Chapter 5: Variety of Life

TAXONOMY
Definition:
“It is the branch of biology which deals with the naming and classification of individuals. It is
also called as systematic biology.”
Classification:
Definition:
“The arrangement of organisms into systematic groups is called as classification.”
Explanation:
• More than 1.5 million species of animals and more than 0.5 million species of plants are
known.
• To deal with them, we need a system by which species can be classified.
• Many types of classifications are possible.
• For example, we can classify flowering plants according to their colour, height, or any
other character.
• But this type of classification is not meaningful because it does not give any information
about similarities and differences among different species.
BASIS OF CLASIFICATION
All organisms are related to one another at some point in their evolutionary histories. But
some organisms are more closely related than others. For example sparrows are more closely
related to pigeons but not related to the insects.
Classification is based on:
• Homologies
• Comparative biochemistry
• Cytology
• Genetics
➢ However the major base is the similarity in form or structure (homologies).
➢ On these basis organisms are divided into groups showing similarities.
➢ Large groups are divided into smaller groups upto species level.
SPECIES
Definition:
“A species is a group of natural population which can interbreed freely among themselves
and produce fertile off springs, but are reproductively isolated from all other such groups in
nature.”
➢ In asexually reproducing organisms interbreeding is not considered.
Species are independent evolutionary units
➢ Each species has its own structure, ecology and behavior.
➢ Furthermore, different species do not exchange genes between them.
Therefore species are independent evolutionary units.
LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION
• Living organisms are divided into two kingdoms which are plants and animals.
• Each kingdom is divided into phyla (divisions for plants, algae and fungi).
• A phylum is divided into classes.
• Classes into order.
• Order into families.
• A family has related genera.
• A genus has one or more species.
Species is the basic unit of classification. The taxonomic groups from species to kingdom
form a classification ladder (as mentioned below).
Kingdom
Division (phylum)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
In the above mentioned ladder:
i. Smaller groups are forming larger groups.
ii. Members of a lower group resemble one another more than the members of a higher
group.
iii. Each group is more general than the lower and has some properties. It is also clear from
the classification of corn.
Biological classification of Corn (Zea mays)
Kingdom Plantae
Division (Phylum) Anthophyta (Tracheophyta)
Class Monocotyledonae
Order Poales
Family Poaceae
Genus Zea
Species mays
NEED OF NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature is necessary due to following reasons:
1. Different names for same species:
In the past history there was no system to give common names to plants and animals.
Different names were given to the same plant or animal in different regions.
Examples:
i. Onion is named as Piyaz in Urdu while in other regions of Pakistan it is also known as
ganda or bassal or vassal. In another country it may have another set of names.
ii. Similarly amaltas, argvad, gurmala, golden shower and purging cassia are common names
for the same plant.
2. Same name for different species:
In some cases, one name is used for many different plants or animals.
Examples:
i. Let us take the example of blue bell. Dozens of plants with bell shaped flowers are called
blue bells.
ii. Similarly the word black bird means a crow and a raven.
3. No scientific basis:
Common names have no scientific basis.
Examples:
For example according to a biologist, a fish is a vertebrate animal with a backbone, fins and
gills. But silver fish is an insect, and a Cray fish, jelly fish and starfish are not according to the
definition of fish.
BEGINNING OF NOMENCLATURE
• During 18th century, Carious Linnaeus (1707 - 1778), a Swedish botanist, provided a system
for naming and classifying the organisms, His system is used today internationally.
• He rejected the common names of plants and gave scientific name to each one.
• He took the scientific name from Latin word.
• Normally the name shows some characters of the organism or the person who collected
it.
• Linnaeus published the list of names of plants in 1753.
• His system became popular & in 1758 he published the list of names of animals.
• Many of his names are in use today.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
Definition:
“Linnaeus's system of giving each species a scientific name comprising two words is known
as binomial nomenclature.”
Rules of binomial nomenclature:
i. Every species has only one scientific name the world over.
ii. The scientific name has two parts. The first name refers to the genus (pl. genera) and is
called generic name and always begins with a capital letter. The species is written after
generic name and begins with small letter.
iii. The scientific names are taken from Latin word.
iv. The scientific name is Latinized or Italicized.
