d. 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

e. 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 f. 𝑥 2 + 4 = 0
In activity 2.7, you have tried to find solutions or roots of the equations.
For a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥), the root of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is called the zero
of 𝑓(𝑥).
93
Definition 2.7
For a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) and a real number 𝑐, if 𝑓(𝑐) = 0 then 𝑐 is a zero
of 𝑓.
Note
1. If 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑐 is the zero of 𝑓(𝑥).
2. If 𝑐 is the zero of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
3. If 𝑐 is the zero of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑐 is the root or solution of the equation
𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
Example 1
a. Find the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(3𝑥 + 4)(1 − 4𝑥).
b. Determine the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 2 + 36.
c. If 𝑥 = 1 is one zero of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6, then find the rest of real
zeros and rewrite 𝑓(𝑥) as a product of its factors.
Solution:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(3𝑥 + 4)(1 − 4𝑥) = 0
𝑥 − 2 = 0 or 3𝑥 + 4 = 0 or 1 − 4𝑥 = 0
4 1
𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = − 3 or 𝑥 = 4
4 1
Therefore, 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑥 = − 3 and 𝑥 = 4 are the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥).
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 2 + 36 = 0
(𝑥 2 )2 − 13𝑥 2 + 36 = 0 (Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 )
𝑦 2 − 13𝑦 + 36 = 0
(𝑦 − 4)(𝑦 − 9) = 0
(𝑥 2 − 4)(𝑥 2 − 9) = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) = 0
94
𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −3
Therefore, 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = −3 are the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥).
c. Since 𝑥 = 1 is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥), by the factor theorem 𝑥 − 1 is one factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

Using long division, the other factor is 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6.
Further factoring 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3). Hence, 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 −
6 = 0 is the same as (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0.
Therefore, 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3 are the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥).
Exercise 2.15
Find the zeros of the following functions.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 5)(3𝑥 − 2) b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 4
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 − 2 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 8
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 − 5𝑥
Zeros of a Polynomial Function and Their Multiplicities

Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) and
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 18 = (𝑥 + 3)2 (𝑥 − 2)
𝑓(𝑥) has three distinct factors (𝑥 − 1), (𝑥 + 1) and (𝑥 + 2). That is, it has three
distinct zeros 1, −1 and − 2. These are called simple zeros of 𝑓(𝑥). While, in 𝑔(𝑥)
the factor (𝑥 + 3) is repeated twice, that is, the zero −3 of 𝑔(𝑥) is repeated twice and
its other zero 2 appears only once. In this case we say -3 is a repeated or a multiple
zero of 𝑔(𝑥).
Definition 2.8
If (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑘 is a factor of a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥), but (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑘+1 is not,

then 𝑐 is said to be a zero of multiplicity 𝑘 of 𝑓(𝑥).
95
Example 2
a. Given that 𝑥 = −1 is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3, find its multiplicity.

b. Find a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) of degree two whose zeros are 1, −2 and
satisfying the condition 𝑓(3) = 30.
Solution:
a. By the factor theorem 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥). To find the other factor, you can
use long division giving 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3). Further factoring the
quadratic factor gives (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) = (𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 − 3). Therefore, -1 is
a zero of multiplicity 2 of 𝑓(𝑥).
b. Let 𝑓(x) = 𝑘(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) for some number 𝑘. Clearly 1 and −2 are zeros of
𝑓(𝑥). To find 𝑘, since 𝑓(3) = 𝑘(3 − 1)(3 + 2) = 𝑘(2)(5) = 10𝑘 = 30, implies
𝑘 = 3. Therefore, the polynomial function of degree two is
𝑓(𝑥) = 3(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) = 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6
Exercise 2.16
1. Given that 𝑥 = 1 is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2, find the other zeros

and their multiplicity.
2. For each of the following polynomials, list the zeros and state the multiplicity
of each zero.
2
a. 𝑘(𝑡) = (𝑡 + 3)3 𝑡10 .
2
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 5(𝑥 + ξ 2) (𝑥 + 2)3 (1 + 3𝑥).
c. ℎ(𝑡) = 2𝑡 3 + 5𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 + 1.
3. a. Find a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) of degree two whose zeros are -2, 3 and satisfying
the condition 𝑓(2) = 12.
b. Find a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) of degree three whose zeros are −1, 2
and 1 and satisfying the condition 𝑓(3) = 16.
c. Find a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) of degree 7 such that 2, −3, and 0 are
the zeros of multiplicity 3, 2 and 2, respectively and 𝑓(1) = 48.
96
Location Theorem
Activity 2.8
In each of the following, determine whether the zeros of the polynomial function
are rational, irrational, or neither.
3
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2). b. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + ξ 2)(𝑥 − ξ 3).
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1.
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3. −ξ 3 and ξ 3 are the zeros of 𝑓 and they are irrational
numbers. The table of values of the given functions for −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 and x is an
integer, is the following.
𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑓(𝑥) 1 −2 −3 −2 1
Since 𝑓(−2) = 1 > 0 and 𝑓(−1) = −2 < 0, we see that the value of 𝑓(𝑥) changes
sign from positive to negative between −2 and − 1. And observe that one of the
irrational roots −ξ 3 ≅ −1.73 lies between these two numbers. We also see that the
value of 𝑓(𝑥) changes sign from negative to positive between 1 and 2. Similarly
observe that the second irrational root ξ 3 ≅ 1.73 lies between these two numbers.
The following theorem which is called the location theorem helps to locate the real
zeros of a polynomial function.
Theorem 2.4 Location Theorem

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers such that 𝑎 < 𝑏. If 𝑓 is a polynomial function such
that 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite signs, then there is at least one zero of 𝑓 between
the numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏.
It is sometimes possible to estimate the zeros of a polynomial function from a table of

values.
97
Example 3
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4. Construct a table of values and use the

location theorem to locate the zeros of 𝑓 for the integers 𝑥 and −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓(𝑥) 91 12 −1 4 3 −4 7
Solution:
Since 𝑓(−2) = 12 > 0 and 𝑓(−1) = −1 < 0, we see that the value of 𝑓(𝑥) changes
sign from positive to negative between −2 and − 1. Hence by the location theorem
there is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = −1.
Since 𝑓(−1) = −1 < 0 and 𝑓(0) = 4 > 0, we see that the value of 𝑓(𝑥) changes sign
from negative to positive between −1 and 0. Hence by the location theorem there is a
zero of 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 0. Similarly, there are zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) between
𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2 and between 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3.
Example 4
Using the location theorem, show that the polynomial function

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 has a zero between 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2.
Solution:
𝑓(1) = (1)6 − 2(1)5 − 4(1)2 + 4(1) + 4 = 3 > 0
𝑓(2) = (2)6 − 2(2)5 − 4(2)2 + 4(2) + 4 = −4 < 0
Hence, 𝑓(1) is positive and 𝑓(2) is negative and by the location theorem 𝑓(𝑥) has
a zero between 𝑥 = 1and 𝑥 = 2.
Exercise 2.17
1. Use the location theorem to verify that 𝑓(𝑥) has a zero between 𝑎 and 𝑏.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 1 ; 𝑎 = −1 , 𝑏 = 1.
98
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 7 ; 𝑎 = −3 , 𝑏 = −2.
2. In each of the following, use the Location Theorem to locate the real zero of
𝑓(𝑥) between successive integers in the given intervals.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 23𝑥 − 14; for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6.
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2; for −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.
Rational Zero Test
Theorem 2.5 Rational Zero Test

Suppose that all the coefficients of the polynomial function described by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝑝
are integers with 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑎0 ≠ 0. If 𝑞
in lowest term is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥), then p
is a factor of 𝑎 0 and q is a factor of 𝑎𝑛 .
Steps to find the rational zeros of a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥).

1. Arrange the polynomial in descending order so that it takes the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 .
2. Write down all the factors of the constant term 𝑎 0 . These are all the possible
values of 𝑝.
3. Write down all the factors of the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 . These are all the
possible values of 𝑞.
𝑝
4. Write down all the possible values of 𝑞
. Remember that since factors can be
𝑝 𝑝
negative, 𝑞 and - 𝑞
must both be included. Simplify each value and cross out
any duplicates.
𝑝 𝑝
5. Identify those values of 𝑞
for which 𝑓 ( 𝑞 ) = 0. These are all the rational zeros
of 𝑓(𝑥).
99
Example 5
In each of the following, find all the rational zeros of the polynomial.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 1
1 1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2. d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 − 1
Solution:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 has leading coefficient 𝑎2 = 1 and constant term
𝑎0 = −2.
Possible values of 𝑝 are factors of −2. These are ±1, ±2.
Possible values of 𝑞 are factors of 1. These are ±1.
𝑝
The possible rational zeros are ±1, ±2. Since 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial function
𝑞
of degree 2, it has at most 2 zeros, and from the four possible rational zeros at
most 2 can be the zeros of 𝑓. We can check this using the table below
𝑥 −2 −1 1 2
𝑓(𝑥) 0 −2 0 4
Therefore, the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) are −2 and 1.

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 1, the leading coefficient is 1 and the constant term is 1.
Hence, the possible rational zeros are ±1.
Check that 𝑓(1) = 𝑓(−1) = 1 ≠ 0. So, we can conclude that the given
polynomial has no rational zero. Use the location theorem to show that 𝑓 has a
zero between −2 and −1.
c. The leading coefficient is 𝑎3 = 6 and the constant term is 𝑎0 = −2.
Possible values of 𝑝 are factors of −2. These are ±1, ±2.
Possible values of 𝑞 are factors of 6. These are ±1, ±2, ±3 and ±6.
𝑝 1 1 1 2
The possible rational zeros are ±1, ± 2 , ± 3 , ± 6 , ±2, ± 3. Since 𝑓(𝑥) is
𝑞
a polynomial function of degree 3 it has at most three zeros and from the 12
possible rational zeros at most 3 can be the zeros of 𝑓.
100
1 1
Check that 𝑓 (− 2) = 𝑓(−2) = 𝑓 ( 3) = 0.
Using the factor theorem, we can factorize 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 +
1 1
1)(𝑥 + 2) with − 2 , −2 and 3 are the only rational zeros of 𝑓.
1 1 1 1
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 − 1 = 2 (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2) = 2 𝑘(𝑥)
where, 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 has integer coefficients and the same zeros

as 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑘(𝑥) has a constant term −2 and leading coefficient 1. The possible
rational zeros 𝑘(𝑥) are ±1 and ± 2. You can check that
𝑘(1) = 𝑘(−1) = 𝑘(−2) = 0. Therefore, the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) are ±1 and −2.
Exercise 2.18
For each of the following polynomials, find all possible rational zeros:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 10𝑥 3 − 41𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 8
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 − 4
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = −6𝑥 5 + 17𝑥 4 − 14𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 1
2.5 Graphs of Polynomial Functions

In unit 1, you discussed how to draw the graphs of the polynomial functions of degree
zero, one and two. You saw that the graph of a linear function is a straight line and the
graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. In this section you will learn about the
properties of graphs of polynomial functions.
101
Activity 2.9
1. Use table of values to sketch the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and
𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 3. Include the 𝑥-intercept and y-intercept when you make
the table of values. Sketch the graphs on the same 𝑥𝑦-plane.
2. Consider the linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑎 ≠ 0 and give answers for each
of the following.
a. What is its degree? Is it odd or even?
b. Find the intercepts.
c. Write the behavior of the graph when 𝑎 is positive and ȁ𝑥ȁ is large (far to
the right and far to the left).
d. Write the behavior of the graph when 𝑎 is negative and ȁ𝑥ȁ is large (far to
the right and far to the left).
e. What is the shape of the graph of 𝑓?
f. Find the domain and the range of 𝑓.
Example 1
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3,

a. Find the intercepts.
b. Using completing the square method, rewrite 𝑓 as 𝑓(𝑥) = −4 + (𝑥 + 1)2 and
find the turning point.
c. Complete the table of values below
𝑥 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
d. Sketch the graph of 𝑓, first by plotting the points (𝑥, 𝑦) and then joining them
by a smooth curve (a smooth curve is a curve that has no sharp corner).
e. Find the domain and range of 𝑓.
102
Solution:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1). By making 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 0 and
solving the equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0,
we get 𝑥 = −3 or 𝑥 = 1. By making 𝑥 = 0 we have 𝑦 = −3. Thus,
𝑥 = −3 and 𝑥 = 1 are the 𝑥 − intercepts and 𝑦 = −3 is the y-intercept.
b. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) − 1 − 3 = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 4 = −4 + (𝑥 + 1)2
Since (𝑥 + 1)2 ≥ 0 for all real numbers x, 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ −4 for all values of 𝑥 and
−4 is the minimum value of 𝑓. This minimum value of 𝑓 is attained when
𝑥 = −1. The point (−1, −4) is called turning point or vertex of the graph
of 𝑓.
c.
𝑥 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0 5
d.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1
e. The domain is the set of all real numbers and the range is the set of all real
numbers greater than or equal to −4.
103
Exercise 2.19
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3,

b. Using completing the square method, rewrite 𝑓 as 𝑓(𝑥) = −1 + (𝑥 + 2)2 and
𝑥 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
by a smooth curve.
Example 2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 8.
b. Using completing the square method, rewrite 𝑓 as 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − (𝑥 + 3)2 and
𝑥 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
by a smooth curve.
104
Solution:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 8 = (𝑥 + 2)(−𝑥 − 4). By making 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and
solving the equation −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 8 = (𝑥 + 2)(−𝑥 − 4) = 0,we get
𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥 = −4.
By making 𝑥 = 0 we have 𝑦 = −8. Thus, 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = −4 are the 𝑥 −
intercepts and 𝑦 = −8 is the y-intercept.
b. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 8 = −(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥) − 8

= −(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9) + 9 − 8
= −(𝑥 + 3)2 + 1
= 1 − (𝑥 + 3)2
Since (𝑥 + 3)2 ≥ 0 , 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 1 for all values of 𝑥 and 1 is the maximum value
of 𝑓. This maximum value of 𝑓 is attained when 𝑥 = −3. The point (−3, 1) is
called turning point for the graph of 𝑓.
c. 𝑥 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 0 1 0 −3 −8
d.
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.2
e. The domain is the set of all real numbers and the range is the set of all real
numbers less than or equal to 1.
105
Exercise 2.20
1. For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8,

b. Using completing the square method, rewrite 𝑓 as 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − (𝑥 − 3)2
and find the turning point.
c. Complete the table of values below.
𝑥 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
d. Sketch the graph of 𝑓, first by plotting the points (𝑥, 𝑦) and then joining
them by a curve.
3. Consider the quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and give answers for

each of the following.
a. What is its degree? Is it even or odd?
b. What is the maximum number of x-intercepts?
c. What is the y-intercept?
d. Write the behavior of the graph when 𝑎 is positive and ȁ𝑥ȁ is large (far to
the right and far to the left)
e. Write the behavior of the graph when 𝑎 is negative and ȁ𝑥ȁ is large (far to
the right and far to the left)
f. Is the graph smooth (has no sharp corner) and continuous (has no jump or
hole)?
g. What is the domain of 𝑓?
h. Can the range of 𝑓 be all real numbers? Why?
106
Note
1. Graph of a polynomial function is a smooth curve (has no sharp corner).
2. Functions whose graphs are not continuous and have sharp corners are not
polynomial functions.
The absolute value function 𝑓(𝑥) = ȁ𝑥ȁis not a polynomial function. Because it has a
sharp corner at the point (0, 0) as shown by figure 2.3 (a).
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.3
The function shown in figure 2.3 (c) is not polynomial because it is not a continuous
function. It has a hole and a jump.
To study more on the property of graphs of polynomials, we will now try to observe
the graphs of polynomial functions of higher degree, that is, when the degree 𝑛 ≥ 3.
Example 3
By sketching the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 1, describe the behavior

of the graphs for large ȁ𝑥ȁ.
Solution:
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1), the x-intercept is 1, the y-intercept is −1
and by finding some points that lie on the graph of 𝑓 as shown by the table of values.
𝑥 −20 −10 −1 0 1 1.5 10 20

𝑦 −8001 −1001 −2 −1 0 2.375 999 7999
107
19
We plot the points (−1, −2), (0, 1), and (1.5, 8 ) and connect them by a smooth curve
and we use the other points to see the direction of the graph far to the right and far to
the left along the x- axis.
For 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 1 = (−𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1), the x-intercept is 1, the y-intercept is
1 by finding some points that lie on the graph of 𝑔 as shown by the table of values.
x −20 −10 −1 0 1 1.5 10 20

y 8001 1001 2 1 0 −2.375 −999 −7999
19
Similarly, we plot the points (−1, 2), (0, 1) and (1.5, − ) and connect them by a
8
smooth curve and we use the other points to see the direction of the graph far to the
right and far to the left along the x-axis. The graphs of the two functions are:
a b
Figure 2.4
Observation
1. The degree of 𝑓(𝑥) is odd and its leading coefficient is positive. As shown in
figure 2.4a, when x is large positive, 𝑓(𝑥) becomes large positive and the graph
moves upwards and when x is large negative, 𝑓(𝑥) becomes large negative and the
graph moves downwards.
2. The degree of 𝑔(𝑥) is odd and its leading coefficient is negative. As shown in
figure 2.4b, when 𝑥 is large positive, 𝑓(𝑥) becomes large negative and the graph
108
moves downwards and when x is large negative, 𝑓(𝑥) becomes large positive and
the graph moves upwards.
Exercise 2.21
1. By sketching the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 , describe the behavior of
the graphs for large ȁ𝑥ȁ.
2. For the third- degree polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,
a. What is the maximum number of intersections which the graph of 𝑓 makes
with the x-axis?
b. What is the minimum number of intersections which the graph of 𝑓 makes
with the x-axis?
c. What is the number of intersections which the graph of 𝑓 makes with the
y-axis?
d. What maximum number of turning points dose the graph of 𝑓 have?
e. Write the behavior of the graph when 𝑎3 is positive and ȁ𝑥ȁis large (far to the
right and far to the left).
f. Write the behavior of the graph when 𝑎3 is negative and ȁ𝑥ȁis large (far to the
right and far to the left).
g. What is the domain of 𝑓?
Noted that the following are examples of graphs of polynomial functions of degree
four. The graphs are drawn using graph calculator software called GeoGebra.
109
Figure 2.5
In figure 2.5a and figure 2.5b, the leading coefficient of 𝑓(𝑥) is positive and the degree
is even. The values of 𝑓(𝑥) become large positive and the graphs go upward both far
to the right and far to the left as the values of 𝑥 become large in absolute value.
In figure 2.5c and figure 2.5d, the leading coefficient of 𝑓(𝑥) is negative and the degree
is even. The values of 𝑓(𝑥) become large negative and the graphs go downward both
far to the right and far to the left as the values 𝑥 become large in absolute value.
From figure 2.5b, it is seen that the maximum number of intersections that the graph
of a fourth-degree polynomial makes with the x-axis is 4 and the maximum number of
turning points is 3.
As shown in figure 2.5a, the graph of a polynomial function of degree 4 may not
intersect the x-axis.
By applying the rational root test and the factor theorem, there is a possibility of finding
the x-intercepts of a function. There is also a possibility of locating the real zeros using
the location theorem.
With quadratic polynomials, we were able to algebraically find the maximum or
minimum value of the function by finding the vertex (turning point). But for general
polynomials, finding the turning points like A, B and C in figure 2.5d, is not possible
without more advanced techniques from calculus (derivative of a function).
Observation
The properties of the first-degree and the third-degree polynomial are also applicable
for polynomial functions of odd degree. The properties of the second-degree and the
fourth-degree polynomial are also applicable for polynomial functions of even degree
110
Exercise 2.22
1. For the polynomial functions given from 𝑎 to 𝑑, state the following properties of
the graph of the functions without drawing their graphs.
i. The behavior of the graph as x takes values far to the right.
ii. The behavior of the graph as x takes values far to the left.
iii. The number of intersections with the x-axis.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 2 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = −2(1 − 𝑥)3 (𝑥 + 1)2
2. Graphs of some polynomial functions are given below. In each case identify the
sign of the leading coefficient of the function. State whether the degree is even or
odd.
Figure 2.6
111
2.6 Applications
Polynomials arise in the study of problems involving areas and volumes.
Example 1
A wire of length 56 m is bent into the shape of a rectangle. Find the maximum area it
can enclose and the dimensions of the rectangle of maximum area.
Figure 2.7
Solution:
Perimeter p of the rectangle, 𝑝 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 . . . (i)
Area A of the rectangle, 𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦 . . . (ii)
Since the rectangle is made by bending 56 meters wire, the perimeter of the rectangle
is 56 m 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 56 . . . (iii)
From (iii), solving for 𝑦 (you can also solve for 𝑥).
𝑦 = 28 − 𝑥 . . . (iv)
Substituting the value of 𝑦 in (iv) to the value of 𝑦 in (ii) we get
𝐴 = 𝑥(28 − 𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 28𝑥 , and this is a quadratic polynomial.
Using completing the square method, we can rewrite the value A as in the following:
A = −𝑥 2 + 28𝑥 = −(𝑥 2 − 28𝑥) = −(𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 196) + 196 = 196 − (𝑥 − 14)2
Thus, A = 196 − (𝑥 − 14)2 and since (𝑥 − 14)2 is always non-negative, we subtract
positive number or zero from 196. This means the maximum value of A is 196. This
maximum value is attained when 𝑥 is 14. Substituting 𝑥 = 14 into equation (iv) we get
𝑦 = 14.
Therefore, the maximum area that can be enclosed is 196 𝑚2 and the dimension of the
rectangle of maximum area is 𝑥 = 14 𝑚 and 𝑦 = 14 𝑚. That is when the rectangle is
112
a square of side of length 14 m.
Exercise 2.23
1. A farmer has 100 meters of fencing material to use to make a rectangular

enclosure for sheep as shown. He will leave an opening of 2 meters for the gate.
Figure 2.8
a. Show that the area of the enclosure is given by A = 51𝑥 − 𝑥 2
b. Find the value of x that will give maximum area.
c. Calculate the maximum possible area.
2. A farmer has 100 meters of fencing material to make a rectangular enclosure for
sheep. One side of the enclosure is closed by a wall as shown. He will leave an
opening of 2 meters for the gate.
Figure 2.9
a. Show that the area of the enclosure is given by 𝐴 = 102𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
b. Find the value of x that will give maximum area.
c. Calculate the maximum possible area.
113
3. An open-topped box is to be made by removing squares from each corner of a

rectangular piece of card and folding up the sides.
Figure 2.10
a. Show that if the original rectangle of card measured 80 cm by 50 cm and
the squares removed from the corners have sides x cm long, then the volume
of the box is given by 𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 260𝑥 2 + 4000𝑥.
b. Find V when x = 20 cm.
c. Can the value of x be 30 cm? Why?
Example 2
Find the two real numbers whose difference is 16 and whose product is the minimum.
Solution:
Let the two numbers be 𝑥 and 𝑦. Then,
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 16 . . . (1)
If we denote the product of the two numbers by 𝐴, then
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦 . . . (2)
To find the minimum value of 𝐴, first we solve either for 𝑥 or for 𝑦 from equation
(1).
Solving for 𝑦 from equation (1) gives 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 16 and substituting this in equation
(2) gives 𝐴 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 16) = 𝑥 2 − 16𝑥
= (𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 64) − 64
= (𝑥 − 8)2 − 64
114
= −64 + (𝑥 − 8)2
Since (𝑥 − 8)2 ≥ 0
𝐴 = −64 + (𝑥 − 8)2 ≥ −64.
Therefore, −64 is the minimum product and this minimum product is obtained when
the value of 𝑥 = 8. And when 𝑥 = 8, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 16 = −8. That is, 𝑦 = −8.
Exercise 2.24
1. Find the two real numbers whose difference is 10 and whose product is the
minimum.
2. Find the two real numbers whose sum is 12 and whose product is the maximum.
115
Summary
1. A linear function is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑎 ≠ 0.
2. A quadratic function is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0.
3. Let 𝑛 be a non-negative integer and let 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , . . . , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 be real
numbers with 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, the function 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 is called a polynomial function in 𝑥 of degree n.
4. A polynomial function is over integers if its coefficients are all integers.
5. A polynomial function is over rational numbers if its coefficients are all rational
numbers.
6. A polynomial function is over real numbers if its coefficients are all real numbers.
7. Operations on polynomial functions
i. Sum: (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
ii. Difference: (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
iii. Product: (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
iv. Quotient: (𝑓 ÷ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ÷ 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑖𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
8. If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑑(𝑥) are polynomials such that 𝑑(𝑥) ≠ 0, and the degree of 𝑑(𝑥) is
less than or equal to the degree of 𝑓(𝑥), then there exist unique polynomials
𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥), where 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 or the degree
of 𝑟(𝑥) is less that the degree of 𝑑(𝑥).
9. If a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by a first-degree polynomial of the form 𝑥 − 𝑐,
then the remainder is the number 𝑓(𝑐).
10. Given the polynomial function
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
If 𝑝(𝑐) = 0, then 𝑐 is a zero of 𝑝(𝑥) or a root of the equation 𝑝(𝑥) = 0.
11. For every polynomial function 𝑓 and a real number 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) = 0, then 𝑥 − 𝑐 is
a factor of the polynomial function 𝑓.
116
12. If (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑘 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), but (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑘+1 is not, we say that 𝑐 is a zero of
multiplicity 𝑘 of 𝑓(𝑥).
13. If the rational number 𝑞 , in its lowest term, is a zero of the polynomial
𝑝
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 with integer

coefficients, then 𝑝 must be an integer factor of 𝑎0 and 𝑞 must be an integer
factor of 𝑎𝑛 .
14. Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers such that 𝑎 < 𝑏. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial function
such that 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite signs, then there is at least one zero of
𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑎 and 𝑏.
15. The graph of a polynomial function of degree 𝑛 has at most 𝑛 − 1 turning points
and intersects the 𝑥 -axis at most 𝑛 times.
16. The graph of every polynomial function has no sharp corners; it is a smooth and
continuous curve.
117
Review Exercise
1. Identify whether the following functions are polynomial or not, for those which
are polynomial indicate the degree, leading coefficient and constant term.
2 1 4𝑥 3 +9𝑥 2 −2𝑥+9
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 3 − 3 𝑥 − 3
1 2 1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 ( 𝑥) + 3 ( 𝑥) − 6
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3(𝑥 2 )3 − 4(𝑥 2 )2 + 2(𝑥 + 1)2 + 5

3
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = −2( ξ 𝑥) + 5ξ 𝑥 − 10
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝜋 2 + 4
2. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 6 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 3 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 − 2 and ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑥 + 2, find
a. ℎ𝑓 + 𝑔 b. 𝑓 − ℎ𝑔
c. 𝑓𝑔 d. ℎ
𝑔
3. If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are any two polynomials, then which of the following will always be a
polynomial function?
a. 𝑓 + 𝑔 b. 𝑓 − 𝑔
c. 𝑓. 𝑔 d.
𝑓
𝑔
e. 𝑓 2 − 𝑔 f.
𝑓+𝑔
𝑔−𝑓
4
g. 3𝑓 − 5 𝑔
4. In each of the following, find the quotient and the remainder when the first
polynomial is divided by the second:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 6; 𝑥 + 1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 17; 𝑥 2 − 1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 2 − 6; 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 7: 𝑥 + 2
118
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2; 𝑥 3 + 1
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1: 2𝑥 + 1
5. Prove that when a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by a first-degree polynomial 𝑎𝑥 +
𝑏
𝑏, the remainder is 𝑓(− 𝑎).
6. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 + 1 be polynomial function and 𝑛 is an odd integer then show

that
a. the remainder when 𝑓 is divided by 𝑥 + 1 is zero.
b. 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓.
7. Factorize fully
a. 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10
b. 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 2
c. 2𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1
8. Find the value of 𝑘 such that,
a. when 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 6 is divided by 𝑥 − 3 it has a remainder of
-3.
b. 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑥 3 − 𝑘𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1.
c. 2𝑥 − 3 is a factor of 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 10.
9. When the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(2𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑏(𝑥 − 2)2 is divided by 𝑥 + 1 the
remainder is −10 and 𝑓(1) = 10. Then find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
10.Find the values of 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 if 𝑥 + 1 is a common factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 𝑝𝑥 3 +
𝑞𝑥 2 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑝𝑥 5 + 8𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑞𝑥.
11.Find numbers 𝑎 and 𝑘 so that 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 4 − 2𝑘𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 −
𝑘𝑥 + 2 and 𝑓(1) = 2.
12.Find a polynomial function 𝑓 of degree 3 such that 𝑓(2) = 48 and 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 and
𝑥 + 2 are factors of the polynomial.
13.In each of the following, find a polynomial function 𝑓 that has the given zeros
satisfying the given condition.
119
a. 2, −3, 5 and 𝑓(4) = 10

2 1 5
b. 0, − 3 , 2
, 3 𝑓(1) = 4
14.Find all rational zeros of:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 12𝑥 4 − 22𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 33𝑥 − 9
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = −6𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 21𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6
11 2 1 1
d. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 + 6
𝑡 −2𝑡 −3
15.Sketch the graphs of

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2
120
Unit 3: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
UNIT
EXPONENTIAL AND
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
3
Unit Outcomes
Apply the laws of exponents for real exponents.

Define exponential and logarithmic functions.
Identify domain and range of exponential and logarithmic functions.
Solve mathematical problems involving exponents and logarithms.
Unit Contents
3.1 Exponents and Logarithms
3.2 The Exponential functions and Their Graphs
3.3 The Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs
3.4 Relation between Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
3.5 Applications
Summary
Review Exercise
121
✓ exponential equation ✓ mantissa
✓ logarithm of a ✓ logarithmic
number equation
✓ base ✓ logarithm ✓ natural logarithm
✓ characteristics ✓ exponential function ✓ power
✓ common logarithm ✓ logarithmic equation ✓ Asymptote
✓ exponent ✓ logarithmic function ✓ antilogarithm
3.1 Exponents and Logarithms

Introduction
Two of the most important functions that occur in mathematics and its applications are
the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 and its inverse function, the logarithmic function
𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥. Such functions arise in many applications and are powerful
mathematical tools for solving real life problems such as analyzing population growth,
decay of radioactive substances, calculating compound interest in accounting, etc.
In this unit, we will investigate their various properties and learn how they can be used
in solving real life problems.
3.1.1 Exponents
Whenever we use expressions like 73 or 25 , we are using exponents. The symbol 25
⏟ × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2. This symbol is read as ‘the 5th power of 2’ or ‘2 raised to
means 2
5 factors
5’. The expression 25 is just a shorthand way of writing the product of five twos. The
number 2 is called the base, and 5 the exponent.
Similarly, if a is any real number, then 𝑎4 stands for a × a × a × a. Here a is the

base, and 4 is the exponent.
122
Activity 3.1
1. Identify the base and the exponent of each of the following.
3 5
a) 34 b) (−3)4 c) ቀ5ቁ d) (−1)9
2. Find the values of each of the following.

3 1
a) (−1)1 b) (−1)4 c) ቀ5ቁ d) (−2)7
2 4
e) − 24 f) (−2)4 g) ቀ− 3ቁ
Definition 3.1
For a natural number 𝑛 and a real number 𝑎, the symbol 𝑎𝑛 , read as “the 𝑛𝑡ℎ
power of 𝑎” or “𝑎 raised to 𝑛”, is defined as follows:
⏟×𝑎 ×. . . ×𝑎 .
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎
𝑛 factors
In 𝑎 , 𝑎 is called the base and 𝑛 is called the exponent.

𝑛
Special names are used when the exponent is 2 or 3. The expression 𝑏 2 is usually read
as ‘𝑏 squared’, and the expression 𝑏3 as ‘𝑏 cubed’. Thus, ‘two cubed’ means
23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.
Note that, in (−𝑎)𝑛 the base is −𝑎 but in −𝑎𝑛 the base is only 𝑎.
For example,
(−3)2 = (−3) × (−3) = 9 but −32 = −(3 × 3) = −9.
(3𝑎)3 = 3𝑎 × 3𝑎 × 3𝑎 = 27𝑎3 but 3𝑎3 = 3 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 3𝑎3 .
Example 1
Evaluate the following.

a. 23 b. −23 c. (−2)3 d. −(−2)3 e. (−4𝑡)3
123
Solution:
a. 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
b. −23 = −(2 × 2 × 2) = −8
c. (−2)3 = (−2) × (−2) × (−2) = −8
d. −(−2)3 = −[(−2) × (−2) × (−2)] = −(−8) = 8
e. (−4𝑡)3 = −4𝑡 × −4𝑡 × −4𝑡 = −64𝑡 3
Laws of Exponents
If 𝑎 is any real number and 𝑛 is a positive integer then 𝑎𝑛 means
𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × . . . × 𝑎. The laws for the behaviors of exponents follow naturally from
⏟
𝑛 factors
this meaning of 𝑎𝑛 for a natural number n.

If 𝑎 is a real number and 𝑚 and 𝑛 are natural numbers, then
𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = ⏟
𝑎 ×𝑎 ×…× 𝑎 × ⏟
𝑎 × 𝑎 × …× 𝑎
𝑚 factors 𝑛 factors
=𝑎
⏟× 𝑎 × 𝑎 × …× 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × …× 𝑎
𝑚+𝑛 facto rs
= 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 .
Law 1. 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 , where 𝑎 is a real number and 𝑚 and 𝑛 are natural numbers.
That is, to multiply two numbers in exponential form (with the same base), we add
their exponents.
Example 2
23 × 24 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2)
=2
⏟× 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
7 factors
= 27
= 23+4 .
If 𝑎 is a real number different from zero and 𝑚 and 𝑛 are natural numbers with 𝑛 > 𝑚,
then
124
⏟× 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × …× 𝑎
𝑎 ⏟
𝑎 × 𝑎 ×𝑎 ×…× 𝑎 × ⏟
𝑎 × 𝑎 × …×𝑎
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 factors 𝑚 factors 𝑛−𝑚 factors
= =
𝑎𝑚 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × …× 𝑎
⏟ 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × …× 𝑎
⏟
𝑚 factors 𝑚 factors
𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × …× 𝑎
⏟
𝑚 factors
= ×⏟
𝑎 ×𝑎 ×…× 𝑎
𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × …× 𝑎
⏟ 𝑛−𝑚 factors
𝑚 factors
=𝑎
⏟ × 𝑎 × … × 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 .
𝑛−𝑚 factors
𝒂𝒏
Law 2. 𝒂𝒎
= 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 , where 𝑎 is a real number different from zero and 𝑚 and 𝑛 are
natural numbers.
Since we have not yet given any meaning to zero and negative exponents, 𝑛 must be
greater than 𝑚 for law 2 to make sense.
Example 3
36 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
=
33 3×3×3
3×3×3
=3×3×3×
3×3×3
=3×3×3
= 33 = 36−3
Law 3. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚×𝑛 , where 𝑎 is a real number and 𝑚 and 𝑛 are natural numbers.
Example 4
(32 )3 = (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) × (3 × 3)
= 36 = 32×3 .
From the definition of exponents, we know that if 𝑛 is a natural number, then
(𝑎𝑏)𝑛 = (𝑎𝑏)
⏟ × (𝑎𝑏) × . . . × (𝑎𝑏)
𝑛 factors
=𝑎
⏟×𝑎×. . . ×𝑎 × ⏟
𝑏 × 𝑏 × . . . × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛
𝑛 factors 𝑛 factors
125
Law 4. (𝑎𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑛 is a natural number.
Example 5
(2 × 3)3 = (2 × 3) × (2 × 3) × (2 × 3)
= (2 × 2 × 2) × (3 × 3 × 3)
= 23 × 33
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, 𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 is a natural number, then by the definition of
exponent,
⏟
𝑎 × 𝑎 ×× . . . × 𝑎
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑛 factors
ቀ ቁ = × × . . .× =
𝑏 ⏟
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 ⏟× 𝑏 × . . . ×𝑏
𝑏
𝑛 factors 𝑛 factors
𝑛
𝑎
=
𝑏𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛
Law 5. ቀ𝑏ቁ = 𝑏𝑛 , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, 𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 is a natural number.
Example 6
2 4 2 2 2 2 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 24
( ) = × × × = =
3 3 3 3 3 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 34
Exercise 3.1
1. Evaluate the following.

a) 42 b) −42
c) (−4)2 d) −(−3)3
2. Simplify the exponential expressions.
𝑎5
a) 𝑎3 × 𝑎2 b) 𝑎2
c) (𝑎2 )3
𝑎 2
d) (2𝑎)4 e) ቀ2 ቁ
126
Zero and Negative Exponents
Activity 3.2
𝑎𝑚
Evaluate each of the following using the law = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 .
𝑎𝑛
32
a) ; what is the value of 30 ?
32
(−3)2
b) (−3)2
; what is the value of (−3)0 ?
(0.1)2
c) (0.1)2
; what is the value of (0.1)0 ?
Let us begin by extending 𝑎𝑛 to include an exponent equal to 0 (𝑛 = 0). We want to

make sense of the expression 𝑎0 in such a way that Laws 1, 2 and 3 hold. What happens
to law 2 when 𝑚 = 𝑛? Law 2 gives,
𝑎𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛−𝑛
𝑎𝑛
1 = 𝑎0
It doesn’t make sense to talk about a number being multiplied by itself 0 times.
However, if we want law 2 to continue to be valid when 𝑛 = 𝑚 then we must define
the expression 𝑎0 to mean the number 1.
If 𝑎 ≠ 0 then we define 𝑎0 to be equal to 1. We do not attempt to give any meaning to

the expression 00 . It remains undefined.
Using this definition, we can check laws 1 and 2 also remain valid.
𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛
That is, 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑚 × 1 = 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚+0 and = = 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−0 .
𝑎0 1
To come up with a suitable meaning for negative exponents, we can take 𝑛 < 𝑚 in law
2. For example, let us try 𝑛 = 2 and 𝑚 = 3.
𝑎2
= 𝑎2−3 = 𝑎−1 .
𝑎3
𝑎2 𝑎×𝑎 1 1
But, 𝑎3 = 𝑎×𝑎×𝑎 = 𝑎. Therefore, = 𝑎−1 .
𝑎
127
𝑎5 1 𝑎8
Similarly, for 𝑎 ≠ 0, = 𝑎 −3 implies 𝑎3 = 𝑎−3 and = 𝑎−12 implies
𝑎8 𝑎20
1
𝑎12
= 𝑎−12 .
Definition 3.2 Zero and Negative Exponents

If 𝑛 is a positive integer and 𝑎 ≠ 0, then
1) 𝑎0 = 1 and is undefined.
1
2) 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 .
Example 7

a) 10 b) (−10)0
1 0
c) ቀ2ቁ d) (0.123)0
Solution:
a) 10 = 1 b) (−10)0 = 1
1 0
c) ቀ2ቁ = 1 d) (0.123)0 = 1
Example 8

2 −3 1 −2
a) 3−2 b) ቀ3ቁ c) ቀ2ቁ
Solution:
1 1
a) 3−2 = 32 = 9
2 −3 1 1 33 3 3 27
b) ቀ ቁ = 2 3
= 23
= = ቀ2ቁ =
3 ቀ ቁ 23 8
3 33
1 −2 1 1 22
c) ቀ2ቁ = 1 2
= 12
= = 22 = 4
ቀ ቁ 12
2 22
128
Exercise 3.2

22 0
a) 40 b) (−11)0 c) ቀ55ቁ d) 2−3
3 −3 1 −5
e) 10−2 f) ቀ4ቁ g) ቀ2ቁ
Laws for Integer Exponents:
For real numbers 𝒂 and 𝒃 and integers 𝒎 and 𝒏, the following laws of exponents
hold true.
1. 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 . . . law of multiplication of powers of the same base.
𝑎𝑚
2. = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 . . . law of division of powers of the same base.
𝑎𝑛
3. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 . . . law of power of a power.

4. (𝑎 × 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑏 𝑛 . . . law of a power of a product.
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛
5. ቀ𝑏ቁ = 𝑏𝑛 . . . law of a power of a quotient.
Example 9
Simplify each of the following.

