MANUAL ON THE PRODUCTION OF TRADITIONAL BUFFALO MOZZARELLA CHEESE Author: Matilde Calandrelli

INDEX CHAPTER 1 - Milk 1.1 Buffalo milk 1.2 Microbiology page 2 CHAPTER 2 How is cheese produced: general outline page 7 CHAPTER 3 The world of stretched cheeses: not only buffalo Mozzarella cheese page 10 CHAPTER 4 Buffalo Mozzarella cheese: the technology 4.1 The raw material and its acidity 4.2 Coagulation 4.3 The cutting of the curd . A critical stage! 4.4 The maturation of the curd under whey. A critical stage! 4.5 The stretching 4.6 Shaping or mozzatura 4.7 The salting 4.8 The dairy yield 4 .9 The packaging and sale 4.10 Smoking 4.11 A numeric example page 13 CHAPTER 5 Technological problems and defects 5.1 Technological problems 5.2 Defects page 34 CHAPTER 6 Ricotta cheese CHAPTER 7 The dairy page 37 page 41 CHAPTER 8 Glossary page 47 1

Chapter 1 MILK 2

Milk is a valuable source of nutritional substances: it is considered as the mos t complete of food. Through the centuries, man has wisely learnt how to use this food source in two ways: - as a foodstuff: for direct consumption (milk as a dr ink); - transformed: as an element from which it is possible to obtain dairy pro ducts (cheese, butter, yoghurt, etc.) Buffalo cow Buffalo cows start producing milk after giving birth. The first liquid secreted by the udder is the colostrum, which is only used for the feeding of the calf; i t is not collected as it cannot be used for the production of dairy products. Th e colostrum is much richer than normal milk in vitamins and immunoglobins, a cla ss of proteins with an immune, defensive function. After about 6 days from calvi ng, the colostrum changes into milk. Buffalo cows are milked twice a day for 10 months; this period is known as the lactation period. When the buffaloes stop pr oducing milk, it means they have entered the dry period. The chemical composition of milk depends on various factors: species, breed, age of the animal, feeding, health condition, environmental factors and lactation period. Water, proteins, f at, sugars, mineral salts, vitamins and enzymes are the substances we usually fi nd in milk. Table 1- Average chemical composition of milk of different species (for 100 g of fresh milk) SPECIES BUFFALO GOAT EWE COW WATER % 82.2 86.5 80.9 87.5 PROTEINS % 4.8 3.9 6 3.2 FAT % 7.5 4.3 7.5 3.7 LACTOSE % 4.7 5.8 5.4 4.6 MINERAL SALTS % 0.8 0.8 1.1 1 3

Immediately after milking, the milk can be contaminated by both intrinsic and ex trinsic factors. The health condition of the animal itself is the most important intrinsic factor; for example udder infections contaminate the milk at the mome nt self of milking. Whereas man is responsible for the extrinsic factors; in par ticular, the utensils used, the milkers cleanness (clothes, hands, boots), the wo rk environment, the milking plant, etc., must always be kept under control to av oid direct or indirect contamination of the milk. With a dirty milk, we will certa inly have coagulation problems and the final product, namely cheese, would show more or less evident defects relative to the degree of the contamination. 1.1 BUFFALO MILK If we compare buffalo milk with cow milk, we can draw the follow ing conclusions: s - buffalo milk is richer in fat than cow milk s - the buffalo, compared to the cow, produces a milk with a higher percentage of proteins Buffa lo milk is the raw material from which buffalo Mozzarella cheese is traditionall y produced. 1.2 MICROBIOLOGY It is possible to find micro-organisms everywhere in nature. We classify them as viruses, bacteria, yeasts and moulds. Beware! Not all micro-or ganisms are harmful. First of all, it is necessary to make an important specific ation: in nature there are pathogenic microorganisms and useful micro-organisms (in the dairy language, the latter are called dairy micro-organisms). The pathogen ic micro-organisms are responsible for diseases caused by the ingestion of conta minated food; this leads to diarrhoea, vomit, sense of nausea, high temperature and dehydration. Table 2- Some pathogenic micro-organisms Micro-organism Salmonella Where it is possible to find it Products of animal origin Water Man (intestines and faeces) Man Products of animal origin Vegetable preserves Intestines and fae ces Staphilococcus Aureus Clostridium botulinum Coliforms of faecal origin The useful micro-organisms are not harmful for man. This category comprises all the micro-organisms that are used in the agro-industrial sector (dairy products, yoghurt, bread, alcoholic drinks, etc.). In general, all micro-organisms need f avourable conditions to grow and develop. The factors that mainly influence thei r development are the following: 4