Examples of scientific names
i. Onion Allium cepa
ii. Amaltas Cassia fistula
iii. Man Homo sapiens.
iv. Potato Solanum tuberosum
v. Tomato Solanum esculentum
➢ The same generic name for potato and tomato means that there is close relationship between
these two species.
 ➢ Initially the classification was based on morphology of plants and animals. Later on cytology,
physiology, genetics and molecular biology were also included
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Different classification systems recognize two to six kingdoms.
TWO KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
For centuries, the living organisms were classified into two kingdoms, plants and animals.
1. Plants:
• Plant can prepare their own food from simple inorganic material and store energy.
• Therefore they are also called as autotrophs.
• Bacteria were included in plants.
2. Animals:
• Animals cant synthesize their own food from simple inorganic material.
• For food they depend on plants or decaying organic matter.
• Therefore, they are called as heterotrophs.
Objections:
i. This system was not applicable for many unicellular organisms like Euglena that have both
plant like and animal like characters. The plant like character is the presence of
chlorophyll while the animal like character is the lack of cell wall.
ii. This system ignores the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
THREE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
This system includes three kingdoms.
1. PLANTS
2. ANIMALS
3. PROTISTA
It includes Euglena like organisms and bacteria. It was proposed by Ernst Hackel in 1866.
DESCRIPTION OF E-CHATTON
E-Chatton (1937) described two terms:
1. Procariotique (from Greek pro, meaning before and karyon, meaning nucleus)
• This term was used to describe bacteria and blue-green algae.
2. Eucariotique (from Greek eu, means true)
• This term was used to describe animal and plant cells.
Objection on classification of fungi
• Some biologists disagree about the classification of fungi (such as bread mold, yeast and
mushrooms).
• Fungi resemble plants in many ways but are not autotrophs.
• They are heterotrophs and get energy and structural material by decomposing and
absorbing surrounding food.
• In fungi the main component of cell wall is chitin.
FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
Robert Whittekar (1969) proposed five kingdom system of classification (Fig.5.1).
Basis of classification:
It is based on:
• Three levels of cellular organization (prokaryotes, Single cell Eukaryotes and Multicellular
Eukaryotes)
• Three types of nutrition (photosynthesis, absorption and ingestion).
The five kingdoms are:
1. KINGDOM MONERA
• It includes prokaryotic unicellular organisms.
Examples:
• Bacteria and cyanobacteria
2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
• It includes eukaryotic unicellular organisms.
• This kingdom also includes simple multicellular organisms that were directly evolved from
unicellular protists.
• However, most of the protists are unicellular.
Examples:
• Euglena and Amoeba.
3. KINGDOM PLANTAE
• It includes eukaryotic multicellular autotrophs.
• They prepare their food by photosynthesis.
Examples:
• Mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
4. KINGDOM FUNGI
• They are heterotrophic having absorptive method of nutrition.
• Most fungi are decomposers that live on organic material, secrete digestive enzymes and
absorb small organic molecules which are produced by digestion.
• These are also called eukaryotic multicellular reducers.
Example:
• Mushroom etc.
 5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
• This kingdom consists of eukaryotic, multicellular consumers.
• Animals live by ingesting and digesting food within special cavities.
• They can move and lack cellulose.
Examples:
• Birds and reptiles.
MODIFICATION OF FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEM
Lynn Margulis and Karlene Schwartz (1988) modified five kingdom classification of Whittaker
by considering:
i. Cellular organization
ii. Mode of nutrition
iii. Cytology
iv. Genetics
v. Organelles of symbiotic origin (mitochondria, chloroplast).
These five kingdoms are:
i. Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera)
ii. Kingdom Protoctista (Protists)
iii. Kingdom Plantae
iv. Kingdom Fungi
v. Kingdom Animalia
VIRUSES
Introduction:
 • About a century ago at the time of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and Robert Koch (1843-1910),
the word "virus" was generally referred to as a poison associated with disease and death.
• The present notion of virus is entirely different.
• Now viruses are recognized as particles of nucleic acid often with a protein coat.
• They replicate in living cell and cause many diseases such as influenza, hepatitis, small
pox and AIDS. In this section the focus is on the properties of viruses and life cycle of
bacterial viruses, also known as bacteriophages. Some diseases caused by viruses shall
also be discussed in this section.
Virology:
“The branch which deals with the study of viruses is known as virology.”
Meaning of word virus:
• The word virus is derived from Latin word venome meaning poisonous fluid.