54
a) 𝑎−2 × 𝑎5 b) (3𝑎)4 × (3𝑎)−2 c) 56
d) (𝑎2 )−3
3𝑎 2
e) 𝑥 2 × 𝑥 −3 × 𝑥 4 f) ቀ16 ቁ g) (81)𝑡 × 92𝑡 h) (−5𝑥 × 3𝑦)2
Solution:
a) 𝑎−2 × 𝑎5 = 𝑎−2+5 = 𝑎3
b) (3𝑎)4 × (3𝑎)−2 = (3𝑎)4+(−2) = (3𝑎)2 = 32 𝑎2 = 9𝑎2
54 1
c) = 54−6 = 5−2 = 25
56
1
d) (𝑎2 )−3 = 𝑎2×(−3) = 𝑎−6 = 𝑎6
e) 𝑥 2 × 𝑥 −3 × 𝑥 4 = (𝑥 2 × 𝑥 −3 ) × 𝑥 4 = 𝑥 −1 × 𝑥 4 = 𝑥 −1+4 = 𝑥 3
129
3𝑎 2 32 ×𝑎2 9𝑎2
f) ቀ16 ቁ = (16)2
= 256
g) (81)𝑡 × 92𝑡 = 34𝑡 × (32 )2𝑡 = 34𝑡 × 34𝑡 = 34𝑡+4𝑡 = 38𝑡

h) (−5𝑥 × 3𝑦)2 = (−5𝑥)2 × (3𝑦)2
= (−5)2 𝑥 2 × 32 𝑦 2 = 25𝑥 2 × 9𝑦 2 = 225𝑥 2 𝑦 2
Exercise 3.3
Simplify the exponential expressions using laws of exponents.
25 3−5
a) 𝑥 −3 × 𝑥 4 b) 27
c) 3−3
d) (−2𝑥 × 4𝑦)2 e) 𝑥 −3 × 𝑥 −2 f) (4𝑦)2 × (8𝑦)−3
(2𝑥)2 (−3𝑥)2
g) 2𝑡 × 23𝑡 × 22𝑡 h) (2𝑥)4
i) (−3𝑥)4
j) (32 )2𝑛 k) (𝑎 𝑦 )−1 l) (𝑎3𝑥 )4

−3 4 −2
(𝑎2 ) ×(𝑎3 ) 𝑚−5 𝑛2
m) (2𝑎−3 × 𝑏 2 )−2 n) o) ቀ𝑛−2 𝑚6 ቁ
𝑎10
The Rational Exponent

Extend the definition of exponents even further to include rational numbers. For
1 1
example, to define powers like 𝑎2 , consider 92 .
1 1 2 1
Applying law 3 and taking the square of 9 2 , we get ቀ92 ቁ = 9ቀ2ቁ∙(2) = 91 = 9. Thus,
1
92 is a number that yields 9 when squared. There are two numbers whose square is 9.
1
They are 3 and −3. We define 92 to be the positive square root of 9. That is, 3. To avoid
1
ambiguity, we define 𝑎2 as the non-negative number that yields a when squared. Thus,
1
92 = 3.
130
1
In general, 𝑎2 is defined to be the positive square root of 𝑎, which can also be written
1
as √𝑎 . So 𝑎2 = √𝑎.
1
Of course, 𝑎 must be positive if 𝑎2 is meaningful because if we take any real number
and multiply it by itself, then we get a positive number.
1 1
We can arrive at the definition of 𝑎3 in the same way as we did for 𝑎 2 . For example,
1 1 3 1 1
if we cube 83 , we get ቀ83 ቁ = (8)ቀ3×3ቁ = 8. Thus, 83 is the number that yields 8 when
1 1
cubed. Since 2 3 = 8 we have 83 = 2. Similarly, (−27)3 = −3.
1
This time we have no trouble giving a meaning to (−27)3 even though −27 < 0. There
is a number when multiplied by itself 3 times gives -27, namely −3, so
1
(−27)3 = −3.
1
Thus, we define 𝑎 3 (called the cube root of 𝑎) as the quantity that yields 𝑎 when cubed.
𝟏
Definition 3.3 The Rational Exponent 𝒂𝒏
1
If 𝑎 is positive, then 𝑎𝑛 is defined to be a positive number whose 𝑛𝑡ℎ power is
equal to 𝑎. This number is called the 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of 𝑎 and sometimes written as √𝑎.
𝑛
1
If 𝑛 is even and 𝑎 is negative, 𝑎𝑛 cannot be defined because raising any number
to an even power result in a positive number.
1
If 𝑛 is odd and 𝑎 is negative, 𝑎𝑛 can be defined. It is a negative number whose 𝑛𝑡ℎ
power is equal to 𝑎.
Example 10
1
Express in the form 𝑎𝑛 and evaluate the following.
4 3 3 4
a) √16 b) √8 c) √−8 d) √−16
Solution:
131
1
4
a) Since 24 = 16, √16 = (16)4 = 2
1
3
b) Since 23 = 8, √8 = (8)3 = 2
1
3
c) Since (−2)3 = −8, √−8 = (−8)3 = −2
1
4
d) √−16 = (−16)4 is not a real number because there is no real number a such
that 𝑎4 is −16
Exercise 3.4
1
Express in the form 𝑎𝑛 and evaluate the following
4 5 3
a) √81 b) √32 ` c) √125
3 3 4
d) √−27 e) − √−1000 f) √−10000
Activity 3.3
Simplify the following expressions.
1 1 1 1 1
a) 22 × 22 b) √2 × √2 c) 22 × 22 × 22 d) √2 × √2 × √2
1
So far, we have defined 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a natural number. With the help of the third law
for exponent, we can notice that,
𝑚 1
𝑛
= 𝑚 × 𝑛.
So, if law 3 is to hold then

𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑎 𝑛 = ቀ𝑎𝑛 ቁ .
𝑚
Therefore, we can define the expression 𝑎 𝑛 , where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are natural numbers and
𝑚
is reduced to lowest term as in definition 3.4.
𝑛
132
𝒎
Definition 3.4 The Rational Exponent 𝒂 𝒏
1 𝑚 1 𝑚
If 𝑎𝑛 is a real number, then 𝑎 𝑛 = ቀ𝑎𝑛 ቁ (that is, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of a raised to the
𝑚𝑡ℎ power).
We can also define negative rational exponents:
𝑚 1
𝑎− 𝑛 = 𝑚 (𝑎 ≠ 0)
𝑎𝑛
Note
The laws of exponents discussed earlier for integral exponents hold true for
rational exponents.
Example 11
Evaluate the following expressions.
1 2
1 1 2 1 3 3
32
a) 43 × 163 b) 3 c) 273 d) ቀ3𝑚2 × 4𝑛2 ቁ e) (−32)−5
272
Solution:
1 1 1 1 2 4 2 4
a) 43 × 163 = (22 )3 × (24 )3 = 23 × 23 = 23+3 = 22 = 4
1 1
1 9 8
32 32 1 1
b) 3 = 9 = 32−2 = 3−2 = 3−4 = 34 = 81
272 32
2 1 2
c) 273 = ቀ273 ቁ = 32 = 9
1 3 2 1 2 3 2
d) ቀ3𝑚2 × 4𝑛2 ቁ = ቀ3𝑚2 ቁ × ቀ4𝑛2 ቁ = 32 𝑚 × 42 𝑛3 = 9𝑚 × 16𝑛3 = 144𝑚𝑛3
3
1 1 1 1
e) (−32)−5 = 3 = 1 3
= (−2)3 = − 8
(−32)5 ( (−32)5 )
Exercise 3.5
Simplify each of the following expressions.

2 4
1 4 3 1 5
165
a) 2 × 4 3 3 b) 6 c) 1002 d) ቀ𝑎4 × 3𝑏 2 ቁ
85
133
2 −6 1 2 1 1 4
− −
−
2 𝑥3 (𝑎2 ) 4 ×(𝑎3 ) 9 𝑚8 𝑛 3
e) (−27) 3 f) ( 1 ) g) 1 h) ( 2 1 )
−
𝑦 2 𝑎2 𝑛 3 𝑚4
Radical notation is an alternative way of writing an expression with rational exponents.
Definition 3.5 The 𝒏𝒕𝒉 root

1
If 𝑎𝑛 is a real number and 𝑚 an integer then
𝑚 1 𝑚 1 𝑚 𝑚
𝑛
𝑎 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = √𝑎𝑚
𝑛
𝑛 (𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = ቀ𝑎 ቁ = ( √𝑎) ).
𝑛 𝑛
Example 12
𝑚
Express in the form 𝑎 𝑛 , with 𝑎 being a prime number.
3 2 3
√8 3
e) √ √64
3 5 2
a) √4 b) √27 c) 3 d) ( √625)
√4
Solution:
1 1 2
3
a) √4 = 43 = (22 )3 = 23 .
1 1 3
5
b) √27 = (27)5 = (33 )5 = 35
1
3 2 1
√8 (23 ) 3 21
c) 3 = 1 = 2 = 21−3 = 23
√4 (22 ),3 23
2 1 2 4 2 8
3
d) ( √625) = ቀ(54 )3 ቁ = ቀ53 ቁ = 53
3 2 3 1 3 1 1
e) √ √64 = √ (64)2 = √ (82 )2 = √8 = √23 = (23 )3 = 2
3 3
Exercise 3.6
𝑚
Express in the form 𝑎 𝑛 , with 𝑎 being a prime number.
3 5
3 4 √25 √40
a) √81 b) √32 c) 3 d) 5
√5 √5
134
6 2 3 2
4 3 1
e) ( √27) f) ( √121) g) √ √
1000000
Irrational Exponents
The expressions 3√2 , 22√3 , 5𝜋 are powers with irrational exponents.

What is the value of 3√2 ?
Using calculator, the value of √2 = 1.41421356 . . .
Therefore, 3√2 = 31.41421356 . . .
It is not possible to calculate 3√2 = 31.41421356 . . .

because 1.41421356 . . . has
infinite decimals. But one can approximate the value of 31.41421356 . . .
as follows.
To approximate 31.41421356 . . .
31 = 3
14
31.4 = 310 = 4.65553672, to eight decimal places
14
( 310 is an expression with rational exponent, use a calculator to find its value)
141
31.41 = 3100 = 4.70696500
141 4
31.414 = 3100 0 = 4.72769503
31.4142 = 4.72873393
31.41421 = 4.72878588
31.4142135 = 4.72880406
31.41421356 = 4.72880437
As we can see from the above list, the values of
31 , 31.4 , 31.41 , 31.414 , 31.4142 , 31.41421 , 31.4142135 , 31.41421356
are approaching to some number. For example, the first six decimals of the values of
31.4142135 and 31.41421356 are the same. That is 4.728804.
135
By continuing the approximation of 3√2 like above we can say 3√2 ≅ 4.72880437 to
eight decimal places.
Now, if we define 3𝑥 then 3√2 is the real number that 3𝑥 approaches when 𝑥 gets
closer and closer to √2.
In general, if we define 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑏 is an irrational number, then 𝑎𝑏 is a real number that
𝑎 𝑥 approaches when x gets closer and closer to 𝑏.
The above statement about irrational exponents suggests that the expression 𝑎 𝑥 is
defined not only for integral and rational exponents but also for irrational exponents.
The laws of exponents discussed earlier for integral and rational exponents continue to
hold true for irrational exponents.
Example 13

3 √2
a) 3√2 × 3√2 b) ቀ4√2 ቁ c) ቀ3√2 ቁ
2√3+2 √3
d) e) 5√2 × 5√3 f) ቀ5√2 ቁ
2√3−3
Solution:
a) 3√2 × 3√2 = 3√2+√2 = 32√2 = (32 )√2 = 9√2

3
b) ቀ4√2 ቁ = 43×√2 = (43 )√2 = 64√2
√2
c) ቀ3√2 ቁ = 3√2×√2 = 32 = 9
2√3+2 2√3 ×22 22

d) = = 2−3 = 22−(−3) = 25 = 32
2√3−3 2√3 ×2−3
2√3+2
or = (2)(√3+2)−(√3−3) = 25 = 32
2√3−3
e) 5√2 × 5√3 = 5√2+√3

√3
f) ቀ5√2 ቁ = 5√2×√3 = 5√6
136
Exercise 3.7

2 3 −2 √2 √8
a) 2√3 × 2√3 b) ቀ5√2 ቁ c) ( √8) d) √3 × √3
3√2+3 √27 3√2 ×9√8 (5√3 )2 ×5−√12 ×25√3
e) f) (2√3 ) g) h)
3√2−1 27√18 5√27
3.1.2 Logarithms
In the exponential equation 23 = 8, the base is 2 and the exponent is 3. We write this
equation in logarithm form as log 2 8 = 3. We read this as “the logarithm of 8 to the
base 2 is 3”.
The logarithm to base 𝑎 of a number 𝑥 > 0 (written log 𝑎 𝑥) is that power to which 𝑎
must be raised to obtain the number 𝑥.
For example,
log 3 9 = 2 because 32 = 9.
1 1
log 3 ቀ9ቁ = −2 because 3−2 = 9.
log 5 1 = 0 because 50 = 1.
Definition 3.6
For a > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, and 𝑐 > 0
log 𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑏 if and only if 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐.
Example 1
Convert each of the following to logarithmic statement.

1
a) 25 = 32 b) 34 = 81 c) 42 = 2
Solution:
a) From 25 = 32, we have log 2 32 = 5.
b) From 34 = 81, we have log 3 81 = 4.
1
1
c) From 42 = 2, we have log 4 2 = 2.
137
Example 2
Convert each of the following to exponential statement.

1 3 1
a) log 2 128 = 7 b) log 3 ቀ27ቁ = −3 c) log10 √10 = 3
Solution:
a) From log 2 128 = 7, we have 27 = 128.
1 1
b) From log 3 ቀ27ቁ = −3, we have 3−3 = 27.
1
3 1 3
c) From log10 √10 = 3, we have 103 = √10.
Example 3
Find the value of each of the following logarithms.

1
a) log 2 64 b) log 3 ቀ81ቁ c) log10 100 d) log10 0.01
Solution:
a) Since 64 = 26 , the exponent to which we raise 2 to get 64 is 6.
So, log 2 64 = 6.
1 1 1
b) Since 81
= 34 = 3−4 , the exponent to which we raise 3 to get 81 is −4.
1
Hence, log 3 ቀ81ቁ = −4 .
c) The exponent to which we raise 10 to get 100 is 2 as 102 = 100. Therefore,

log10 100 = 2.
1 1 1
d) Since 0.01 = 100 = 102 = 10−2 , the exponent to which we raise 10 to get 100
is −2. Thus, log10 0.01 = −2 .
Exercise 3.8
1. Write the equivalent logarithmic statement for the following equations.

2
1 1
d) 27−3 = 9
3
a) 210 = 1,024 b) 2−6 = 64 c) √125 = 5
2. Write the equivalent exponential statement for the following equations.
138
a) log10 1000 = 3 b) log 8 √64 = 1

1
c) log10 0.001 = −3 d) log 3 27 = −3
3. Find the values of following logarithms.

a) log 3 27 b) log 4 16
c) log100 0.001 d) log √49 7
Properties of logarithms
The following properties follow directly from the definition of the logarithm with base
𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1
Properties of Logarithms
1. log 𝑎 1 = 0 because 𝑎0 = 1.
2. log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 because 𝑎1 = 𝑎.
3. log 𝑎 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑝 and 𝑎lo g 𝑎 𝑝 = 𝑝 . . . Inverse property.
4. If log 𝑎 M = log 𝑎 N, then M = N . . . One-to-One property.
Example 4
Use properties of logarithms to answer the following questions.

a) Find 𝑝 such that log 2 𝑝 = log 2 5. b) Simplify log 2 2𝑝 .
c) Find 𝑝 such that log 3 3 = 𝑝. d) Simplify 5lo g 5 𝑝 .
Solution:
a) Using property 4, we can see that 𝑝 = 5.
b) Using property 3, it follows that log 2 2𝑝 = 𝑝.
c) Using property 2, we can conclude that 𝑝 = 1.
d) Using property 3, it follows that 5lo g 5 𝑝 = 𝑝.
Exercise 3.9
Using properties of logarithms give answer for the following questions.

a) Find 𝑝 such that log 3 𝑝 = log 3 4. b) Simplify log 5 25𝑝 .
139
c) Find 𝑝 such that log 6 6 = 𝑝. d) Simplify 2lo g 2 3𝑝 .
Laws of logarithms
We now establish laws of logarithms. The laws are represented by theorems and we
prove the theorems based on the corresponding laws of exponents.
Theorem 3.1 Logarithms of products

For any positive numbers 𝑀, N and 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1,
log 𝑎 𝑀𝑁 = log 𝑎 𝑀 + log 𝑎 𝑁
(The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors.)
Note
This property of logarithms corresponds to the product law for exponents:
𝑎𝑀 𝑎𝑁 = 𝑎𝑀+𝑁 ∙
Proof:
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑝 and log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑞.
Converting to exponential equations, we get : 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑀 and 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑁.
Now, 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑎𝑝 ∙ 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑎𝑝+𝑞 .
This implies 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑎𝑝+𝑞 .
Converting back to a logarithmic equation, we obtain
log 𝑎 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑝 + 𝑞.
But, 𝑝 = log 𝑎 𝑀 and 𝑞 = log 𝑎 𝑁.
Therefore, log 𝑎 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 = log 𝑎 𝑀 + log 𝑎 𝑁.
Example 5
Express log 2 (4 × 8) as a sum of logarithms.

Solution:
We have log 2 (4 × 8) = log 2 4 + log 2 8 . . . using the product law
140
Example 6
Express log 3 5 + log 3 8 as a single logarithm.

Solution:
We have log 3 5 + log 3 8 = log 3 (5 × 8) = log 3 40 . . . using the product law
Theorem 3.2 Logarithms of powers

For any positive number 𝑀, any real number 𝑟, and 𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 1,
log 𝑎 (𝑀)𝑟 = 𝑟 log 𝑎 𝑀
(The logarithm of a power of 𝑥 is the exponent times the logarithms of 𝑥.)
Note
This property of logarithms corresponds to the power law for exponents:
(𝑎𝑀 )𝑟 = 𝑎𝑀𝑟 ∙
Proof:
Let 𝑝 = log 𝑎 𝑀.
Converting to exponential equations, we get 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑀.
Now, (𝑎𝑝 )𝑟 = 𝑎𝑝𝑟 = 𝑀𝑟 .
Converting back to a logarithmic equation, we obtain: log 𝑎 𝑀𝑟 = log 𝑎 𝑎𝑝𝑟 = 𝑝𝑟.
But, 𝑝 = log 𝑎 𝑀.
Therefore, log 𝑎 (𝑀)𝑟 = 𝑟 log 𝑎 𝑀.
Example 7
Use laws of logarithms to evaluate the following.

3
a) log 2 √8 b) log 3 81 c) log10 √0.01
1
d) log 4 8 + log 4 2 e) log 1 ቀ4ቁ
2
Solution:
1
1 1 1 3
a) log 2 √8 = log 2 82 = 2
log 2 23 = 2
(3 log 2 2) = 2
× 3 × 1 = 2.
b) log 3 81 = log 3 34 = 4 log 3 3 = 4 × 1 = 4.
141
1
3
c) log10 √0.01 = log10 (0.01)3
1
= 3 log10 0.01
1 1
= 3 log10 100
1 1
= 3 log10 10−2
1 1 1 2
= 3 log10 10−2 = 3
(−2log10 10) = 3 × (−2) × 1 = − 3.
d) log 4 8 + log 4 2 = log 4 (8 × 2) = log 4 16 = log 4 42 = 2log 4 4 = 2 × 1 = 2

1 1 2 1
e) log 1 ቀ4ቁ = log 1 ቀ2ቁ = 2 log 1 ቀ2ቁ = 2 × 1 = 2
2 2 2
Exercise 3.10
Use laws of logarithm to find the values of

1
a) log 3 √3 b) log 6 36 c) log 2 ቀ4ቁ
1 3 1
d) log ቀ1ቁ ቀ81ቁ e) log10 √ 1000 f) log 8 32 + log 8 2
3
1 6 9 1
g) log 2 6 + log 2 ቀ12ቁ h) log 3 10 + log 3 ቀ5ቁ + log 3 ቀ4ቁ i) 2
log 4 8 + log 4 √2
Theorem 3.3 Logarithms of quotients

For any positive numbers 𝑀, 𝑁, and 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1,
𝑀
log 𝑎 ቀ 𝑁 ቁ = log 𝑎 𝑀 − log 𝑎 𝑁.
(The logarithm of a quotient is the logarithm of the numerator minus the

logarithm of the denominator.)
Proof:
The proof follows from the product law and the power law.
𝑀
log 𝑎 ( ) = log 𝑎 𝑀𝑁 −1
𝑁
142
= log 𝑎 𝑀 + log 𝑎 𝑁 −1 . . . using product law

= log 𝑎 𝑀 + (−1) log 𝑎 𝑁 . . . using power law
= log 𝑎 𝑀 − log 𝑎 𝑁.
Example 8
Use laws of logarithms to evaluate the following.
𝐚) log 3 54 − log 3 2 b) log10 √2000 − log10 √20
c) log 5 30 + log 5 15 − log 5 2
Solution:
54
a) log 3 54 − log 3 2 = log 3 2
= log 3 27 = log 3 33 = 3 log 3 3 = 3 × 1 = 3
√2000
b) log10 √2000 − log10 √20 = log10 ቀ ቁ
√20
2000
= log10 √ 20
= log10 √100 = log10 10 = 1
c) log 5 30 + log 5 15 − log 5 2 = (log 5 30 + log 5 15) − log 5 2

= log 5 (30 × 15) − log 5 2
= log 5 450 − log 5 2
450
= log 5 ቀ 2
ቁ = log 5 225 = log 5 53 = 3 log 5 5 = 3 × 1 = 3
Exercise 3.11
Use laws of logarithms to find the values of
a) log 5 50 − log 5 2 b) log 3 4 − log 3 108
c) log10 √2000 − log10 √2 d) log 5 2 + log 5 50 − log 5 4
e) log 6 9 − log 6 15 + log 6 10 f) log10 24 − 2log10 6 + log10 15
143
Theorem 3.4 Change of base

For any positive real number M, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0 , 𝑎 ≠ 1 and 𝑏 ≠ 1,
log 𝑏 𝑀
log 𝑎 𝑀 =
log 𝑏 𝑎
Proof:
Let 𝑝 = log 𝑎 𝑀. Then
𝑎𝑝 = 𝑎lo g 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑀
log 𝑏 𝑎𝑝 = log 𝑏 𝑀 . . . taking logarithm to the base 𝑏 of both sides
𝑝 log 𝑏 𝑎 = log 𝑏 𝑀 . . . using power law
log 𝑏 𝑀
𝑝=
log 𝑏 𝑎
lo g 𝑏 𝑀
Therefore, 𝑝 = log 𝑎 𝑀 = lo g 𝑏 𝑎
.
Example 9
Use laws of logarithms to find:

𝐚) log √2 4 b) log 0.1 100
Solution:
lo g 4
a) log √2 4 = lo g 2 by using base change law of logaritms
2 √2
1
lo g 2 22
= 1 because 4 = 22 and √2 = 22
lo g 2 22
2 lo g 2 2
= 1 by power law of logaritms
lo g 2 2
2
2
= 1 because log 2 2 = 1
2
2
=2×
1
=4
lo g 10 100
b) log 0.1 100 = lo g 10 0.1
by using base change law of logaritms
lo g 102 1
= lo g 1010−1 because 100 = 102 and 0.1 = 10 = 10−1
10
144
2 lo g 10
= −1 lo g10 by power law of logaritms
10 10
2
= −1
because log10 10 = 1
= −2
Exercise 3.12
lo g 𝑥
Use the law log 𝑎 𝑥 = lo g 𝑏 𝑎 to find the value of the following expressions.
𝑏
a) log √3 9 b) log √2 128 c) log ቀ1ቁ 243

3
1
d) log100 0.1 e) log 4 ቀ ቁ
2
Remember that:
1. log a MN ≠ (log a M)(log a N) . . . The logarithm of a product is not the product
of the logarithms.
2. log a (M + N) ≠ log a M + log a N . . . The logarithm of a sum is not the sum of the
logarithms.
M lo g a M
3. log a ቀ N ቁ ≠ lo g a N
. . . The logarithm of a quotient is not the quotient of the
logarithm.
4. (log a M)r ≠ r log a M . . . The power of a logarithm is not the exponent times the
logarithm.
Logarithms to Base 10 (Common Logarithms)

For a general number 𝑀, log10 𝑀 is equal to that power to which 10 must be raised to
obtain the number 𝑀.
Activity 3.4
Find the value of the following common logarithms.
a) log10 10 b) log10 1000 c) log10 1 d) log10 0.1
145
Definition 3.7
The logarithm to the base 10 is called common logarithm or decadic logarithm
and written as log10 𝑀.
A common logarithim is usually written without indicating its base. For example,
log10 𝑀 is simply denoted by log 𝑀.
Example 1
Find the value of each of the common logarithms.

3 0.1
a) log10 √10 b) log 0.0001 c) log 200 − log 2 d) log ቀ ቁ
√100
Solution:
1
3
a) log10 √10 = log10 10ቀ3ቁ
1 1 1
= 3
log10 10 = 3
× 1 = 3.
1 1
b) log 0.0001 = log ቀ10000ቁ = log ቀ104 ቁ
= log 10−4 = −4 log 10 because log 10 = log10 10 = 1

= −4.
200
c) log 200 − log 2 = log ቀ 2
ቁ = log 100 = log 102 = 2 log 10 = 2 × 1 = 2.
Exercise 3.13
Find the values of the following common logarithms.

3 0.01 1 10𝑚
a) log √0.1 b) log10 (10√10) c) log ቀ ቁ d) log ቀ 5 ቁ e) log ቀ 10𝑛 ቁ
√1000 √10
Suppose 𝑝 can be written as 𝑝 = 𝑚 × 10𝑐 , 1 ≤ 𝑚 < 10, then the logarithm of 𝑝 can
be read from the common logarithm table (a table that contains the common
logarithm value of a number 𝒎 such that 𝟏 ≤ 𝒎 < 𝟏𝟎) which is attached at the last
page of the book.
146
So, log 𝑝 = log(𝑚 × 10𝑐 ) = log 𝑚 + log 10𝑐 = log 𝑚 + 𝑐.

That is, log 𝑝 = log 𝑚 + 𝑐.
The common logarithm of 𝑚, log 𝑚 is called the mantissa (fractional part) of the
common logarithm of 𝑝 and 𝑐 is called the characterstic of the logarithm.
The common logarithm of any two decimal place number between 1.00 and 9.99 can
be read directly from the common logarithm table.
Example 2
Using the table of logarithm, calculate

a) log 1.23 b) log 3.57
c) log 2.478 d) log 6,920
Solution:
a) We read the number at the intersection of row 1.2 and column 3 to find
0.0899.
So, log 1.23 = 0.0899.

b) Reading the number in row 3.5 under column 7 from the common logarithm
table, gives 0.5527.
So, log 3.57 = 0.5527.
c) 2.478 in log 2.478 has three numbers after decimal.
To read the value of log 2.478 from the logarithm table, the steps are as follow:
147
Step 1. Separate the number 2.478 in log 2.478 as 2.4, 7 and 8.

Step 2. Read the number at the intersection of row 2.4 and column 7, this
gives 0.3927.
Step 3. From the mean difference part of the common logarithm table, read
the number at the intersection of row 2.4 and column 8, this gives 14. We
write this as 0.0014.
Step 4. Add the values obtained in steps 2 and 3 to get 0.3927 + 0.0014 =
0.3941.Therefore, log 2.478 = 0.3941.
d) We have, 6,920 = 6.92 × 103 .
So, log 6,920 = log(6.92 × 103 ) = log 6.92 + log 103 = log 6.92 + 3.
But, log 6.92 = 0.8401. (reading from the table of common logarithm at the
intesection of 6.9 row and column 2).
Therefore, log 6,920 = log 6.92 + 3 = 3.8401.
Example 3
Identify the mantissa and characterstic of each of the common logarithms.

a) log 0.00123 b) log 345 c) log 0.01
Solution:
a) 0.00123 = 1.23 × 10−3 and
log 0.00123 = log(1.23 × 10−3 ) = log 1.23 + log 10−3 = log 1.23 + (−3).
The mantissa is log 1.23 = 0.0899 (Refer to the common logarithm table to
find log 1.23).
The characterstic is −3.
b) 345 = 3.45 × 102 .
So, the mantissa is log 3.45 = 0.5378 and the characterstic is 2.
c) We have 0.01 = 1.00 × 10−2 .
Therefore, the mantisa is log 1.00 = 0 and the characterstic is -2.
148
Exercise 3.14
1. Using the table of logarithm find the values of the following.
a) log 2.13 b) log 2.99 c) log 6.3 d) log 6.345

e) log 0.28 f) log 9.99 g) log 0.00008 h) log 400
2. Identify the characterstic and mantissa of the logarithm of each of the following.
1
a) 0.00503 b) 0.25 c) 302 d) 8
e) 4.4 f) 9 g) 3280 h) 53.814
Antilogarithms
Suppose log𝑀 = 0.8175 . What is the value of 𝑀?
If log 𝑀 = 𝑁, then 𝑀 is the antilogarithm (antilog) of 𝑁 and write antilog(𝑁) = 𝑀.
When you are asked to find the antilog of a given number N you will try to find a
number M such that log 𝑀 = 𝑁.
We can use the antilogarithm table attached at the end of the text book to read the
antilog of a number.
In general, antilog(log 𝑀) = 𝑀
For example, given log𝑀 = 0.8175 to read the value of 𝑀 = antilog(0.8175) from
the antilogarithm table, we follow the following steps
Step 1. Separate the number 0.8175 as 0.81, 7 and 5
Step 2. From the antilogarithm part read the number at the intersection of row 0.81
and column 7, this gives 6.561
Step 3. From the mean difference part, read the number at the intersection of row
149
0.81 and column 5, this gives 8. We write this as 0.008.

Step 4. Add the values obtained in steps 2 and 3 to get
𝑀 = antilog(0.8175) = 6.561 + 0.008 = 6.569
Therefore, log (6.569) = 0.8175
Example 1
Find the antilog of the following numbers.

a) 0.9335 b) 3.0913 c) -2.1202
Solution:
a) To find antilog(0.9335). That is to find a number 𝑀 such that log 𝑀 = 0.9335.
Step 1. Separate the number 0.9335 as 0.93, 3 and 5

Step 2. From the antilogarithm part read the number at the intersection of row
0.93 and column 3, this gives 8.570
Step 3. From the mean difference part, read the number at the intersection of
row 0.93 and column 5, this gives 10. We write this as 0.010.
8.570 + 0.010 = 8.580 , Therefore, antilog(0.9335) = 8.580
b) In 3.0913, the characterstic is 3. Therefore aftre finding the antilog of 0.0913, we
multiply it by 103 .
To find antilog(0.0913),
Step 1. Separate the number 0.0913 into 0.09, 1 and 3
0.09 and column 1, this gives 1.233.
1.233 + 0.001 = 1.234
Step 5. 1.234 × 103 = 1234.00. Therefore the antilog(3.0913) = 1234.00
150
c) To find the antilog of negative numbers like −2.1202, we rewrite it as

−2.1202 = −2 − 0.1202 + (1 − 1) = (−2 − 1) + (1 − 0.1202)
= −3 + 0.8798.
Then after finding the antilog of 0.8798, we multiply it by 10−3 to get the
antilog(-2.1202)
Now, to find antilog(0.8798)
Step 1. Separate the number 0.8798 into 0.87, 9 and 8.
0.87 and column 9 , this gives 7.568.
7.568 + 0.014 = 7.582
Step 5. 7.582 × 10−3 = 0.007582.
Therefore the antilog(−2.1202) = 0.007582
Exercise 3.15
Find a) antilog 0.7412 b) antilog 0.9330 c) antilog 0.9996

d) antilog 0.7 e) antilog 1.3010 f) antilog 0.9953
g) antilog 5.721 h) antilog (−0.2)
Computation with Logarithms

In this section, you will see how logarithms are used for computations of numbers
267×3252
like 403
, √254, etc. Specially common logarithms are used in mathematical
computations.
In order to compute a given number 𝑀, you can perform the following steps:
Step 1. Find log 𝑀, using the laws of logarithms.
151
Step 2. Find the antilogarithm of log 𝑀.
Example 2
Approximate the values of the following using logarithm.

267×3252
a) 403
b) √254
Solution:
267×3252
a) Let 𝑀 = 403
267×3252
Log 𝑀 = log ቀ ቁ
403
= log 267 + log 3252 − log 403

= (2 + log 2.67) + (3 + log 3.252) − (2 + log 4.03)
= 3 + log 2.67 + log 3.252 − log 4.03
= 3 + 0.4265 + 0.5122 − 0.6053 = 3.3334
log 𝑀 = 3.3334
𝑀 = antilog(3.3334) = 2155
b) Let 𝑀 = √254
1 1
log 𝑀 = log(√254 ) = 2 log 254 = 2 (2 + log 2.54)
1 1
= 1 + 2 log 2.54 = 1 + 2 (0.4048) = 1.2024
𝑀 = antilog(1.2024) = 15.93
Exercise 3.16
Compute using logarithms.

5
a) 4.26 × 5.73 b) √25 c) 31.42
√488 5
d) (4.2)1.3 × (0.21)4.1 e) (2.81)2
f) √0.0461
152
3.2 The Exponential Functions and Their Graphs
3.2.1 Exponential Functions
Activity 3.5
Consider a single bacterium which divides every hour.
a) Find the number of bacteria after one hour, two hours, three hours, four
hours, and 𝑡 hours.
b) Complete the following table.
Time in hour (𝑡) 0 1 2 3 4 … 𝑡
Number of bacteria 1
c) Write a formula to calculate the number of bacteria after 𝑡 hours.
Definition 3.8
The exponential function 𝑓 with base 𝑎 is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 where
𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1 and 𝑥 is any real number.
Example 1
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 . Evaluate the following.
a) 𝑓(2) b) 𝑓(0) c) 𝑓(−1)
Solution:
1
𝐚) 𝑓(2) = 32 = 9. b) 𝑓(0) = 30 = 1. 𝐜) 𝑓(−1) = 3−1 = 3.
Example 2
Write each of the following functions in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑘𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑘𝑥 for a
suitable constant 𝑘.
𝑥 1 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √2 c) 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ9ቁ
Solution:
𝑥 1 𝑥 1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 = (22 )𝑥 = 22𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √2 = ቀ22 ቁ = 22𝑥
153
1 𝑥 1 𝑥
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ9ቁ = ቀ32 ቁ = (3−2 )𝑥 = 3−2𝑥
Note
1) In the definition of exponential function, 𝑎 ≠ 1 because if 𝑎 = 1, 𝑓(𝑥) =
1𝑥 = 1 is a constant function.
2) The exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1 is different from
all the functions that you have studied in the previous chapters because the
variable x is an exponent.
3) A distinct characteristic of an exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is showing a
rapid increase as 𝑥 increases for 𝑎 > 1 and showing a rapid decrease as 𝑥
increases for 𝑎 < 1.
4) Many real-life phenomena with patterns of rapid growth (or decline) can be
modeled by exponential functions.
Exercise 3.17
1 𝑥
1. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ4ቁ . Find the values of
1 1
a) 𝑓(2) b) 𝑓(−2) c) 𝑓 ቀ2ቁ d) 𝑓 ቀ− 2ቁ
2. Write each of the following functions in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑘𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑘𝑥 for
a suitable constant 𝑘.
𝑥 1 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √3 c) 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ81ቁ
𝑥 −𝑥
3 𝑥 1 3 1 3
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = √2 e) 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ27ቁ f) 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ16ቁ
3.2.2 Graph of Exponential Functions

Graphs of exponential functions can be drawn by plotting points on the 𝑥𝑦-plane.
Example 1
Draw the graph of the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 .
154
Solution:
First, we calculate values of 𝑓(𝑥) for some integer values of 𝑥 and prepare a table of
these values.
1 1 1
𝑓(−3) = 8, 𝑓(−2) = 4, 𝑓(−1) = 2 , 𝑓(0) = 1, 𝑓(1) = 2, 𝑓(2) = 4, 𝑓(3) = 8
𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
Note
✓ The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 is positive for all values of 𝑥.
✓ As 𝑥 increases, the value of the function gets larger and larger.
✓ As 𝑥 decreases, the value of the function gets smaller and smaller,
approaching zero.
Then we plot the points on the 𝑥𝑦-plane and

join them by a smooth curve as shown in the
figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥

Since the domain of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is the set of all values of 𝑥 for which the
function 𝑓 is defined and its range is the set of all values of 𝑦, the domain of
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 is the set of all real numbers and its range is the set of positive real
numbers.
155
Activity 3.6
1) For which values of x is 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 > 1?
2) For which values of x is 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 < 1?
3) Does 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 increase as 𝑥 increases?
4) What happens to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 as x gets larger and larger without
bound?
5) What happens to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 when x is negative and ȁ𝑥ȁis very
large?
6) Is there a line that the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 approaches but never touches
when x is negative and ȁ𝑥ȁis very large? What is that line?
Exercise 3.18
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3x ,

a) Complete the table of values below.
𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
b) Find the intercepts.

c) Sketch the graph of 𝑓, first by plotting the points (𝑥, 𝑦) and then joining them
by a smooth curve.
d) Find the domain and range of 𝑓.
Example 2
1 𝑥
Draw the graph of the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ ቁ .
2
Solution:
First, we calculate values of 𝑓(𝑥) for some integer x and prepare a table of these
values.
156
1 1 1
𝑓(−3) = 8, 𝑓(−2) = 4, 𝑓(−1) = 2, 𝑓(0) = 1, 𝑓(1) = 2, 𝑓(2) = 4, 𝑓(3) = 8
𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 𝑥 8 4 2 1 1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
2 2 4 8
Note
1 𝑥
• The function 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ2ቁ is positive for all values of x.
• As x increases, the value of the function gets smaller and smaller,

approaching zero.
• As x decreases, the value of the function gets larger and larger.
Then we plot the points on the xy-plane and join

them by a smooth curve as shown in the figure
3.2.
1 𝑥
Figure 3.2: Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ2ቁ
Exercise 3.19
1 𝑥
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ ቁ ,
3

𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
157

by a smooth curve.
The exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 has domain of the set of all
real numbers and range of the set of all positive real numbers. The 𝑥-axis (the line
𝑦 = 0) is a horizontal asymptote of 𝑓. The graph of 𝑓 has one of the following shapes.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3
The basic characterstics of the exponential function are summarized below.
Characterstics of Graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 , 𝒂 > 𝟏
a) Domain: ℝ = The set of all real numbers.
b) Range: ℝ+ =The set of all positive real numbers.
c) 𝑦-intercept: The point (0, 1).
d) Has no 𝑥-intercept.
e) It is increasing on ℝ = (−∞, ∞).
f) The graph goes upward without bound as x gets larger and positive.
g) The graph gets closer to the negative 𝑥-axis when 𝑥 is negative and ȁ𝑥ȁis
large.
158
h) Horizontal asymptote: The 𝑥-axis (the line 𝑦 = 0) is a horizontal asymptote.

(See figure 3.3a)
Characterstics of Graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 , 𝟎 < 𝒂 < 𝟏.
a) Domain: ℝ = The set of all real numbers.
b) Range: ℝ+ =The set of all positive real numbers.
c) 𝑦-intercept: The point (0, 1).
d) Has no x intercept.
e) It is decreasing function. The value of 𝑓 decreases whenever the value of 𝑥
increases.
f) The graph goes upward without bound when 𝑥 is negative and ȁ𝑥ȁis large
g) The graph gets closer to the positive 𝑥-axis when 𝑥 gets larger and positive.
h) Horizontal asymptote: The 𝑥-axis (the line y = 0) is a horizontal asymptote.
(See figure 3.3b)
Example 3
Find the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 whose graph is given by figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4
Solution:
If 𝑓(2) = 𝑎2 = 16 then 𝑎 = 4. So, 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 is the required function.
159
Exercise 3.20
1) Find the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 whose graph is given by figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5
2) Using the same coordinate system, draw the graphs of

1 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = ቀ3ቁ .
1 𝑥
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = ቀ ቁ .
4
3.2.3 The Natural Exponential Function

Any positive number can be used as the base for an exponential function, but for the
bases the number denoted by the letter 𝑒 and 10 are used more frequently. The number
𝑒 is the most important base and convenient for certain applications.
1 𝑛
The number 𝑒 is defined as the value that ቀ1 + 𝑛ቁ approaches as n becomes large.
1 𝑛
The table below shows the values of the expression ቀ1 + 𝑛ቁ for increasingly large
values of 𝑛. It appears that 𝑒 ≅ 2.71828 correct to five decimal places.
160
n 1 𝑛
(1 + )
𝑛
1 2.00000
2 2.25000
5 2.48832
10 2.59374
100 2.70481
1000 2.71692
10,000 2.71815
100,000 2.71827
1,000,000 2.71828
The approximate value to 20 decimal places is 𝑒 ≅ 2.71828182845904523536.
Definition 3.9
The natural exponential function is the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 with

base 𝑒.
Since 2 < 𝑒 < 3, the graph of the natural

exponential function lies between the graphs
of 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and ℎ(𝑥) = 3𝑥 as shown in the
figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6
161
Example 1
Use a scientific calculator to evaluate each expression correct to five decimal places.
a) 𝑒 2 b) 𝑒 −1 c) 𝑒 3.5
Solution:
We use the [𝑒] key on a scientific calculator to evaluate the exponential expressions.
a) 𝑒 2 ≅ 7.38906.
b) 𝑒 −1 ≅ 0.36788.
c) 𝑒 3.5 ≅ 33.11545.
Example 2
Construct table of values for some integer values of 𝑥, sketch the graphs, find the x-
intercept and y-intercept, find the asymptote and give the domain and the range of
𝑦 = −𝑒 𝑥 .
𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑦 = −𝑒 𝑥 −0.14 −0.37 −1 −2.72 −7.39
No 𝑥-intercept.
The 𝑦-intercept is (0, -1).
The asymptote is the line 𝑦 = 0 (𝑥-axis).
The domain is the set of all real numbers.
The range is the set of negative real numbers.
Figure 3.7
162
Exercise 3.21
Construct table of values for some integer values of 𝑥, sketch the graphs, find the
x-intercept and y-intercept, find the asymptote and give the domain and the range of
the following functions.
a) 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 b) 𝑦 = −𝑒 −𝑥 c) 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑒 𝑥
3.3 The Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs
3.3.1 The Logarithmic Functions

Every exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 with 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 is a one-to-one function
and hence it has an inverse function. The inverse function 𝑓 −1 is called the logarithmic
function with base 𝑎 and is denoted by 𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 where 𝑔 = 𝑓 −1 . This leads us
to the following definition of the logarithmic function.
Let 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1. The logarithmic function with base a denoted by 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 is
defined by
y = log 𝑎 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 .
When evaluating logarithms, remember that a logarithm is an exponent. That is,

log 𝑎 𝑥 is the exponent to which 𝑎 must be raised to obtain 𝑥.
Example 1
Use the definition of logarithmic function to evaluate each logarithm function at the
indicated value of 𝑥.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 4 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 4 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 1
1
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 27 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = log10 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 10
Solution:
a) 𝑓(4) = log 2 4 = 2 because 22 = 4.
b) 𝑓(1) = log 4 1 = 0 because 40 = 1.
163
c) 𝑓(27) = log 3 27 = 3 because 33 = 27.

1 1 1
d) 𝑓 ቀ10ቁ = log10 ቀ10ቁ = −1 because 10−1 = 10.
Example 2
Write each of the following functions in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘log 2 𝑥 or

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘log 3 𝑥 for a suitable constant 𝑘.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 4 𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 9 𝑥
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ 𝑥 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = log √3 𝑥

4
Solution:
lo g 𝑥 lo g 𝑥 lo g 𝑥 lo g 2 𝑥 1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 4 𝑥 = lo g 2 4 = lo g 222 = 2 lo g2 2
= 2
= 2 log 2 𝑥
2 2 2
lo g 3 𝑥 lo g 𝑥 lo g 𝑥 lo g 3 𝑥 1
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 9 𝑥 = lo g 3 9
= lo g 332 = 2 lo g3 = = 2 log 3 𝑥
3 33 2
lo g 2 𝑥 lo g 𝑥 1
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ 𝑥 = lo g −2
= −2 lo2g = − 2 log 2 𝑥
4 22 22
lo g 𝑥 lo g 3 𝑥
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = log √3 𝑥 = lo g 3 =1 = 2 log 3 𝑥
3 √3 lo g 3 3
2
Example 3
Write each of the following functions in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐log 2 𝑘𝑥 or

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 log 5 𝑘𝑥 for suitable constants 𝑐 and 𝑘.
−𝑥 𝑥
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ ቀ 2 ቁ b. 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ 1 ቁ ቀ5 ቁ
8 25
Solution:
−𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥
−𝑥 lo g 2 ቀ ቁ lo g 2 ቀ ቁ lo g 2 ቀ ቁ lo g 2 ቀ− ቁ
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ ቀ 2 ቁ = 2
1 = 2
(2)−3
= 2
= 2
8 lo g 2 ቀ ቁ lo g 2 − 3lo g 2 2 −3
8
1 1
= − 3 log 2 ቀ− 2 𝑥ቁ
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 lo g 5 ቀ ቁ lo g 5 ቀ ቁ lo g 5 ቀ ቁ lo g 5 ቀ ቁ
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ 1 ቁ ቀ5 ቁ = 5
1 = 5
(5)−2
= 5
= 5
25 lo g 5 ቀ ቁ lo g 5 − 2lo g 5 5 −2
25
1 1
= − 2 log 5 ቀ5 𝑥ቁ
164
Exercise 3.22
1. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ 𝑥. Find the values of

4
1
a. 𝑓(2) b. 𝑓(−2) c. 𝑓 ቀ16ቁ d. 𝑓(√2)
2. Write each of the following functions in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘log 2 𝑥 or

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘log 3 𝑥 for a suitable constant 𝑘.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = log16 𝑥 b. 𝑓(𝑥) = log √27 𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ1 ቁ 𝑥 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = log 3√2 𝑥
9
3. Write each of the following functions in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐log 2 𝑘𝑥 or

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 log 3 𝑘𝑥 for suitable constants 𝑐 and 𝑘.
−𝑥 𝑥
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ 1 ቁ ቀ 2 ቁ b. 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ 1 ቁ ቀ3 ቁ
32 27
3.3.2 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

If a one-to-one function 𝑓 has domain A and range B, then its inverse function 𝑓 −1 has
domain B and range A. Since the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 with
𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 has domain ℝ and range (0, ∞), we see that its inverse function
𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 has domain (0, ∞) and range ℝ. Note that 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
Example 1
Draw the graph of the logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥.
Solution:
First, we calculate values of 𝑓(𝑥) for some values of 𝑥 which are powers of 2 so that
we can find their logarithms and prepare a table of these values.
𝑓(8) = log 2 8 = 3, 𝑓(4) = log 2 4 = 2, 𝑓(2) = log 2 2 = 1, 𝑓(1) = log 2 1 = 0,
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑓 ቀ ቁ = log 2 = −1, 𝑓 ቀ ቁ = log 2 = −2, 𝑓 ቀ ቁ = log 2 = −3
2 2 4 4 8 8
165
𝑥 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Then we plot the points on the 𝑥𝑦-plane and join them by a smooth curve as shown
by figure 3.8
Figure 3.8: Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥.
Exercise 3.23
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 𝑥
a) Complete the table of values below
𝑥 1 1 1 1 3 9 27
27 9 3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

by a smooth curve.
166
Basic characteristics of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1.

1. Domain: ℝ+ =The set of all positive real numbers.
2. Range: ℝ = The set of all real numbers.
3. 𝑥-intercept: (1, 0)
4. It has no y intercept. It does not intersect the 𝑦-axis.
5. It is increasing function. The value of 𝑓 increases whenever the value of 𝑥
increases.
6. The graph goes upward as x gets larger and positive.
7. The graph gets closer to the negative 𝑦-axis when 𝑥 gets closer to 0 from the right.
Figure 3.9: Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1
Example 2
Draw the graph of the logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 1 𝑥.

2
Solution:
1
First, we calculate values of 𝑓(𝑥) for some values of 𝑥 which are powers of 2 so that
we can find their logarithms and prepare a table of these values.
167
𝑓(8) = log 1 8 = −3, 𝑓(4) = log 1 4 = −2, 𝑓(2) = log 1 2 = −1,

2 2 2
𝑓(1) = log 1 1 = 0
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑓 ቀ2ቁ = log 1 2 = 1, 𝑓 ቀ4ቁ = log 1 4 = 2, 𝑓 ቀ8ቁ = log 1 8 = 3
2 2 2
𝑥 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
𝑓(𝑥) = log 1 𝑥 3 2 1 0 −1 −2 −3
2
Then we plot the points on the 𝑥𝑦-plane and join them by a smooth curve as shown
in figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10: Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 1 𝑥

2
Exercise 3.24
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ 𝑥
3
𝑥 1 1 1 1 3 9 27
27 9 3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
168
c) Sketch the graph of 𝑓, first by plotting the points (𝑥, 𝑦) and then joining
them by a smooth curve.
Basic characteristics of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 , 0 < 𝑎 < 1.
Figure 3.11 Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 ,0 < 𝑎 < 1
1. Domain: ℝ+ =The set of all positive real numbers.

2. Range: ℝ = The set of all real numbers.
3. 𝑥-intercept: (1, 0)
4. It has no y intercept. It does not intersect the 𝑦-axis.
5. It is decreasing function. The value of 𝑓 decreases whenever the value of 𝑥
increases.
6. The graph goes downward as x gets larger and positive.
7. The graph gets closer to the positive 𝑦-axis when 𝑥 gets closer to 0 from the right.
Note
For the logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥
➢ The graph of – 𝑓(𝑥) is the reflection of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) along the x-axis.
➢ The graph of 𝑓(−𝑥) is the reflection of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) along the y-axis.
169
Example 1
Sketch the graph of the following logarithmic functions by reflecting the graph of
𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 either along the 𝑥-axis or along the 𝑦-axis.
a) 𝑔(𝑥) = − log 2 𝑥.
b) ℎ(𝑥) = log 2 (−𝑥).
Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥

a) Since 𝑔(𝑥) = − log 2 𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥), the
graph of 𝑔(𝑥) is a reflection of the graph
of 𝑓(𝑥) along the 𝑥-axis as shown in the
figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12: Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = −log 2 𝑥
b) Since ℎ(𝑥) = log 2 (−𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥), the

graph of ℎ(𝑥) is a reflection of the graph
of 𝑓(𝑥) along the 𝑦-axis as shown in the
figure 3.13.
Figure 3.13: Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 and ℎ(𝑥) = log 2 (−𝑥)
170
Exercise 3.25
Sketch the graph of the following logarithmic functions by reflecting the graph of
𝑓(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ 𝑥 either along the 𝑥-axis or along the 𝑦-axis.
2
a) 𝑔(𝑥) = −log ቀ1ቁ 𝑥

2
b) ℎ(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ (−𝑥)

2
3.3.3 Natural Logarithms

Definition 3.10
The logarithm of a number to the base e is called natural logarithm and it is
written as
log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥.
Example 1
Find the value of each of the following natural logarithms.
𝐚) ln 1 𝐛) ln 𝑒 c) ln 𝑒 3
3 1
d) ln √𝑒 e) ln 𝑒
Solution:
a) ln 1 = log 𝑒 1 = 0
b) ln 𝑒 = log 𝑒 𝑒 = 1
c) ln 𝑒 3 = 3 ln 𝑒 = 3
1
3 1 1
d) ln √e = ln 𝑒 3 = 3 ln 𝑒 = 3
1
e) ln e = ln 𝑒 −1 = − ln 𝑒 = −1
The graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 and the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 are shown in figure 3.14.
171
Figure 3.14: Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = ln 𝑥
Exercise 3.26
Find the values of:
5 1 3
a) ln √𝑒 b) ln ቀ𝑒 3 ቁ c) 𝑒 ln 5 d) ln √𝑒 2
𝑒𝑥
e) ln (𝑒 × 𝑒 2 ) f) ln (𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑦 ) g) ln ቀ𝑒 𝑦 ቁ
3.4 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
3.4.1 Solving Exponential Equations

An equation in which the variable occurs in the exponent is called an exponential
equation. For instance,
2𝑥 = 16 and 35𝑥 = 81 are exponential equations.
To solve exponential equations, we follow the following 3 step procedure.
1. Isolate the exponential expression on one side of the equation.
2. Take the logarithm of both sides, then use the laws of logarithms, (power law
of logarithms) to “bring down the exponent.”
3. Solve for the variable.
172
Moreover, we use the following property:
Base-exponent property
For any real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑦.
Example 1
Solve 2(2x−1) = 8.
Solution:
Since 8 = 23 , we have
2(2x−1) = 8 = 23
2(2x−1) = 23
2𝑥 − 1 = 3
𝑥=2
So, the solution is 𝑥 = 2.
Geometrically, the solution 𝑥 = 2, is the first
coordinate of the point of intersection of the
graphs 𝑦 = 2(2x−1) and 𝑦 = 8
as shown in the figure (Figure 3.15).
Figure 3.15
Example 2
2 −3𝑥
Solve 2𝑥 = 16.
Solution:
2 −3𝑥
Since 16 = 24 , we have 2𝑥 = 24
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 4
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) = 0
So, the solutions are 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 4.
173
Exercise 3.27
Solve for x.
a) 5𝑥 = 125 b) 33−𝑥 = 81 c) 42𝑥−5 = 23𝑥+6
1 1 𝑥 2 −2
d) 8
= ቀ4ቁ e) 2−𝑥 = 512 f) 3𝑥 =9
2
27 3 𝑥 32 2𝑥
𝑥 2 +𝑥 3(𝑥+2)
g) 7 = 49 h) 3 =9 𝑥+2
i) 3ቀ8 ቁ = 2 ቀ243ቁ
Example 3
Using logarithm find 𝑥 if 2𝑥 = 20.

Solution:
Taking the common logarithm on both sides, we obtain:
log 2𝑥 = log 20
𝑥 log 2 = log(2 × 10) power law of logarithm
𝑥 log 2 = log 2 + log 10 product law of logarithm
lo g 2+1
𝑥= lo g 2
since log 10 = 1 and dividing each side by log 2
But, from the common logarithm table, log 2 ≈ 0.3010.

0.3010+1
Hence, 𝑥≈ 0.3010
1.3010
≈ 0.3010
≈ 4.32226
So, the solution is about 4.32226.
Geometrically, the solution x = 4.32226 is the
first coordinate of the point of intersection of
the graphs 𝑦 = 2𝑥 and 𝑦 = 20 as shown in
the figure 3.16.
Figure 3.16
174
Exercise 3.28
Solve for 𝑥 by taking the common logarithm of each side.

a) 3𝑥 = 15 b) 10𝑥 = 13.4 c) 102𝑥+1 = 92
d) (6)3𝑥 = 5 e) 42𝑥 = 61 f) (1.05)𝑥 = 2
g) 105𝑥−2 = 348 h) 3𝑥 = 0.283 i) 2𝑥 = 0.283
3.4.2 Solving Logarithmic Equations

A logarithmic equation is an equation that involves the logarithm of an
expression containing a variable. For instance, log 2 (𝑥 + 3) = 4 is logarithmic
equation.
Since the logarithm of non-positive numbers does not exist, before trying to find the
solution of log 2 (𝑥 + 3) = 4, you have to restrict 𝑥 such that 𝑥 + 3 > 0. That is,
𝑥 > −3. The set of all numbers greater than −3 is called the universal set or simply
the universe of the equation log 2 (𝑥 + 3) = 4.
We use the following property to solve logarithmic equations.
For any positive real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1
log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑦.
We use the following procedures to solve logarithmic equations.
1. State the universe.
2. Collect the logarithmic term on one side of the equation.
3. Write the equation in exponential form.
4. Solve for the variable.
Example 1
Solve the logarithmic equation log 2 (𝑥 + 3) = 4.

Solution:
175
If 𝑥 + 3 > 0 then the universe is 𝑥 > −3.

log 2 (𝑥 + 3) = 4
𝑥 + 3 = 24 exponential form
𝑥 + 3 = 16
𝑥 = 13 > −3
So, the solution is 𝑥 = 13.
Geometrically, the solution 𝑥 = 13, is the first coordinate of the point of intersection
of the graphs 𝑦 = log 2 (𝑥 + 3) and 𝑦 = 4 as shown in the figure 3.17.
Figure 3.17: Graph of 𝑦 = log 2 (𝑥 + 3)

Example 2
Solve log 3 (5𝑥 − 2) = 2 − log 3 4.

Solution:
2
If 5𝑥 − 2 > 0 then 𝑥 > 5.
log 3 (5𝑥 − 2) = 2 − log 3 4
log 3 (5𝑥 − 2) + log 3 4 = 2
log 3 4(5𝑥 − 2) = 2 Product law
log 3 (20𝑥 − 8) = 2
20𝑥 − 8 = 32 = 9
17 2
𝑥 = 20 > 5
176
17
𝑥 = 20 is the solution.
Exercise 3.29
State the universe and solve for 𝑥.
a) log 2 (3𝑥 − 1) = 5 b) log √2 𝑥 = 6
c) log 2 (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) = 4 d) log 2 (𝑥 − 1) + log 2 3 = 3
e) log(𝑥 2 − 121) − log(𝑥 + 11) = 1 f) log 𝑥 (𝑥 + 6) = 2

1
g) log 𝑥 − log 3 = log 4 − log(𝑥 + 4) h) log 2 ቀ1 + ቁ = 3
𝑥
i) log 2 2 + log 2 (𝑥 + 2) − log 2 (3𝑥 − 5) = 3
Example 1
Using logarithm find 𝑥 if 3𝑥+4 = 2−𝑥 .

Solution:
Taking the common logarithm on both sides, we obtain:
log 3𝑥+4 = log 2−𝑥
(𝑥 + 4) log 3 = −𝑥 log 2
𝑥 log 3 + 4 log 3 = −𝑥 log 2
𝑥 log 3 + 𝑥 log 2 = −4 log 3
𝑥(log 3 + log 2) = −4 log 3
−4 lo g 3
𝑥 = lo g 3+lo g 2
But, from the common logarithm table, we have

log 2 ≅ 0.3010 ; log 3 ≅ 0.4771.
−4(0.4771)
Hence, 𝑥≅
0.4771+0.3010
−1.9084
≅ 0.7781
≅ −2.45264.
177
So, the solution is about −2.45264.

Geometrically, the solution 𝑥 = −2.45264 is the first coordinate of the point of
intersection of the graphs 𝑦 = 3𝑥+4 and 𝑦 = 2−𝑥 as shown in the figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18
Exercise 3.30
Using logarithm find 𝑥 if,
a) 3𝑥−1 = 2𝑥 . b) 9𝑥 = 8𝑥−1 .
3.5 Relation Between Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions with the Same Base
Consider the tables of values that we have constructed in the previous section for the
exponential function 𝑦 = 2𝑥 and logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 having the same
base 2.
𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑦 = 2𝑥 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
178
𝑥 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
We see that the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 are

interchanged in the functions 𝑦 = 2𝑥 and
𝑦 = log 2 𝑥. That is, the domain of 𝑦 = 2𝑥
is the range of 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥, the range of
𝑦 = 2𝑥 is the domain of 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 and
vice-versa.
Now let us sketch the graphs of both
functions on the same co-ordinate system
as shown in the figure 3.19.
Figure 3.19: Graph of 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥
Observe that the graph of 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 is the

reflection of the graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 along the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥 as shown in figure 3.19.
Generally, the functions 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 and
𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1 are inverses of each
other. The relation between the functions
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1 is shown
graphically in figure 3.20.
Figure 3.20: Graph of 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 for 𝑎 > 1
From the graphs above, observe that:
1. The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 is the set of all real numbers, that is the range of
179
𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥.
2. The range of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 is the set of all positive real numbers, that is the domain of
𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥.
a. Domain of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 = Range of 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥.
b. Range of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 = Domain of 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥.
3. The 𝑥-axis is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 ; the 𝑦-axis is a
vertical asymptote of the graph of 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥.
4. The point (0,1) is the 𝑦-intercept of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 ; the point (1,0) is the 𝑥-
intercept of the graph of 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥.
Figure 3.21 shows graphs of the

family of logarithmic functions with
bases 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10. These graphs
can be drawn by reflecting the graphs
of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 , 𝑦 = 3𝑥 , 𝑦 = 4𝑥 , 𝑦 = 5𝑥
and 𝑦 = 10𝑥 along the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Figure 3.21
Example 1
1 𝑥
For the exponential function 𝑦 = ቀ2ቁ and the logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 1 𝑥,
2
a. Complete the table of values below.
𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
2
180
1 1 1 1 2 4 8
𝑥 8 4 2
𝑔(𝑥) = log 1 𝑥
2
b. Sketch their graphs on the same 𝑥𝑦-plane.

c. Find the domain and the range of the functions.
d. State the relation that exists between the domain and the range of the functions.
Solution:
a.
𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 𝑥 8 4 2 1 1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
2 2 4 8
1 1 1 1 2 4 8
𝑥 8 4 2
𝑔(𝑥) = log 1 𝑥 3 2 1 0 −1 −2 −3
2
1 𝑥
Figure 3.22: Graph of 𝑦 = ቀ2ቁ and 𝑦 = log 1 𝑥
2
181
c. The domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is the set of all real numbers and its range is the set of positive
real numbers. The domain of 𝑔(𝑥) is the set of positive real numbers and its range
is the set of all real numbers.
d. Domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = Range of 𝑔(𝑥) and Range of 𝑓(𝑥) = Domain of 𝑔(𝑥).
Exercise 3.31
1 𝑥
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ3ቁ and 𝑔(𝑥) = log 1 𝑥.
3
1. Sketch the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) on the same 𝑥𝑦-plane.

2. Find the domain and the range of 𝑓(𝑥).
3. Find the domain and the range of 𝑔(𝑥).
4. Compare the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) with the range of 𝑔(𝑥).
5. Compare the range of 𝑓(𝑥) with the domain of 𝑔(𝑥).
3.6 Applications
3.6.1 Compound Interest
Exponential functions occur in evaluating compound interest. Suppose an amount of
money 𝑃, called the principal, is invested at an annual interest rate r, compounded once
a year, then after a year the interest is 𝑃𝑟. If the interest is added to the principal at the
end of the year, the new amount 𝐴(1) of money is,
𝐴(1) = 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟)
If the interest is reinvested, then the new principal is 𝐴(1) = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟), and after
another year the interest is 𝑟𝐴(1), then the amount after the end of the second year,
𝐴(2) is
𝐴(2) = 𝐴(1) + 𝑟𝐴(1) = 𝐴(1)(1 + 𝑟) = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟)(1 + 𝑟) = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟)2
Similarly, at the end of the third year, the amount 𝐴(3) is 𝐴(3) = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟)3 .
Generally, after the end of 𝑡 years, the amount 𝐴(𝑡) is 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟)𝑡 .
Observe that this is an exponential function with base 1 + 𝑟.
182
Let 𝑛 be the number of compounding per year and 𝑡 be the number of years. Then the
product 𝑛𝑡 represents the total number of times the interest will be compounded and
𝑟
the interest rate per compounding period is 𝑛
. This leads to the following formula
indicated as in theorem 3.5 for the amount after 𝑡 years.
Theorem 3.5 Compound interest

Compound interest is calculated by the formula
𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃 ቀ1 + ቁ
𝑛
where 𝐴(𝑡)= amount after 𝑡 years,
𝑃 = principal,
𝑟 = interest rate per year,
𝑛 = number of times interest is compounded per year and
𝑡 = number of years.
Example 1
A total of Birr 20000 is invested at an interest rate of 7% per year. Find the amounts
in the account after 5 years if the interest is compounded
a) annually,
b) semi-annually,
c) quarterly,
d) monthly,
e) daily.
Solution:
a) Here we have 𝑃 = 100, 𝑟 = 7% = 0.07, 𝑛 = 1 and 𝑡 = 5.
Using the formula for compound interest with 𝑛 compounding per year, we
𝑟 𝑛𝑡
have 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃 ቀ1 + ቁ . . . Formula for compound interest
𝑛
0.07 1(5)
= 20000 ቀ1 + ቁ . . . Substitute for 𝑃, 𝑟, 𝑛 and 𝑡
1
183
= 20000(1.07)5 . . . Simplifying
≅ 28051.03. . . use a calculator
Therefore, the amount in the account after 5 years will be about Birr 28051.03.
b) For semi-annually compounding, 𝑛 = 2. Hence, after 5 years at 7% rate, the
amount in the account is
0.07 2(5)
𝐴(5) = 20000 ቀ1 + 2
ቁ = 20000(1.035)10 ≅ 28211.98.
c) For quarterly compounding, 𝑛 = 4. Thus, after 5 years at 7% rate, the amount
in the account is
0.07 4(5)
𝐴(5) = 20000 ቀ1 +
4
ቁ = 20000(1.0175)20 ≅ 28295.56.
d) For monthly compounding, 𝑛 = 12. So, after 5 years at 7% rate, the amount
in the account is
0.07 12(5)
𝐴(5) = 20000 ቀ1 + 12
ቁ = 20000(1.00583)60 ≅ 28352.51.
e) For daily compounding, 𝑛 = 365. Therefore, after 5 years at 7% rate, the
amount in the account is
0.07 365(5)
𝐴(5) = 20000 ቀ1 + 365 ቁ = 20000(1.00019)1825 ≅ 28380.40.
Note
The interest paid increases as the number of compounding period 𝑛 increases.
Exercise 3.32
Suppose that Birr 10,000 is invested at 7% interest compounded annually.

a. Find the function (formula) for the amount to which the investement grows
184
after t years.
b. Find the amount of money in the account at 𝑡 = 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20 years.
c. Find the time 𝑡 at which the investement is double.
Let us see what happens as n gets larger and larger without bound.
𝑛
If we let 𝑚 = 𝑟 , then
𝑟𝑡
𝑟 𝑛𝑡 1 𝑚𝑟𝑡 1 𝑚
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃 ቀ1 + ቁ = 𝑃 (1 + ) = 𝑝 [[(1 + ) ]]
𝑛 𝑚 𝑚
1 𝑚
But, as 𝑚 becomes larger and larger, the quantity ቀ1 + 𝑚ቁ approaches the
irrational number 𝑒.
Therefore, the amount A approaches
𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡
This expression gives the amount when the interest is continuously compounded.
Continuously compound interest is calculated by the formula

𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡
where 𝐴(𝑡) = amount after 𝑡 years, 𝑃 = principal, 𝑟 = interest rate per year and
𝑡 = number of years.
Example 2
A total of Birr 100 is invested at an interest rate of 7% per year. Find the amount in
the account after 5 years if the interest is compounded continuously.
Solution:
For countinuous compounding, the amount in the account after 5 years at 7% rate is
𝐴(5) = 100(𝑒 0.07(5) ) = 100(𝑒 0.35 ) = 100(1.41906) ≅ 141.91.
The amount in the account after 5 years is Birr 141.91.
185
Figure 3.23
Exercise 3.33
1) If Birr 40,000 is invested in an account for which interest is compounded
continuously, find the amount of the investement at the end of 10 years for the
following interest rates.
a. 6% b. 7%
c. 6.5% d. 7.5%
2) Suppose you are offered a job that lasts one month, and you are to be very well
paid. Which of the following methods of payment is more profitable for you?
a) Birr one million at the end of the month.
b) Two cents on the first day of the month, four cents on the second day, eight
cents on the third day, and, in general, 2𝑛 cents on the 𝑛𝑡ℎ day.
3.6.2 Population Growth
The exponential function

𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑃0 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 , 𝑘 > 0 is a mathematical model of many kinds of population growth.
In this function, 𝑃0 is the population at initial time 𝑡0 , 𝑃(𝑡) is the population after
time 𝑡, and 𝑘 is called the exponential growth rate. The graph of such an equation
is shown in the figure 3.24.
186
Figure 3.24
Example 3
In 2013 E.C, the population of a country was 110 million, and the exponential growth
rate was 2.3 % per year.
a) Find the exponential growth function.
b) Estimate the population in 2018 E.C.
c) How many years will it take for the population to be doubled?
Solution:
a) Here 𝑃0 = 110 million, the population in the year 2013 (𝑡 = 0) and the growth
rate 𝑘 = 2.3% = 0.023. So, the exponential growth function is:
𝑃(𝑡) = (110,000,000)𝑒 0.023𝑡 .
b) In the year 2018, 𝑡 = 5. To find the population in 2018, we substitute 5 for 𝑡,
i.e.,
𝑃(5) = (110,000,000)𝑒 0.023(5) = (110,000,000)𝑒 0.115 ≅ 123,406,078.
Therefore, the population will be 123,406,078 in 2018.
c) We find 𝑡 for which 𝑃(𝑡) = 2𝑃0 = 2(110,000,000) = 220,000,000.
To find the time, we solve the equation:
𝑃(𝑡) = (110,000,000)𝑒 0.023𝑡
220,000,000 = (110,000,000)𝑒 0.023𝑡
187
2 = 𝑒 0.023𝑡 . . . dividing each side by 100,000,000

ln 2 = ln 𝑒 0.023𝑡 . . . taking the natural logarithm of both sides
⏟ 𝑒 . . . power law of logarithm
ln 2 = 0.023𝑡 ln
=1
ln 2 = 0.023𝑡
ln 2
𝑡 = 0.023 . . . dividing each side by 0.023
0.69315
𝑡≅ 0.023
because ln 2 ≅ 0.69315
𝑡 ≅ 30.14
Hence, it takes approximately 30 years for the population of the country to be
doubled.
Figure 3.25
From the graphs of 𝑦 = 110,000,000 𝑒 0.023 𝑡 and 𝑦 = 220,000,000 above, we see

that the first coordinate of the point of intersection of the graphs is about 30.14.
Exercise 3.34
A culture contains 10,000 bacteria initially. After an hour, the bacteria count is 25,000.
a. Find the doubling period.
188
b. Find the number of bacteria after 5 hours
3.6.3 The pH Scale

Chemists measured the acidity of a solution by giving its hydrogen ion concentration
until Soren Peter Lauritz Sorensen, in 1909, proposed a more convenient measure. He
defined
𝑝𝐻 = − log[𝐻 +]
where [𝐻 +] is the concentration of hydrogen ions measured in moles per liter (M).
Solutions with a 𝑝𝐻 = 7 are defined neutral, those with 𝑝𝐻 < 7 are acidic, and those
with 𝑝𝐻 > 7 are basic.
Example 4
The hydrogen ion concentration of a sample of human blood was measured to be

[H +] = 4.53 × 10−8 M. Find the 𝑝𝐻 and determine whether the blood is acidic or
basic.
Solution:
We have 𝑝𝐻 = − log[H +] = − log[4.53 × 10−8 ]
= −[log(4.53) + log 10−8 ] . . . product law of logarithm
= −[0.6561 − 8] (from log table log(4.53) = 0.6561)
= 7.344
Since 𝑝𝐻 = 7.344 > 7, the blood is basic.
Example 5
The most acidic rainfall ever measured occurred in Scotland in 1974 and its pH was
2.4. Find the hydrogen ion concentration.
Solution:
𝑝𝐻 = − log[𝐻 +]
2.4 = − log[𝐻 +] log[𝐻 +] = −2.4 … multiply both sides by -1.
log[𝐻 +] = (3 − 2.4) − 3 (3 − 3 = 0 ading 0 to a number make no change)
189
log[𝐻 +] = 0.6 + (−3)

antilog(log[𝐻 +]) = antilog(0.6 + (−3))
[𝐻 +] = 3.981 × 10−3
So, the hydrogen ion concentration of the rainfall was about 3.98 × 10−3 𝑀.
Exercise 3.35
1. The hydrogen ion concentration of a sample of each substance is given. Calculate

the pH of the substance and determine whether it is acidic or basic.
a. Lemon juice: [𝐻 +] = 5 × 10−3 𝑀
b. Tomato juice: [𝐻 +] = 3.2 × 10−4 𝑀
c. Seawater: [𝐻 +] = 5 × 10−9 𝑀
2. The pH reading of a sample of each substance is given. Calculate the hydrogen
ion concentration of the substance.
a) Vinegar : 𝑝𝐻 = 3
b) Milk: 𝑝𝐻 = 6.5
190
Summary
1. For a natural number n and a real number 𝑎, the power 𝑎𝑛 , read “the n th power
of a” or “𝑎 raised to 𝑛”, is defined as follows:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎
⏟×𝑎 ×𝑎 × ⋯ ×𝑎
𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
In the symbol 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎 is called the base and 𝑛 is called the exponent.

2. Laws of exponenets: For a real number 𝑎 and natural numbers 𝑚 and 𝑛,
a) 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 .
𝑎𝑚
b) 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 , 𝑎 ≠ 0.
c) (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 .
d) (𝑎 × 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑏 𝑛 .
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛
e) ቀ𝑏ቁ = 𝑏𝑛, 𝑏 ≠ 0.
3. 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎 ≠ 0.
4. Laws/properties of logarithms: For any positive numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 and
𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1,
a) log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦.
b) log 𝑎 ቀ𝑦ቁ = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦.

𝑥
c) log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟log 𝑎 𝑥.
lo g 𝑏 𝑥
d) log 𝑎 𝑥 = lo g 𝑏 𝑎
.
e) log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1.
f) log 𝑎 1 = 0.
g) 𝑎lo g 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥.
5. The exponential function 𝑓 with base 𝑎 is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , where
𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, and 𝑥 is any real number.
191
6. The natural exponential function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , where 𝑒 is the constant

2.718281828…. Its graph has the same basic characteristics as the graph of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 .
7. The graphs of the exponential functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎−𝑥 have one
𝑦-intercept (0,1), one horizontal asymptote (the 𝑥-axis), and are continuos.
8. For 𝑥 > 0, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 . The function
𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 is called the logarithmic function with base 𝑎.
9. The graph of the logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 where 𝑎 > 1, is the
graph of the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 .
10. For 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 . The function given by
𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 is called the natural logarithmic function. Its graph has
the same basic characterstics as the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥. They have the
same 𝑥-intercept (1,0), the same verticall asymptote (the 𝑦-axis), and are
continuos.
192
Review Exercise
1. 53 = 125, so log = .
2. Log 5 25 = 2, so = .
1
3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = log 4 𝑥. Then find 𝑓(4), 𝑓(1), 𝑓 ቀ4ቁ , 𝑓(16) and 𝑓(2).
4. Find the values of the given logarithms.

a) log 3 3 b) log 3 1 c) log 3 34
1
d) log ቀ 1 ቁ 3 e) log √2 16 f) log 4 ቀ ቁ
27 4
g) log ቀ1ቁ 5 h) log ቀ 1 ቁ 64 i) log ቀ1ቁ 9

5 16 3
j) log 5 0.2 k) log 0.001 0.1 l) log10 √10

125 1
m) log 5 20 + log 5 ቀ 4
ቁ − log 5 ቀ25ቁ
For question numbers 5 and 6, fill in the table by finding the appropriate
logarithmic or exponential form of the equation.
5.
Logarithmic Exponential
form form
log 7 7 = 1
log 8 64 = 2
2
83 = 4
83 = 512
1
log 8 ( ) = −1
8
1
8−2 =
64
193
6. Logarithmic Exponential
form form
3
4 = 64
1
log 4 2 =
2
3
42 = 8
1
log 4 ( ) = −2
16
1 1
log 4 ( ) = −
2 2
−5 1
42 =
32
7. Express the logarithmic statement in to exponential statement.

a) log 5 125 = 3 b) log 5 1 = 0
c) log10 0.1 = −1 d) log 8 512 = 3
1 1
e) log 8 2 = 3 f) log 9 3 = 2
1
g) log 3 81 = 4 h) log 2 = −3
8
8. Express the exponential statement in to logarithmic statement.

a) 33 = 27 b) 10−3 = 0.001
1
c) 103 = 1000 d) 812 = 9
1 1
e) 8−1 = 8 f) 2−3 = 8
3
g) 4−2 = 0.125 h) 10−3 = 0.001
9. Use the definition of logarithmic function to find 𝑥.
a) log √2 𝑥 = 6 b) log 2 32 = 𝑥
c) log 5 𝑥 = 4 d) log10 0.1 = 𝑥
e) log ቀ1ቁ 2 = 𝑥 f) log 4 𝑥 = 2
2
194
1 1
g) log 𝑥 6 = 2 h) log 𝑥 3 = 3
10.Given log10 2 = 0.3010 and log10 3 = 0.4771. Then find the following
logarithms.
a) log 2 √3 b) log 2 0.3
c) log 3 0.6 d) log 2 108
e) log 3 5 f) log 4 75
11.Match the function with its graph.
1 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = ቀ ቁ
4
c) 𝑔(𝑥) = log 4 𝑥 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 1 𝑥

4
I)
Figure 3.26
195
II)
Figure 3.27
III)
Figure 3.28
196
IV)
Figure 3.29
12.In each of the following, tell which is greater.
1 √3 1 3
a) √5 or √2 b) ቀ3ቁ
8 4
or ቀ3ቁ
−3.5
c) (√0.2) or 1 d) log ቀ1ቁ 20 or log ቀ1ቁ 50
2 2
−6
e) log(5 + √7) or log 5 + log √7 f) (2√2)
3 −11
or 2
13.Solve each of the following equations.
1 𝑥−1 5
a) ቀ4ቁ = 42−3𝑥 b) 2𝑥 × 5𝑥 = 0.1 × (10(𝑥−1) )
1 3𝑥 1 𝑥−1
c) ቀ4ቁ − ቀ8ቁ = 128 d) 22𝑥+2 = 9(2𝑥 ) − 2
e) 9𝑥+1 + 3𝑥+2 − 18 = 0 f) 28 − 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 √2 = 4 × 32𝑥+5 − 34𝑥+8
815−2𝑥 ×243𝑥−2 1
g) =3 h) 91+lo g 3 𝑥 − 31+lo g 3 𝑥 − 210 = 0
95𝑥−1
14.State the universe and solve each of the following equations.
a) log 2 (𝑥 + 2) + log 2 (𝑥 − 1) = 2 b) log 3 (𝑥 2 − 8𝑥) = 2

lo g 𝑥 2+lo g 𝑥
c) lo g(5𝑥−3)
=1 d) 3−lo g 𝑥
=5
197
lo g(𝑥 2 +13)
e) log(3𝑥 2 + 1) − log(3 + 𝑥) = log(3𝑥 − 2) f) lo g(𝑥+5)
=2
g) log(3𝑥 − 1) − log(3𝑥 + 1) = log 16 h) log 3 [1 + log 3 (2𝑥 − 7)] = 1
i) 3√log 𝑥 + 2 log √𝑥 −1 = 2 j) log 4 (𝑥 + 12) ∙ log 𝑥 2 = 1

15.For the function given below, find the 𝑥-intercept, the 𝑦-intercept, the asymptot,
the domain, the range and sketch its graph.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = −2 + 2𝑥 b) ℎ(𝑥) = −2 + 2−𝑥
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 (𝑥 + 2) d) 𝑔(𝑥) = log ቀ1ቁ (𝑥 − 1)
2
16.The initial size of a culture of bacteria is 1,000. After an hour, the bacteria count
is 8,000.
a) Find a function that models the population after 𝑡 hours.
b) Find the population after 1.5 hours.
c) When will the population reach 15,000?
d) Sketch the graph of the population function.
17.Suppose that Birr 10,000 is invested in a saving account paying 7% interest per
year.
a) Write the formula for the amount in the account after 𝑡 years if interest is
compounded monthly.
b) Find the amount in the account after 5 years if interest is compounded daily.
c) How long will it take for the amount in the account to grow to 25,000 if
interest is compounded semiannually?
198
Unit 4: Trigonometric Function
UNIT
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
4
Unit Outcomes
Define the basic trigonometric functions.