Definition:
“It can be defined as non cellular infectious entities, which contain either RNA or DNA,
normally encased in proteinaceous coat, and reproduce only in living cells. “
Mechanism of action:
• Viruses utilize the biosynthetic machinery of the host for its own synthesis and then
transfer themselves efficiently to other cells.
Discovery of virus:
• Some viral diseases have been known for centuries.
• In fact, the first infectious disease against which effective method of prevention was
developed was a viral disease.
1. Work of Edward Jenner
• In 1796 Edward Jenner first vaccinated an 8 years old boy with material removed from
cowpox lesion on the hand of milkmaid.
• After six weeks the boy was inoculated with pus from a small pox victim, but he did not
develop the disease.
• Later, Jenner used material for vaccination from cowpox lesions and successfully
vaccinated 23 persons.
• As the material he used was obtained from cow (Latin vacca), latter the term vaccination
was used by Louis Pasteur for inoculation against disease.
2. Work of Charles Chamberland
• In 1884, one of Pasteur's associates, Charles Chamberland found that bacteria cannot
pass through porcelain filters, while agent responsible for rabies (a disease which is
transferred to human by bites of rabid dogs, foxes, cats, bat and other animals) can pass
through these filters.
• As in those days the word virus was loosely used to describe any toxic substance that
caused disease, those unseen filterable agents of disease were described as filterable
viruses.
3. Work of Ivanowski
 • In 1892, Ivanowski discovered that the agent who caused tobacco mosaic disease was
filterable.
• He obtained bacteria free filtrate from ground up infected plants and placed it on healthy
leaves of tobacco.
• He observed that filtrate produced the disease in healthy plants.
• After that, presence of similar filter passing, ultramicroscopic agents was seen in the
victims of many diseases, including foot and mouth disease (1898) and yellow fever (1901).
4. Work of Stanley
• The filterable agents were first purified in 1935, when Stanley was successful in,
crystallizing the tobacco mosaic virus.
• Chemical analysis of these particles showed that they contained only nucleic acid and
protein.
• This suggested that, unlike other forms, viruses are of simple chemical composition.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES
i. Size:
• Viruses are extremely small infectious agents, which can only be seen under an electron
microscope.
• They range in size from 250 nanometer (nm) of poxviruses to the 20 nm of parvoviruses.
ii. Filterable:
• They are 10 to 1000 times smaller than most bacteria, so they can pass through the pores
of filter, from which bacteria cannot pass.
iii. Growth on artificial media:
• Viruses cannot be grown on artificial media.
iv. Obligate intracellular parasites:
• They can reproduce only in animal and plant cells or in microorganisms, where they
reproduce by replication (a process by which many copies or replicas of virus are formed).
• Thus the viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.
v. No metabolic machinery:
• Viruses lack metabolic machinery for the synthesis of their own nucleic acid and protein.
• They depend on the host cell to carry out these vital functions.
vi. Pathogenicity:
• During reproduction in the host cells, viruses may cause disease.
vii. Resistant to Antibiotics:
• All viruses are generally resistant to broad range of available antibiotics such as penicillin,
streptomycin and others.
STRUCTURE OF VIRUS
Virion:
“The complete, mature and infectious particle is known as virion.”
Composition of virion
1. Genome:
 • The virions are composed of a central core of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, which is
also known as the genome
2. Capsid:
• Genome is surrounded by a protein coat, the capsid.
• Capsid gives definite shape to virion.
Capsomeres:
• Capsid is made up of protein subunits known as capsomeres.
• The number of capsomeres is characteristics of a particular virus.
Examples:
• 162 capsomeres are present in the capsid of herpes virus
• 252 capsomeres are present in the capsid of adenovirus which causes some common
colds.
3. Envelope:
• In some animal viruses the nucleocapsid (nucleic acid and capsid) is covered by another
membrane derived from the host cell, the envelope.
Naked viruses:
• Non enveloped viruses are known as naked virions.
Shapes of animal and plant viruses:
Animal and plant viruses may be:
➢ Polyhedron (having many sides)
➢ Helical (spiral)
➢ Enveloped
➢ Complex
Shapes of bacteriophages
Bacteriophages occur in two structural forms:
i. Cubical
ii. Helical symmetry.
i. Cubical:
In general appearance cubical phages are:
➢ Regular solid
Or
➢ Icosahedral (having 20 faces).
ii. Helical symmetry:
➢ Helical phages are rod shaped.
iii. With head and tail (Tadpole/ T-phage):
• Many phages consist of head and tail. In those cases heads are polyhedral but tails are rod
shaped.