Sketch graphs of basic trigonometric functions.
Define reciprocals of basic trigonometric functions.
Identify trigonometric identities.
Solve some examples of real-life problems involving trigonometric
equations.
Conceptualize theorems on special triangles.
Unit Contents
4.1 Radian Measure of Angle
4.2 Basic Trigonometric Function
4.3 Trigonometric Identities and Equations
4.4 Applications
Summary
Review Exercise
199
✓ Angle of elevation ✓ Period

✓ Co-terminal angle ✓ Radian
✓ Complementary ✓ Reference
angles angle
✓ Supplementary angles ✓ Negative angle ✓ Trigonometry

✓ Trigonometric function ✓ Pythagorean identity ✓ Unit circle
✓ Angle of depression ✓ Periodic function ✓ Degree
✓ Angle in standard position ✓ Quadrantal angle
Introduction
The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek word ‘trigon’ and ‘metron’ and it
means ‘measuring the sides of a triangle’. The subject was originally developed to
solve geometric problems involving triangles. It was studied by sea captains for
navigation, surveyors for mapping out the new lands and engineers for other purposes.
Currently, trigonometry is used in many areas such as seismology, designing electric
circuits, describing the state of an atom, predicting the heights of tides in the ocean,
analyzing a musical tone and in many other areas.
In grade 9, you studied the trigonometric ratios of acute angles as the ratio of the sides
of a right-angled triangle. In this unit, we will study the trigonometric identities and
application of trigonometric ratios in solving the problems and generalize the concept
of trigonometric ratios to trigonometric functions and study their properties.
4.1 Radian Measure of Angle: Conversion between

radian and degree measures
Activity 4.1
1. What is an angle?
2. Discuss the initial and terminal side of an angle.
3. What is a positive angle? What is a negative angle?
200
Angle is a measure of rotation of a given ray about its initial point. The original ray is
called the initial side and the final position of the ray after rotation is called the
terminal side of the angle. The point of rotation is called the vertex.
.
Figure 4.1
If the direction of rotation is anticlockwise, the angle is said to be positive and if it is
clockwise, then the angle is negative. The measure of an angle is the amount of rotation
performed to get the terminal side. One complete
revolution from the position of the initial side is
indicated in the figure 4.2. Figure 4.2
Angles in standard position
An angle in the coordinate system is said to be in standard position if

1. its vertex is at the origin.
2. its initial side lies on the positive 𝑥-axis
Example 1
The following angles in figure4.3 are in standard position.
201
Figure 4.3
Example 2
The following are measures of different angles. Put the angles in standard position.
a. 200° b. 1125° c. −900°
Solution:
a. 200° = 180° + 20°
b. 1125° = 3 × 360° + 45°
c. −900° = 2 × (−360°) + (−180°)
We shall describe two units of measurement of an angle which are most commonly
used degree measure and radian measure.
1. Degree measure
1 𝑡ℎ
If a rotation from the initial side to terminal side is ( 360) of a complete revolution,
the angle is said to have a measure of one degree, written as 1°. A degree is divided
into 60 minutes, and a minute is divided into 60 seconds. One sixtieth of a degree is
called a minute.
1° 60′
1′ 60′′
Some of the angles whose measures are 360°, 180°, 270°, 420°, −30°, – 420° are
shown in figure4.4.
202
Figure 4.4
Exercise 4.1
1. The following are measures of different angles. Put the angles in standard
position.
a. 765° b. 245° c. −740°
2. Draw the following angles. a. 270° b. 90° c. −270°
2. Radian measure
There is another unit for measurement of an angle called the radian measure. An angle
at the center of a circle with radius r which is subtended by an arc of length 𝑟 unit in a
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ is the initial side and
circle is said to have a measure of 1 radian. In the figure 4.5, 𝑂𝐴
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ is the terminal side of the
𝑂𝐵
central angle. The figures show
the central angles whose
measures are 1 and – 1 radians,
respectively.
Figure 4.5
We know that the circumference of a circle of radius 𝑟 unit is 2𝜋𝑟. Thus, one complete
203
revolution of the initial side subtends an angle of 2𝜋𝑟 radian. It is well-known that
equal arcs of a circle subtend equal angle at the center. Since in a circle of radius 𝑟, an
arc of length 𝑟 subtends an angle whose measure is 1 radian; an arc of length 𝑙 will
𝑙
subtend an angle whose measure is 𝑟 radian. Thus, if in a circle of radius 𝑟, an arc of
𝑙
length 𝑙 subtends an angle 𝜃 at the center, we have 𝜃 = 𝑟
or 𝑙 = 𝑟 𝜃.
Relation between degree and radian measure

Since a circle subtends at the central angle whose radian measure is 2𝜋 and its degree
measure is 360°, it follows that 2𝜋 radian =360° or π radian = 180°. The above
relation enables us to express a radian measure in terms of degree measure and a degree
measure in terms of radian measure. The relation between degree measures and radian
measure of some common angles are given in table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Degree 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°
Radian 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
6 4 3 2 2
Note
When an angle is expressed in radian, the word ‘radian’ is frequently omitted
𝜋 𝜋
Thus, 𝜋 = 180° and 4
= 45° are written with the understanding that 𝜋 and 4 are
radian measures.
Therefore, we can convert degrees to radians using the relations:
𝜋
Radian measure = × degree measure
180
and radians to degrees using the relation
180
Degree measure = 𝜋
× radian measure.
Example 1
Convert 120° into radian.
204
Solution:
We know 180° = 𝜋.
𝜋 2
120° = 180° × 120° = 3 𝜋.
Example 2
4
Convert 3
𝜋 radian into degree measure.
Solution:
4 180° 4 4
3
𝜋= 𝜋
× 3 𝜋 = 240°. Hence, 3 𝜋 𝑖𝑠 240°.
Example 3
Convert 6 radians into degrees.

Solution:
We know that 𝜋 radian = 180°.
180 22
Hence, 6 radians = × 6 (Use 𝜋 ≈ )
𝜋 7
1080×7 3780
= = degree
22 11
Exercise 4.2
1. Convert each of the following degrees into radian:
a. 30° b. 60° c. 240° d. 270° e. −330° f. 220°
2. Find the degree measures of angles which have the following radian measures:
𝜋 5𝜋 −3𝜋 −𝜋 11𝜋
a. 10
b. 4
c. 5
d. 12
e. 15
22
3. Convert each of the following radians into degrees: (Use 𝜋 ≈ 7
)
110 44
a. 7
radian b. 7
radian
Example 4
Find the radius of the circle in which a central angle of 30° intercepts an arc of length
11 cm ( 𝜋 = 22
7
).
205
Solution:
30𝜋 𝜋
Here, an arc length 𝑙 = 11cm, and 𝜃 = 30° = 180
= .
6
𝑙
Since, 𝑟 = 𝜃
, we have radius of the circle,
11×6 11×6×7
𝑟 = 𝜋
= 22
= 21 cm.
Example 5
The minute hand of a watch is 1.5 long. How long does its tip move in 40 minutes?
Solution:
In 60 minutes, the minute hand of a watch completes one revolution. Therefore,
2
in 40 minutes, the minute hand turns through of a revolution.
3
2 4𝜋
Therefore, 𝜃 = 3
× 360° or 3
.
Hence, the required distance travelled 𝑙 is calculated as follows:

4𝜋
𝑙 = 𝑟 𝜃 = 1.5 × 3
= 2𝜋 units.
Example 6
If the arcs of the same lengths in two circles subtend angles 65° and 210° at the center,
find the ratio of their radii.
Solution:
Let 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 be the radii of the two circles. It is given that
𝜋 13𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋
65° = 180
× 65 = 36
and 210° = 180
× 210 = 6
.
Let l be the length of each of the arcs. Then, 𝑙 = r1 θ1 = r2 θ2 which gives

13π 7π
36
× r1 = 6
× r2 , i. e., 13πr1 = 42πr2 . Hence, r1 : r2 = 42: 13.
Exercise 4.3
1. Find the radius of the circle in which a central angle of 60° intercepts an arc of
22
length 37.4 cm (use 𝜋 = 7
).
2. The minute hand of a watch is 1.5 long. How long does its tip move in 15 minutes?
206
4.2 Basic Trigonometric Functions
In grade 9, we studied trigonometric ratios for acute angles as the ratio of sides of a
right-angled triangle. We will now extend the definition of trigonometric ratios to any
angle in terms of radian measure and study them as trigonometric functions.
Activity 4.2
1. Draw an isosceles triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 in which angle 𝐶 is a right angle and
𝐴𝐶 = 2 cm.
a. What is 𝑚(∠𝐴)?
b. Calculate the length of ̅𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅ .
c. Find sin45°, cos45° and tan45°.
2. Discuss Right-angled Triangle and Pythagoras Theorem.
Figure 4.6
In the figure 4.6, for a given right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse is the side which is
opposite to the angle of right angle and it is the longest side of the triangle. For the
angle marked by 𝜃 in figure 4.6(a), ̅𝐴𝐶
̅ ̅ ̅ is the side opposite to angle 𝜃 and 𝐵𝐶
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ is the
side adjacent to the angle 𝜃 .
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ is the side opposite to angle
Similarly, for the angle marked by 𝛽 in figure 4.6(b), 𝐵𝐶
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ is the side adjacent to the angle 𝛽.
𝛽 and 𝐴𝐶
207
4.2.1 The sine, cosine and tangent functions

Trigonometric functions are originally used to relate the angles of a triangle to the
length of the sides of a triangle.
In this section, the same upper-case letter denotes a vertex of a triangle and the measure
of the corresponding angle; the same lower-case letter denotes an edge of the triangle
and its length. Given an acute angle 𝐴 = 𝛼 of a right-angled triangle,
the hypotenuse ℎ (or 𝐴𝐵) is the side that connects the two acute angles. The side 𝑏
(𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝐶) adjacent to 𝛼 is the side of the triangle that connects 𝛼 to the right angle. The
third side 𝑎 ( 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝐶) is said to be opposite to 𝛼.
If the angle 𝛼 is given, then all sides of the right-angled triangle are well-defined up to
a scaling factor.
For any triangle ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, with an angle 𝛼, the sine, cosine and tangent functions will be
defined as follows:
opposite side to 𝛼 𝐵𝐶 𝑎
sin𝛼 = = =
hypotenuse side to 𝛼 𝐴𝐵 ℎ
ad jac en t side to 𝛼 𝐴𝐶 𝑏
cos𝛼 = hyp oten use si de to 𝛼 = 𝐴𝐵 = ℎ and
oppo site side to 𝛼 𝐵𝐶 𝑎

tan𝛼 = ad ja cen t side to 𝛼
= 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑏.
Figure 4.7
Example 1
Find the values of the trigonometric ratios of angle 𝜃 in figure 4.8 where 𝑃(5,12) is a
point on the terminal side of 𝜃.
Solution:
208
Before we find the values of the trigonometric ratios,

we need to find the length of the missing side length
(hypotenuse). If 𝑟 is the length of hypotenuse, we
use the Pythagoras Theorem as
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √52 + 122 = √25 + 144
= √169 = 13.
Now we can find the values of the three
trigonometric ratios. Hence, Figure 4.8
oppo site si de to 𝜃 12 ad ja cen t si de to 𝜃 5
sin𝜃 = = , cos 𝜃 = = and
hyp oten use 13 hyp oten use 13
opposite side to 𝜃 12
tan 𝜃 = = .
adjacent side to 𝜃 5
Exercise 4.4
1. Evaluate the sine, cosine and tangent of angle 𝜃 if 𝜃 is in standard position
and its terminal side contains the given point (𝑥, 𝑦).
√2 1
a. (4,3) b. (6, 8) c. (1, √2) d. ( , )
2 2
2. Find the values of the trigonometric ratios of angle 𝐴 in figure 4.9.

a. b.
Figure 4.9
1
3. Almaz wants to find the value of 𝑥 in the given ∆MNO, where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2. How
you help Almaz?
209
Figure 4.10
Example 2
Calculate all angles and sides if the hypotenuse in a

right-angled triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is equal to 5.
Figure 4.11
Solution:
When solving problems such as this, it is advisable to draw a sketch. In this
example, either sine or cosine can be used. The order in which the problem is solved
doesn’t affect the final result. Angle at the point 𝐵 is equal to 30° and the opposite side
of this angle is 𝐴𝐶.
𝐴𝐶
sin30° = 𝐴𝐵, 𝐴𝐶 = sin30° × 5
𝐴𝐶 = 2.5
Adjacent side is 𝐵𝐶. So, cosine is used.
𝐵𝐶
cos30° = , 𝐵𝐶 = cos30° × 5
𝐴𝐵
√3 5√3
𝐵𝐶 = ×5= and 𝑚(∠𝐴) = 60°.
2 2
In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular functions or angle

functions) are real functions which relate to an angle of a right-angled triangle to ratios
of two side lengths.
210
Exercise 4.5
1. Calculate all angles and sides if the hypotenuse of an isosceles right-angled
triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is equal to 4.
Figure 4.12
2. Ali wants to find the exact length of the shadow cast of a 15 m lamppost when
the angle of elevation of the sun is 60°. What is the length of the shadow cast?
Figure 4.13
3. A kite in the air has a string tied to the ground as shown in figure 4.14. If the
length of the string is 100 m, find the height of the kite above the ground when
the string is taut and its inclination is 30° to the horizontal.
Figure 4.14
211
The unit circles
Activity 4.3
Based on the right-angled triangle labeled 𝐴 and 𝐵 as shown in figure 4.15.

a. Find cosine of angle A b. Compute sine of angle A
Figure 4.15
The unit circle is in the 𝑥𝑦-plane. It is a circle with a radius of 1 and centered at the
origin.
Now let us draw a right-angled triangle with the same acute angles a hypotenuse of 1
3
unit long. We find that the side opposite to angle A is 5
= 0.6 long and the side
4
adjacent to angle A is 5 = 0.8 long.
Figure 4.16
0.8 0.6
cos𝐴 = 1
= 0.8 and sin 𝐴 = 1
= 0.6 . Thus, the length of the side adjacent is
numerically equal to the cosine of the angle, and the length of the side opposite is
numerically equal to the sine of the angle. Because of this result, we can use a circle
212
whose center is the origin and whose radius is 1 unit long to help us visualize the values
of the cosine and sine of the central angle.
• Plot the points (1, 0), (0, 1), (−1, 0), and (0, −1) on the 𝑥𝑦- coordinate
system.
Let 𝑃 (𝑎, 𝑏) be any point on the circle with angle 𝐴𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥 radian, i.e., length of arc
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑥 as shown figure4.17.
𝑎
We define cos𝑥 = 1 = 𝑎 and
𝑏
sin 𝑥 = 1 = 𝑏.
So, the point (𝑎, 𝑏) = (cos𝑥, sin𝑥).

Since ∆OMP is a right-angled triangle, we
have (OM)2 + (MP)2 = (OP)2 𝑜𝑟
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 1.
Thus, for any point on the unit circle,
we have 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 1, 𝑜𝑟 cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1. Figure 4.17
Since one complete revolution subtends an angle of 2𝜋 radian at the center of the circle
𝜋 3𝜋
m(∠AOB) = , m(∠AOC) = 𝜋 and m(∠AOD) = .
2 2
𝜋
All angles which are integral multiples of 2
are called quadrantal angles. The
coordinates of the points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 are respectively (1, 0), (0, 1), (– 1, 0) and
(0, – 1).
Therefore, for quadrantal angles, we have
cos 0 = 1 sin 0 = 0
𝜋 𝜋
cos 2 = 0 sin 2 = 1
3𝜋 3𝜋
cos 2
= 0 sin
2
= –1
cos2𝜋 = 1 sin2𝜋 = 0
Now, if we take one complete revolution from the point 𝑃, we again come back to the
same point 𝑃. Thus, we also observe that if 𝑥 increases (or decreases) by any integral
multiple of 2𝜋, the values of sine and cosine functions do not change.
213
Thus,
sin (2𝑛𝜋 + 𝑥) = sin 𝑥, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
cos (2𝑛𝜋 + 𝑥) = cos 𝑥, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
Furthermore, sin 𝑥 = 0 , if 𝑥 = 0, ± 𝜋, ± 2𝜋 , ± 3𝜋, .. i.e., when 𝑥 is an integral
multiple of 𝜋.
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑥 = 0, if 𝑥 = ± 2
,± 2
,± 2
, . . 𝑖. 𝑒., when 𝑥 is an odd integral multiple of 2 .
Thus
sin 𝑥 = 0, implies 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer,
𝜋
cos 𝑥 = 0, implies 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) , where 𝑛 is any integer.
2
In grade 9, we discussed the values of the trigonometric ratios for

0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°.
The values of trigonometric functions for these angles are the same as those of
trigonometric ratios in table 4.2.
Table 4.2
degree 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°
radian 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
6 4 3 2 2
sin𝑥 0 1 1 √3 1 0 −1 0
2 √2 2
cos𝑥 1 √3 1 1 0 −1 0 1
2 √2 2
tan𝑥 0 1 1 √3 Not 0 Not 0
√3 Defined Defined
Exercise 4.6
1. Using the unit circle, find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent functions of
the following quadrantal angles:
a. 0° b. 450° c. 540° d. 630°
214
b. Fill in the blank with numbers.
degree −360° −450° −270° −180° −90° 90° 180° 720°
sin𝑥
cos𝑥
tan𝑥
Sign of trigonometric functions

Let 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) be a point on the unit circle with center at the origin such that
𝑚(∠𝐴𝑂𝑃) = 𝑥. If 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑂𝑄) = −𝑥, the coordinate of the point 𝑄(𝑎, −𝑏)(see Figure
4.18).
Therefore, cos(−𝑥) = cos𝑥 and sin(−𝑥) = −sin𝑥.
Since for every point 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) on the unit circle where −1 ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 1,
we have −1 ≤ cos𝑥 ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ sin𝑥 ≤ 1, for all 𝑥.
Figure 4.18
𝜋
We have learnt that in the first quadrant (0 < 𝑥 < 2
) , 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both positive; in
𝜋
the second quadrant ( 2 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 ), 𝑎 is negative and 𝑏 positive; in the third quadrant
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝜋<𝑥< , a and 𝑏 are both negative and in the fourth quadrant ( < 𝑥 < 2𝜋),
2 2
𝑎 is positive and 𝑏 is negative.
215
Therefore, sin𝑥 is positive for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 and negative for 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋. Similarly,
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
cos𝑥 is positive for 0 < 𝑥 < 2
, and negative for
2
<𝑥<
2
and also positive for
3𝜋
2
< 𝑥 < 2𝜋. Likewise, we can find the signs of other trigonometric functions in
different quadrants.
In fact, we have the following table.
Table 4.3
Quadrants
𝒚= I II III IV
sin𝑥 + + - -
cos𝑥 + - - +
tan𝑥 + - + -
Figure 4.19
Example 1
Find the quadrant where angle 𝑥 makes sin 𝑥 > 0 and cos 𝑥 < 0.
Solution:
Here, sin 𝑥 > 0 in the first and second quadrants, and cos 𝑥 < 0 in the second and
third quadrants. Thus, when sin 𝑥 > 0 and cos 𝑥 < 0 are both satisfied, 𝑥 is the angle
of the second quadrant.
216
Exercise 4.7
1. Find the quadrant where angle 𝑥 is located for the following conditions.
a. sin 𝑥 < 0 and cos 𝑥 > 0
b. sin 𝑥 > 0 and tan 𝑥 < 0
c. cos 𝑥 > 0 and tan 𝑥 < 0
2. Fill in the blank with numbers.
Degree 0° 120° 135° 150° 210° 240° 330°

2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 4𝜋 11
radian 0 𝜋
3 4 6 6 3 6
sin𝑥
cos𝑥
tan𝑥
Reciprocal trigonometric functions

Note
We can define other trigonometric functions in terms of sine and cosine:
It is convenient to have a name for the reciprocal of the sine, cosine, and tangent
of a given angle 𝜃 . We call these reciprocal functions the secant(sec),
cosecant(csc), and cotangent(cot) and define them as follows:
1 1 1
csc𝜃 = sin 𝜃 sec𝜃 = cos 𝜃 cot𝜃 = tan 𝜃.
Example 1
Evaluate sec30°
Solution:
We know sec30° is the reciprocal of cos 30°. Therefore, we have
217
√3
cos30° = .
2
1 2
So, sec30° = cos 300 = .
√3
Example 2
Evaluate sec60° + csc30°.

Solution:
1
Since cos60° = 2 and sec60° is the reciprocal of cos60° we obtain
1 1
sec600 = cos 60° = 1 = 2.
2
1
Since sin30° = 2 and sin30° is the reciprocal of csc30° we have
1 1
csc30° = sin 30° = 1 = 2.
2
Thus, sec60° + csc30° = 2 + 2 = 4.
Exercise 4.8
1. Evaluate the following
2𝜋 𝜋
a. sec 45° b. sec 3
c. sec (− 6 )
3𝜋
d. csc 30° e. csc 4
f. csc(−300°)
5𝜋 5𝜋
g. cot 60° h. cot 6
i. cot (− 4
)
2. Evaluate the following trigonometric expressions.

10𝜋 7𝜋
a) sec 3
+ csc (− 2
)
b) sec330° + cot480°
4.2.2 Trigonometric values of angles

Trigonometry angles are the angles given by the ratios of the trigonometric functions.
Trigonometry deals with the study of the relationship between angles and the sides of
a triangle. The angle value ranges from 0° to 360°, . The important angles in
trigonometry are 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°, 180°, 270° and 360°. And the important six
218
trigonometric ratios or functions are sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant and
cotangent.
Complementary angles
Activity 4.4
Based on the isosceles right-angled triangle

𝐴𝐵𝐶 in Figure 4.20, calculate the length
of the hypotenuse 𝐴𝐵 and verify that the
two angles 𝐴 and 𝐵 are congruent.
Figure 4.20
Two angles are said to be complementary angles if they are added up to 90°. In the
figure 4.21,
60° + 30° = 90°. Hence, these two angles are complementary. Each angle of the
complementary angles is called the "complement" of the other angle. Here, 60° is the
complement of 30° . Similarly, 30° is the
complement of 60°.Thus, the complement of an
angle is calculated by subtracting the angle
from 90° . So, the complementary angle of
angle 𝑥° is (90 − 𝑥)°.
Figure 4.21
Example 1
Find the complementary angle of 57°.

Solution:
The complementary angle of 57° is obtained by subtracting it from 90°, that is,
90° − 57° = 33°.
Thus, the complementary angle of 57° is 33°.
219
Example 2
Evaluate the following angles:
a. 54° b. 30°
Solution:
sin 54° = sin(90 ° − 36°) = cos 36° , and sin 30° = sin(90 ° − 30°) = cos 60°.
Note
Note the following on acute angle 𝛼 and its complementary angle ( 𝜋/2 – 𝛼 ).
• sin ( 𝜋/2 – 𝛼 ) = cos 𝛼
• cos (𝜋/2 – 𝛼 ) = sin 𝛼
• tan (𝜋/2 – 𝛼 ) = cot 𝛼
• cot (𝜋/2 – 𝛼 ) = tan 𝛼
Example 3
If sin 3𝐴 = cos (𝐴 − 26°), where 3𝐴 is an acute angle, find the value of 𝐴.

Solution:
Given that, sin 3𝐴 = cos (𝐴 − 26°) … . (1)
Since, sin 3𝐴 = cos (90° – 3𝐴), we can write (1) as:
cos(90° − 3𝐴) = cos (𝐴 − 26°)
90° − 3𝐴 = 𝐴 – 26°
90° + 26° = 3𝐴 + 𝐴 which implies 4 𝐴 = 116°.
116
So, 𝐴 = 4
= 29°.
Therefore, the value of 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 29°.
Exercise 4.9
Answer each of the following questions:
1. Find the numerical value of
a. sin 30° and cos 60° b. sin 45° and cos 45°
c. What can you generalize or deduce based on your answer to 𝑎 and b above?
220
2. If sin 31° = 0.515, then what is cos 59°?

3
3. If sin 𝜃 = 5, then what is cos(90° − 𝜃)?
4 𝜋
4. If cos 𝛼 = 5 , then what is sin( 2 − 𝛼)?
𝜋
5. If sin 𝜃 = 𝑘 , then what is cos ( 2 − 𝜃 )
𝑚 1
6. If tan 𝛽 = 𝑛 , then what is tan (90° − 𝛽)
7. If cos(4𝑎) = sin(𝑎 − 20°) where 4𝑎 is an acute angle. Find the value of 𝑎.
Reference angle (𝜃𝑹 )

The reference angle of any angle always lies between 0° and 90°. It is the angle
between the terminal side of the angle and the 𝑥- axis. The reference angle depends on
the quadrant's terminal side.
The steps to find the reference angle of an angle depend on the quadrant
of the terminal side:
• We first determine its coterminal angle which lies between 0° and 360°.
• We then see the quadrant of the coterminal angle.
• If the terminal side is in the first quadrant ( 0° to 90°), then the reference angle
is the same as our given angle.
For example, if the given angle is 25°,

then its reference angle (𝜃𝑅 ) is also 25°
as shown in Figure 4.22.
Figure 4.22
221
• If the terminal side is in the second quadrant ( 90° to 180°), then the reference
angle (𝜃𝑅 ) is 𝟏𝟖𝟎° minus the given
angle.
For example, if the given angle is 100°, then
its reference angle is 180° – 100° = 80° as
shown in figure 4.23.
Figure 4.23
• If the terminal side is in the third quadrant (180° to 270°), then the reference
angle (𝜃𝑅 ) is the given angle minus
𝟏𝟖𝟎°.
Figure 4.24
• If the terminal side is in the fourth quadrant (270° to 360°), then the reference
angle (𝜃𝑅 ) is 𝟑𝟔𝟎° minus the given
angle.
Figure 4.25
222
Example 1
Find the reference angle 𝜃𝑹 for the angles
a. 𝜃 = 129° b. 𝜃 = 245° c. 𝜃 = 320°

Solution:
a. Since 𝜃 = 129° is a second quadrant angle,
𝜃𝑅 = 180° − 129° = 51°.
b. Since 𝜃 = 245° is a third quadrant angle,
𝜃𝑅 = 245° − 180° = 65°.

c. Since 𝜃 = 320° is a fourth quadrant angle,
𝜃𝑅 = 360° − 320° = 40°.
Note
The value of the trigonometric function of a given angle θ and the values of the
corresponding trigonometric functions of the reference angle θR are the same in
absolute value.
Example 2
Express the sine, cosine and tangent of 155° in terms of its reference angle.
Solution:
Remember that an angle with measure 155°is a second quadrant angle. In the second
quadrant, only sine is positive. So, 𝜃𝑅 = 180° − 155° = 250 .
Therefore, sin155°, = sin25°, cos155° = −cos25° and tan155° = −tan25°.
Exercise 4.10
1. Find the reference angle 𝜃𝑹 for the angles
a. θ = 109° b. θ = 345° c. θ = 190° d. θ = 140°

5𝜋 7𝜋 4𝜋
e. 𝜃= 3
f. 𝜃 = 4
g. 𝜃 = 3
223
2. Express the sine, cosine and tangent of 150° in terms of its reference angle.
Supplementary angles
The supplementary angles are angles that exist in pairs summing up to180° . So,
supplementary angle of an angle 𝑥 is 180° 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑥.
Example 1
Determine whether the following pairs of angles are supplementary or not.
a. 50° and 130° b. 70° and 100°.
Solution:
We know that two angles are supplementary if their sum is 180°.
a. 50° + 130° = 180°
Since the sum is 180°, the given angles are supplementary.
b. 70° + 100° = 170°
Since the sum is not180°, the given angles are not supplementary.
Co-terminal angles
Activity 4.5
What are co-terminal angles?
Co-terminal angles are angles that have the same initial side and share the terminal
sides. The co-terminal angles occupy the standard position, though their values are
different. They are on the same sides, in the same quadrant and their vertices are
identical. When the angles are moved clockwise or anticlockwise, the terminal sides
coincide at the same angle.
Consider 45°. Its standard position is in the first quadrant because its terminal side is
also in the first quadrant. Look at the image as shown in figure 4.26. On full rotation
anticlockwise, 45° reaches its terminal side again at 405°. So, 405° coincides with
224
45° in the first quadrant. On full rotation

clockwise, 45° reaches its terminal side
again at −315°. −315° coincides with 45°
in the first quadrant.
Thus 405° and −315° are co-terminal
angles of 45°.
Figure 4.26
The formula to find the co-terminal angles of an angle 𝜃 depends upon whether it is in
terms of degrees or radians:
1. Degrees: 𝜃 ± 360𝑛, where n is an integer.
2. Radian: 𝜃 ± 2𝑛𝜋, where n is an integer.
So, 45°, −315°, 405°, − 675°, 765° ..... are all co-terminal angles. They differ only by
a number of complete circles. We can conclude that two angles are said to be co-
terminal if the difference between the angles is a multiple of 360° (or 2𝜋 if the angle
is in terms of radians).
Example 1
Find two co-terminal angles of 30°.

Solution:
The given angle is 𝜃 = 30°. The formula to find the co-terminal angle is
𝜃 ± 360°𝑛 Then find the first co-terminal angle using 𝑛 = 1.
The corresponding co-terminal angle = 𝜃 + 360°𝑛
= 30° + 360° (1)
= 390°.
To find the second co-terminal angle when 𝑛 = −2 (clockwise).

Then, the corresponding co-terminal angle = 𝜃 + 360° 𝑛
= 30° + 360° (−2)
= −690°
225
Note
From the above explanation, we can find the co-terminal angle(s) of any angle
either by adding or subtracting multiples of 360° (or 2π) from the given angle. So,
we actually do not need to use the co-terminal angles formula to find the co-
terminal angles. Instead, we can either add or subtract multiples of
360° (𝑜𝑟 2𝜋) from the given angle to find its co-terminal angles.
Example 2
𝜋
Find a co-terminal angle of 4 .
Solution:
𝜋
The given angle is 𝜃 = 4 , which is in radians.
𝜋
So, we add or subtract multiples of 2𝜋 from 4
to find its co-terminal angles.
Let us subtract 2𝜋 from the given angle as
𝜋 7𝜋
4
− 2𝜋 = − 4
.
𝜋 7𝜋
Thus, one of the co-terminal angles of is − .
4 4
What are positive and negative co-terminal angles?
Co-terminal angles can be positive or negative. In one of the above examples, we found
that 390° and − 690° are co-terminal angles of 30°.
Here, 390° is the positive co-terminal angle of 30° and −690° is the negative co-
terminal angle of 30°.
Note
𝜃 ± 360 𝑛, where 𝑛 takes a positive value when the rotation is anticlockwise and
takes a negative value when the rotation is clockwise. So, we decide whether to
add or subtract multiples of 360° (or 2𝜋) to get positive or negative co-terminal
angles, respectively.
226
Exercise 4.11
1. Determine whether the following pair of angles are supplementary or not.
𝜋 2𝜋
a. 90° and 100° b. 135° and 45° c. 6
and 3
2. Find a positive and a negative angle which are co-terminal with angle 55°.
𝜋
3. Find a positive and a negative angle which are co-terminal with angle 3 .
Example 1
Find a reference angle 𝜃𝑹 of 495°.

Solution:
First let us find the co-terminal angle of 495°. The co-terminal angle is
495° − 360° = 135°.
The terminal side lies in the second quadrant.
Thus, the reference angle is 180° − 135° = 45°.
Therefore, the reference angle of 495° is 45°.
Example 2
Evaluate: sin 780°

Solution:
780° = 720° + 60° = 2 × 360° + 60°
√3
Therefore, sin780° = sin60° = 2 .
Exercise 4.12
Evaluate the following expressions.
10𝜋
a. sin 390° b. cos c. tan(−420°)
3
41𝜋 19𝜋
d. sin (−660°) e. cos 4
f. tan (− 3
)
5
g. 4cos135° h. 3
cos300° i. − 2cos(−150°)
227
Graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent functions

To sketch the trigonometry graphs of the functions of sine, cosine and tangent, we need
to know the period, phase, and amplitude, maximum and minimum turning points. The
graphical representation of sine, cosine and tangent functions are explained here
briefly. Students can learn how to graph a trigonometric function here along with
activities based on it.
Sine, cosine and tangent are the three important trigonometric ratios based on which
functions are defined. In these trigonometry graphs, we use 𝑥-axis for values of the
angles in radians and the 𝑦-axis values of the function at each given angle.
The graph of the sine function
Activity 4.6
1. Complete the following table of values for the function 𝑦 = sin𝜃

Table 4.4
Θ −360° −270° −90° −30° 0° 30° 90° 270° 360°
2. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = sin𝜃 using table 4.4.

3. What is the period of sine function?
Example 1
Draw the graph of 𝑦 = sin𝜃.

Solution:
To determine the graph of 𝑦 = sin𝜃, we construct a table of values for 𝑦 = sin𝜃
where −360° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°.
The table below shows some of the values of 𝑦 = sin𝜃 in the given interval. To draw
the graph, you mark the values of 𝜃 on the horizontal axis and the value of y on the
vertical axis. Then you plot the points and connect them using smooth curve (see figure
4.27)
228
Table 4.5
𝜃 in degree −360° −330° −270° −240° −210° −180° −150° −120° −90° −90° −45° −30° 0°
𝜃 in radian −2𝜋 −11𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 7𝜋 −𝜋 5𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 0

− − − − − − − − −
6 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 4 6
𝑦 = sin𝜃 0 0.5 1 0.87 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.87 −1 −0.87 −0.71 −0.5 0
𝜃in degree 30° 60° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
𝜃 in radian 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 4𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋 2𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
𝑦 = sin𝜃 0.5 0.71 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.87 −1 −0.87 −0.5 0
After a complete revolution (every 360° 𝑜𝑟 2𝜋), the values of the sine function
repeat themselves. This means
sin0° = sin(0° ± 360°) = sin(0° ± 2 × 360°) = sin(0° ± 3 × 360°), etc
sin90° = sin(90° ± 360°) = sin(90° ± 2 × 360°) = sin(90° ± 3 × 360°), etc
sin180° = sin(180° ± 360°) = sin(180° ± 2 × 360°) = sin(180° ± 3 × 360°),etc
In general, sinθ° = sin(𝜃 0 ± 360°) = sin(θ° ± 2 × 360°) = sin(θ° ± 3 × 360°),etc
A function that repeats its value at regular intervals is called a periodic function. The
sine function repeats after every 360° (𝑜𝑟 2𝜋). Therefore, 360° (𝑜𝑟 2𝜋) is called the
period of the sine function.
Figure 4.27 The graph of 𝑦 = sin𝜃 for −2𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
Exercise 4.13
1. Draw graph of the following functions.
𝑦 = 2sin𝑥, for −2𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
229
2. Find the values A to H in the following graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥.
Figure 4.28
Domain and range:

For any angle 𝜃 taken on the unit circle, there is some point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) on its terminal
side. Since 𝑦 = sin𝜃 , the function 𝑦 = sin𝜃 is defined for every angle 𝜃 taken on
the unit circle.
Therefore, the domain of the sine function is the set of all real numbers.
Note
The domain of the sine function is ሼ𝜃: 𝜃 ∈ ℝሽ. The range of the sine function is
ሼ𝑦(𝜃): −1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1, 𝜃 ∈ ℝሽ.
The graph of the cosine function
Activity 4.7
1. Complete following table of values for the function y = cos𝜃.

Table 4.6
𝜃 −360° −270° −90° −30° 0° 30° 90° 270° 360°
𝑦 = cos𝜃
2. Sketch the graph of y = cos𝜃 using table 4.6.

3. What is the period of cosine function?
230
From the above activity, you can see that 𝑦 = cos𝜃 is never less than −1 or more than
+1 (see figure4.29). Just like the sine function, the cosine function is periodic at
every 360° (or 2𝜋) radians. Therefore,360° (or 2𝜋) is called the period of the cosine
function.
Figure 4.29 Graph of 𝑦 = cos𝜃
The domain of the cosine function is the set of all real numbers. The range of the cosine
function is ሼ𝑦: −1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1ሽ.
Exercise 4.14
1. Draw graph of the following functions.
𝑦 = cos𝑥, for −2𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.
2. Find the values A to H in the following graph of 𝑦 = cos𝑥.
Figure 4.30
231
Graph of the tangent function
Activity 4.8
1. Complete the following table of values for the function y = tan𝜃.

Table 4.7
𝜃 −360° −270° −90° −45° −30° 0° 30° 45° 90° 270° 360°
90°
𝑦 = tan𝜃
2. Sketch the graph of the function y = tan𝜃 using table 4.7.
3. What is the period of tangent function?
4. For which values of 𝜃, y = tan𝜃 is not defined?
Example 2
Draw graph of the function 𝑦 = tan𝜃, where −360° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°.
Table 4.8 shows some of the values of 𝑦 = tan𝜃 in the given interval.
Table 4.8
𝜃 −360° −315° −270° −225° −180° −135° −90° −45° 0°
𝜃 in radian −2𝜋 7𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 −𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 0
-
4 − − − − −
2 4 4 2 4
𝑦 = tan𝜃 0 1 undefined −1 0 1 undefined −1 0
𝜃 30° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°

𝜃 in radian 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋 2𝜋
6 4 2 4 4 2 4
𝑦 = tan𝜃 0.56 1 undefined −1 0 1 undefined −1 0
Look at the tangent function 𝑦 = tan𝜃 graph shown in figure 4.31.
232
Figure 4.31 The graph of 𝑦 = tan𝜃 for −2𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

Do you notice that the pattern of curves is repeating after an interval of 𝜋?
𝜋 𝜋
Also, observe that the values of tan𝑥 increases as 𝑥 increases in (0, ), ( , 𝜋),
2 2
3𝜋
(𝜋, 2
), . . ..
𝑛𝜋
The domain of the tangent function is ሼ𝜃: 𝜃 ≠ 2
, where 𝑛 is an odd integerሽ.
The range of the tangent function is the set of all real numbers.
From the graph we see that the tangent function repeats itself every 180° or 𝜋 radians.
Therefore, the period of the tangent function is 180° or 𝜋 radians.
Exercise 4.15
1. Draw graph of the function 𝑦 = tan𝑥, for −2𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.
2. The following is the graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥.
a. Find the values 𝑦 of the following points A, B, C and D.
b. Find the values of 𝑥 of the following points E, F and G.
Figure 4.32
233
4.3 Trigonometric Identities and Equations

By considering a right-angled triangle, the trigonometric identities or equations are
formed using trigonometry ratios for all the angles. Using trigonometry identities, we
can express each trigonometric ratio in terms of other trigonometric ratios. If any of
the trigonometry ratio value is known to us, then we can find the values of other
trigonometric ratios. We can also solve trigonometric identities, using these identities
as well.
Trigonometric Identities
There are basically three trigonometric identities, which we learn in this topic.
They are:
1. cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1
2. 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃
3. 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 𝜃
Here, we will prove the above trigonometric identities. Take an example of a right-
angled triangle 𝛥ABC as shown in figure 4.33.
Proof of Trigonometric Identities
In a right-angled triangle, by the Pythagoras Theorem, we know
(Perpendicular side length) 2
+ (Base length)2 = (Hypotenuse length)2
Therefore, in 𝛥ABC, we have;
(AB)2 + (BC)2 = (AC)2 . . . (1) Figure 4.33
Dividing equation (1) by (AC)2 we get,
(AB)2 (BC )2
(AC)2
+ (AC)2 = 1
AB 2 BC 2
( AC ) + ( AC ) = 1 by rule of exponent
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
(sin𝜃)2 + (cos𝜃)2 = 1 (Since sin𝜃 = and cos𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶 )
𝐴𝐶
sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1 …(2)
234
For all angles equation (2) is satisfied.
Example 1
3
𝑥 is the angle of the third quadrant. When sin 𝑥 = − 5, find the value of cos 𝑥.
Solution:
3 2 9 16
sin2 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥 =1 and cos2 𝑥 =1−sin2 𝑥 =1− (− 5) = 1 − 25 = 25. But 𝑥 is the angle
of the third quadrant, so cos 𝑥 < 0.

16 4
Thus cos 𝑥=−√ 25 = − 5.
Exercise 4.16
√5
a. If 𝑥 is the angle in the second quadrant and cos 𝑥 = − , find the value of sin 𝑥.
3
1
b. If 𝑥 is the angle in the fourth quadrant and sin 𝑥 = − 3, find the value of cos 𝑥.
Again, when we divide equation (1) by (𝐴𝐵)2 , we get
(𝐴𝐵)2 (𝐵𝐶)2 (𝐴𝐶)2

(𝐴𝐵)2
+ (𝐴𝐵)2 = (𝐴𝐵)2
(𝐵𝐶)2 (𝐴𝐶)2
1 + (𝐴𝐵)2 = (𝐴𝐵)2
𝐵𝐶 2 𝐴𝐶 2
1 + ( 𝐴𝐵) = ( 𝐴𝐵) (By rule of exponent)
𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶
1 + (cot𝜃)2 = (csc𝜃)2 (Since cot𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵
and csc𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵)
1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 𝜃 ...(3)

Therefore, it proves that for all values of 𝜃, equation (3) is satisfied.
Let’s see what we get if we divide equation (1) by (𝐵𝐶)2 , we get
(𝐴𝐵)2 (𝐴𝐶)2
(𝐵𝐶)2
+ 1 = (𝐵𝐶)2
𝐴𝐵 2 𝐴𝐶 2
( 𝐵𝐶 ) + 1 = ( 𝐵𝐶) by rule of exponent
235
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
(tan𝜃)2 + 1 = (sec𝜃)2 (Since tan𝜃 = and sec𝜃 = 𝐵𝐶)
𝐵𝐶
1+ tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃 ...(4)
Example 2
𝑥 is the angle of the fourth quadrant. When tan 𝑥 = −2, find the values of sec 𝑥 and
cos 𝑥.
Solution:
sec2 𝑥 = 1 + tan2 𝑥 = 1 + (−2)2 = 5
1
𝑥 is the angle of the fourth quadrant and sec 𝑥 = .
cos 𝑥
In the fourth quadrant cos 𝑥 > 0, so sec 𝑥 > 0.