• Morphology of some viruses and bacteriophages has been shown in Fig 5.3.
DISCOVERY OF BACTERIOPHAGE
• They were discovered independently by Twort (1915) and D’Herelle (1917).
Work of Twort:
• Twort observed that lysis occur in some bacterial colonies.
• In a solution, this lysis can be transferred from one colony to another.
• Even highly diluted material from lysed colony can transfer the lytic effect.
• If filtrate is heated then the lytic process does not occur.
• He said that lytic agent might be the virus.
Work of D’Herelle:
• He confirmed this process and used the word bacteriophage meaning “bacteria eater.”
T-Phages:
• Earlier researches on bacteriophages were mainly on limited number of phages that infect
Escherichia coli.
• Of these the best known phages are T phages (T for type).
• Two main types of T phages are T2 and T4.

Among T phages, T2 and T4 phages are mainly used in phage studies.

STRUCTURE OF T4
• The overall structure of T4, studied with electron microscopy, resembles that of tadpole,
consisting of head and tail (Fig 5.4).
1. Head:
➢ The head is an elongated pyramidal (having two triangular structures with common base),
hexagonal, prism -shaped structure, to which straight tail is attached.
➢ Within the head double stranded DNA molecule is present.
2. Tail:
➢ The structure of phage tail is more complex than head.
➢ A layer of distinct protein forms the inner tube or core, which is enclosed in sheath made
up of another type of protein.
➢ On one side of sheath is collar and on other side is end plate.
➢ To end plate six tail fibers are attached, which are the structures for attachment.
Volume of phage:
➢ The volume of the phage is about 1/1000 of the host.
LIFE CYCLE OF BACTERIOPHAGES
The bacteriophage replicates only inside the bacterial cell.
I. Attachment (Adsorption)
a. The first step in the replication of a bacteriophage is its attachment (adsorption) to host
cell at receptor site on the cell wall of bacterium.
b. During attachment, week chemical union between virion and receptor site takes place.
II. Penetration
a. In the next step, penetration, the tail releases the enzyme lysozyme to dissolve a portion
of the bacterial cell wall.
b. The tail sheath contracts and tail core is forced into the cell through cell wall and cell
membrane.
c. The virus injects its DNA into the cell just as the syringe is used to inject the vaccine.
d. The protein coat, which forms the phage head and tail structure of virus remains outside
the cell (Fig 5.5). Many animal viruses however enter the host cell as a whole.

III. After penetration one of the following cycles take place:

1. Lytic cycle
2. Lysogenic cycle
1. LYTIC CYCLE
i. Multiplication:
 ➢ Immediately after entering the host cell, the viral nucleic acid takes the control of the
host's biosynthetic machinery and induces the host cell to synthesize necessary viral
components (DNA, proteins), and starts multiplying.
➢ About 25 minutes after initial infection, approximately 200 new bacteriophages are
formed.
ii. Lysis:
➢ After multiplication of bacteriophages bacterial cell bursts, i.e. it undergoes lysis.
iii. Release:
➢ Newly formed phages are released to infect the bacteria and another cycle, the lytic cycle
begins (Fig. 5.6).
Lytic/Virulent phage:
➢ The phage which causes lysis of the host cell is known as lytic or virulent phage.
2. LYSOGENIC CYCLE
All infections of bacterial cells by phages do not result in lysis. In some cases lysogenic cycle
occur as follows:
i. Formation of Prophage/ Lysogeny:
➢ After entering into the bacteria, the viral DNA instead of taking over the control of host's
machinery, becomes incorporated into the bacterial chromosome.
➢ Phage in this state is called prophage and this process is known as lysogeny.
➢ In this condition the bacterium continues to live and reproduce normally.
ii. Replication:
➢ Viral DNA being the part of bacterial chromosome passes to each daughter cell in all
successive generations.
iii. Induction:
➢ Sometimes, however, the viral DNA gets detached from the host's chromosome and lytic
cycle starts. This process is called induction.
➢ Lysogenic bacteria are resistant to infection by the same or related phages.
Temperate/ Lysogenic phage:
➢ The phage which causes lysogeny is called temperate (lysogenic) phage.
CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES
Basis of classification:
1. Genetic material
2. Morphology
3. Envelope/Cover
1. Genetic material:
The genetic material may be DNA or RNA.
2. Morphology:
On the basis of morphology viruses are classified into:
➢ Rod shaped (T.M.V)
➢ Spherical (poliovirus)
➢ Tadpole-like(bacteriophage viruses)
3. Cover:
On the basis of cover viruses are classified into:
➢ Naked
➢ Enveloped
➢ Complex
VIRAL DISEASES
There are many diseases which are caused by viruses. Only those are being mentioned here
which have been or are common in Pakistan.
1. Small pox
Causative agent:
 ➢ Smallpox is caused by pox viruses (the DNA enveloped virus).
History:
➢ It is an ancient disease that is known to have occurred as epidemic in China as early as the
twelfth century B.C. Until the early twentieth century, small pox was a common disease
throughout the world.
Symptoms:
➢ In small pox, raised fluid-filled vesicles are formed on the body, which become pustules
later on and form pitted scars the pocks.
Prevention:
➢ By 1950's immunization and other control measures had largely decreased the danger but
it is still present in the third world countries where many people are affected.
Eradication:
➢ In 1980, it was declared by World Health Organization that small pox has been eradicated
from the world.
2. Herpes simplex
Causative agent:
➢ Herpes virus (DNA virus) is responsible for this disease.
➢ It is naturally occurring disease of mankind.
Symptoms:
➢ In this vascular lesions in the epithelial layers of ectodermal tissues are formed.
Sites of involvement:
Most commonly this disease occurs in:
➢ The mouth
➢ On the lips
➢ At other skin sites
3. Influenza
Causative agent:
➢ It is caused by Influenza viruses which are enveloped RNA viruses.
Epidemic disease:
➢ Influenza is wide spread disease in man and occurs in epidemic form.
4. Mumps and Measles
Causative agent:
➢ It is caused by Mumps and Measles viruses which belong to group paramyxoviruses.
➢ They are large, enveloped, RNA viruses.
Occurrence:
➢ Mumps is highly contagious, wide spread, but seldom fatal. About 60% of adults are
immune to it.
➢ Measles is one of the commonest diseases of the childhood and adult human population
is equally susceptible the world over.
➢ This disease develops immunity in its victim.
5. Polio
Causative agent:
➢ Poliomyelitis is caused by polio virus.
➢ The polioviruses are the smallest known viruses and contain RNA in spherical capsid.
Occurrence:
➢ It is found all over the world. It occurs mostly in childhood.
➢ The age at which primary infection occurs varies with social and economic factors.
Some common human viral diseases are shown in Fig 5.7.:

RETROVIRUSES (Oncoviruses)
• RNA tumor viruses have been known for many years.
• These viruses are widely distributed in nature and are associated with tumor
production in a number of animal species, such as fowl, rodents and cats.
• The most familiar of viruses is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which causes
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Structure:
➢ These are single stranded RNA tumor viruses.
➢ They are spherical in form.
➢ They are about 100nm in diameter.
➢ They are enveloped by host plasma membrane.
Host specificity:
➢ Although a few retroviruses are non specific that is they can infect any cell, most of
them can infect only host cells that possess required receptors.
➢ In the case of AIDS virus, the host cell possesses a receptor that allows the viral
adsorption and penetration in several types of leukocytes (white blood cells) and tissue
cells.
Reverse Transcriptase:
➢ The retroviruses have a special enzyme called reverse transcriptase, which can convert
a single-stranded RNA genome into double stranded viral DNA.
Mode of action/ Provirus:
 ➢ Not only this DNA can infect host cells, but it also can be incorporated into host
genome as a provirus that can be passed on to progeny cells.
➢ In this way some of retroviruses can convert normal cells into cancer cells.
ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)
Discovery:
• The AIDS was reported by some physicians in early 1980's in young males.
• All these young patients were homosexuals.
• Soon after the disease was discovered in non-homosexual patients who were given
blood (blood transfusion) or blood products.
• In 1984 the agent causing the disease was identified by research teams from Pasteur
Institute in France and National Institute of health in USA.
• In 1986 the virus was named as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Fig 5.8).