1 1
Therefore sec 𝑥 = √5 and cos 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 = .
√5
Exercise 4.17
Answer the following questions.
a. 𝑥 is the angle of the third quadrant. If tan 𝑥 = 3, find the values of sec 𝑥 and
cos 𝑥.
b. 𝑥 is the angle of the second quadrant. If tan 𝑥 = 3, find the values of sec 𝑥 and
cos 𝑥
Addition and subtraction of identities

The formulas for the addition and subtraction theorems of sine and cosine are
expressed as in the following:
sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin𝛼 cos𝛽 + cos𝛼 sin𝛽,
sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin𝛼 cos𝛽 − cos𝛼 sin𝛽,
cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos𝛼 cos𝛽 − sin𝛼 sin𝛽,
cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos𝛼 cos𝛽 + sin𝛼 sin𝛽.
Example 1
Find the values of trigonometric expressions:
236
a. sin75° b. cos75°
Solution:
a. sin75° = sin (30° + 45°)
= sin30° cos45° + cos30° sin45°
√𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟐 𝟏 √𝟔+√𝟐
= × +𝟐 ×𝟐= .
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
b. cos75° = cos (30° + 45°)

= cos30° cos45° − sin30° sin45°
√𝟑 √𝟐 𝟏 √𝟐 √𝟔−√𝟐
= × − × = .
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
Exercise 4.18
Find the values of the following trigonometric expressions.
𝜋 𝜋
a. sin 105° b. cos 105° c. sin 15° d. cos 15° e. sin f. cos 12
12
Double angle identities
Formulas expressing trigonometric functions of an angle 2𝜃 in terms of an angle 𝜃:

sin2𝜃 = 2sin𝜃cos𝜃
cos2𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 1 − 2sin2 𝜃 = 2cos2 𝜃 − 1
2tan 𝜃
tan2𝜃 = 1−tan 2 𝜃
Example 1
3
If 𝑥 is an angle of the second quadrant and sin 𝑥 = 5, find the following values.
a. cos 𝑥 b. sin2𝑥 c. cos2𝑥
Solution:
a. sin2 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥 =1
3 2 9 16
cos2 𝑥 =1−sin2 𝑥 =1− ( 5) = 1 − 25 = 25
𝑥 is the angle of the second quadrant, so cos 𝑥 < 0
237
16 4
Thus cos 𝑥=−√ 25 = − 5
3 4 24
b. sin2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = 2 ∙ 5 ∙ (− 5)=− 25
4 2 3 2 7
c. cos2𝑥 = cos2 𝑥 −sin2 𝑥 = (− 5) − ( 5) = 25
Half angle identities

The half‐angle identities for the sine and cosine are derived from two of the cosine
identities described earlier.
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
cos2𝜃 = 2cos2 𝜃 − 1. Let θ = , then cos (2 × ) = 2cos 2 − 1
2 2 2
𝛼
cos𝛼 = 2cos 2 2 −1
𝛼
2cos 2 = cos𝛼 + 1
2
𝛼 1+cos 𝛼 𝛼 1+cos 𝛼
cos2 2 = 2
. So, cos 2 = ±√ 2
.
𝛼 1−cos 𝛼 𝛼 1−cos 𝛼
Similarly, sin2 2 = 2
and sin 2 = ±√ 2
.
The sign of the two preceding functions depends on the quadrant in which the resulting
angle is located.
Example 1
Find the exact value for cos 15° using the half‐angle identity.
Solution:
30° 1 + cos30°
cos15° = cos = ±√
2 2
√3
1+
= ±√ 2
2
2+√3 √ 2+√3
=√ = . (15° is in the first quadrant, hence cos15° > 0)
4 2
238
Exercise 4.19
2
1. Assume 𝑥 is the angle in the first quadrant. When cos 𝑥 = 3, find the following
values.
𝑎. sin 𝑥 b. sin2𝑥 c. cos2𝑥
2. Find the exact values using the half - angle identity.
𝜋 3𝜋
a. sin 15° b. sin 8 c. cos 8
Trigonometric equations
Trigonometric equations can be solved using the algebraic methods, trigonometric
identities and values.
Example 1
Solve the equation 2cos𝜃 − 1 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋.

Solution:
1
When we rearrange the above equation, we get cos𝜃 = 2.
1 𝜋
For the reference angle 𝜃𝑅 , we have cos𝜃𝑅 = 2 and hence, 𝜃𝑅 = 3 . Using the
reference angle 𝜃𝑅, we determine the solution 𝜃 in the interval [0, 2𝜋] of the given
1
equation cos𝜃 = 2 suggests that cos𝜃 is positive and that means the terminal side of
𝜃 solution to the given equation is either in quadrant I or IV. Hence,

𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
𝜃1 = 𝜃𝑅 =3 and 𝜃2 = 2𝜋 − 3 = 3
.
Example 2
Solve the trigonometric equation 2sin𝜃 = −1.
Solution:
Rewrite the above equation in simple form as shown below:
1 1 𝜋
sin𝜃 = −
2
The reference angle 𝜃𝑅 such that sin𝜃𝑅 = 2 is 𝜃𝑅 = 6 .
239
Use the reference angle 𝜃𝑅 to determine the solutions 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 on the interval
1
[0 , 2𝜋) of the given equation. The equation sin𝜃 = − 2 suggests that sin𝜃 is negative
and that means the terminal side of angle 𝜃 is either in quadrant III or IV as shown in
the unit circle figure 4.34.
Figure 4.34
Hence,
𝜃1 = 𝜋 + 𝜃𝑅 or 𝜃2 = 2𝜋 − 𝜃𝑅
𝜋 𝜋
=𝜋+6 = 2𝜋 − 6
7𝜋 11𝜋
= 6
= 6
Use the solutions on the interval [0 , 2𝜋) to find all solutions by adding multiples of
2𝜋 as follows:
7𝜋 11𝜋
𝜃1 = 6
+ 2𝑛𝜋 and 𝜃2 = 6
+ 2𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is an integer.
Exercise 4.20
Solve the following trigonometric equations.
1
a. sin𝜃 = where 0° ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋.
√2
b. √2 cos 𝑥 = −1 when 0° ≤ 𝜃 < 360°

c. 2sin𝑥 + √3 = 0 when 0° ≤ 𝜃 < 360°
d. 2cos𝑥 = √3
e. sec𝑥 − √2 = 0
240
Example 3
Find all the solutions of the trigonometric equation √3 sec𝜃 + 2 = 0

Solution:
1
Using the identity sec𝜃 = cos 𝜃, we rewrite the equation in the form
√3
cos𝜃 = − .
2
√3
Find the reference angle 𝜃𝑅 by solving cos𝜃𝑅 = − 2
𝜋
for 𝜃𝑅 acute. Accordingly, 𝜃𝑅 = 6 . Using the
reference angle 𝜃𝑅 in the interval [0 , 2𝜋) of the

√3
given equation cos𝜃 = − . This suggests that
2
cos𝜃 is negative and that means the terminal side of

angle 𝜃 is either in quadrants II or III as shown in
figure 4.35. Figure 4.35
Hence,
𝜃1 = 𝜋 − 𝜃𝑅 or 𝜃2 = 𝜋 + 𝜃𝑅
𝜋 𝜋
=𝜋−6 =𝜋+6
5𝜋 7𝜋
= 6
= 6
Use the solutions on the interval [0 , 2𝜋) to find all solutions by adding multiples of
2𝜋 as follows:
5𝜋 7𝜋
𝜃1 = 6
+ 2𝑛𝜋 and 𝜃2 = 6
+ 2𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 is an integer.
Exercise 4.21
Solve the following trigonometric equations.
a. 2 + √3csc𝜃 = 0 for 0° ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋 .
b. 3√2 + 3csc𝜃 = 0 for 0° ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋 .
241
4.4 Applications of Trigonometric Functions
Activity 4.9
1. Assume that a skateboard ramp at a park has

an inclination of 45° and its base is 12 m long
as shown in figure 4.36. So, what is the length
of the ramp?
Figure 4.36
2. You are 50 m away from a river. Rather than
walking directly to the river, you walk 100 m
along a straight path to the river’s edge as
shown in figure 4.37. What is the angle
between this path and the river’s edge?
Figure 4.37
In the figure 4.38, angle labeled 1 indicates the angles of elevation. It is the angle by
which the ground observer’s line of vision must
be raised or elevated with respect to the
horizontal to see an object at B. The angle labeled
2 is the angle of depression. It is the angle by
which an observer’s line of vision at B must be
lower or depressed with respect to the horizontal
to see an object at 𝐴. Figure 4.38
Example 1
From the top of a vertical cliff 40 m high, the angle of depression of an object that is
242
at the level of the base of the cliff is 60° as

shown in figure 4.39. How far is the object from
the base of the cliff (A)?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the distance of the object in meters from
the base of the cliff (A). The angle of depression
is 60°. Here, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝑂) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝑂𝑃) because
they are alternate angles. Figure 4.39
∴ 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝑂) = 60°
From triangle 𝐴𝑃𝑂, we have:
𝐴𝑂 40 40 40
tan60° = = which implies 𝑥 = tan 60° = .
𝐴𝑃 𝑥 √3
40
Therefore, the object is m far from the cliff (A).
√3
Exercise 4.22
From the top of a vertical tree 10 𝑚 high,
the angle of depression of an object that is
on the ground is 45° as shown in figure
4.40. How far is the object from the base of
the tree?
Figure 4.40
Example 2
A circus artist is climbing a 20 m long rope, which is

tightly stretched and tied from the top of a vertical
pole to the ground. Find the height of the pole if the
angle is made by the rope with the ground level is 30°
(see figure 4.41).
Figure 4.41
243
Solution:
In right angle ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,
𝐴𝐵
sin30° = 𝐴𝐶
1 𝐴𝐵 1
2
= 20
⟹ 𝐴𝐵 = × 20 = 10
2
Therefore, the height of the pole is 10 m.
Example 3
A tree breaks due to storm and the broken part bends so that the top of the tree touches
the ground making an angle 30° with it. The distance between
the foot of the tree to the point where the top touches the
ground is 8 m. Find the original height of the tree before it
breaks (see figure 4.42).
Solution: Figure 4.42

In right angle ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
tan30° = cos30° = 𝐴𝐶
𝐵𝐶
1 𝐴𝐵 √3 8
= =
√3 8 2 𝐴𝐶
8 16
𝐴𝐵 = m 𝐴𝐶 = m.
√3 √3
Therefore, the height of the tree is 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 = 8√3 m.
Exercise 4.23
Dana is standing on the ground and looking at the
top of the tower with an angle of elevation of 30°.
If he is standing 15 m away from the foot of the
tower, can you determine the height of the tower?
Figure 4.43
244
Summary
1. An angle is determined by the rotation of a ray about its vertex from an initial
position to a terminal position.
2. An angle is positive for anticlockwise rotation and negative for clockwise
rotation.
3. An angle in the coordinate plane is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin
and its initial side is along the positive 𝑥-axis.
4. Radian measure of angles: 2𝜋 = 360°.
5. To convert degrees to radians, multiply by
𝜋
180°
.
180°
6. To convert radians to degree, multiply by 𝜋
.
7. If 𝜃 is an angle in standard position and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is

a point on the terminal side of 𝜃, other than the
origin 𝑂(0,0) and r is the distance of point
P from the origin O, then
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 , cos𝜃 = 𝑟 and tan𝜃 = 𝑥
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥
csc𝜃 = 𝑦, sec𝜃 = 𝑥 and cot𝜃 = 𝑦
Figure 4.44
𝑟= √𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 (Pythagoras Theorem)
8. If 𝜃 is an angle in standard position, then
sin(−𝜃) = −sin(𝜃) cos(−𝜃) = cos𝜃 tan(−𝜃) = −tan𝜃
9. Two angles are said to be complementary if their sum is equal to 90°. If 𝛼 and 𝛽
are any two complementary angles, then
1
sin𝛼 = cos𝛽 cos𝛼 = sin𝛽 tan𝛼 =
tan 𝛽
10.Any trigonometric function of an acute angle is equal to the coterminal of its

complementary angles. That is, if 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90° , then
sin𝜃 = cos(90° − 𝜃) cos𝜃 = sin(90° − 𝜃) tan𝜃 = cot(90° − 𝜃)
245
csc𝜃 = sec(90° − 𝜃) sec𝜃 = csc(90° − 𝜃) cot𝜃 = tan(90° − 𝜃)

11. If 𝜃 is an angle in standard position whose terminal side does not lie on either
coordinate axis, then the reference angle 𝜃𝑅 for 𝜃 is the positive acute angle
formed by the terminal side of 𝜃 and the 𝑥 −axis.
12. Two angles are said to be coterminal if the difference between the angles is a
multiple of 360° (or 2𝜋 if the angle is in terms of radians).
13. Supplementary angles are angles that exist in pairs summing up to 180°. So,
supplement of an angle 𝜃 is (180° − 𝜃).
sin𝜃 = sin(180° − 𝜃), cos𝜃 = −cos(180° − 𝜃), tan𝜃 = −tan(180° − 𝜃)
14.Coterminal angles are angles in standard position (angles with the initial side on
the positive 𝑥-axis) that have a common terminal side.
15.Coterminal angles have the same trigonometric values.
16.The domain of the sine function is the set of all real numbers.
17.The range of the sine function is {𝑦: − 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1}.
18.The graph of the sine function repeats itself every 360° or 2𝜋.
19.The domain of the cosine function is the set of all real numbers.
20.The range of the cosine function is {𝑦: − 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1}.
21.The graph of the cosine function repeats itself every 360° or 2𝜋.
22.The domain of the tangent function 𝑖𝑠 {𝜃: 𝜃 ≠ 𝑛 , 𝑤here 𝑛 is an odd integer}
𝜋
2
23.The range of the tangent function is the set of all real numbers.
24.Trigonometric identities:
sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1, 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃, cot 2 + 1 = csc 2 𝜃
sin2𝜃 = 2sin 𝜃cos 𝜃, cos2θ = cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 1 − 2sin2 𝜃 = 2cos2 𝜃 − 1
246
Review Exercise
1. Find the radian measure of the angles which have the following degree measures:
𝐚. 135° b. 540° 𝐜. 210° d. 150°
2. Find the degree measure of the angles which have the following radian measures:
3𝜋 20𝜋
a. b. 2 3 c. d.
𝜋 𝜋
9 7 9
3. What is the radian measure of each of the following angles?

1
a. 2revolution anti-clockwise b. 5 revolution clockwise c. 330°
d.−225° e. 540° f.−360°

4. Convert 43.1025° to degree, minute and second form.
5. Use the table given at the end of the book to find the approximate value of:
a. sin40° b. tan40°
6. Find angle 𝐴 if:
a. sec 𝐴 = 1.642 b. sin 𝐴 = 0.5831
7. Use trigonometric table, reference angles, trigonometric functions of negative
angles and periodicity of the functions to calculate the value of each of the
following:
a. sin236 𝐛. cos693°
8. Convert each of the following degrees to radians:
a. 225° 𝐛. 315° 𝐜. 330°
𝐝. 420° 𝐞. 900° 𝐟. − 240°
9. Find two co-terminal angles for each of the following angles:
a. 65° b. 230° c. 790°
d. −674° e. −1545° f. 2060°
10.Convert each of the following angles in radians to degrees:
9𝜋 −7𝜋 97𝜋
a. 14
b. 15
c. 4
d. 7𝜋
247
11.Use a unit circle to find the values of sine, cosine, and tangent of 𝐴 when 𝐴 is:
a. 810° b. −450° c. −1080°
d. 630° e. 900°
12.Evaluate the sine, cosine and tangent of angle 𝜃 if 𝜃 is in standard position and
its terminal side contains the given point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦):
√3 1
𝐚. 𝑃(6, 8) b. 𝑃(−6, 8) c. 𝑃 (− , ) d. 𝑃(−1, √2)
2 2
13.Find the values of sine, cosine, and tangent functions of A when A is in radian:
3𝜋 3𝜋 −7𝜋
a. b. c.
4 2 4
−7𝜋 −5𝜋
d. 2
e. 6
14.Find a reference angle for each of the following angles;

a. 130° b. 1030° c. 340°
d. −236° e. −720°
15.If A is an acute angle, then find angle 𝐴 when:
1 2cosA
a. cos30° = b. sin𝐴 = cos𝐴 c. 1 =
sec 𝐴 √2
4
16.If 𝐴 is an obtuse angle and sin 𝐴 = 5, then evaluate
a. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 b. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 c. 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝐴 d. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴

17.Find the height of the tree if the angle of the elevation of its top changes from 25°
to 50° and the observer advances 15 meters towards its base.
18. The angle of depression of the top and the foot of a flagpole as seen from the top
of a building 145 meters away are 26° and 34°, respectively. Find the heights of
the pole and the building.
5
19.If cos𝐴 = and 0° ≤ 𝐴 ≤ 180°, find the values of
13
a. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 b. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
20.Find the solution that satisfy 2 + √3sec𝜃 = 0 if 0° ≤ 𝜃 < 360°.
21.Solve 3√2 + 3csc𝜃 = 0 , if 0° ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋.
248
2 3𝜋 7𝜋
22.Evaluate 3 csc 4
− sec 4
.
sec 2 𝜃−tan 2 𝜃
23.Show that 1+cot 2 𝜃
= sin2 𝜃.
cos 𝐴 1+sin 𝐴
24.Show that 1+sin 𝐴 + cos 𝐴
= 2sec𝐴.
25.Evaluate 4sin 4 + sin (− 3 )

𝜋 𝜋
26.Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of angle 𝑎 in the right-angled
triangle shown in figure 4.45.
Figure 4.45
27.Find sin θ, cos θ and tan θ for the right-angled triangle as shown in figure 4.46.
Figure 4.46
28.If 𝜃 is an angle in standard position and 𝑃(6, 8) is a point in the terminal side
of 𝜃 , then evaluate the sec𝜃, csc𝜃, and cot𝜃.
29.If 𝜃 = 45°, the find csc𝜃, sec𝜃 and cot𝜃.
30.Using unit circle, find the values of the cosecant, secant and cotangent functions
if 𝜃 = −45°, −225°, −315°, 225°, and 315°.
249
31. Suppose the following points lie on the terminal side of an angle 𝜃. Find the
secant, cosecant and cotangent functions of angle 𝜃.
a. 𝑃(12,5) b. 𝑃(−8,5) c. 𝑃(2,0)
4 3
d. 𝑃 ( 5 , − 5) e. 𝑃(√2, √5)
3
32. If cot𝜃 = 8 and 𝜃 is in the first quadrant, find the other five trigonometric
functions.
33. A cable tied to an electric pole is affixed at a point on the ground 𝑥 meters away
from the foot of the pole to keep it upright. If the cable makes an angle 𝜃 with the
ground, find is the length of the cable?
34. A man observed a pole of height 60 ft. According to his measurement, the pole
cast a 20 ft. long shadow. Find the angle of elevation of the sun from the tip of
the shadow using trigonometry.
250
Unit 5: Circle
5
.
UNIT
CIRCLE
Unit Outcomes
Explain the symmetrical properties of circles.

Use the symmetrical properties of circles to solve related problems.
Write angle properties of circles in their own words.
Apply angle properties of circles to solve related problems.
Find perimeters and areas of segments and sectors.
Unit Contents
5.1 Symmetrical Properties of Circles
5.2 Angle Properties of Circles
5.3 Arc Length, Perimeters and Areas of Segments and Sectors
5.4 Theorems on Angles and Arcs Determined by Lines Intersecting
inside, on and outside a Circle
Summary
Review Exercise
251
Unit 5: Circle
✓ circumference ✓ sector
✓ symmetry ✓ segment
✓ perimeter ✓ quadrilateral
✓ circle ✓ ratio ✓ triangle
✓ arc ✓ area ✓ angle
Introduction
You have learnt several concepts and principles in your lower grades. In the present
unit you will learn more about circles. Perimeter and area of segment and a sector of
a circle are the major topics covered in this unit.
5.1 Symmetrical Properties of Circles
Activity 5.1
1. What is a circle?
2. Draw a circle and indicate its center, radius and diameter.
3. What is line of symmetry?
4. How many lines of symmetry does an equilateral triangle have?
A circle is the locus of points (set of points) in a plane each of which is equidistant
from a fixed point in the plane. The fixed point is called the center of the circle and the
constant distance is called its radius. Thus, the circle is defined by its center O and
radius r.
A circle is also defined by two of its properties such as area and perimeter. Recall that
area of a circle, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 and perimeter of the circle, 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑟.
Observe that in a symmetrical figure the length of any line segment or the size of any
angle in one half of the figure is equal to the length of the corresponding line segment
252
Unit 5: Circle
or the size of the corresponding angle in the other half of the figure.
If in figure 5.1, point 𝑃 coincides with point 𝑄 when the figure is about line 𝐴𝐵 and
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ intersects line 𝐴𝐵 at 𝑁, then ∠𝑃N𝐴 coincides with ∠𝑄N𝐴 and therefore each is
if 𝑃𝑄
a right angle with ̅𝑃𝑁
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ 𝑄𝑁
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ . If 𝑃 and 𝑄 are the corresponding points for a line of
symmetry 𝐴𝐵 , the perpendicular bisector of ̅𝑃𝑄
̅ ̅ ̅ is 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ .
Conversely, if ̅𝐴𝐵
̅ ̅ ̅ is the perpendicular bisector of 𝑃𝑄
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ , then
𝑃 and 𝑄 are corresponding points for the line of symmetry
𝐴𝐵 and we say that 𝑃 is the image of 𝑄 and 𝑄 is the image of
𝑃 in line segment 𝐴𝐵.
Figure 5.1
If we fold a circle over any of its diameters, then the parts of the circle on each side of
the diameter will match up and the parts of the circle on each side of the diameter must
have the same area. Thus, any diameter of a circle can be considered as a line of
symmetry for the circle.
An object can have zero lines of symmetry or it can have infinite lines of symmetry.
Example 1
Determine the number of lines of symmetry for the figure 5.2.
Solution:
Figure 5.2
We know that a circle has infinite lines of symmetry but as
per the given Figure 5.2, a circle has been inscribed in a
square. A square has 4 lines of symmetry. Therefore, the
given figure 5.2 has 4 lines of symmetry as shown in figure
5.3.
Figure 5.3
253
Unit 5: Circle
Theorem 5.1
The line segment joining the center of a circle to the midpoint of a chord is
perpendicular to the chord.
Proof:
Given: A circle with center 𝑂 and a chord ̅𝑃𝑄
̅ ̅ ̅ whose midpoint is 𝑀 (see figure 5.4).
We want to prove that ∠𝑂MP is a right angle.
Draw the diameter ̅ST
̅ ̅ through point M. Then, the circle is
symmetric about ̅ST
̅ ̅ and ̅PM
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ ̅QM
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ . So, ̅ST
̅ ̅ is
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and hence ∠𝑂MP is a right
perpendicular bisector of PQ
angle.
Figure 5.4
Exercise 5.1
1. 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an equilateral triangle and circle O is its circumcircle. How many lines
of symmetry does figure 5.5 have?
Figure 5.5
2. In figure 5.4 above, show that ∆𝑂𝑃M ≡ ∆𝑂𝑄M .
254
Unit 5: Circle
Characteristics of Chord (1)
Theorem 5.2
The line segment drawn from the center of a circle perpendicular to a chord
bisects the chord.
Proof:
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ is drawn from center 𝑂 perpendicular to the
Given: A circle with center 𝑂 and 𝑂𝑁
chord 𝐴𝐵 as shown in figure 5.6.
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ 𝑁𝐵
We want to prove that 𝐴𝑁 ̅̅̅̅ .
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and 𝑂𝐵
Join 𝑂𝐴 ̅̅̅̅ .
1. ̅𝑂𝐴
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ 𝑂𝐵
̅̅̅̅ radii of circle
2. m(∠𝐴𝑁𝑂) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝑁𝑂) both equal to 90°
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ 𝑂𝑁
3. 𝑂𝑁 ̅̅̅̅ common side
4. ∆𝐴𝑂𝑁 ≡ ∆𝐵𝑂𝑁 by RHS-criteria of
congruency
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ 𝐵𝑁
5. 𝐴𝑁 ̅̅̅̅ by step 4 Figure 5.6
Theorem 5.3
Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the center of the circle.
Proof:
Given: Chords 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐷 are equal in length.
Construction: Join points 𝐴 and 𝐶 with center 𝑂 and drop
perpendiculars from 𝑂 to the chords 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐷 (see
figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7
We want to prove: ̅OP
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ ̅OQ
̅̅̅
255
Unit 5: Circle
Steps Statement Reason

1 𝐴𝑃 =
𝐴𝐵
, 𝐶𝑄 =
𝐶𝐷 The perpendicular from the center
2 2
bisects the chord
2 𝑚(∠𝐶𝑄𝑂) = m(∠𝐴𝑃𝑂) = 900 ̅𝑂𝑃
̅ ̅ ̅ ⊥ 𝐴𝐵
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and ̅ 𝑂𝑄
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ⊥ 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅
3 ̅𝑂𝐴
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ 𝑂𝐶̅̅̅̅ Radii of the same circle
4 ̅𝐴𝐵
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ ̅𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅ Given
5 𝛥OPA ≡ 𝛥OQC RHS postulate of congruency
6 ̅OP
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ ̅OQ
̅̅̅ From statement 5
Example 1
In figure 5.8, a chord of a circle of radius 5 cm is 8 cm long. Find the distance of the
chord from the center.
Solution:
Given: 𝐴𝐵 = 8cm and 𝑂𝐵 = 5cm
𝑂𝑀2 + 𝑀𝐵 2 = 𝑂𝐵 2
𝑂𝑀 = √𝑂𝐵 2 − 𝑀𝐵 2
= √52 − 42
= √25 − 16
= √9 cm = 3cm. Figure 5.8
Exercise 5.2
In figure 5.9, a chord of a circle of radius 5 cm is 6 cm long. Find the distance of the
chord from the center.
Figure 5.9
256
Unit 5: Circle
Characteristics of Chord (2)
Theorem 5.4
If the angles subtended by the chords of a circle are equal in measure, then the
length of the chords are equal.
Proof:
From figure 5.10, consider ∆AOB and ∆POQ.
Figure 5.10
Steps Statement Reason

1 ̂ B ≡ PO
AO ̂ Q Given
2 ̅OA
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ OB
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ ̅OP
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ ̅OQ
̅̅̅ Radii of the same circle
3 𝛥AOB ≡ 𝛥POQ SAS postulate of congruence
4 ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ PQ
AB ̅̅̅̅ From step 3
Theorem 5.5
Chords which are equal in length subtend equal angles at the center of the circle.
Proof:
From figure 5.11, consider ∆AOB and ∆POQ
We want to prove ∠AOB ≡ ∠POQ.
Figure 5.11
257
Unit 5: Circle
Statement Reason
1 ̅AB
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ PQ
̅̅̅̅ Given
2 ̅OA
̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ OB
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ OP
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ≡ ̅OQ
̅̅̅ Radii of the same circle
3 ∆𝐴𝑂𝐵 ≡ ∆𝑃𝑂𝑄 SSS postulate of Congruence
4 m(∠AOB) = 𝑚(∠𝑃𝑂𝑄) From step 3
Exercise 5.3
1. A chord of length 20cm is at a distance of 8cm from the center of the circle. Find
the radius of the circle.
2. A chord of a circle of radius 8cm is 10cm long. Find the distance of the chord
from the center of the circle.
3. AB and CD are equal chords in a circle of radius 10 cm. If each chord is 16 cm,
find their distance from the center of the circle.
5.2 Angle Properties of Circles

Central Angles and Inscribed Angles (1)
Activity 5.2
1. Define the following terms: chord, diameter, radius, tangent, secant, arc.
2. Discuss a major and minor arc.
• A major arc is an arc connecting two endpoints on a circle

and its measure is greater than180°or π.
Figure 5.12
258
Unit 5: Circle
• Minor arc is an arc connecting two endpoints on a circle

and its measure is less than 180° or π.
(See figure 5.13)
Figure 5.13
• A major arc is usually referred to with three letters and a minor arc is usually
referred to with only two letters.
• A central angle is an angle formed by two radii with vertex
at the center of the circle.
(See figure 5.14)
Figure 5.14
An inscribed angle is an angle with vertex on the circle
formed by two intersecting chords.
(See figure 5.15)
Figure 5.15
Example 1
In figure 5.16, m(∠𝐴𝑂𝐵) is a central angle with an

intercepted minor arc 𝐴𝐵 whose measure is 82°, i.e.,
𝑥 = 82°.
Figure 5.16
259
Unit 5: Circle
Theorem 5.6
If an inscribed and a central angle intercept the same arc, then the measure of an
inscribed angle is half of the measure of a central angle.
Proof:
Let’s prove 𝜃 = 2𝑎 for all 𝜃 and 𝑎 , where 𝜃 is the central
angle. These three cases account for all possible situations
where an inscribed angle and a central angle intercept the same
arc.
Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18
Case I. The diameter lies along one ray of an inscribed angle (see figure 5.19) .
Step 1 Spot the isosceles triangle.
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and ̅𝐵𝐷
𝐵𝐶 ̅ ̅ ̅ are both radii, so they have the same length.
So, ∆𝐷𝐵𝐶 is an isosceles, which also means that its base
angles are congruent. Then, 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐷𝐶) = 𝑎.
Step 2 Spot the straight angle. So, 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 180° − 𝜃
Step 3 Write an equation and solve for 𝑎.
𝑎 + 𝑎 + (180° − 𝜃) = 180° which implies 2𝑎 − 𝜃 = 0 Figure 5.19
which again implies 2𝑎 = 𝜃. Proved.
260
Unit 5: Circle
Case II. The diameter is between the rays of the inscribed angle 𝑎 (see figure 5.20).
Step 1 Draw a diameter and using the diameter let’s
break ‘𝑎’ into 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 , and 𝜃 into 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 as
Step 2 Use what we learned from case I to establish two
equations
• 𝑎1 + 𝑎1 + (180° − 𝜃1 ) = 180°
2𝑎1 − 𝜃1 = 0 which implies 2𝑎1 = 𝜃1 .
Figure 5.20
• 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + (180° − 𝜃2 ) = 180° which implies 𝜃2 = 2𝑎2 .
Step 3 Add the above two equations
𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 2𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 which implies 𝜃 = 2(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 ) = 2𝑎.
Case III. The diameter is outside the rays of the inscribed angle.
Step 1 Draw a diameter and using the diameter let’s create two new angles
𝜃2 and 𝑎2 as shown in figure 5.21.
Step 2 Use what we learned from case I to establish two
equations.
• 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + (180° − 𝜃2 ) = 180°
2𝑎2 − 𝜃2 = 0 which implies 2𝑎2 = 𝜃2
• 𝑎 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 𝑎2 + (180° − 𝜃2 − 𝜃) = 180°
2𝑎 + 2𝑎2 − 𝜃2 − 𝜃 = 0 but 2𝑎2 = 𝜃2
∴ 𝜃 = 2𝑎. We prove that 𝜃 = 2𝑎. Figure 5.21
Example 1
In the figure 5.22, if 𝑂 is the center of a circle

with 𝑚(∠𝑃R𝑄) = 75° , what is the size of ∠𝑃𝑂𝑄?
Solution:
𝑚(∠𝑃𝑂𝑄) = 2 × 𝑚(∠𝑃𝑅𝑄)
= 2 × 75° = 150°.
Figure 5.22
261
Unit 5: Circle
Example 2
In figure 5.23, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an inscribed angle with an intercepted minor arc from A to
C. Find the value of 𝑥.
Solution:
∠A𝐵C is an inscribed angle.
1
So, m(∠ABC) = 2 m(arcAC)
1
= (82° ) = 41°
2
Figure 5.23
Exercise 5.4
1. In the figure 5.24, 𝑂 is the center of a circle. Find the measure of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Figure 5.24
2. In figure 5.25, O is the center of a circle. Find the measure of ∠𝑥.
a. b.
Figure 5.25
262
Unit 5: Circle
Central Angles and Inscribed Angles (2)
Theorem 5.7
Inscribed angles subtended by the same arc have the same measure.
Proof:
1
In Figure 5.26, m(∠𝐴P𝐵) = 2 m(∠𝐴O𝐵) (By theorem 5.6)
1
m(∠𝐴Q𝐵) = 2 m(∠𝐴O𝐵) (By theorem 5.6)
Therefore, m(∠𝐴P𝐵) = m(∠𝐴Q𝐵).
Figure5.26
Example 1
In the figure 5.27, what is the measure of angle 𝐶𝐵𝑋?

Solution:
Given: m(∠𝐴D𝐵) = m(∠𝐴C𝐵) = 32° and ∠𝐴C𝐵 ≡ ∠𝑋C𝐵.
So, in 𝛥𝐵𝑋𝐶 we have 𝑚(∠𝐵X𝐶) = 85° and
𝑚(∠𝑋C𝐵) = 32°. By angle sum theorem,
𝑚(∠𝐶B𝑋) + 𝑚(∠𝐵X𝐶) + 𝑚(∠𝐵C𝑋) = 180°.
𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝑋) + 85° + 32° = 180°.

𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝑋) = 180° − 1170 = 63°.
Figure 5.27
Theorem 5.8 Angle in a semicircle (Thales' Theorem)

An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
Proof:
263
Unit 5: Circle
The given angle A𝑃B is subtended by a semicircle as shown in figure 5.28. The
corresponding central angle which is subtended by arc 𝐴𝐵 is a straight angle, that is,
the central angle is 180°. Hence, by theorem 5.6,
1
m(∠𝐴P𝐵) = 2 m(∠𝐴O𝐵)
1
= 2
× 180°
= 90°
Figure 5.28
Example 1
If 𝐴𝐵 is the diameter of the circle with center 𝑂 as shown in the figure 5.29, then find
the measure of ∠𝐵AC.
Solution:
By Thales' Theorem m(∠𝐴C𝐵) = 90°.
By angle sum theorem we have,
m(∠𝐵A𝐶) + m(∠𝐴C𝐵) + m(∠𝐴B𝐶) = 180°,
m(∠𝐵A𝐶) + 90° + 55° = 180°.
Hence m(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) = 35°. Figure 5.29
Exercise 5.5
In figure 5.30, O is the center of a circle. Find the measure of ∠𝑥 and ∠𝑦.
a. b. c.
Figure 5.30
264
Unit 5: Circle
Cyclic Quadrilateral
Definition 5.1
A quadrilateral is said to be a cyclic quadrilateral if there is a circle passing
through all its four vertices.
Theorem 5.9
In a cyclic quadrilateral WXYZ in figure 5.31, the sum of either pair of opposite
angles is 180° .
Proof:
Given: A cyclic quadrilateral WXYZ is inscribed in a circle with center 𝑂 as shown in
figure 5.31.
Construction: Join the vertices 𝑊 and 𝑌 with center 𝑂.
We want to show: m(∠WXY) + m(∠ WZY) = 180°.
Consider arc WXY and arc WZY
1. ∠WOY ≡ 2∠WZY (The angle subtended by same
arc is half of the angle subtended at the center)
2. Reflex angle WOY ≡ 2arcWXY (the angle
subtended by same arc is half of the angle
subtended at the center) Figure 5.31
3. m(∠WOY) + Reflex m(∠WOY) ≡ 360° (Using steps 1 and 2)
4. 2m(∠WZY) + 2m(∠WXY) = 360° (Using steps 1 and 2)
5. 2(m(∠WZY) + m(∠WXY)) = 360°(Why?)
6. m(∠WZY) + m(∠WXY) = 180° (Why?)
Example 1
If the measures of all four angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are given as (4𝑦 + 2),
(𝑦 + 20), (5𝑦 - 2), and 7𝑦 respectively, find the value of 𝑦.
265
Unit 5: Circle
Solution:
The sum of all four angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 360°. So, to find the value of 𝑦,
we need to equate the sum of the given four angles to 360°.
(4𝑦 + 2) + (𝑦 + 20) + (5𝑦 − 2) + 7𝑦 = 360°
17𝑦 + 20 = 360°
17𝑦 = 340°.
Therefore, 𝑦 = 20.
Exercise 5.6
1. In figure 5.32, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑖𝑠 a cyclic quadrilateral drawn
inside a circle with center 𝑂 and m(∠ABC) = 108°.
What is the measure of m(∠ADC)?
2. In the figure 5.33, 𝑂 is the center of a circle. Find the Figure 5.32
measure of ∠𝑥 and ∠𝑦.
3. Find the value of angle 𝑥 and angle 𝑦 as shown in figure

5.34.
Figure 5.33
Figure 5.34 Figure 5.35
266
Unit 5: Circle
4. Given circle with center O, as shown in the figure 5.35,

a. Name one minor arc in the circle.
b. Name one major arc in the circle.
c. Name the angle subtended by arc BD.
d. Name the inscribed angle subtended by arc BD.
e. Name an angle in a semicircle.
Ǥ Two angles subtended by chord 𝐴𝐵.
5. Given: Circle with center 𝑂 as shown in the Figure 5.36
with m(∠DOB) = 86°.
Calculate:
a. m (∠𝐷𝐴𝐵) b. m (∠𝐴𝑂𝐵))
c. m (∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) d. m (∠ 𝑂𝐷𝐵)
e. m (∠𝐴𝐸𝐵) Figure 5.36

6. Let V, W, X and Y are points on the circumference of a
circle with center 𝑂 as shown in figure 5.37. Chords VX
and WY intersect at a point Z, (∠XVW) = 72° and
m( ∠VXY) = 280 . What is the measure of (∠VZW)?
7. In each of the following figures, 𝑂 is the center of the
circle. Calculate the measure of the angles marked
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝 and 𝑞. Figure 5.37
a. b.
Figure 5.38

267
Unit 5: Circle
5.3 Arc Lengths, Perimeters and Areas of Segments

and Sectors
Length of Arc and Chord
Activity 5.3
1. Discuss circumference and central angle.

2. Define a sector.
Arc length is an important aspect to understand portions of curved lengths. As you
will learn in this lesson, combining our knowledge of circumference and central
angle measures, we will find arc length.
Definition 5.2
Arc length is the length of an arc which is a portion of the circumference of a

circle.
For a circle of radius r subtended by an angle 𝜃, the length 𝑠 of

the corresponding arc is:
𝜃 𝜃
𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 ×
3600
or 𝜋𝑑 × 3600
where 𝑑 is the diameter of a circle (see figure 5.39).

Figure 5.39
Example 1
Find the arc length that a central angle of 150° subtends in a circle of radius 6 cm as
Solution: 150°
The length 𝑠 of the corresponding arc is O 6 𝑐𝑚

𝜃
𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 ×
3600
Figure 5.40
268
Unit 5: Circle
Given: 𝜃 = 150°, 𝑟 = 6cm.

𝜃 150°
arc length= 𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 3600 = 2𝜋 × 6 × 360° = 5𝜋 cm
Length of a chord
Let the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 be 𝑀, and the length of the chord 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝑀 be 𝑙 and 𝑚
respectively. Using trigonometric ratios on the right-angled triangle OAM,
𝜃
𝑚 = 𝑟sin ( 2 ) A
𝜃
Then, 𝑙 = 2𝑚 = 2𝑟sin ( 2 ) M
𝜃
𝜃 B
In general, the length of a chord is defined as 𝑙 = 2𝑟sin ( 2 ), O 𝑟
where 𝑟 is the radius of the circle and 𝜃 is the angle

subtended at the center by the chord.
Figure 5.41
A
𝑙
𝜃
B
O 𝑟
Figure 5.42
Example 2
Find the chord length 𝐴𝐵 if 𝜃 = 120° when a central angle subtended in a circle of
radius 8cm as shown in figure 5.43.
A
Solution:
θ 120°
Chord length = 2𝑟 sin ( 2 ) = 2 × 8cm × sin ( 2
) 120°
B
O 8 𝑐𝑚
= 16cm × sin(60°)
√3
= 16cm × 2
= 8√3cm
Figure 5.43
269
Unit 5: Circle
Perimeter of a segment
A segment is part of a circle bounded in between a chord and an arc of a circle.
Figure 5.44
Inside a circle, there can be a minor segment and a major segment as shown in figure
5.44. A segment has an area and perimeter that measures all the way around the edge
of the segment.
• When a segment in a circle is bounded by a chord and an arc, the perimeter of
a segment is given by:
Perimeter of segment = Length of chord + Length of arc
Example 1
Find the perimeter of the segment as shown in figure 5.45. (Use π.)
Solution:
160° 160°
Perimeter of segment = 2𝜋 × 10 × 360° + 2 × 10 × sin ( )
2
4
= 20𝜋 × 9 + 20 × sin(80°)
80
= 9
𝜋 + 20 × 0.985
80
= ( 9 𝜋 + 19.7) m Figure 5.45
270
Unit 5: Circle
Exercise 5.7
1. Name the parts of circles in figure 5.46.
Figure 5.46
2. Find the length of arc AB and arc PQR. (Use π.)
a. b.
3. Find the length of chords AB and CD.