Symptoms:
Patients of AIDS have one or more complex symptoms such as:
➢ Severe pneumonia
➢ A rare vascular cancer
➢ Sudden weight loss
➢ Swollen lymph nodes
➢ General loss of immune functions
Pathogenesis:
• The major cell infected by HIV is the helper T-lymphocyte, which is major component
of immune system.
• As the HIV infection continues in the host, the decrease of helper T-lymphocytes
results in failure of the immune system and the infected person becomes susceptible
to other diseases.
• Cells in central nervous system can also be infected by HIV Fig. 5.9.
Host specificity:
➢ Recent studies on HIV reveal that the virus infects and multiplies in monkey but, does
not cause, disease in them, which means that HIV is host specific.
Transmission:
The HIV is transmitted by:
➢ Intimate sexual contact
➢ Contact with blood
➢ Breast feeding
➢ Healthcare workers can also acquire HIV during professional activities.
Prevention:
➢ Avoiding the direct contact with HIV patient is important measure for preventing the
disease.
➢ Prevention of intravenous drugs with common syringes and use of sterile
needles/syringes and utensils is important.
Vaccination:
➢ Now vaccine against HN has been synthesized and its experimental administration in
humans started in early 2001 in South Africa.
HEPATITIS
“Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver.”
Pathogenesis:
It is usually caused by:
• Viral infection
• Toxic agents
• Drugs.
Symptoms:
It is characterized by:
➢ Jaundice
➢ Abdominal pain
➢ Liver enlargement
➢ Fatigue
➢ Sometimes fever
Prognosis:
 • It may be mild or can be acute and can lead to liver cancer.
Types of Hepatitis:
The different types of viral hepatitis are:
1. HEPATITIS A
• Hepatitis A was formerly called infectious hepatitis.
Transmission:
• It is transmitted by contact with faeces from infected individuals.
Causative agent:
• Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is an RNA virus (non-enveloped).
• It causes mild short term, less virulent disease.
Vaccination:
• Vaccine is available for Hepatitis A
2. HEPATITIS B
➢ Hepatitis B is also called as serum hepatitis.
➢ Hepatitis B (HBV) is the second major form of hepatitis.
Causative agent:
• It is caused by DNA virus.
Occurrence:
• It is very common in Asia, China, Philippines, Africa and the Middle East.
Transmission:
Hepatitis B is transmitted by:
➢ Exchange of body fluids. e.g.
• Blood serum
• Breast milk
• Saliva
➢ From mother to child during birth or afterward
➢ By sexual contact
Symptoms:
During acute attacks of Hepatitis B following symptoms occur:
➢ Fatigue
➢ Loss of appetite
➢ Jaundice
Recovery from acute attack:
• Infected persons can recover completely and become immune to the virus.
Chronic Hepatitis B:
• People with chronic hepatitis infection are at the risk of liver damage.
Prevention:
Hepatitis can be controlled by:
➢ Adopting hygienic measures
➢ Routine vaccination
 ➢ Screening of blood/ organ/ tissue of the donor
3. HEPATITIS C
• Hepatitis C was formerly called non-A, non-B hepatitis.
Causative agent:
• Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is also RNA virus (enveloped)
Symptoms:
• It causes infusion hepatitis, which is less severe than hepatitis A or hepatitis B, but
hepatitis C often leads to chronic liver disease.
Transmission:
It is transmitted through:
➢ Blood
➢ From mother to child during pregnancy and afterward
➢ By sexual contact
Note:
Vaccine is not available for Hepatitis C.
4. HEPATITIS D
• Hepatitis D is also called as delta hepatitis.
5. HEPATITIS E
➢ Hepatitis E is a virus transmitted through the faeces of an infected person.
➢ Most recent work of Halbur and coworker (2001) reveals that pig could be the source
of infection of hepatitis E

6. HEPATITIS F & G
• Hepatitis F and G are caused by viruses yet unidentified.
PRIONS
➢ These are infectious proteins.
➢ These were discovered in 1983
➢ They contain the information that codes for their own replication
Diseases:
Prions are responsible for:
1. Mad cow infection
2. Mysterious brain infection in man.
 SOLVED EXERCISE

Q.1 Fill in the blanks

(i) C.Linneaus divided all known forms of life into two kingdoms ________ and ________.
Bacteria were placed in the kingdom ________ because they have cell walls, and
protozoa were placed in the kingdom ________ because they move from place to
place and ingest food.