C
O D
271
Unit 5: Circle
4. Find the perimeter of the shaded segment with radius 8cm. (Use 𝜋.)
Area and Perimeter of Sector

The sector is basically a portion of a circle enclosed by two
radii and an arc. It divides the circle into two regions, namely
major and minor Sector
(see figure 5.47).
Figure 5.47
Area of a Sector
Consider a circle of radius 𝑟, centre 𝑂, and
m(∠𝑃𝑂𝑄) = 𝑥 = 𝜃
(in degrees) as shown in figure 5.48. The area of a sector is
given by:
𝜃
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ( 360°)
Figure 5.48
Perimeter of a Sector
Perimeter of sector = 2 radius + arc length.
𝜃
Therefore, the perimeter of sector = 2𝑟 + 2𝜋𝑟 ×
360°
Example 1
If the angle of the sector with radius 6 cm is 210°, then find the area and perimeter of
the sector. (Use 𝜋.)
Solution:
272
Unit 5: Circle
Given: 𝑟 = 6 cm, 𝜃 = 210°

𝜃
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ( 360°) 210°
210°
= 𝜋 × (6)2 × ( 360°) 𝑂 6 𝑐𝑚
7
= 𝜋 × 36 × 12
= 21𝜋 cm2
𝜃
𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 2𝑟 + 2𝜋𝑟 × 360°
210°
= 2 ∙ 6 + 2𝜋 ∙ 6 × 360°
= 12 + 7𝜋
Thus, the perimeter of the sector is (12 + 7𝜋)cm.
Area of a Segment
An arc and two radii of a circle form a sector. These 𝐴
two radii and the chord of the segment together form

𝜃
a triangle. Thus, the area of a segment of a circle is 𝑂
𝐵
obtained by subtracting the area of the triangle from

the area of the sector. i.e., Area of a segment of
circle = area of the sector − area of the triangle. Figure 5.49
𝜃 1
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × 360° − 2 𝑟 2 sin𝜃
Example 2
Find the area of the shaded region as shown in the figure 5.50.
Solution: A
𝜃 1
Area of segment: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × − 𝑟 2 sin𝜃
360° 2 60°
60° 1 4 𝑐𝑚
B
= 𝜋 ∙ 42 × 360° − 2 × 42 × sin60° 𝑂
1 1 √3
= 16 ∙ 6 𝜋 − 2 ∙ 16 ∙ 2
8
= 3 𝜋 − 4√3 Figure 5.50
273
Unit 5: Circle
8
Hence, the area is (3 𝜋 − 4√3) m2 .
Example 3
If the area of a sector is 100 m2 and the area of the enclosed triangle is 78 𝑚2 , what is
the area of the segment?
Solution:
Area of the segment = area of the sector − area of the triangle

= 100 − 78
= 22
Therefore, the area of the segment is 22 m2 . Figure 5.51
Exercise 5.8
1. Find the area and perimeter of the shaded sectors (use 𝜋).
a. b.
Figure 5.52
2. Find the area of the segment (use 𝜋).
A A
45° 120°
B
B
𝑂 4 𝑐𝑚
𝑂 6 𝑐𝑚
a. b.
Figure 5.53
274
Unit 5: Circle
5.4 Theorems on Angles and Arcs Determined by

Lines Intersecting inside, on and outside a Circle.
Angles Formed by Chords
Theorem 5.10
If two chords intersect inside a circle, then the measure of an angle formed
between the chords is one half the sum of the measure of the arcs intercepted by
the angle and its vertical angle.
In the circle, as shown in figure 5.54, the two chords PR and QS intersect inside the
circle at point T.
1
m(∠𝑃T𝑄) = 2 [m(arc𝑃𝑄) + m(arc𝑅𝑆)]
1
and m(∠𝑄T𝑅) = 2 [m(arc𝑄𝑅) + m(arc(𝑃𝑆)]
Figure 5.54
Example 1
In the circle shown in figure 5.55 if m(arc𝑃𝑄) = 68° and m(arc𝑅𝑆) = 128°, then find
measure of ∠𝑅T𝑆, where ̅𝑃𝑅
̅ ̅ ̅ and 𝑄𝑆
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ intersects at 𝑇.
Solution:
1
m(∠𝑅𝑇𝑆) = 2 [m(arc𝑃𝑄) + m(arc𝑅𝑆)]
1
= (68° + 128°)
2
1
= 2 × 196° = 98°
Therefore, m(∠𝑅𝑇𝑆) = 98°
Figure 5.55
275
Unit 5: Circle
Exercise 5.9
1. In figure 5.56, if m(arc𝐴𝐶) = 28° and m(𝑎𝑟𝑐𝐵𝐷) = 132°, find 𝑥.
Figure 5.56
2. Given a circle with center 𝑂, as shown in figure 5.57. If m(arc 𝐻𝑇) = m(arc 𝐽𝐻)
and m(∠PTH) = 580 , calculate the measure of the remaining angles
∠PRH, ∠THS, ∠TSH, ∠HTS and minor arc 𝐻𝑇, minor arc 𝑇𝑆.
Figure 5.57
3. Prove Theorem: The point of intersection separates
the chord into 2 segments. The product of the lengths
of the segments for one chord is the same as the
product for the other chord, i.e., ̅𝐴𝑃
̅ ̅ ̅ ∙ ̅𝑃𝐵
̅ ̅ ̅ = ̅𝐶𝑃
̅ ̅ ̅ ∙ 𝑃𝐷
̅̅̅̅
(see figure 5.58).
Figure 5.58
276
Unit 5: Circle
4. Let’s prove theorem 5.10 following the steps below.

Step 1. Draw four radii 𝑂𝑃, 𝑂𝑄, 𝑂𝑅 and 𝑂𝑆 and chord 𝑄𝑅.
Figure 5.59
1
Step 2. Show m(∠𝑄𝑅𝑇) = 2 m(∠𝑄𝑂𝑃). Similarly, show
1
m(∠𝑅𝑄𝑇) = m(∠𝑅𝑂𝑆).
2
Figure 5.60
Step 3. Show m(∠𝑄𝑇𝑃) = m(∠𝑄𝑅𝑇) + m(∠R𝑄𝑇).
Figure 5.61
Step 4. From step 2 and 3,
show m(∠𝑄𝑇𝑃) = m(∠𝑄𝑅𝑇) + m(∠𝑅𝑄𝑇)
1 1
= 2 m(∠𝑄𝑂𝑃) + 2 m(∠𝑅𝑂𝑆)
1
= 2 [m(∠𝑄𝑂𝑃) + m(∠𝑅𝑂𝑆)]
1
= 2 m(𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑄𝑃 + 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑅𝑆)
277
Unit 5: Circle
Angles Formed by Secants and Tangents
Theorem 5.11
The measure of the angle formed by two secants, two tangents, or a secant and a
tangent that intersect at a point outside a circle is equal to one-half the positive
difference of the measures of the intercepted arcs.
In figure 5.62, we illustrate this result for the angle formed by the intersection of two
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and ̅𝐴𝐸
secants, 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅ .
Figure 5.62
The minor arc intercepted by the two secants is 𝐵𝐷 and an arc 𝐶𝐸. Hence, by the
theorem of angles between intersecting secants,
1
𝑥 = 2 [m(arc𝐶𝐸) − m(arc𝐵𝐷)]
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and
In the same way, we illustrate the result for the intersection of two tangents 𝐴𝐵
̅𝐴𝐶
̅ ̅ ̅ as shown in figure 5.63.
1
Hence, 𝑥 = 2 [m(arc𝐵𝐷𝐶) − m(arc𝐵𝐶)]
Figure 5.63
278
Unit 5: Circle
Example 1
In figure 5.64, if m(arc𝐵𝐷) = 43° and m(arc𝐶𝐸) = 107°, then find m(∠CAE).
Solution:
1
m(∠CAE) = 2 (m(arc𝐶𝐸) − m(arc𝐵𝐷))
1
= 2 (107° − 43°)
1
= 2 (64°) = 320
Therefore, m(∠CAE) = 320
Figure 5.64
Exercise 5.10
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and 𝑅𝑇
1. In figure 5.65, 𝑅𝑆 ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ are tangent lines
to the circle with center O. If ∠𝑆R𝑇) = 40°,
what is the m(∠𝑇𝑈𝑆)?
Figure 5.65
2. Theorem: The measure of an angle

inscribed in a circle is half of the measure of
the arc subtending. Prove it (see figure 5.66).
3. Theorem: An angle inscribed in a semi-circle Figure 5.66
is a right angle (see figure 5.67). The converse

of this corollary is that a circular arc in which
a right angle is inscribed must be a semi-
circle, i.e.,
1
m(∠A𝐵C) = 2 m(arcAXC) = 90°.
Figure 5.67
279
Unit 5: Circle
4. Discuss a tangent line to a circle and point of tangency.

5. Prove that if from one external point, two tangents are drawn to a circle then they
have equal tangent segments.
6. Let’s prove theorem 5.11 following the steps below.
Step 1. Draw four radii 𝑂𝐵, 𝑂𝐶, 𝑂𝐸 and 𝑂𝐷.
Make m(∠𝐶𝑂𝐸) = 𝑎 and m(∠𝐵𝑂𝐷) = 𝑏
Figure 5.68
Step 2. Draw two chords BE and DC.
1 1
Then m(∠𝐶𝐵𝐸) = 2 m(∠𝐶𝑂𝐸) = 2 𝑎.
1 1
Similarly, m(∠𝐵𝐸𝐷) = 2 m(∠𝐵𝑂𝐷) = 2 𝑏.
Figure 5.69
Step 3. Take ∆𝐴𝐵𝐸. m(∠𝐵𝐴𝐸) + m(∠BEA) = m(∠𝐶𝐵𝐸)
1 1
Step 4. From step 3, show 𝑥 + 2 𝑏 = 2
𝑎.
Therefore,
1 1 1
𝑥 = 2𝑎 − 2
𝑏 = 2 (𝑎 − 𝑏).
1
∴ m(∠𝐶𝐴𝐸) = 2 [m(∠𝐶𝑂𝐸) − m(∠𝐵𝑂𝐷)]
1
= 2 [m(arc𝐶𝐸) − m(arc𝐵𝐷)].
280
Summary
1. A circle is the locus of points (set of points) in a plane each of which is
equidistant from a fixed point in the plane.
2. A tangent line to a circle meets the circle in one point and is perpendicular to the
radius (and diameter) to that point.
3. The line segment joining the center of a circle to the midpoint of a chord is
perpendicular to the chord.
4. A central angle is an angle formed by two radii with vertex at the center of the
circle.
5. An inscribed angle is an angle with its vertex on the circle formed by two
intersecting chords.
6. A figure has a line of symmetry, if it can be folded so that one half of the figure
coincides with the other half. A figure that has one line of symmetry is called a
symmetrical figure.
7. A diameter perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord.
8. The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the center of the circle.
9. In the same circle, equal chords are equidistant from the center.
10.Line segments that are tangents to a circle from an outside point are equal.
11.If an inscribed and a central angle intercept the same arc, then the measure of
the inscribed angle is half of the measure of the central angle.
12.The angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
13.The length 𝑙 of an arc that subtends an angle 𝜃 at the center of the circle with
radius 𝑟 is:
𝜃
𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 3600
14.The length 𝑚 of a chord that subtended an angle 𝜃 at the center of the circle
𝜃
with radius 𝑟 is: 𝑚 = 2𝑟 sin( 2 )
281
15.The area 𝐴 of a sector with central angle 𝜃 and radius 𝑟 is given by:
𝜃
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × 360°
16.The area 𝐴 of a segment associated with a central angle 𝜃 and radius 𝑟 is given
by:
𝜃 1
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × 360° − 2 𝑟 2 sin𝜃
282
Review Exercise
1. Two chords, ̅𝑃𝑄
̅ ̅ ̅ and ̅𝑅𝑆
̅ ̅ ̅ , of a circle intersect at right angles at a point inside the
circle and if m(∠𝑄𝑃𝑅) = 25°, find m(∠𝑃𝑄𝑆).
2. In figure 5.70, AB and CD are chords of circle O. Line
segment of OP is perpendicular to AB and line
segment of OQ is perpendicular to CD. If the lengths
of line segment of OP and OQ are equal, prove that
the lengths of chords of AB and CD are equal.
Figure 5.70
3. Find 𝑥 and 𝑦 from figure 5.71.
Figure 5.71
4. If m(𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑃𝑋𝑄) = 168° and the chord and the tangent
intersect at the point of tangency as shown in figure 5.72,
then find 𝑦.
5. If two chords intersect inside the circle as shown in

figure 5.73, then find 𝑥. Figure 5.72
Figure 5.73
283
6. If 𝐿, 𝑀 and 𝑁are points on the circumference

of a circle with center 𝑂 and m(∠𝑀𝑂𝑁) =
98°, as shown in figure 5.74, then find
m(∠𝑀𝐿𝑁)
Figure 5.74
7. In the figure 5.75, if m (arc 𝐴𝐶) = m (arc 𝐶𝐹),
m (arc 𝐴𝐵) = 46°, m(∠𝐴𝐺𝐹) = 58°,
m(∠𝐵𝐶𝐷) = 10° and m (∠𝐺𝐶𝐹) = 35°.
Calculate: a. m(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶)
b. m(𝑎𝑟𝑐𝐷𝐺)
c. m(∠𝐷𝐻𝐺)
Figure 5.75
8. Theorem: Prove that sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is

180°.
9. Find the area of the segment shown in figure 5.76 if the
central angle is 0.6 rad and the radius is 10 m.
Figure 5.76
284
10. In figure 5.77, 𝐴𝑃

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ is tangent to the circle. Prove that ∠ 𝐴𝐶𝑃 ≡ ∠𝐵𝐴𝑃
Figure 5.77
11. In figure 5.78, what is the measure of arc ADC If 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 120°?
Figure 5.78
12.In figure 5.79, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a cyclic parallelogram. Show that it is a rectangle.
Figure 5.79
13.In each of the following figures, O is the center and ̅𝐴𝐵

̅ ̅ ̅ is the diameter of the
circle. Calculate the value of 𝑥 in each case.
285
Figure 5.80
14.In figure 5.81, 𝑂 is the Centre of a circle, m(∠ 𝐴𝑂𝐵) = 80° and
m(∠ 𝑃𝑄𝐵 ) = 70°. Find m(∠ 𝑃𝐵𝑂)
Figure 5.81
286
Unit 6: Solid Figures
UNIT
SOLID FIGURES
6
Unit Outcomes
Find surface area and volume of pyramids and cones.

Calculate volume of frustum of pyramids and cones.
Unit Contents
6.1 Revision of prisms and cylinders
6.2 Pyramids, cones and spheres
6.3 Frustum of pyramids and cones
6.4 Surface area and volume of composed solids
6.5 Applications
Summary
Review Exercise
287
✓ Lateral surface ✓ Slant height
✓ Prism ✓ Sphere
✓ Pyramid ✓ Total surface Area
✓ Frustum ✓ Regular pyramid ✓ Volume
✓ Cone ✓ Cross-section ✓ Cylinder
INTRODUCTION
Recall that solid figures are three-dimensional objects, meaning they have length,
width and height. Because they have three dimensions, they have depth and take up
space in our universe. Based on your lower grade lessons, you are familiar with solid
figures like cylinders, prisms, pyramids and cones. You have also seen the formulas
to find the surface areas and volumes of these solid figures. In this unit, you will
learn more about these solid figures. You will study surface areas and volumes of
spheres, frustum of pyramids, frustum of cones and composite solids.
6.1 Revision of Prisms and Cylinders

From previous grades you learned about prisms and cylinders. You also studied the
formulas for finding their surface areas and volumes.
Activity 6.1
1. Complete the blank space for the triangular prism shown in Figure 6.1.
a. Indicate the bases of the prism.
b. The region ABED is called ___________.
c. AD
തതതത, തതതത
BE and തCF
തതത are called ____________.
d. ________ is the altitude of the prism.
288
e. If തCF
തതത were perpendicular to the plane of the
triangle DEF then the prism
would be called ___________.
f. The perimeter of the region DEF is the sum
of _________________.
2. Sketch a right rectangular prism.
Figure 6.1
If LSA denotes the lateral surface area, BA denotes the base area and TSA
denotes the total surface area of a right prism, then
LSA = 𝑝ℎ, where 𝑝 represents the perimeter of the base region and h
represents the altitude of the prism,
TSA = LSA + 2BA.
The volume 𝑉of any prism equals the product of its base area BA and altitude ℎ.
That is, V = BA∙h
Example 1
Find the total surface area and the volume of the right
triangular prism shown in figure 6.2.
Solution:
LSA = 𝑝ℎ = (4 + 3 + 5) × 6 = 72 cm2 .
Since the triangle has sides of lengths 3 cm, 4 cm and
5 cm it is a right-angled triangle with legs 3 cm and 4
cm and hypotenuse 5 cm.
Observe also that 32 + 42 = 52 .
Figure 6.2
289
Therefore,
1 1
BA = 2 𝑎𝑏 = 2 × 3 × 4 = 6 cm2 ,
TSA = LSA + 2BA = 84 cm2 .

Volume V = BA ∙ ℎ = 6 × 6 = 36 cm3 .
Example 2
Find the total surface area and volume of the rectangular prism shown in figure 6.3.
Solution:
LSA = 𝑝ℎ = (2 × 2 + 2 × 3) × 4 = 40 cm2 ,
BA = 𝑙𝑤 = 3 × 2 = 6 cm2 ,
TSA = LSA + 2BA = 52 cm2 .
Volume 𝑉 = BA ∙ ℎ = 6 × 4 = 24 cm3 .
Figure 6.3
Example 3
Find the total surface area and volume of the prism shown in figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4
Solution:
The solid in Figure 6.4 is a prism with base as shown by the shaded region in
figure 6.5. Base area is the sum of areas of the rectangle and the trapezium.
1
BA = (7 × 6) + 2 (7 + 1)(8) = 74,
290
Since BD
തതതത is the hypotenuse of the right-
angle triangle ∆BCD, the length of
BD = √62 +82 = 10,
തതതത
LSA = 𝑝ℎ = (7 + 14 + 1 + 10 + 6) × 6
= 228,
TSA = LSA + 2BA = 376.
V = BA ∙ ℎ = 74 × 6 = 444. Figure 6.5
Exercise 6.1
1. Find the total surface area and volume of the following solid figures.
a. b.
c.
Figure 6.6
2. The base of a right prism is an equilateral triangle with a side of 4 cm and its
height is 10 cm. Find its total surface area and volume.
3. Find the perimeter of the base of a right prism for which the area of the lateral
surface is 120 cm2 and for which the altitude is 5 cm.
291
4. Find the total surface area and volume of a cube of edge 𝑠 in length.
Activity 6.2
Complete the blank space for the circular cylinder shown in Figure 6.7.
a. The region C is called ______________________.
b. The regions 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are called ___________________.
c. Are the regions 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 congruent and parallel?
d. The altitude of the cylinder is ________.
e. If 𝐿𝑀
തതതത were perpendicular to the plane of the region 𝐴1 then the cylinder
would be called ___________.
Figure 6.7
The lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder is the product of the
circumference of the base and altitude of the cylinder. That is,
LSA = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ where 𝑟 is the radius of the base and ℎ is the altitude of the
cylinder.
The total surface area is the sum of the areas of the bases and the lateral surface
area. That is,
TSA = LSA + 2BA
TSA = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 2 = 2𝜋𝑟(ℎ + 𝑟)
292
The volume V of a circular cylinder is the product of its base area BA and
altitude h. That is,
V = BA ∙ h
V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ, where 𝑟 is the radius of the base.
Figure 6.8
Example 4
Find the total surface area and volume of a right circular cylinder whose radius is 3
cm and whose altitude is 5 cm.
Solution:
TSA = LSA + 2BA = 2𝜋𝑟(ℎ + 𝑟) = (2𝜋 × 3)(5 + 3) = 48𝜋 cm2 .
V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 45𝜋 cm3 .
Example 5
Find the total surface area and volume of the solid figure in figure 6.9.
Solution:
The bases are annulus regions with inner radius 1cm and outer radius 4cm. Let the
inner radius be 𝑟 and the outer radius be R. Then,
BA = Annulus area = 𝜋𝑅 2 − 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )
= 𝜋(42 − 12 ) = 15𝜋 cm2 .
Outer LSA= 2𝜋𝑅ℎ = 2𝜋 × 4 × 6 = 48𝜋 cm2 .
Inner LSA = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2𝜋 × 1 × 6 = 12𝜋 cm2 .
TSA = LSA + 2BA = 60𝜋 + 30𝜋 = 90𝜋 cm2 .
Volume = BA ∙ ℎ = 15𝜋 × 6 = 90𝜋 cm3 . Figure 6.9
293
Exercise 6.2
1. The radius of the base of a right circular cylinder is 4 cm and its altitude is 10 cm.
Find the lateral surface area, the total surface area and the volume of the cylinder.
2. The diameter of the base of a right circular cylinder is 6 cm and its altitude is 8
cm. Find the lateral surface area, the total surface area and the volume of the
cylinder.
3. A circular hole of radius 5 cm is drilled through the center of a right circular
cylinder whose base has radius 7 cm and whose altitude is 8 cm. Find the total
surface area and volume of the resulting solid.
6.2 Pyramids, Cones and Spheres

In your former grades, you learnt about the solid figures, pyramids and cones. Can
you mention their shapes and names? You have learnt that based on the shape of their
base; pyramids are classified into different types.
Activity 6.3
1. Give answer for the following questions.
Figure 6.10
294
a. Name the pyramids in Figure 6.10

b. What is a tetrahedron?
c. What is a regular tetrahedron?
d. If the base of figure 6.10B is a rectangle, then the figure is called
_________.
e. The region FGHIJ in figure 6.10C is called ___________ of the pyramid.
f. In Figure 6.10C the region KGH is called _________________.
KG and KH
g. തതതത തതതത are called __________________.
h. തതതത തതതത are called __________________.
FG and GH
2. What is altitude of a pyramid?
3. In Figure 6.10C, if FGHIJ were a circle then the solid would be called
______________.
4. Give two examples of solid figures that have the shape of a circular cone.
5. What is the shape of the lateral faces of a pyramid?
6. If the base of a pyramid is octagon, find the number of its lateral faces.
7. If the base of a pyramid is a decagon, find the number of its lateral faces.
8. In general, if the base of a pyramid has 𝑛 sides, find the number of its lateral
faces.
Definition 6.1
A pyramid is a solid figure defined by a polygonal base and a point called an
apex (vertex) not on the base. It is formed when each point of the polygonal base
is joined with the vertex.
295
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.11 is a pyramid. The quadrilateral ABCD is the base and point V is the apex
(vertex). For all points R on the base region, the collection of all line segments VR
form the solid called a pyramid. The perpendicular line segment from the vertex to
the plane containing the base is called the height or altitude of a pyramid. In Figure
6.11, VE is the height or altitude of the pyramid. If E is the center of the base region,
then the pyramid is called right pyramid, that is, when the altitude meets the base at
the center. Otherwise, it is called an oblique pyramid. The pyramid in figure 6.11 is
oblique.
A regular pyramid is a pyramid whose base is
a regular polygon and whose lateral edges are
all equal in length.
Figure 6.12 is a regular pyramid, because its
base is a square and the foot O of the altitude
NO of the pyramid is the center of the base.
തതതത
The altitude NR of △ NKL is called slant
height of the Pyramid. Figure 6.12
296
Definition 6.2
A pyramid whose base is a circular region is called a circular cone.
a b
Figure 6.13
A right circular cone is a cone with a foot of its altitude at the center of the base
circle. Figure 6.13b is a right circular cone while Figure 6.13a is an oblique cone.
The line segment from the vertex to a point on the boundary of the base circle is
called the slant height of the cone.
In figure 6.13b, 𝐵𝐶
തതതത is the slant height of the cone. The collection of all line segments
BC where C is any point on the base circle makes the lateral surface of the cone (See
figure 6.13b)
Exercise 6.3
1. Name the following pyramids.
Figure 6.14
297
2. Figure 6.15 shows a circular cone whose base is a circle.

a. What is PQ called?
b. What is PR called?
c. If PQ =4 cm and RQ=3 cm, find the length of PR.
Figure 6.15
3. Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a. All lateral edges of a pyramid are equal in length.
b. All lateral edges of a regular pyramid are equal in length.
c. The length of the slant height of a right circular cone is greater than the length
of its altitude.
d. We can take any face of a triangular pyramid as its base.
e. All faces of a regular pyramid are congruent.
f. All lateral faces of a regular pyramid are congruent.
6.2.1 Surface Area of Pyramids and Cones

The surface area of any given object is the area or region occupied by the surface
of the object, whereas volume is the amount of space available in an object. In
geometry, there are different shapes and sizes such as sphere, cube, cuboid, cone,
cylinder, etc. and each shape has its surface area as well as volume.
In general, the lateral surface area of a pyramid is the sum of the areas of its lateral
faces and its total surface area is the sum of the areas of its lateral surface and its
base.
If LSA denotes lateral surface area, TSA denotes total surface area and BA
denotes base area then
LSA = sum of areas of the lateral faces
TSA = LSA + BA
298
Definition 6.3
A geometry net is a two-dimensional shape that can be folded to form a three-
dimensional shape or a solid. When the surface of a three-dimensional figure is
laid out flat showing each face of the figure, the pattern obtained is called the
net of the figure.
To find the formula for the lateral surface area of a regular pyramid in terms of its
base perimeter and its slant height, consider the regular pentagonal pyramid and its
net.
a. Regular pentagonal Pyramid b. Net of Figure a
Figure 6.16
In figure 6.16b, ABCDE is a regular pentagon and it is the base of the pyramid in
figure 6.16a. Point O is the center, 𝑎 is the apothem, 𝑠 is the length of one side, 𝑟 is
the radius of the base, ΔVED is one lateral face and 𝑙 is the slant height. All the five
lateral faces are isosceles triangles and are congruent.
1
area(△ VED) = 𝑠𝑙
2
LSA = 5 × area(△ VED)

1 1
= 5(2 𝑠𝑙) = 2 (5𝑠)𝑙
1
= 2 𝑝𝑙 where 𝑝 = 5𝑠 is the perimeter of ABCDE.
299
We can extend this idea for a regular polygon whose base has n sides and generalize
the surface area of a regular pyramid as follows.
The lateral surface area LSA of a regular pyramid is equal to half the product of its
slant height and the perimeter of the base. That is,
1
LSA = 2 𝑝𝑙,
where 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑠 denotes the perimeter of the base, and 𝑙 denotes the slant height.
The total surface area TSA of a regular pyramid is given by
1
TSA = BA + LSA = BA + 𝑝𝑙
2
Example 1
A regular square pyramid has a base edge of length 4 cm and slant height 5 cm.
a. Sketch the pyramid and its net.
b. Find its lateral and total surface area.
Solution:
a.
Figure 6.17
b. The base has 4 sides therefore, 𝑛 = 4 and base perimeter
𝑝 = 𝑛𝑠 = 4 × 4 = 16.
1 1
LSA = 2 𝑝𝑙 = 2 × 16 × 5 = 40 cm2 .
300
The base is a square. Therefore BA = 𝑠 2 = 42 = 16 cm2 .

TSA = LSA + BA = 40 + 16 = 56 cm2 .
Example 2
A regular square pyramid has a base edge 6 cm and lateral edge 7 cm. Find its lateral
and total surface areas.
Solution:
(a) (b)
Figure 6.18
∆NKL in figure 6.18b is one lateral face of the pyramid in Figure 6.18a.
NK = 7 cm, base edge 𝑠 = തതതത
The lateral edge തതതത KL = 6 cm and തതതത
KR = 3 cm. The slant
height 𝑙 = തതതത
NR of the pyramid is the altitude of ΔNKL.
Since ΔNRK is a right-angled triangle,
𝑙 2 + (𝐾𝑅)2 = (𝑁𝐾)2
𝑙 2 + 32 = 72
𝑙 2 = 72 − 32 = 40
𝑙 = 2√10
1 1
LSA = 2 𝑝𝑙 = 2 × 24 × 2√10 = 24√10 cm2
BA = 𝑠 2 = 62 = 36 cm2
TSA = LSA + BA = 24√10 + 36 = 12(2√10 + 3) cm2
301
Example 3
A right pyramid with a rectangular base of length 4 cm and width 2 cm has altitude
3 cm.
b. Find its lateral and total surface areas.
Solution:
a.
Figure 6.19
In figure 6.19, ℎ = തതതത
VO is the height (altitude) of the pyramid, ΔVBC, ΔVAD,
ΔVAB and ΔVDC are lateral faces, 𝑙1 = 𝑉𝑄
തതതത and 𝑙2 = തതതത
𝑉𝑃 are slant heights and they
are altitudes of ΔVBC and ΔVAB respectively, and ABCD is the base of the pyramid.
b. ℎ = 𝑉𝑂
തതതത = 3 cm, 𝑂𝑄
തതതത = 2 cm 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑃
തതതത = 1 cm.
VQ and (VO)2 + (OQ)2 = (VQ)2
𝑙1 = തതതത
2
32 + 22 = 𝑙1
𝑙1 2 = 13
𝑙1 = √13
തതതത and (𝑉𝑂)2 + (𝑂𝑃)2 = (𝑉𝑃)2
𝑙2 = 𝑉𝑃
302
2
32 + 12 = 𝑙2
𝑙2 2 = 10
𝑙2 = √10
തതതത = 𝑤 = 2 cm and 𝐴𝐵
തതതത = 𝐴𝐷
𝐵𝐶 തതതത = 𝑙 = 4 cm, where 𝑤 and 𝑙 are width and
തതതത = 𝐷𝐶
length of the base rectangle ABCD
1 1
area of △ VBC = 2 𝑏𝑙1 = 2 × 2 × √13 = √13
1 1
area of △ VAB = 2 𝑙𝑙2 = 2 × 4 × √10 = 2√10
△ VBC ≡ △ VAD and △ VAB ≡ △ VAC

LSA = 2 × area ( △ VBC) + 2 × area ( △ VAB)
= 2 × √13 + 2 × 2√10
= 2(√13 + 2√10) cm2 ,
BA = 𝑏 × 𝑙 = 2 × 4 = 8 cm2 , and
TSA = LSA + BA = 2(√13 + 2√10) cm2 + 8 cm2
= 2(√13 + 2√10 + 4) cm2 .
Exercise 6.4
1. A regular square pyramid has a base edge of length 6 cm and slant height 8 cm.
b. Find its lateral and total surface area.
2. A right pyramid of 3 m height has a square base whose diagonal is 6 m. Find its
lateral and total surface areas.
3. Find the lateral and the total surface areas of the regular hexagonal pyramid of 6
cm height and a length of 4 cm on one side of the base.
303
Activity 6.4
1. A sector of a circle has radius 𝑟 and central angle 𝜃 as shown
by Figure 6.20.
a. Find the length of the arc.
b. Find the area of the sector.
2. Find the arc length and area of the sector
if 𝑟 = 6 cm and 𝜃 = 300 .
Figure 6.20
To find the lateral surface area of a right circular cone, cut a right circular cone
(Figure 6.21a) along the slant height 𝑙, open up and flatten it. The resulting surface
looks like a sector as shown in Figure 6.21c.
Figure 6.21
𝜃
In figure 6.21c, length of arc(𝐴𝐵) = 360 (2𝜋𝑙)
Length of arc(𝐴𝐵) = circumference of the base circle of figure 6.21a = 2𝜋𝑟

𝜃
(2𝜋𝑙) = 2𝜋𝑟
360
304
𝜃
𝑙=𝑟
360
𝜃 𝜃
LSA of the right circular cone = area of sector AVB = 360 𝜋𝑙 2 = 𝜋 ( 360 𝑙) 𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙.
1 1
LSA = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 2 (2𝜋𝑟)𝑙 = 2 𝑝𝑙, where 𝑝 = 2𝜋𝑟 is perimeter or circumference of the
base circle.
The lateral surface area of a right circular cone is:

1
LSA = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 or LSA = 2 𝑝𝑙, where 𝑝 = 2𝜋𝑟
𝑙 = √ℎ2 + 𝑟 2 , where 𝑙 is the slant height, ℎ is the height (altitude), 𝑟

is the base radius and p is perimeter or circumference.
The total surface area is the sum of the area of the base and the lateral surface
area. That is,
TSA = LSA + BA = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 + 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑙 + 𝑟).
Example 4
A right circular cone has a base diameter 8 cm and height 3 cm, see Figure 6.22. Find
its LSA and TSA.
Solution:
𝑙 = √ℎ2 + 𝑟 2 = √32 + 42 = √25 = 5 cm,

𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 𝜋(4)(5) = 20𝜋 cm2 ,
𝐵𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 16𝜋 cm2 ,
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑆𝐴 + 𝐵𝐴 = 36𝜋 cm2 . Figure 6.22
Exercise 6.5
1. Find the total surface area of a right circular cone of radius 6 cm and height 12 cm.
2. The area of the total surface of a right circular cone is 64 m2 and its slant height is
5 times the radius of the base. Find the radius of the base.
305
3. A conical tent is 6 m high and the radius of its base is 8 m. Find

a. slant height of the tent.
b. cost required to make the tent, if the cost of 1 m2 canvas is Birr 250.
Use 𝜋 = 3.14
6.2.2 Horizontal cross-section of pyramids and cones
Definition 6.4
If a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the plane containing the base,
the intersection of the plane and the pyramid (or the cone) is called a horizontal
cross-section of the pyramid (or the cone).
Figure 6.23
In figure 6.23, E is the plane containing the bases of the cone and the pyramid. E’ is
the plane parallel to E and intersects the cone and the pyramid along the regions R
and R′ , respectively. The regions R and R′ are called horizontal cross-sections.
Theorem 6.1
Every horizontal cross-section of a triangular pyramid is a triangular region
similar to the base.
306
Proof:
Let the region of △ ABC be the base of the pyramid lying in the plane E, ℎ be the
altitude of the pyramid and △ A′ B′ C′ be the cross section at a distance 𝑘 from the
vertex. Let D and D′ be the points in which the perpendicular line from V to E meets
E and E’, respectively.
To show that △ A′ B′ C′ ∼△ ABC,
∠D′ VA′ ≡ ∠DVA (Common angles)

∠VD′ A′ ≡ ∠VDA (∠VD′ A′ = ∠VDA = 900 )
′ ′
△ VA D ∼△ VAD by AA similarity.
Thus, corresponding sides are proportional, that is,
Figure 6.24
VA ′ VD ′ 𝑘
(1) VA
= VD
=ℎ
Similarly, △ VD′ B′ ∼△ VDB and hence

VB ′ VD ′ 𝑘
(2) VB
= VD
=ℎ
307
(3) ∠A′ VB′ = ∠AVB (Common angle)

Hence, from (1), (2) and (3) we have
△ VA′ B′ ∼△ VAB by the SAS similarity.
Thus, corresponding sides are proportional, that is,
A′ B′ VA ′ 𝑘
(4) = =ℎ
AB VA
By using the same argument that leads to (4), we can also show that
𝛥𝑉𝐵 ′ 𝐶 ′ ∼ 𝛥𝑉𝐵𝐶 to get (5)
B′ C′ 𝑘
(5) BC
=ℎ
By showing ΔVA′ C′ ∼ ΔVAC we can get (6)

A ′ C′ 𝑘
(6) AC
=ℎ
Hence, from (4), (5) and (6) and by the 𝑆𝑆𝑆 similarity theorem △ A′ B′ C′ ∼△ ABC.
Theorem 6.2
Let ℎ be the altitude of a triangular pyramid and let 𝑘 be the distance from the
vertex to a horizontal cross-section. Then the ratio of the area of the cross section
𝑘2
to the area of the base is .
ℎ2
Proof:
Let △ ABC be the base, ℎ the altitude of the pyramid and △ A′ B′ C′ be the horizontal
cross-section at a distance 𝑘 from the vertex (see Figure 6.24).
Figure 6.25
308
By theorem 6.1, △ ABC ∼△ A′ B′ C′
Note that the ratio between the altitudes of two similar triangles is the same as the
ratio of their sides. So,
𝑏′ 𝑎′
= --- (1)
𝑏 𝑎
where 𝑎′ and 𝑎 are altitudes and 𝑏 and 𝑏 ′ are bases in Figure 6.25.
On the other hand, in Figure 6.24,
𝐁′𝐂′ 𝑏′ VC′ VD′ 𝑘

(= ) = = = --- (2)
𝐁𝐂 𝑏 VC VD ℎ
Hence,
1 ′ ′
area of △A ′ B ′ C ′ (𝑏 𝑎 ) 𝑏′ 𝑎′ 𝑏′ 2
= 2
1 = × = (According to (1))
area of △AB C (𝑏𝑎) 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏2
2
𝑘2
= (According to (2))
ℎ2
area of cro ss−sectio n 𝑘2

Thus, = .
are a of bas e ℎ2
Example 1
The area of the base of a triangular pyramid is 270 cm2 . The altitude of the pyramid
is 6 cm. Find the area of the horizontal cross-section of the pyramid 4 cm from the
vertex.
Solution:
ℎ = 6 𝑐𝑚, 𝑘 = 4 𝑐𝑚 and base area of the pyramid = 270 cm2

area of cross section 𝑘 2
= 2
base area ℎ
area of cross section 42 2 2 4
= 2=( ) =
270 6 3 9
4
Area of the cross section = 270 × 9 = 120 cm2 .
309
Exercise 6.6
1. In the triangular pyramid shown in Figure 6.26, ∆A′B′C′ is a horizontal cross-
𝑘
section. Find the values of 𝑥 and ℎ .
2. The area of the base of a triangular pyramid is

100 cm2 . The altitude of the pyramid is 5 cm.
Find the area of the horizontal cross-section
of the pyramid 2 cm from the vertex.
Figure 6.26
Theorem 6.3
𝑘2
In any pyramid the ratio of a cross-section to the area of the base is ℎ 2 where ℎ is
the altitude of the pyramid and 𝑘 is the distance from the vertex to the plane of
the cross section.
Figure 6.27
310
Example 2
The altitude of a square pyramid is 10 cm and a side of the base is 5 cm long. Find
the area of the horizontal cross section of the pyramid 3 cm from the vertex.
Solution:
The base is a square of side 𝑠 = 5 𝑐𝑚, its
area is 𝐴 = 𝑠 2 = 25 cm2 ,
area of cross section 𝑘 2

= 2
base area ℎ
area of cross section 32

= 2
25 10
9
area of the cross section = 4 cm2
Figure 6.28
Example 3
The area of the cross-section of a pyramid at a distance 5 cm from the base is
36 cm2 . If the area of the base of the pyramid is 81 cm2 , find the altitude of the
pyramid.
Solution:
cros s−sec tio n area 𝑘2 𝑘2
= = (5+𝑘)2 and from this we have,
bas e area ℎ2
36 𝑘2
= (5+𝑘)2 , where 𝑘 is the distance from the vertex of the pyramid to the cross
81
section,
6 𝑘
9
= 5+𝑘 and solving for 𝑘 gives 𝑘 = 10 cm.
Therefore, the altitude of the pyramid is 5 cm + 10 cm = 15 cm.
311
Theorem 6.4
If two pyramids have the same base area and the same altitude then cross-
sections equidistant from the vertices have the same area.
Proof:
Let the two pyramids in figure 6.27 have the same base area 𝐴 and the same altitude
ℎ. Let A′ and A′′ be the area of the cross sections A′ B ′ C′ D′ and A′ B′ C′ D′ E ′ ,
respectively. Let the distance from the vertices to the cross-sections be 𝑘.
A′ k2 A′ ′
By Theorem 6.3, = =
A h2 A
A′ A′ ′
=
A A
A′ = A′′
Exercise 6.7
1. The base of a pyramid is a rectangle with sides 6 cm and 4 cm. If the altitude of
the pyramid is 12 cm, find the area of the horizontal cross-section of the pyramid
4 cm from the vertex.
2. The area of the horizontal cross-section of a pyramid at a distance 6 cm from the
base is 90 cm2 . If the area of the base of the pyramid is 160 cm2 , find its altitude.
3. The radius of a horizontal cross-section of a cone at a distance 6 cm from the base
is 2 cm. If the radius of the base of the cone is 3 cm, find its altitude.
4. The altitude of a regular hexagonal pyramid is 9 cm and the side of the base is 3
cm. What is the area of a horizontal cross-section at a distance of 5 cm from the
base?
5. Prove Theorem 6.3
312
6.2.3 Volume of Pyramids and Cones
CAVALIERI’S PRINCIPLE: If two solids of equal height have equal

cross-sectional areas at every level parallel to the respective bases, then the two
solids have equal volume.
Figure 6.29
Theorem 6.5
If two pyramids have equal altitudes and equal base areas, then their volumes are
equal.
Proof:
By theorem 6.4, the two pyramids have equal cross-sectional area at every level
parallel to the respective bases, then by the Cavalieri’s Principle they have equal
volume.
313
Theorem 6.6
The volume of a triangular pyramid is one- third of the product of the height and
1
the base area, that is, V = 3 ℎB.
Figure 6.30
You know that the volume of a triangular prism is the product of its height and base
area.
Figure 6.31
Figure 6.31b is a triangular prism. Let the height of the prism be ℎ. Its volume is
given by
V = (BA)ℎ
where, BA is the base area, that is the area of ΔABC.
Let the triangular pyramid in figure 6.31a have the same base area and height as the
prism.
We will show that the triangular prism is the union of three triangular pyramids, each
314
having the same volume as the triangular pyramid in figure 6.31a. For this, we divide
the triangular prism into three triangular pyramids as shown in figure 6.32.
Figure 6.32
Consider triangular pyramids ADEF and ACEF with base ADF and ACF,
respectively.
(1) AF is the diagonal of the parallelogram ADFC, △ ADF ≡△ ACF.
(2) The pyramids have the same base area by (1).
(3) The pyramids have the same common vertex E.
(4) They have the same altitude. The altitude is the perpendicular distance from E
to the parallelogram ADFC.
Hence by Theorem 6.5 they have the same volume. That is,
(5) Volume of the triangular pyramid ADEF = volume of triangular pyramid
ACEF.
Consider the triangular pyramids ABCE and ACEF with base BCE and CFE
respectively.
(6) CE is the diagonal of the parallelogram BCFE, ΔBCE ≡△ FCE.
(7) The triangles have the same base area by (6).
(8) The pyramids have the same common vertex A.
315
(9) They have the same altitude. The altitude is the perpendicular distance from
A to the parallelogram BCFE.
Hence by Theorem 6.5 they have the same volume. That is,
(10) Volume of the triangular pyramid ABCE = Volume of the triangular pyramid
ACEF.
(11) Volume of ABCE = Volume of ACEF = Volume of ADEF by (5) and (10).
Thus, all the three pyramids have the same volume. Since the volume of the prism is,
1
(BA)ℎ, the volume of each of the pyramid becomes (BA)ℎ.
3
1
Therefore, the volume of the pyramid in figure 6.31a. is 3 (BA)ℎ and this proves
Theorem 6.6.
Theorem 6.7
The volume of a pyramid is one third of the product of its altitude and its base
area.
Figure 6.33
Proof:
Consider any pyramid with base area B and altitude h. Since the base is a polygonal
region, it can be subdivided into a finite number of triangular regions with areas
316
𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ,. . . , 𝑏𝑛 . Hence the volume of the given pyramid is the sum of the volumes of
triangular pyramids which have the same altitude ℎ.
Hence the volume is, `

1 1 1
V = 3 𝑏1 ℎ + 3 𝑏2 ℎ+. . . + 3 𝑏𝑛 ℎ
1 1
= 3 (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 +. . . +𝑏𝑛 )ℎ = 3 (BA)ℎ
Theorem 6.8
The volume V of a circular cone with altitude ℎ and base radius 𝑟 is,
1
V = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ.
Example 1
A regular square pyramid has a base edge of length 4 cm and altitude 7 cm. Find its
volume.
Solution:
The base of the pyramid is a square
with base edge of length 4 cm.
BA = 4 × 4 = 16 cm2
1 1
V = 3 (BA)ℎ = 3 × 16 × 7
112
= 3
cm3 .
Figure 6.34
Example 2
A circular cone has a base radius 5 cm and altitude 6 cm. What is its volume?
317
Solution:
1 2
V= 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
3
1
= 3 𝜋(52 )(6)
= 50𝜋 cm3
Figure 6.35
Exercise 6.8
1. The altitude of a regular square pyramid is 6 cm. If one edge of the base has
length 4 cm then find its volume.
2. A circular cone has an altitude 12 cm and a base radius 10 cm. What is its
volume?
3. A right circular cone has height 10 cm and circumference of the base is 12𝜋 cm.
Find its volume.
4. The lateral edge of a regular tetrahedron is 6 cm. Find its total surface area and its
volume.
5. A right circular conical vessel of altitude 20 cm and base radius 10 cm is kept
with its vertex downwards. If one liter of water is poured into it, how high above
the vertex will the level of the water be? Use 𝜋 = 3.14
6.2.4 Surface Area and Volume of Sphere
Definition 6.5
A sphere is a solid bounded by a closed surface every point of which is
equidistant from a fixed point called the center.
318
Figure 6.36
Radius of a sphere is a line segment connecting its center with any point on the
sphere.
Diameter of the sphere is a line segment from the surface of the sphere passing
through the center and ending at the surface.
In Figure 6.36, O is the center, OP is the radius and AB is the diameter of the sphere.
Moreover, OA and OB are also the radius of the sphere.
Figure 6.37
Great and Small Circles
Every cross-section made by a plane passed through a sphere is a circle.
If the plane passes through the center of a sphere, the cross-section formed is a great
circle; otherwise, the cross-section is a small circle. Clearly any plane through the
center of the sphere contains a diameter. Hence all great circles of a sphere are equal
and have for their common center, the center of the sphere and have for their radius,
319
the radius of the sphere. In Figure 6.37, C′ is a small circle and C is a great circle of
the sphere.
Hemisphere
A great circle bisects the surface of a sphere. One of the two equal parts into which
the sphere is divided by a great circle is called a hemisphere. Figure 6.38 is a
hemisphere.
Figure 6.38
Activity 6.5
1. Give examples of objects from your surroundings that have spherical shapes.
2. Give two examples of hemispheres.
If 𝑟 is the radius, SA surface area and V volume of a sphere, then

SA = 4𝜋𝑟 2 ,
4
V = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 .
Exercise 6.9
1. The radius of a sphere is 10 cm. Find its surface area and volume.
2. The diameter of an iron ball is 6 cm. Find its surface area and volume
(use π = 3.14).
3. Find the formula for the surface area and volume of a sphere in terms of its
diameter 𝑑.
320
6.3 Frustum of Pyramids and Cones

Activity 6.6
1. What is a trapezium?
2. Find the area of a trapezium whose parallel sides are 10 cm and 14 cm and the
distance between them is 8 cm.
3. The area of a trapezium is 150 cm2 and the distance between its parallel sides
is 16 cm. If one of the parallel sides is 8 cm,
find the other.
4. In Figure 6.39, sector of two concentric
circles of radii 9 cm and 11 cm are shown.
Find the area of the shaded region in terms of 𝜋.
Figure 6.39
Definition 6.6
A frustum of a pyramid is part of the pyramid between the base and the vertex
formed when the original pyramid is cut off by a plane parallel to the plane of
the base. That is, the frustum of a pyramid is part of the pyramid between the
base and a cross-section of the pyramid.
When a pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to the base, the part of the pyramid
between the vertex and the cross-section is again a pyramid whereas the other part is
not a pyramid.
321
Figure 6.40
Figure 6.40c is the frustum of a pyramid. The base of the pyramid and the cross-
section are called the bases of the frustum. The other faces are called lateral faces.
The lateral surface of the frustum is the sum of the lateral faces. The total surface is
the sum of the lateral surface and the bases.
The altitude of a frustum of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance between the

bases.
Observations:
1. The lateral faces of a frustum of a pyramid are trapezium.
2. The lateral faces of a frustum of a regular pyramid are congruent isosceles
trapeziums.
3. The slant height of a frustum of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any one of the
lateral faces.
4. The lateral surface area of a frustum of a pyramid is the sum of the areas of the
lateral faces.
Definition 6.7
A frustum of a cone is a part of the cone between the base and the vertex formed
when the original cone is cut off by a plane parallel to the plane of the base.
The slant height of a frustum of a right circular cone is the part of the slant height of
the cone which is included between the bases.
322
Figure 6.41
Activity 6.7
Give at least two examples of objects from your surroundings that have the shape
of frustum of a right circular cone.
Example 1
The lower base of the frustum of a regular pyramid is a square of side of length 𝑠
unit and the upper base has a side of length 𝑠 ′ unit. If the slant height is 𝑙 unit long
then find,
a. the lateral surface area of the frustum.
b. the total surface area of the frustum.
c. Find the values of the lateral surface area and
the total surface area, when 𝑠 = 5 cm,
𝑠 ′ = 3 cm and 𝑙 = 4 cm.
Solution:
The four faces are congruent isosceles trapeziums. Figure 6.42
a. LSA = area(A′ ABB′ ) + area(B ′ BCC′ ) + area(C′ CDD′ ) + area(D′ DAA′ )

1
= 4 × 2 𝑙(𝑠 + 𝑠 ′ )
1
= 2 𝑙(4𝑠 + 4𝑠 ′ ) ( Note here that 4𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4𝑠 ′ are the perimeters of the
lower and the upper bases, respectively)
323
= 2𝑙(𝑠 + 𝑠 ′ ).
b. TSA = LSA + BA = 2𝑙(𝑠 + 𝑠 ′ ) + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠′2 .
c. LSA = 2(4)(5 + 3) = 64 cm2 , and
TSA = 64 + (52 + 32 ) = 98 cm2 .
The lateral surface area (LSA) of a frustum of a regular pyramid is equal to half
the product of the slant height 𝑙 and the sum of the perimeter 𝑝 of the lower base
1
and perimeter 𝑝′ of the upper base. That is, LSA = 2 𝑙(𝑝 + 𝑝′).
Exercise 6.10
The lower base of the frustum of a regular pyramid is an

equilateral triangle of side of length 8 cm and the upper base has a
side of length 4 cm. If the slant height is 5 cm, then find
a. the lateral surface area of the frustum
b. the total surface area of the frustum
Figure 6.43
Activity 6.8
Consider figure 6.44 and find
a. LSA of the bigger cone.
b. LSA of the smaller cone.
c. LSA of the frustum.
d. The volume of the bigger cone.
e. The volume of the smaller cone.
f. The volume of the frustum.
Figure 6.44
324
Example 2
From a right circular cone of altitude 8 cm and

base radius 6 cm a frustum of height 4 cm is
formed. What is the lateral surface area of the
frustum?
Figure 6.45
Solution:
In Figure 6.45, let CA denote the cross-section area, 𝑘 and ℎ are altitudes of the
smaller cone and the bigger cone, respectively. Assume also that 𝑙 ′ and 𝑙 are slant
heights of the smaller and the bigger cones, respectively. Then,
area of th e cross −sectio n CA 𝑘 2

= = ( ) , 𝑘 = ℎ − 4 = 4 cm
bas e area BA ℎ
𝐶𝐴 1
= , since BA = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 36𝜋
36𝜋 4
36𝜋
CA = 4
= 9𝜋 cm2 . .. (∗)
CA = 𝜋(𝑟 ′ )2 , where 𝑟 ′ is the radius of the cross section

9𝜋 = 𝜋(𝑟 ′ )2 , using CA = 9𝜋 from (*)
𝑟 ′ = 3 cm
𝑙 = √𝑟 2 + ℎ2 = √62 + 82 = 10 cm and
𝑙 ′ = √ 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑘 2 = √ 32 + 42 = 5 cm
LSA of the smaller cone = 𝜋𝑟 ′ 𝑙 ′ = 3 × 5 × 𝜋 = 15𝜋 cm2 .
LSA of the bigger cone = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 6 × 10 × 𝜋 = 60𝜋 cm2 .
Hence, lateral surface area of the frustum
= (LSA of the bigger cone) - (LSA the smaller cone)
= 60𝜋 cm2 − 15𝜋 cm2 = 45𝜋 cm2 .
325
Exercise 6.11
For the right circular cone in Figure 6.46,
a. Find the height of the smaller cone.
b. Find the Lateral Surface Area (LSA) of the frustum using
LSA = (LSA of the larger cone)
– (LSA of the smaller cone).
Figure 6.46
To find the formula for the lateral surface area of a frustum of a right circular cone, in
terms of its base radii 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ and its slant height 𝑙, let us consider a right circular
cone and its net as shown by Figure 6.47.
Figure 6.47
From Figure 6.47a, as △ VO′ A ∼△ VOB we have
𝑙′ 𝑟 ′
= . . . (1)
𝐿 𝑟
𝑙 ′ = 𝐿 − 𝑙 . . . (2)
Substituting the value of 𝑙 ′ of (2) to the value of 𝑙 ′ in (1) and solving for L gives,
326
𝑟
𝐿 = 𝑙( ) . . . (3)
𝑟 − 𝑟′
Frustum area = (area of the bigger cone) - (area of the smaller cone)
= 𝜋𝑟𝐿 − 𝜋𝑟 ′ 𝑙 ′ . . . (4)
= 𝜋𝑟𝐿 − 𝜋𝑟 ′ (𝐿 − 𝑙) (Substituting the values of 𝑙 ′ from equation (2) to
equation (4))
= 𝜋(𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ )𝐿 + 𝜋𝑟 ′ 𝑙 . . . (5)
𝑟
= 𝜋(𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ )𝑙 ( 𝑟−𝑟 ′ ) + 𝜋𝑟 ′ 𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 + 𝜋𝑟 ′ 𝑙 (Substituting the values of 𝐿
from equation (3) to equation (5))

= 𝜋𝑙(𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ ).
For a frustum of a right circular cone with slant height 𝑙, if the radii of the bases
are 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ , then the lateral surface area of the frustum is given by
LSA = 𝑙𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ ).
Example 3
Find the lateral and total surface area of the frustum of a right circular cone of height
24 cm, base radius 22 cm, and slant height 26 cm. Use 𝜋 = 3.14.
Solution:
Let the larger base radius of the frustum be 𝑟 = 22 cm and assume that its small
radius is 𝑟 ′ .
The height of the frustum of the cone is ℎ = 24 cm and its slant height is 𝑙 = 26 cm.
Also consider Figure 6.48,
തതതത, ℎ = തതതത
𝑟 = OB തതതത , 𝑟 ′ = PA
PO = AR AB .
തതതത 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = തതതത
OPAR is a rectangle and PA

തതതത = തതതത
OR = 𝑟′.
തതതത 2 = തതതത
∆ARB is right-angled triangle and AB AR2 + RB
തതതത2
തതതത 2 = തതതത
AB AR2 + (𝑂𝐵
തതതത − 𝑂𝑅തത)22
തതതത
തതത
തത
Figure 6.48
327
𝑙 2 = ℎ2 + (𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ )2
262 = 242 + (22 − 𝑟 ′ )2 , solving for r’ from this equation 𝑟 ′ = 12 cm.
LSA = 𝑙𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ ) = 26𝜋(22 + 12) = 884𝜋 cm2 .
BA = the area of the two bases = 𝜋(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 ) = 𝜋(222 + 122 ) = 628𝜋 cm2 .
TSA = LSA + BA = 884𝜋 + 628𝜋 = 1512𝜋 cm2
= 1512 × 3.14 = 4747.68 cm2
Exercise 6.12
1. Find the lateral and total surface area of the frustum of a right circular cone of
height 9 cm and base radii 4 cm and 1 cm.
2. A right circular cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base at a distance 9 cm from
the vertex to form a frustum of a cone. If the radii of the bases of the frustum
formed are 3 cm and 5 cm, then find the altitude and the lateral surface area of the
frustum.
To find the volume formula for a frustum of a right circular

cone in terms of its base radius 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ and its height ℎ,
consider Figure 6.49.
H = ℎ + ℎ′ . . . (1)
ℎ′ 𝑟 ′
= . . . (2)
H 𝑟
Substituting the value of H in (1) to the value of H in (2)
Figure 6.49
′ ′
ℎ 𝑟
′
= . . . (3)
ℎ+ℎ 𝑟
Solving for ℎ′
′
ℎ𝑟 ′
ℎ = . . . (4)
𝑟 − 𝑟′
Volume of the frustum = (volume of the bigger cone) - (volume of the smaller cone)
1 1 1 1
= 3 𝜋𝑟 2 H − 3 𝜋𝑟 ′2 ℎ′ = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + ℎ′ ) − 3 𝜋𝑟 ′2 ℎ′
328
1 1 1
= 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ′ − 3 𝜋𝑟 ′2 ℎ′
3
1
= 3
𝜋(r 2 ℎ + (𝑟 2 − 𝑟 ′2 )ℎ′ )
1 (𝑟 2 −𝑟 ′2 )ℎ𝑟 ′
= 3 𝜋 (𝑟 2 ℎ + ) by (4)
𝑟−𝑟 ′
1 (𝑟+𝑟 ′ )(𝑟−𝑟 ′ )ℎ𝑟 ′

= 3 𝜋 (𝑟 2 ℎ + )
𝑟−𝑟 ′
1
= 3 𝜋(𝑟 2 ℎ + (𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ )ℎ𝑟 ′ )
1
= 3 𝜋ℎ(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑟𝑟 ′ )
The volume of a frustum of a right circular cone is

1
V = 3 𝜋ℎ(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑟𝑟 ′ ),
where 𝑟 is the radius of the bigger circle, 𝑟′ is the radius of the smaller circle and
h is the altitude of the frustum.
Example 4
Find the volume of the frustum of a cone whose top and bottom diameters are 6 m
and 10 m and the height is 12 m. (Use 𝜋=3.14)
Solution:
Since the diameter of the upper base is 6 m the radius of the upper base becomes 3 m
and since the diameter of the lower base is 10 m, its radius becomes 5 m. The height
is 12 m, so
1
Volume = 𝜋ℎ(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑟𝑟 ′ )
3
1
= 3 𝜋(12)(32 + 52 + (3)(5))
= 196𝜋 = 196 × 3.14 = 615.44 m3 .
Figure 6.50
329
Exercise 6.13
1. Given the same right circular cone as in Figure 6.46 above,
a. Calculate the volume of the larger cone.
b. Calculate the volume of the smaller cone.
c. Find the volume of the frustum by
V = (volume of the larger cone) – (volume of
the smaller cone).
d. Find the volume by using the formula,
1
V = 𝜋ℎ(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑟𝑟 ′ ) and compare the results. (Fig. 6.46 reproduced)
3
2. A right circular cone of altitude 16 m is cut by a plane parallel to the base 4 m

from the vertex to form a frustum of the cone. If the radius of the base of the right
circular cone is 12 m, then find
a. the radius of the other base of the frustum.
b. the volume of the frustum?
1
The volume formula, V = 𝜋ℎ(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑟𝑟 ′ ), can be rewritten as
3
1
= 3 ℎ (𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟 ′2 + √(𝜋𝑟 2 )(𝜋𝑟 ′2 ))
1
= 3 ℎ(A + A′ + √AA′ )
where A and A′ are base areas and h is the altitude of the frustum.
The volume of a frustum of a right circular cone is

1
V = 3 ℎ(A + A′ + √AA′ ),
where A and A′ are base areas and h is the altitude of the cone.
1
The volume of a frustum of a pyramid is also, V = 3 ℎ(A + A′ + √AA′ ), where
A and A′ are base areas and ℎ is the altitude of the frustum.
330
Exercise 6.14
1. A right circular cone of altitude 9 cm is cut by a plane parallel to the base 7 cm
from the vertex. If the area of the base of the frustum formed are 81 cm2 and
49 cm2 then find the volume of the frustum.
2. The lower base of a frustum of a regular pyramid is a square of side of length 6
cm, and the upper base has side length 4 cm. If the slant height is 8 cm, find
a. its lateral surface area b. its total surface area c. its volume
3. What is the lateral area of a regular pyramid whose base is a square 12 cm on a

side and whose slant height is 10 cm? If a plane is passed parallel to the base and
4 cm from the vertex, what is the lateral surface area and volume of the frustum?
4. A frustum of a regular square pyramid has a height of 2 cm. The lateral faces of
the pyramid are equilateral triangles of side 3√2 cm. Find the volume of the
frustum.
5. A cone 12 cm high is cut 8 cm from the vertex to form a frustum with a volume
of 156 cm3 . Find the radius of the bases of the cone.
1
6. Show that the volume of a frustum of a pyramid is V = 3 ℎ(A + A′ + √AA′ ),
where A and A′ are base areas and ℎ is the altitude of the frustum.
6.4 Surface Area and Volume of Composed Solids

A composed solid is a solid that is made up of two or more solids. In order to find the
volume and surface area of a composed solid, one needs to identify the different parts
it is made of. This decomposition allows working out the volume and surface area of
each part independently. The volume of the composed solid is simply the sum of the
volumes of its parts.
To find the surface area and volume of a composed solid, you need to know how to
find the surface area and volume of prisms, pyramids, cones, cylinders, and spheres.
331
In the preceding sections you learnt how to calculate the surface area and volumes of
these solids.
Example 1
Find the total surface area and volume of the flask shown in figure 6.51.
Solution:
The total surface area of the flask is the lateral surface area of
the frustum of the cone, lower base area of the frustum of the
cone and lateral surface area of the cylinder.
Slant height 𝑙 of the frustum of the cone is:
𝑙 = √42 + 162 = √272 = 4√17 cm,
Lateral surface area of the frustum = 𝑙𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ )
= 48√17𝜋 cm2 ,
Lower base area of the frustum = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 64𝜋 cm2 ,
Figure 6.51
2
Lateral surface area of the cylinder = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 112𝜋 cm .
Total surface area = 48√17𝜋 cm2 + 64𝜋 cm2 + 112𝜋 cm2 = 16𝜋(3√17 + 11) cm2 .
Total volume of the flask = Volume of the frustum of the cone + volume of the
cylinder
𝜋
= 3 ℎ′ (𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑟𝑟 ′ ) + 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
16𝜋
= (82 + 42 + 8(4)) + 𝜋82 (14)
3
1792 4480
= 𝜋 + 896𝜋 = 𝜋 cm3 .
3 3
Example 2
A solid figure is made of a circular cylinder of radius 4 cm at bottom and a right

circular cone of altitude 3 cm, as shown in Figure 6.52. If the overall height is 10 cm,
find the total surface area and the volume of the solid.
Solution:
332
Figure 6.52 is a composed solid because it is made up of two solids, a cone and a
cylinder. The total surface area of the solid is the sum of the area of three surfaces.
These are the lateral surface of the cone, the lateral surface of the cylinder and the
lower base of the cylinder.
Slant height 𝑙 of the cone
𝑙 = √ℎ2 + 𝑟 2 = √42 + 32 = 5 cm,
LSA of the cone = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 4 × 5 × 𝜋 = 20𝜋 cm2 ,
Height of the cylinder is 7cm,
LSA of the cylinder = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2𝜋 × 4 × 7 = 56𝜋 cm2 ,
Lower base area of the cylinder = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 16𝜋 cm2 ,
Figure 6.52
Total surface area of the solid = 20𝜋 + 56𝜋 + 16𝜋 = 92𝜋 cm2 .
Total volume of the solid = Volume of the cylinder + Volume of the cone
1 1
= 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋(42 )(7) + 3 𝜋(42 )(3) = 128𝜋 cm3 .
Exercise 6.15
1. Find the total surface area and volume of the following.
Figure 6.53
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2. Hawi bought a new pencil like the one shown in Figure

6.54 on the right. She used the pencil every day in her
mathematics class for a week, and now her pencil looks
like the one shown on the right. How much of the pencil,
in terms of volume did she use?
Figure 6.54
Example 3
A right circular cylinder whose base radius is 10 cm and whose height is 12 cm is

drilled a triangular prism hole whose base has edge 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm as shown in
Figure 6.55. Find the total surface area and volume of the remaining solid.
Use 𝜋 = 3.14.
Solution:
The base of the drilled triangular prism is a right-angled
triangle. Why? The total surface area is the sum of the lateral
surface areas of the cylinder and prism, and the base area of
the cylinder minus the base area of the prism.
1
TSA = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 𝑝ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 2 − 2 ( 2 𝑎𝑏), where 𝑟 is the radius
and ℎ the height of the cylinder, 𝑝 perimeter of the triangle, 𝑎

and 𝑏 are legs of the triangle. Figure 6.55
1
TSA = 2𝜋(10)(12) + (3 + 4 + 5)(12) + 2𝜋(10)2 − 2 ( 2 × 3 × 4),
=(440𝜋 + 132) cm2 = ((440 × 3.14) + 132) cm2 ,
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= 1513.6 cm2 .
The volume of the resulting solid = (volume of the cylinder) - (volume of the prism)
1
= 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ − 2 𝑎𝑏h
= 1200𝜋 − 72 = (1200 × 3.14) − 72 = 3696 cm3 .
Exercise 6.16
1. A cone is contained in a cylinder as shown in Figure 6.56
so that their base diameter and height have the same
length 𝑥 cm. Calculate the volume of the space inside the
cylinder but outside the cone.
Figure 6.56
2. From a hemispherical solid of radius 8 cm, a conical part is removed as shown in
Figure 6.57a. Find the volume and the total surface area of the resulting figure.
3. The altitude of a frustum of a right circular cone is 20 cm and the radius of its
base is 6 cm. A cylindrical hole of diameter 4 cm is drilled through the cone with
the center of the drill following the axis of the cone, leaving a solid as shown in
Figure 6.57b. Find the volume and the total surface area of the resulting solid.
4. Figure 6.57c shows a hemispherical shell. Find the volume and total surface area
of the solid.
Figure 6.57
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5. A cylindrical piece of wood of radius 8 cm and height

18 cm has a cone of the same radius. scooped out of it
to a depth of 9 cm. Find the ratio of the volume of the
wood scooped out to the volume of the wood which is
left. (See Figure 6.58)
Figure 6.58
6.5 Applications
In daily life, volume and surface area could help
• With travel, knowing how much your container can hold could help you use
your space most efficiently. For example, the volume of the trunk of a car, a
bag or a box.
• Without volume, you can't figure out density, or capacitance and many other
things in science.
• Suppose you’re manufacturing an object whose shape is a cone, for example,
a funnel. You need to know the surface area to determine how much material
goes into each cone which determines your material cost.
• When you want to rent an apartment/house, you need to know how much
surface area you are getting for your money. This can be broken down to
usable space (kitchen, bedrooms, bathrooms), and even storage or extra space
(like basement and balconies).
• You could use surface area to find out how much cardboard was used to make
a box, or how much fabric was used to make a pillow.
Example 1
The bottom and top diameters of a backet are 10 cm and 13 cm respectively. If the
slant height is 20 cm,
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a. How many liters of water can it hold?

b. How many square centimeters of material are used to make this bucket ignoring
the thickness of the backet?
c. If 100 cm2 of the material costs 50 birr then find the total cost of the material.
Use 𝜋 = 3.14 and put your answer by rounding it to two decimal places.
Solution:
a. The bucket has the shape of frustum of a cone with base radius 𝑟 ′ = 10 cm ,
𝑟 = 13 cm and slant height 𝑙 = 20 cm. To find the height ℎ of the bucket
consider Figure 6.59.
ℎ2 + 32 = 202
ℎ = √202 − 32 = √391 cm
1
𝑣= 𝜋ℎ(𝑟 2 + (𝑟 ′ )2 + 𝑟𝑟 ′ )
3
1
= 3 𝜋√391(132 + (10)2 + (13)(10))
Figure 6.59
1 3
= 3 𝜋 × 399√391 cm
Since 1 liter is equal to 1000 cm3 , the bucket can

1
×399𝜋√391
hold 3
= 8.26209 liters
1000
8.26209 rounded to 2 decimal places would be 8.26.

Therefore, the answer is 8.26 liters.
b. LSA = 𝑙𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ ) = 20𝜋(13 + 10) = 460𝜋 cm2 Figure 6.60
Since the bucket is closed from bottom BA = 𝜋(𝑟 ′ )2 = 100𝜋 cm2
TSA = LSA + BA = 560𝜋 cm2 = 560 × 3.14 = 1758.4 cm2
c. If 100 cm2 of the material costs 50 birr, then 1758.4 cm2 of material cost
1758.4×50
100
= 879.2 birr
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Example 2
A construction company wants to make a water tank in the form of a right circular
cylinder that can hold 100,000 liters of water and has height of length 8 m.
a. Find the radius of the cylinder that will be constructed.
b. If the company wants to paint the lateral surface of the cylinder with anti-rust
paint with thickness 2 cm, find the cost of the anti-rust paint at the rate of 15
birr per liter ignoring the thickness of the material used to make the water
tank.
c. If the company has to pay for a painter only for the lateral surface, find the
amount in birr that the company has to pay for the painter at the rate of 50 birr
per m2 .
Use 𝜋 = 3.14 and put your answer by rounding it to two decimal places.
Solution:
a. Volume of the water tank = 100,000 liters = 100 m3

Volume of a cylinder = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 8𝜋𝑟 2
100 = 8𝜋𝑟 2
100
𝑟 = √ 8𝜋 m ≈ 2 m
Therefore, the base radius of the water tank is 2 m. Figure 6.61

𝐛. 2 cm = 0.02 m, therefore, the radius of the outer circle is 2.02 m and the
radius of the inner circle is 2 m.
The volume of the paint = 𝜋ℎ(𝑟 2 − (𝑟 ′ )2 ) = 8𝜋(2.022 − 22 )
= 2.019648 m3 = 2,019.648 liters
Since the cost of the paint per liter is 15 birr, the total cost of the anti-rust
paint is 15 × 2,019.648 = 30,294.72 birr.
c. LSA = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2𝜋 × 2.02 × 8 = 101.48 m2
The company has to pay 101.48 × 50 = 5,074.24 birr for the painter.
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Exercise 6.17
1. A concrete beam is to rest on two concrete pillars. The beam is a cuboid with
sides of length 0.6 m, 4 m and 0.5 m. The pillars have diameter 0.5 m and height
2.5 m. Calculate the total volume of concrete needed to make the beam and the
pillars. Use π = 3.14 and put your answer by rounding it to two decimal places.
Figure 6.62
2. The diagram shows the cross-section of a pipe of length 50 m. The inner diameter
of the pipe is 20 cm and the outer diameter is 28 cm.
a. Calculate the volume of metal needed to make the pipe. Use π = 3.14
b. Calculate the total surface area of the pipe, including the inside surface.
Use π = 3.14
Figure 6.63
3. A lead bar of length 15 cm, width 8 cm and thickness 5 cm is melted down and
made in five equal spherical ornaments. Find the radius of each ornament. (Use
π = 3.14)
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Summary
Prism
LSA = 𝑝ℎ
TSA = 2BA + LSA
𝑉 = (BA)ℎ
Figure 6.64
Right circular cylinder
LSA = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
TSA = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ)
V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Figure 6.65
Regular Pyramid
1
LSA = 𝑝𝑙
2
1
TSA = BA + 2 𝑝𝑙
1
V= (BA)ℎ
3
Figure 6.66
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Right circular cone
LSA = 𝜋𝑟𝑙
TSA = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑙)

1
V = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Figure 6.67
Sphere
A = 4𝜋𝑟 2
4
V = 3 𝜋𝑟 3
Figure 6.68
Frustum of a pyramid
1
LSA = 𝑙(𝑝 + 𝑝′ )
2
1
TSA = 2 𝑙(𝑝 + 𝑝′ ) + 𝐴′ + 𝐴
1
V= ℎ(A + A′ + √AA′ )
3
Figure 6.69
341
Frustum of a cone
1
LSA = 𝑙(2𝜋𝑟 + 2𝜋𝑟 ′ ) = 𝑙𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ )
2
1
TSA = 𝑙(2𝜋𝑟 + 2𝜋𝑟 ′ ) + 𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟 ′2
2
= 𝑙𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ ) + 𝜋(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 )
1
V = 3 𝜋ℎ(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑟𝑟 ′ )
Figure 6.70
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Review Exercise
1. Find the lateral surface area and volume of the following figures.
Figure 6.71
2. A lateral edge of a right prism is 6 cm and the perimeter of its base is 36 cm. Find
the area of its lateral surface.
3. The height of a circular cylinder is equal to the radius of its base. Find its total
surface area and its volume. Give your answer in terms of its radius.
4. Find the total surface area of a regular hexagonal pyramid, given that an edge of
the base is 8 cm and the altitude is 12 cm.
5. When a lamp of stone is submerged in a rectangular water tank whose base is 20
cm by 50 cm, the water level rises by 1cm. What is the volume of the stone?
6. The altitude and base radius of a right circular cone are 5 cm and 8 cm
respectively. Find the total surface area and volume of the cone.
7. What is the lateral surface area of a regular square pyramid whose base is 12 cm
on a side and whose slant height is 10 cm? If a plane is passed parallel to the base
and 4 cm from the vertex, what is the lateral area of the frustum?
8. The radii of the internal and external surfaces of a hollow spherical shell are 3 m
and 5 m respectively. If the same amount of material were formed into a cube
what would be the length of the edge of the cube?
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9. Find the ratio relation between the volumes and the lateral surface areas of the
cylinder, sphere and cone, when their heights and diameters are equal.
10. A solid is made up of a right circular cone, right circular cylinder and
hemisphere, as shown in Figure 6.72. Find the surface area of the composed
solid.
Figure 6.72
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Unit 7: Coordinate Geometry
UNIT
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
7
Unit Outcomes
Find the distance between any two given points in the coordinate plane.
Divide a given line segment into different ratios.
Describe the equation of a line in different forms.
Describe the equation of a circle in different forms.
Relate the slope of parallel and perpendicular lines.
Unit Contents
7.1 Distance Between Two Points
7.2 Division of a Line Segment
7.3 Equation of a Line
7.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
7.5 Equation of a Circle
7.6 Applications
Summary
Review Exercise
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✓ Point-slope form ✓ Slope (gradient)
✓ Inclination of a line ✓ Two-point form
✓ Slope-intercept form ✓ Mid-point
✓ Equation of a line ✓ General Equation of a line ✓ Steepness
✓ Horizontal line ✓ Non-vertical line ✓ Coordinates
✓ Angle of inclination ✓ Coordinate geometry
INTRODUCTION
Coordinate geometry is one of the most important and exciting ideas of mathematics.
In particular, it is central to mathematics students. It provides a connection between
algebra and geometry through graphs of lines and curves. This enables geometric
problems to be solved algebraically and provides geometric insights into algebra.
The number plane (Cartesian plane) is divided into four quadrants by two
perpendicular axes called the 𝑥-axis (horizontal line) and the 𝑦-axis (vertical line).
These axes intersect at a point called the origin. The position of any point in the plane
can be represented by an ordered pair of numbers (𝑥, 𝑦). These ordered pairs are called
the coordinates of the point. The origin is denoted
by the ordered pair (0, 0).
The point with coordinates (2, 3) has been plotted
on the Cartesian coordinate plane as shown in
figure 7.1. Once the coordinates of two points are
known, the distance between the two points and
midpoint of the interval joining them can be found.
Figure 7.1
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7.1 Distance Between Two Points

In unit one, you have discussed the Cartesian coordinate plane and you have seen that
there is one-to-one correspondence between the set of points in the plane and the set
of all ordered pairs of real numbers.
Distance is always positive, or zero if the points coincide. The distance from point 𝐴
to 𝐵 is the same as the distance from point 𝐵 to 𝐴 (see figure7.2). We first find the
distance between two points that are either vertically or horizontally aligned.
The following activity will help you to review the facts you discussed in Grade 9.
Activity 7.1
1. Consider the number line given in figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2
i. Find the corresponding value of points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝐴 and 𝐵.

ii. Find the distance between points a) 𝐴 and 𝐵 b) 𝑄 and 𝐵
2. On a number line, the two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 have coordinates 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 , then
a. find the distance between 𝑃 and 𝑄.
b. find the distance between 𝑄 and 𝑃.
c. discuss the relationship between your answers in 𝑎 and 𝑏 above.
d. find ȁ𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ȁ, and ȁ𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ȁ. What do you observe?
3. How do you plot the coordinates of points in the coordinate plane?
4. Let 𝑆(4, 5) and 𝑇(4, 9) be points on the coordinate plane.
a. Plot the points 𝑆 and 𝑇.
b. Is the line through points 𝑇 and 𝑆 vertical or horizontal? Why?
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Example 1
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points.

a. 𝐴(1, 2) and 𝐵(4, 2) b. 𝑃(1, −2) and 𝑄(1, 3)
Solution:
a. Since 𝐴𝐵 is horizontal line, distance 𝑑 = ȁ𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ȁ = ȁ4 − 1ȁ = 3.
Figure 7.3
b. Since 𝑃𝑄 is vertical line,
Distance 𝑑 = ȁ𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ȁ = ȁ3 − (−2)ȁ= 5.
Figure 7.4
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Exercise 7.1
Find the distance between the following points.
a. 𝐴(2, 3), 𝐵(5, 3) b. 𝑀(−3, −2), 𝑁(2, −2) c. 𝑃(4, 1), 𝑄(4, −2)
The example above considers the special cases when the line interval AB is either
horizontal or vertical. Pythagoras Theorem is used to calculate the distance between
two points when the line interval between them
is neither vertical nor horizontal. The distance
between the points 𝐴(1, 2) and 𝐵(4, 6) is
calculated below.
𝐴𝐶 = 4 − 1 = 3 and 𝐵𝐶 = 6 − 2 = 4.
By Pythagoras Theorem,
(𝐴𝐵)2 = (𝐴𝐶)2 + (𝐵𝐶)2
(𝐴𝐵)2 = 32 + 42
= 25
Since 𝐴𝐵 > 0, 𝐴𝐵 = √25 = 5 Figure 7.5
So, the distance between 𝐴 and 𝐵, 𝐴𝐵 = 5units.

Now, we can obtain a general formula for the length of any interval.
Suppose that 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are two distinct points on the 𝑥𝑦 -plane as
shown in Figure 7.6.
To find the distance between the points
P and 𝑄, draw a line passing through 𝑃
parallel to the 𝑥-axis and draw a line
passing through 𝑄 parallel to the 𝑦-axis.
The vertical line and the horizontal line
intersect at 𝑅(x2 , y1 ).
Figure 7.6
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The distance PQ can be defined as follows.
Note that ΔPQR is a right-angled triangle and by the Pythagoras Theorem, we have
(PQ)2 = (PR)2 + (RQ)2 . So, PQ = √(PR)2 + (RQ)2 .
Since distance of PR = ȁ𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ȁand distance of RQ = ȁ𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ȁ
Definition 7.1
If 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are endpoints of a line segment 𝑃𝑄, then the
distance of തതതതത
𝑃𝑄 , denoted by 𝑑, is given by:
d = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 .
Example 1
Find the distance between the given points.

a. 𝐴(2, 1) and 𝐵(8, 9) b. 𝑃(9, 13) and 𝑄(4, 1)
c. 𝑅(0, −1) and 𝑆(−3, 3)
Solution:
a. 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = √(8 − 2)2 + (9 − 1)2
= √62 + 82
= √100 = 10
Therefore, the distance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is 10 units.
b. Similarly, 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = √(4 − 9)2 + (1 − 13)2
= √(−5)2 + (−12)2
= √169 = 13
Therefore, the distance between point 𝑃 and 𝑄 is 13 units.
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2
c. 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = √ (−3 − 0)2 + (3 − (−1))
= √(−3)2 + (4)2
= √25 = 5
Therefore, the distance between point 𝑅 and 𝑆 is 5 units.
Exercise 7.2
In each of the following, find the distance between the two given points.
a. 𝐴(2, 5) and 𝐵(4, 7)
b. 𝑃(−3, 5) and 𝑄(4, 10)
c. 𝑅(9, 5) and 𝑆(6, −3)
d. 𝑀(−4, −3) and 𝑁(5, 7)
e. 𝑇(−5, −2) and 𝑆(0, −14)
f. The origin and a point 𝑃( √2, √2).
7.2 Division of a Line Segment
Activity 7.2
a. What is a line?
b. What is the difference between a line and a line segment?
c. Can you divide 10 cm thread into two equal parts?
d. Discuss the midpoint of a line segment.
e. Define the ratio of two numbers or line segments.
A line segment can be divided into ‘𝑛’ equal parts, where ‘𝑛’ is any natural number.
For example; a line segment of length 10 cm is divided into two equal parts by using
351
a ruler as follows:
Mark a point 5 cm away from one end, 10 cm is divided into two 5 cm line segments.
Similarly, a line segment of length 15 cm can be divided in the ratio 2:1. Let 𝐴𝐵 is the
line segment of length 15 cm and 𝐶 divides the line in the ratio 2:1 as shown in
figure 7.7.
If 𝐶𝐵 = 𝑥, then 𝐴𝐶 = 2𝑥. So, 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐵 = 2𝑥 + 𝑥 = 15 implies 𝑥 = 5 cm. Then,
𝐴𝐶 = 10 cm and 𝐶𝐵 = 5 cm
Figure 7.7
Given a line segment PQ, let us find the coordinates of R, dividing the line segment
𝑃𝑅 𝑝
PQ internally in the ratio p: q, i.e. = 𝑞,
𝑅𝑄
where p and q are given positive numbers.