(ii) The most common system of classification used today, developed in 1969 by Robert
Whittaker of Cornell University , uses five kingdoms: ________, ________, ________,
________and ________
(iii) Whittaker's five kingdom system of classification recognizes two basic types of cells
________ and ________.
(iv) In five kingdom system of classification proposed by Margulis and Schwartz organelles
of symbiotic origin such as ________ and ________ were also considered.
(v) A bacteriophage reproduces by using the metabolic machinery of ________ and -------
- of bacterial cell.
(vi) (vi) The protein coat that encloses the viral genome is called---------- It is made up of
________.
(vii) (vii) Retroviruses are ---------- viruses which have specific enzymes ________ by which
they convert RNA to DNA.
(viii) (viii) HIV infects ---------- and the defects in these cells lead to failure in ________
system.
(ix) (ix) Hepatitis is caused by ________.
(x) (x) Viral Hepatitis is of -------- types. Hepatitis A and C are caused by ________ virus
whereas __________ virus is the causative agent of Hepatitis B.
ANS:
(i) Animalia, plantae, plantae, Animalia
(ii) Monera, Protista, fungi, Animalia, plantae
(iii) Prokaryotic, eukaryotic
(iv) Mitochondria, chloroplast
(v) Bacteria, proteins
(vi) Capsid, capsomeres
(vii) RNA, reverse transcriptase
(viii) Helper T lymphocyte, immune
(ix) Virus
(x) Seven, RNA, DNA
Q.2 Each question has Four options. Encircle the correct answer.
(i) The enzymes involved in viral replication are synthesized:
(a) On the viral ribosomes (b) On the interior surface of viral membrane.
(c) By the host cell (d) On the interior surface of viral coat.
(ii) A virion is a;
(a) Virus (b) Viral protein.
(c) Viral lysozyme. (d) Viral gene.
(iii) An isolated virus is not considered living, since it;
(a) Separates into two inert parts, (b) Cannot metabolize.
(c) Rapidly loses its genome (d) Is coated with an air tight chemically inert shield
(iv) In the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage, the host DNA is:
(a) Replicated (b) Turned off by a protein coat
(c) Digested into its nucleotides (d) turned on by removal of a protein coat
(v) In the lysogenic cycle, the DNA of a bacteriophage:
(a) Joins the bacterial chromosome.
(b) Attaches to the inner surface of the host membrane.
(c) Is immediately degraded when it enters the host
(d) Goes directly to the host's ribosome for translation
(vi) Temperate phage may exist as:
(a) Prophage (b) Capsid
(c) Viroid (d) Retrovirus
(vii) Phylogeny describes a species:
(a) Morphological similarities with other species.
(b) Evolutionary history
(c) Reproductive compatibilities with other species
(d) Geographical distribution
(viii) In the binomial system or taxonomy, developed during the 18th century by C. Linnaeus,
the first word of an organisms name (e.g. Homo sapiens) is it’s;
(a) Species (b) Genus (c) Race (d) Family
(ix) In the five kingdom system of classification developed by Robert Whittaker, members of
the kingdom Plantae are autotrophic, eukaryotic, and
(a) Multicellular b) Motile
(c) Either unicellular or multicellular (d) Have sexual reproduction
(x) Five kingdom system of classification proposed by Margulis and Schwartz is not based on,
(a) Genetics
(b) Cellular organization
(c) Nucleic acid
(d) Mode of nutrition
(xi)The common name of Allium cepa is:
(a) Piyaz (b) Bathu (c) Amaltas (d) Chana
(xii) Arrange the following in order of increasing group size, beginning with the smallest:
family, kingdom, species, phylum (or division), genus, order, and class.
(a) ___species_________ (b) _____genus_______
(c) ____family________ (d) _____order_______
(e) _____class_______ (f) ____phylum________
(g) __kingdom__________
 (xiii) Pigs are reservoirs to:
(a) Hepatitis A (b) Hepatitis B
(c) Hepatitis C (d) Hepatitis D
(e) Hepatitis E
(xiv) Which one of the following is false about AIDS?
(a) HIV (b) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(c) T-lymphocytes (d) Host specific.
ANSWERS:
i- C
ii- A
iii- B
iv- C
v- A
vi- A
vii- B
viii- B
ix- A
x- C
xi- A
xii- ---
xiii- E
xiv- D