Let the coordinate of 𝑅 be (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and the
coordinate of 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
with 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 and 𝑦1 ≠ 𝑦2 .
Figure 7.8
As shown in figure 7.8, PS = ȁ𝑥0 − 𝑥1 ȁ, RT = ȁ𝑥2 − 𝑥0 ȁ, SR = ȁ𝑦0 − 𝑦1 ȁand

TQ = ȁ𝑦2 − 𝑦0 ȁ.
Since ∆𝑃𝑆𝑅 ≈ ∆𝑅𝑇𝑄.
PS PR SR PR 𝑥0 −𝑥1 𝑝 y 0 −y 1 𝑝 PR 𝑝
RT
= RQ and TQ
= RQ . So, = 𝑞 and = 𝑞 (since RQ = 𝑞 ).
𝑥2 −𝑥0 y 2 −y 0
Now, solve for 𝑥0 and 𝑦0

x 0 −x 1 p 𝑦0 −𝑦1 𝑝
= q , i.e., 𝑞(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 ) = 𝑝(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 ) and =𝑞,
x 2 −x 0 𝑦2 −𝑦0
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i.e., 𝑞(𝑦0 − 𝑦1 ) = 𝑝(𝑦2 − 𝑦0 )

𝑞𝑥0 − 𝑞𝑥1 = 𝑝𝑥2 − 𝑝𝑥0 and 𝑞𝑦0 − 𝑞𝑦1 = 𝑝𝑦2 − 𝑝𝑦0
𝑝𝑥2 +𝑞𝑥1 𝑝𝑦2 +𝑞𝑦1
𝑥0 = and 𝑦0 = .
𝑝+𝑞 𝑝+𝑞
The Section Formula
The point 𝑅(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) dividing the line segment PQ internally in the ratio 𝑝: 𝑞 is
given by:
𝑅(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ( 𝑝+ 𝑞
, 𝑝+ 𝑞
),
where 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are the end-points.

This is called the section formula.
Example 1
A point divides internally the line

segment joining the points 𝐴(−7, 4)
and 𝐵(8, 9) in the ratio 3: 2. Find the
coordinates of the point.
Solution:
Given: 𝑝 = 3 and 𝑞 = 2.
Let 𝑅(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) be the point where
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) are coordinates of the point which Figure 7.9
divides internally the line-segment joining the given points in the given ratio.
Then, 𝑅(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ( , )
𝑝+𝑞 𝑝+𝑞
3 × 8 + 2 × (−7) 3 × 9 + 2 × 4
=( , ) = (2, 7)
3+2 3+2
Therefore, the coordinates of the required point 𝑅(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = (2, 7).
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Exercise 7.3
1. Find the point dividing the line segment 𝐴𝐵 internally in the given ratio.
a. 𝐴(1, 2), 𝐵(4, 5), 1:2 .
b. 𝐴(2, −3), 𝐵(−1, 5), 3:1.
2. A line segment has end points 𝑃(−1, 5) and Q (5, 2). Find the coordinates of the
points that trisect the segment.
The Midpoint Formula
Suppose that 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are two distinct points on the 𝑥𝑦-plane and
point 𝑅(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is midpoint of 𝑃𝑄.
തതതതത Then,
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
R(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ( , ).
2 2
Example 1
Find the midpoint 𝑀 of the line segment joining the origin and the point (4, 0).
Figure 7.10
Solution:
It is easy to see that this line is 4 units in length and its midpoint is (2, 0). This makes
it easy to illustrate how the midpoint formula works.
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First, let’s represent the origin, 𝑃(0, 0) as (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and the point 𝑄(4, 0) as (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ).
Then if 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) is the midpoint, then we can substitute them into the midpoint formula
as to find this point as
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 0+4 0+0
R(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ( , ) =( , ) = (2, 0).
2 2 2 2
Example 2
Find the midpoint of the line segment joining the points 𝐴(−1, −2) and 𝐵(3,2).
Solution:
Midpoint of തതതത
𝐴𝐵
−1+3 −2+2
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ( 2
, 2
) = (1, 0).
Figure 7.11
Exercise 7.4
1. Find the coordinate of the midpoint of the line segments joining the points:
a. 𝑃(1, −3) and Q (4, 5) b. 𝑃(−9, −3) and Q (18, 2)
2. Find the midpoint of the sides of the triangle with vertices 𝐴(−1, 3), 𝐵(4, 6) and
𝐶(3, −1).
3. If 𝑀(4, 6) is the midpoint of the line segment 𝐴𝐵, point 𝐴 has the coordinates
(−3, −2). Find the coordinates of point 𝐵.
4. Find the coordinates of point 𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑦) where it divides the line segment joining
(4, – 1) and (4, 3) in the ratio 3: 1 internally.
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7.3 Equation of a Line

In this subtopic, we find the equation of a straight line, when we are given some
information about the line. The information could be the value of its gradient, together
with the coordinates of a point on the line. Alternatively, the information might be the
coordinates of two different points on the line. There are several different ways of
expressing the final equation, and some are more general than others.
7.3.1 Gradient (slope) of a line

From your everyday experience, you might be familiar with the idea of gradient
(slope). A hill may be steep or may rise very slowly. The number that describes the
steepness of a hill is called the
gradient (slope) of the hill. We
measure the gradient of the hill by
the ratio of the vertical rise to the
horizontal run as shown in
figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12
Activity 7.3
Given points 𝐴(−4, 2), 𝐵(7, 5) and
𝐶(−3, 8) as shown in the Figure 7.13,
𝑦2 −𝑦1
a. Find the value of 𝑥2 −𝑥1
when,
(i ) 𝐴 and 𝐵, (ii) 𝐴 and 𝐶.

b. Are the values obtained in (i)
and (ii) above equal?
Figure 7.13
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In coordinate geometry, the gradient of a non-

vertical straight line is the ratio of “change in
𝑦-coordinates” to the corresponding “change
in 𝑥-coordinates”.
That is, the slope of a line through points
𝑃 and 𝑄 is the ratio of the vertical distance
from 𝑅 to 𝑄 to the horizontal distance
from 𝑃 to 𝑅. See Figure 7.14.
If we denote the gradient of a line by the letter 𝑚, then
Figure 7.14
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑚 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑥 , 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 .
2 −𝑥1
Definition 7.2
If 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are points on a line with 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , then the gradient
of the line, denoted by 𝑚, is given by:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= .
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Example 1
1. Find the gradient of the line passing through each of the following pairs of points:
a. P(2, 1) and Q (4, 7) b. 𝑃(5, −1) and Q (6, 9)

c. 𝑃(8, 3) and Q (3, 13) d. 𝑃(7, 3) and Q (-4, 3)
e. 𝑃(2, 3) and Q (2, -7)
Solution:
𝑦 −𝑦 7−1 6
a. 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = 4−2 = 2 = 3
2 1
𝑦 −𝑦 9−(−1)
b. 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = = 10
2 1 6−5
𝑦 −𝑦 13−3
c. 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = 3−8
= −2
2 1
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𝑦 −𝑦 3−3 0
d. 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = −4−7 = −11 = 0 (Since the line is
2 1
horizontal (parallel to 𝑥-axis) it has zero slope.)

e. Since the line is a vertical line (parallel to 𝑦-
axis) it has no slope.
Figure 7.15
Exercise 7.5
1. Find the gradient of the line passing through the following points.
a. 𝑃(4, 3) and 𝑄(6, 7) b. 𝑃(4, −3) and 𝑄(7, −4)
c. 𝑃(0, 3) and 𝑄(0, −7) d. 𝑃(−6, −3) and 𝑄(−2, 5)
2. If 𝐴(−4, 6), 𝐵(−1, 12) and 𝐶(−7, 0) are points, then show that they are
collinear.
3. If 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are distinct points on a line with 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , then what
can be said about the gradient of the line? Is the line vertical or horizontal?
4. Consider the line with equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4. Take three distinct points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶
on the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4.
a. Find the gradient using 𝐴 and 𝐵.
b. Find the gradient using 𝐴 and 𝐶.
c. What do you observe from 𝑎 and 𝑏?
7.3.2 Slope of a line in terms of angle of inclination

The angle measured from the positive 𝑥-axis to a line, in the anticlockwise direction
is called the inclination of the line or the angle of inclination of the line. This angle is
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always less than 180° .
Figure 7.15
Activity 7.4
Consider the right-angled 𝛥𝑂𝑃𝑄 in Figure 7.16.

a. How long is the hypotenuse?
b. What is the tangent of ∠ 𝑃O𝑄 ?
c. By finding the coordinates of points 𝑃 and 𝑄, calculate the slope of the line.
d. What relationship do you see between your
answers for questions 𝑏 and 𝑐?
Figure 7.16
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The above activity will help you to understand the relationship between slope and angle
of inclination. For a non-vertical line, the tangent of this angle is the slope of the line.
Figure 7.17
In the Figure 7.17 (a), the slope of the straight line 𝐿 is

𝑅𝑄 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚= 𝑃𝑅
= 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = tan(∠𝑅𝑃𝑄). Therefore, 𝑚 = tan𝜃.
2 1
A line making an acute angle of inclination 𝜃 with the positive direction of the x-axis
has positive slope.
Similarly, a line with obtuse angle of inclination, (see Figure 7.17b), has negative
slope. The slope of the straight line L is
𝑅𝑄 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚= 𝑃𝑅
= 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = tan𝜃. Therefore, 𝑚 = tan(1800 − 𝛼) = −tan𝛼.
2 1
In general, the slope of a line may be expressed in terms of the coordinates of two
points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) on the line as follows:
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = tan𝜃, 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , where 𝜃 is the anticlockwise angle between the positive
2 1
𝑥-axis and the line 𝐿.
Example 1
Find the slope of a line if its angle of inclination is:

a. 45° b. 120°
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Solution:
a. Slope, 𝑚 = tan𝜃 = tan45° = 1

b. Since 𝜃 = 120°, the supplemental angle 𝛼 = 60°.
Thus, 𝑚 = −tan𝛼.
= −tan60°
= −√3.
Figure 7.18 Figure 7.19
Exercise 7.6
1. Find the slope of a line if its angle of inclination is:
a. 60° b. 150°
7.3.3 Different forms of equation of a line

The equation for the slope m of a line passing through the point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is called
point slope form of equation of a straight line and is given by:
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
The slope-intercept form of equation of the line is given by:
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𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃, where 𝑏 is the 𝑦-intercept. Observe the properties of the line in

relation to the slope:
1) If 𝑚 ∈ 𝑅 where R is the set of real numbers, then

● 𝑚 > 0, then the line rises from left to right
● 𝑚 < 0, then the line goes downward from left to right
● 𝑚 = 0, then the line is horizontal
2) A vertical line has no slope.
Two points form of equation of a line:
Let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be the given points on the line 𝐿 and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be any
point on the line 𝐿 as shown in the figure 7.20.
Figure 7.20
From figure 7.20, the three points 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃 are collinear. Why?
slope of തതതതത
𝑃𝑃1 = slope of തതതതത
𝑃𝑃2
𝑦−𝑦1 𝑦 −𝑦
= 𝑥2 −𝑥1 .
𝑥−𝑥1 2 1
𝑦2 −𝑦1
So, 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
2 −𝑥1
Thus, equation of the line passing through the points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given
𝑦 −𝑦
by: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
2 1
This is called two-point form of equation of a line.
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Remark: The general form of the equation of a line is given as 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0,

where 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are real numbers.
Example 1
Find the equation of a line when 𝑚 = 3, 𝑏 = −1.

Solution:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. Thus 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1
Example 2
Find the 𝑦-intercept and the equation of the line with slope 𝑚, passing through the
given point 𝑃.
𝐚. 𝑚 = 4; 𝑃(−5, 0)
𝐛. 𝑚 = −2; 𝑃(4, 3)
Solution:
𝑦−𝑦 𝑦−0
a. 𝑚 = 𝑥−𝑥1 and so, 4 = 𝑥−(−5), y = 4(𝑥 + 5) = 4𝑥 + 20.
1
Or 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. y = 4𝑥 + 𝑏.
Since the line passes through 𝑃(−5, 0), 𝑏 = 0 − 4 × (−5) = 20.
Therefore, 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 20.
𝑦−𝑦 𝑦−3
b. 𝑚 = 𝑥−𝑥1 and so, −2 = 𝑥−4, 𝑦 − 3 = −2(𝑥 − 4) = −2𝑥 + 11.
1
Or 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. y = −2𝑥 + 𝑏.
Since the line passes through 𝑃(4, 3), 𝑏 = 3 + 2 × 4 = 11.
Therefore, 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 11.
Example 3
If a line passes through the points (1, 4) and (2, 6), then what is the equation of the
line? What is the slope and y-intercept?
Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be any point on the line that passes through the points (1, 4) and (2, 6).
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We have,
𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 −𝑥1
6−4
𝑦 − 4 = 2−1 (𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 − 4 = 2(𝑥 − 1)
Therefore, the equation of the line is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2. The slope is 2 and
𝑦-intercept is 2.
Or
6−4
Let the slope and 𝑦-intercept be m and b. Then, 𝑚 = 2−1
= 2.
The equation becomes 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑏, then this line passes one of the two points.
So, taking(1, 4), 4 = 2 ∙ 1 + 𝑏, then, 𝑏 = 2
Therefore, the equation of the line is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2.
Exercise 7.7
1. Find the equation of the line with slope 𝑚 and 𝑦-intercept b.
5
a. 𝑚 = −6; 𝑏 = 3 b. 𝑚 = 0; 𝑏 = −2.
3 1
c. 𝑚 = − 4 ; 𝑏 = 6
2. Find the equation of the line with slope 𝑚 and passing through the given point 𝑃.
a. 𝑚 = 3; 𝑃(2, 4) b. 𝑚 = −2; 𝑃(−3, −1)
4
c. 𝑚 = 5; 𝑃(−5, 0) d. 𝑚 = 0; 𝑃(7, −4)
3. Find the equation of the line passing through the given points.
a. 𝑃(1, 3) and 𝑄(3, 7) b. 𝐴(−1, 2) and 𝐵(2, −3)
c. 𝑅(4, 3) and 𝑆(5, −4) d. 𝑃(1, 8) and 𝑄(7, −2)
e. 𝐶(6, 3) and 𝐷(5, −5) f. 𝑀(−9, 4) and 𝑁(−7, −3)
4. Suppose a line has 𝑥-intercept 𝑝 and 𝑦-intercept 𝑞 , for 𝑝, 𝑞 ≠ 0 ;
𝑥 𝑦
Show that the equation of the line is + = 1.
𝑝 𝑞
5. For each of the following equations, find the slope and 𝑦-intercept:
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5
a. 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 10 = 0 b. 4
𝑥−𝑦 =0
1 5 1
c. 7𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 56 = 0 d. 3
𝑥 + 12 𝑦 − 4 = 0
e. 𝑦 − 5 = 0
6. If a line passing through the points 𝑃(2, 5) and 𝑄(−4, 7), then find
a. the point-slope form of the equation of the line;
b. the slope-intercept form of the equation of the line;
c. the two-point form of equation of the line. What is its general form?
7.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

This sub-topic looks at the relationship between the slopes of parallel lines as well as
new concept. You will need to know how to find the slope of a line given an equation
and how to write the equation of a line. Do the lines intersect or stay apart? If they
intersect, do they create a 900 ? These are the questions we ask about parallel and
perpendicular lines.
7.4.1 Slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines

This topic looks at the relationship between the slopes of parallel as well as
perpendicular lines. Slopes can be used to see whether two non-vertical lines in a plane
are parallel, perpendicular, or neither.
Activity 7.5
1. Discuss parallel and perpendicular lines.

2. In the figure 7.21 (A), 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are parallel.
a. Calculate the slope of each line.
b. Find the equation of each line.
c. Discuss how their slopes are related?
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Figure 7.21
3. In figure 7.21 (B), 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are perpendicular.
a. Calculate the slope of each line.
b. Find the equation of each line.
c. Discuss how their slopes are related?
Theorem 7.1
If two non - vertical lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 having slope 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 respectively are
parallel to each other, then they have the same slope (m1 = 𝑚2 ).
Proof:
Suppose you have two non-vertical 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 with
slopes m1 and m2 and inclination 𝛽 and 𝜃 ,
respectively as shown in figure 7.22. If 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are
parallel, then 𝜃 = 𝛽 . Consequently,
m1 = tan𝛽 = tan𝜃 = m2
Figure 7.22
366
Example 1
Show that the line passing through the points 𝑃(6, 4) and 𝑅(7, 11) is parallel to the
line passing through 𝐴(0, 0) and 𝐵(2, 14).
Solution:
Let slopes of line PR and AB be 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 respectively.
11−4 14−0
𝑚1 = 7−6
= 7, 𝑚2 = 2−0
= 7.
The two lines have the same slope. Therefore, they are parallel.
Example 2
Find the equation of the line which is parallel to the line 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 6 and passing
through the point 𝑃(1,10).
Solution:
The slope of the line 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 6 is 𝑚 = −2. Therefore, the line through the point
𝑃(1,10) parallel to 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 6 has equation 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 10 = −2(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 12
Exercise 7.8
1. Show that the line passing through the points 𝐴(7, 5) and 𝐵(6, 11) is parallel to
the line passing through 𝑃(5, 1) and 𝑄(3, 13).
2. Find the equation of a line parallel to :
a. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 4 and passing through point (2, 8)
b. 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 5 and passing through points(1, 1)
Theorem 7.2
Two non-vertical lines having slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are perpendicular if and only if
𝑚1 . 𝑚2 = −1.
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Proof:
Suppose line 𝑙1 is perpendicular to line 𝑙2 . Let 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 be slope of 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 ,
respectively. Let 𝑅(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) be the point of intersection and choose points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) on 𝑙1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙2 , respectively. Draw 𝛥𝑄𝑆𝑅 and 𝛥𝑅𝑇𝑃 as shown in the
figure 7.23.
𝛥𝑄𝑆𝑅 ≈ 𝛥𝑅𝑇𝑃 Why?
𝑅𝑆 𝑃𝑇
𝑄𝑆
= 𝑅𝑇 Why?
𝑦1 −𝑦0 𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥
= 𝑦0 −𝑦2 = − 𝑦2 −𝑦0 Why?
𝑥1 −𝑥0 2 0 2 0
𝑦1 −𝑦0 1
= − 𝑦2 −𝑦0 Why?
𝑥1 −𝑥0
𝑥2 −𝑥0
1
So, 𝑚1 = − 𝑚 or 𝑚1 . 𝑚2 = −1.
2
Figure 7.23
Conversely, you could show that if two lines have slopes m1 and m2 with
𝑚1 . 𝑚2 = −1 then the lines are perpendicular.
Example 1
Show that the line passing through the points 𝐴(6, 0) and 𝐵(0, 12) is perpendicular
to the line through 𝑃(8, 10) and 𝑄(4, 8).
Solution:
Let slopes of line AB and PQ be 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 respectively.

12−0 8−10 −2 1
𝑚1 = 0−6
= −2 and 𝑚2 = 4−8
= −4 = 2
1
Thus, 𝑚1 ∙ 𝑚2 = −2 × 2 = −1.
Therefore, the line that passes through the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is perpendicular to the line
that passes through the points 𝑃 and 𝑄.
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Example 2
Find the equation of the line passing through the point (5, 4) and
a. parallel to the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1.
b. perpendicular to the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1.
Solution:
a. The parallel line needs to have the
same slope of 𝑚 = 2. We can solve
this using the slope intercept form of
equation of a line as
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
Figure 7.24
𝑦 − 4 = 2(𝑥 − 5) (Given the point (5,4))
𝑦 − 4 = 2𝑥 − 10
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 10 + 4 (Why?)
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 6 (Why?)
Hence, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 6 is a line parallel to 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1.
Figure 7.25
1
b. The two lines are perpendicular. So, 𝑚 = − .
2
By slope intercept form of equation of a line 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

1 1
𝑦 − 4 = − 2 (𝑥 − 5) , Since 𝑚 = − 2 and given the point (5,4)
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1 5 1 13
𝑦=− 𝑥+ +4=− 𝑥+
2 2 2 2
1 13
Hence, the line 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 + 2
is perpendicular to 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1, as shown
figure 7.26.
Figure 7.26
Exercise 7.9
1. Find the slope of a line that is:
a. parallel to the line : 𝑦 = −7𝑥 + 5
b. perpendicular to the line: 𝑦 = −7𝑥 + 5
2. Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular to
a. 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 5 and passes through the point (7, 2).
b. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 5 and passes through the point (−7, 2).
7.5 Equation of a Circle
Activity 7.6
Let’s think, what are the set of all points in a plane which are at a distance of 5
units from the origin?
The equation of a circle is different from the formulas that are used to calculate the
area or the circumference of a circle. This equation is used across many problems of
370
circles in coordinate geometry.

An equation of a circle represents the position of a circle in a Cartesian plane. If we
know the coordinates of the center of the circle and the length of its radius, we can
write the equation of a circle. The equation of circle represents all the points that lie on
the circumference of the circle.
Definition 7.2
A circle is the set of all points on a plane with a fixed distance from a fixed point.
This fixed point is called the center of the circle and the fixed distance is the radius
r of the circle.
7.5.1 Different Forms of Equation of Circle

An equation of circle represents the position of a circle on a Cartesian plane. A circle
can be drawn on a piece of paper given its center and the length of its radius. Using the
equation of circle, once we find the coordinates of the center of the circle and its radius,
we will be able to draw the circle on the Cartesian plane. There are different forms to
represent the equation of a circle,
• Standard form
• General form
Standard Equation of a Circle
A circle is a closed curve that is drawn from the
fixed point called the center, in which all the points
on the curve are having the same distance from the
center point of the center. The equation of a circle
with (ℎ, 𝑘) center and 𝑟 radius is given by:
(𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐
Figure 7.27
371
Example 1
Find the equation of the circle whose center and radius are following:
a. 𝐶(3, 4), 𝑟 = 2 b. 𝐶(4, −2), 𝑟 =5
Solution:
a. Given the center (ℎ, 𝑘) = (3, 4) and 𝑟 = 2, and (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 =
𝑟2.
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 22
b. (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − (−2))2 = 52
(𝑥 − 4)2 + (y + 2)2 = 52
Equation of a Circle When the Centre is Origin
Figure 7.28
Consider an arbitrary point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) on the circle. Let ‘𝑎’ be the radius of the circle
which is equal to 𝑂𝑃.
We know that the distance between the point (𝑥, 𝑦) and origin (0,0) can be found
using the distance formula which is equal to: √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎.
Now, squaring on both sides to obtain, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 .
This is the equation of the circle with the center as the origin.
Example 2
Consider a circle whose center is at the origin and radius is equal to 6 units.
372
Solution:
Given: Centre is (0, 0), radius is 6 units.
We know that the equation of a circle when the center is origin:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 . For the given condition, the equation of the circle is given as
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 62
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 36, which is the equation of the circle.
Example 3
Show the point (6, 8) is on the circle with equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 100.

Solution:
Given: 𝑥 = 6 and 𝑦 = 8. Substitute them into the equation: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 100
(LHS) of the equation: 62 + 82 = 100 ⇒ (𝐿𝐻𝑆) = (𝑅𝐻𝑆) So, point (6, 8) is on the
circle.
Exercise 7.10
1. Find the equation of the circle in standard form for the following circles.
a. 𝐶(2, −3), 𝑟 = 3.
b. 𝐶(−7, 4), 𝑟 = 4
c. 𝐶(0, 0), 𝑟 = √10
2. Find the center and radius of the following circles.
a. (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 72 .
b. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 100.
c. (𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2 = 32 .
3. Show the point (-12, 5) is on the circle with equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 169.
General Form of Equation of a Circle
The general form of the equation of a circle is expressed as:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛 = 0
373
By using completing square method,

𝑙 2 𝑚 2 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 − 4𝑛
(𝑥 + ) + (𝑦 + ) =
2 2 4
Since the left side of the equation is always positive, 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 − 4𝑛 > 0.
Note
If 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 − 4𝑛 = 0, then the radius of the circle is zero which tells us that the
circle is a point that coincides with the center. Such a type of circle is called a point
circle.
If 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 − 4𝑛 < 0, then the radius of the circle become negative and not real
(imaginary).
Definition 7.3
General form of equation of a circle is expressed as:
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒍𝒙 + 𝒎𝒚 + 𝒏 = 𝟎, where 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 − 4𝑛 > 0.
Note
We need to make sure that the coefficients of 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2 are 1 before applying the
formula.
Example 1
Equation of a circle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 − 16𝑦 + 19 = 0. Find the center and radius of

the circle.
Solution:
By using completing square method,
𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 16𝑦 + 19 = 0
(𝑥 − 6)2 + (𝑦 − 8)2 − 36 − 64 + 19 = 0
(𝑥 − 6)2 + (𝑦 − 8)2 = 81
(𝑥 − 6)2 + (𝑦 − 8)2 = 92
Therefore, center of the circle is (6, 8) and the radius of the circle is 9 units.
374
Example 2
Write the equation of the circle with center at 𝐶(3, 4) and that passes through the
point 𝑃(5, 6).
Solution:
Let 𝒓 be the radius of the circle. Then the equation of the circle is:
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 𝑟 2
Since the point 𝑃(5, 6) is on the circle, you have
(5 − 3)2 + (6 − 4)2 = 𝑟 2 ⇒ 22 + 22 = 𝑟 2 . Thus, 𝑟 2 = 8
Therefore, (𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 8.
Exercise 7.11
1. Find the center and radius of the circle.
a. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 + 14𝑦 + 38 = 0
b. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 9 = 0
2. Write the equation of the circle described below:
a. It has center at 𝐶(3, 1) and pass through the point 𝑃(7, −3)
b. It passes through the origin and has center at 𝑃(−3, 2)
c. The end point of its diameter are 𝐴(3, 4) and 𝐵(−1, 2)
3. Write the general form of the circle equation with center(−1, 6) and radius 3 unit.
4. Write the equation of the circle in standard form 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0.
7.6 Applications
Area of a triangle in a coordinate plane
Area of a triangle in a coordinate geometry whose vertices are

(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) is:
𝟏
𝑨 = 𝟐 ȁ𝒙𝟏 (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟑 ) + 𝒙𝟐 (𝒚𝟑 − 𝒚𝟏 ) + 𝒙𝟑 (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )ȁ
375
Example 1
Find the area of the triangle having vertices at 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 which are at points
(– 3, 4), (0, 1) and (– 3, – 2) respectively. Also, mention the type of triangle.
Solution:
1
𝐴 = 2 ȁ𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )ȁ
1
= 2 |(−3)(1 − (−2)) + 0(−2 − 4) + (−3)(3 − 0)|
1
= 2 ȁ(−9) + 0 + (−9)ȁ= 9 Sq. units
𝑑(𝐴𝐵) = √(−3 − 0)2 + (4 − 1)2

= √18 = 3√2
𝑑(𝐵𝐶) = √(−3 − 0)2 + (−2 − 1)2
= 3√2
So, 𝐴𝐵
തതതത = 𝐵𝐶
തതതത
And slope of തതതത
𝐴𝐵 = −1 and slope of 𝐵𝐶
തതതത = 1
Slope of 𝐴𝐵
തതതത ∙ slope of 𝐵𝐶
തതതത = −1 × 1 = −1 Figure 7.29
Therefore, it is an isosceles right-angled triangle.
Example 2
A triangle has vertices 𝐴 (−1,1), 𝐵 (1,3) and 𝐶 (3,1).

a. Find the equation of the line containing the sides of the triangle.
b. Is the triangle a right-angled triangle?
c. What are the intercepts of the line passing through points 𝐵 and 𝐶?
Solution:
a. There are three lines of equation, AB, BC and AC.

3−1 2
AB: 𝑚1 = 1−(−1) = 2 = 1
The line passes 𝐵(1,3), then 𝑦 − 3 = 𝑥 − 1 implies 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2

1−3 −2
BC: 𝑚2 = 3−1 = 2
= −1.
376
The line passes B(1,3), then, 𝑦 − 3 = −(𝑥 − 1)

𝑦 = −𝑥 + 4.
1−1 0
AC: 𝑚3 = 3−(−1) = 4 = 0.The line passes 𝐴(−1, 1), then,
𝑦 − 1 = 0 ∙ (𝑥 + 1), 𝑦 = 1
b. From a. 𝑚1 ∙ 𝑚2 = 1 ∙ (−1) = −1
Thus, AB and BC are perpendicular.
Therefore, the triangle ABC is a right-angled
triangle with ∠𝐵 = 90°.
c. From a., the equation of line BC: 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 4
Thus, the 𝑦-intercept is 4.
Figure 7.30
Exercise 7.12
1. Find the area of the triangle having vertices at 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 which are at points
(3, 3), (−1, 0) and (3, – 5), respectively.
2. Show that the plane figure with vertices:
a. 𝐴(5, −1), 𝐵(2, 3) and 𝐶(1, 1) is a right-angled triangle.

b. 𝐴(2, 3), 𝐵(6, 8) and 𝐶(7, −1) is an isosceles triangle.
c. 𝐴(−4, 3), 𝐵(4, −3) and 𝐶 (3√3, 4√3) is an equilateral triangle.
3. Find the equation of the line containing side of the triangle whose vertices are
𝐴(3, 4), 𝐵(2, 0) and 𝐶(−1, 6).
4. Find the coordinates of a point on the x-axis, which is at a distance of 5 units
from the point (6, −3).
5. If end points of the diameter of a circle are (−5, 2) and (3, − 2), then find the
center and equation of the circle.
377
Summary
1. If a point 𝑃 has coordinates (𝑎, 𝑏), then the number 𝑎 is called the 𝒙-coordinate
or abscissa of 𝑃 and 𝑏 is called the 𝒚-coordinate or ordinate of 𝑷.
2. The distance d between points 𝑃 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by the
formula
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
3. The point 𝑅 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) dividing the line segment 𝑃𝑄, internally, in the ratio
𝑝: 𝑞 is given by: 𝑅(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ( , ), where
𝑝+ 𝑞 𝑝+ 𝑞
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are the end-points.

This is called the section formula.
4. The mid-point of a line segment whose end-points are
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by: 𝑀(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ( , )
2 2
5. If 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are points on a line with 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , then the slope
𝑦 −𝑦
(Gradient) of the line, denoted by 𝑚, is given by 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 .
2 1
6. If 𝜃 is the angle between the positive x-axis and the line passing through the
points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ,with 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , then the slope of the line is given
by:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚 = = tan𝜃
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
7. The graph of the equation 𝑥 = 𝑐 is the vertical line through 𝑃(𝑐, 0) and
has no slope.
8. The equation of the line with slope 𝑚 and passing through the point
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is given by: y − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
9. The equation of the line with slope 𝑚 and 𝑦-intercept 𝑏 is given by:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
378
10.The equation of the line passing through points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is
given by:
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ), 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2
2 1
11.Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope.
12.Let 𝑙1 be a line with slope 𝑚1 and 𝑙2 be a line with slope 𝑚2 . Then, 𝑙1 and
𝑙2 are perpendicular lines if and only if 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1.
13.The equation of a circle with (ℎ, 𝑘) center and 𝑟 radius is given by:
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
When the center of a circle is origin, the equation is given by: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
Review Exercise
1. In the figure 7.31 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a rectangle and its
sides 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐷 are parallel to the 𝑥-axis. The
coordinate of 𝐴 and 𝐶 are given in figure 7.31.
Find the coordinates of 𝐵 and 𝐷.
2. Let the coordinates of the vertices of a

parallelogram be 𝑂(0,0), 𝐴(𝑎, 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶(𝑐, 𝑑). Figure 7.31
a. What are the coordinates of 𝐵?

b. What are the coordinates of midpoints of 𝑂𝐵
and 𝐴𝐶?
c. What can you say from 𝑏?
3. In any triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 prove that
(𝐴𝐵)2 + (𝐴𝐶)2 = 2((𝐴𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝐶)2 ),
where 𝐷 is the midpoint of 𝐵𝐶. (HINT: Let the
coordinates of 𝐵 and 𝐶 be (−𝑎, 0) and (𝑎, 0), Figure 7.32
379
respectively. Let the coordinates of 𝐴 be (𝑑, 𝑐)).
4. A point 𝐶(−2, 3) is equidistant from points

𝐴 (3, −1) and 𝐵 (𝑥, 8). Find the value for 𝑥
and the distance 𝐵𝐶.
5. Find the ratio in which the line-segment joining
the points (5, −4) and (2, 3) is divided by the 𝑥-axis.
Figure 7.32
6. Prove that set of points equidistant from two given
points is a straight line.
7. If the gradient of a line is −3 and the 𝑦-intercept is −7, then find the equation
of the line.
8. Find the slope of the line passing through the points 𝑃(5, −3) and 𝑄(7, −4).
9. Find the equation of a line passing through (−2, 3) and having a slope of −1.
10.Determine the equation of the line that passes through the points 𝐴(−3, 2) and
𝐵(5, 4).
11.Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (−2, 5) and is
perpendicular to the line whose equation is 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5 = 0.
12.If a triangle has vertices 𝐴(−1, 1),𝐵(1, 3) and 𝐶(3, 1), then
a. finds the equation of the line containing the sides of the triangle.
b. determines whether the triangle is a right-angled triangle or not.
c. What are the intercepts of the line passing through points 𝐵 and 𝐶?
13.Using the 𝑥-intercept and 𝑦-intercept methods, sketch the graph of
a. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 1 b. 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6 = 0
14. Find the area of the triangle having vertices at 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 with coordinates
(2, 3), (– 1,0) and (2, – 3), respectively. What type of triangle is it?
15. If one end of the diameter of a circle is (5, 6) and the center of the circle is
(-2, 1), then find the other end of the diameter of the circle and equation of the
circle.
380
Logarithm Table
381
Logarithm Table
382
Logarithm Table
383
Logarithm Table
384
Trigonometric Table
sin cos tan cot sec csc

0 0 1 0 1 90
1 0.017452 0.999848 0.017455 57.2900 1.000152 57.29874 89
2 0.03490 0.999391 0.034921 28.63628 1.00061 28.65373 88
3 0.052336 0.99863 0.052408 19.08115 1.001372 19.10734 87
4 0.069756 0.997564 0.069927 14.30068 1.002442 14.3356 86
5 0.087156 0.996195 0.087489 11.43006 1.00382 11.47372 85
6 0.104528 0.994522 0.10510 9.514373 1.005508 9.56678 84
7 0.121869 0.992546 0.122784 8.144353 1.00751 8.205516 83
8 0.139173 0.990268 0.140541 7.115376 1.009828 7.18530 82
9 0.156434 0.987688 0.158384 6.313757 1.012465 6.392459 81
10 0.173648 0.984808 0.176327 5.671287 1.015427 5.758775 80
11 0.190809 0.981627 0.19438 5.144558 1.018717 5.240847 79
12 0.207912 0.978148 0.212556 4.704634 1.022341 4.809738 78
13 0.224951 0.97437 0.230868 4.33148 1.026304 4.445415 77
14 0.241922 0.97030 0.249328 4.010784 1.030614 4.133569 76
15 0.258819 0.965926 0.267949 3.732054 1.035276 3.863706 75
16 0.275637 0.961262 0.286745 3.487418 1.040299 3.627958 74
17 0.292371 0.95630 0.30573 3.270856 1.045692 3.420306 73
18 0.309017 0.951057 0.324919 3.077686 1.051462 3.236071 72
19 0.325568 0.945519 0.344327 2.904214 1.057621 3.071556 71
20 0.34202 0.939693 0.36397 2.74748 1.064178 2.923807 70
21 0.358368 0.933581 0.383864 2.605091 1.071145 2.79043 69
22 0.374606 0.927184 0.404026 2.475089 1.078535 2.669469 68
23 0.390731 0.920505 0.424474 2.355855 1.08636 2.559307 67
24 0.406736 0.913546 0.445228 2.246039 1.094636 2.45860 66
25 0.422618 0.906308 0.466307 2.144509 1.103378 2.36620 65
26 0.438371 0.898794 0.487732 2.050306 1.112602 2.281174 64
27 0.45399 0.891007 0.509525 1.962612 1.122326 2.202691 63
28 0.469471 0.882948 0.531709 1.880728 1.13257 2.130056 62
29 0.484809 0.87462 0.554308 1.80405 1.143354 2.062667 61
30 0.5000 0.866026 0.57735 1.732053 1.1547 2.00000 60
31 0.515038 0.857168 0.60086 1.664281 1.166633 1.941606 59
32 0.529919 0.848048 0.624869 1.600336 1.179178 1.887081 58
33 0.544639 0.838671 0.649407 1.539867 1.192363 1.83608 57
34 0.559192 0.829038 0.674508 1.482563 1.206218 1.788293 56
35 0.573576 0.819152 0.700207 1.42815 1.220774 1.743448 55
36 0.587785 0.809017 0.726542 1.376383 1.236068 1.70130 54
37 0.601815 0.798636 0.753553 1.327046 1.252135 1.661641 53
38 0.615661 0.788011 0.781285 1.279943 1.269018 1.62427 52
39 0.62932 0.777146 0.809783 1.23490 1.286759 1.589017 51
40 0.642787 0.766045 0.83910 1.191755 1.305407 1.555725 50
41 0.656059 0.75471 0.869286 1.15037 1.325012 1.524254 49
42 0.66913 0.743145 0.90040 1.110614 1.345632 1.494478 48
43 0.68200 0.731354 0.932514 1.07237 1.367327 1.46628 47
44 0.694658 0.71934 0.965688 1.035532 1.390163 1.439558 46
45 0.707106 0.707107 1.00000 1.00000 1.414213 1.414215 45
cos sin cot tan csc sec
385

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MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS

STUDENT’ S TEXTBOOK GRADE 10

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

Cover the book with protective material, such as plastic, oldnewspapers or

Mamo Teketel Mekasha (MSc)

Akalu Chaka Mekuria (MA) (Curriculum Editor)

Endalfer Melese Moges (MA) (Language Editor)

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

Introduction on Students’ Textbook.

Unit 1 Relations and Functions ……………........... 1

1.1 Relations ………………………………………... 2

Unit 2 Polynomial Functions ……………………… 67

Unit 5 Circles ………………………………………… 251

Unit 6 Solid Figures …………………………………. 287

6.1 Revision of Cylinders and Prisms………… 288

✓ leading coefficient ✓ vertex

✓ linear function ✓ x-intercept

✓ quadratic function ✓ y-intercept

✓ constant function ✓ relation ✓ parabola

✓ coordinate system ✓ range ✓ turning point

✓ combination of functions ✓ slope ✓ Function

✓ axis(orthogonal-axis) ✓ axis of symmetry ✓ domain

1.1.1 Revision of patterns

1. Write the numbers which come next in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ________

4. What relationship can be represented by the table given below?

A pattern is a regularity in the world in human-made design or in abstract ideas. As

Even numbers pattern: 2, 4, 6, 8 …

4. Find the missing value for the geometric

Figure 1.2 Linear patterns

1.1.2 Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions

the letters 𝑿 and 𝒀, or 𝒙 and 𝒚. The axes may then

1. Complete the following table with +, − or 0 that applies to each coordinate of

In mathematics, the Cartesian coordinate system (or rectangular coordinate

Figure 1.4 the -plane

1.1.3 Basic concepts of relations

Therefore, from a mathematical standpoint, the meaning of a relation is given below.

1. Which of the following ordered pairs belong to this relation?

2. Find a number 𝑐 such that

2. a. the set of real numbers 𝑐 > 4

Figure 1.5 Graph of relation 𝑅

Domain and range of a relation

ii. Domain of 𝑅 = { : ( , ) belongs to R for some }

b. Find the domain and range of R.

1.1.4 Graphs of Relations

In general, to sketch graphs of relations involving inequalities, do the

Sketch the graph of the relation R if R be the

Figure 1.7 the graph of the relation > .

Figure 1.9 the graph of the relation 𝑅

From the graph of each of the following

1.2.1 The notion of function

Consider the following relation 𝑅1 . 𝑅1 is the set of ordered pairs ( , ) of real

Look at table 1.5

Consider the following arrow diagrams in figure1.12

Which of the relations 𝑅1 ,𝑅2 and 𝑅3 represent as a function of ?

Domain, codomain and range of a function

Notation: If is an element in the domain of a function 𝑓, then the element in the

A function from 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 can sometimes be denoted as 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, where the domain of

Consider 𝑓( ) = 3 + 4. Find the domain and the range of the function 𝑓.

If 𝑓( ) = √ − 2, then find the domain and range of 𝑓.

For the function 𝑓( ) = 1 − 3 ,