1) the presence of food substances; 2) temperature: if a micro-organism reaches its maximum growth only with a temperature lower than 10C (C are degrees centigrad e) it is classified as psychrophilic; if it grows between 20C and 30C it belongs t o the category of mesofilic (the greater part of micro-organisms is included in this group); if it grows at its best between 20C and 45C it is classified as therm ophilic; 3) acidity: very high or very low pH values usually block microbial gro wth; 4) humidity: bacteria can grow even in a very humid substrate; moulds and y easts can develop in an environment with a low degree of humidity; 5) oxygen: so me micro-organisms can only grow if there is oxygen, they are called strictly aer obic (moulds, some bacteria); micro-organisms that only grow in environments with no oxygen are classified as strictly anaerobic (clostridium); finally there are a lso micro-organisms that grow independently of the presence or less of oxygen (s almonella, coliforms, staphylococcus). Let us now go on to a specific example: t he micro-organisms of milk. The micro-organisms that are found in milk come from : - the animal - the feedstuffs - milking - storing (period of time between milk ing and cheese-making) - the environment - man In the specific case of milk dest ined to the production of cheese it is possible to distinguish dairy (useful, ne cessary, essential) and anti-dairy micro-organisms (that disturb the cheese-maki ng process). Dairy micro-organisms The leading factors in the cheese-making proc ess are the lactic bacteria. They are necessary for the lactic fermentation: the y transform lactose (the milk sugar) into lactic acid; this acidification proces s helps the rennet work, the draining of the whey after the curd has been broken and the cheese maturation. Lactic s bacteria are indispensable for the productio n of buffalo Mozzarella cheese; in fact, the importance of milk and curd acidity will be discussed in every detail in the chapter relative to technology (chapte r 4). This acidity is created by the lactic bacteria in the milk of origin. If the milk or the curd do not have the right degree of acidity the liquid mass will n ot string and it would be impossible to produce buffalo Mozzarella cheese. We ca n say, without any doubt, that acidity is the most important parameter in the pr oduction of buffalo Mozzarella cheese. Anti-dairy micro-organisms Coliform and b utyric bacteria are the most harmful ones we can find in milk. If the former is present, it means little attention has been given to hygiene during the process (even during the milking phase). The latter, on the other hand, come from the fe edstuffs, the soil or the water and cause cheese to blow. 5

Generally, to prevent the development of anti-dairy micro-organisms, it is neces sary to pay attention to the following: - workers, animals, tools and buildings must always be carefully kept in a condition of good hygiene - a scrupulous resp ect of production parameters (temperature, acidity, draining, salting) It is pos sible to control the microbiological quality of the milk by the use of a very si mple method which does not need any particular equipment and can even be carried out in the farm dairy; it is called lactofermentation. Practically, 10 ml of mi lk are introduced in a test tube, trying to keep everything as sterile as possib le; the tube is then closed with a metallic cap or with some cotton. Next, the t ube is put in an environment of about 30-37C (hot room, stove, bain-marie) for 24 h ours, if it is cow buffalo or goat s, s milk; for 48 hours, if it is ewe milk. Afte r this period of time, the reading is possible. s Lacto-fermentation reading Very good milk Good milk Bad milk Very bad milk When the curd has a homogeneous aspect and some bubbles or cracks are present on ly in the upper part of the tube, the microbiologic quality of the milk is very good. Instead, when the curdle is partly homogeneous and some cracks that origin ate from the bubbles are observed, it means that the milk is good from a microbi ologic point of view. Instead, if we see that the curdle in the tube is fragment ed and there are considerably big bubbles, the milk is bad. Last possibility: if the curdle is very fragmented with strong undesirable smells, it means that the milk is very bad with a high microbial contamination. 6

Chapter 2 HOW IS CHEESE PRODUCED: GENERAL OUTLINE 7

Cheese is the fresh or ripened product obtained from the acid, rennet or mixed c oagulation of whole or partially skimmed milk. The process that transforms milk into cheese is called a technological process. Each cheese, and more in general, each dairy product is produced following a specific technological process. The following outline represents a standard process of production; the specific tech nological phases have been explained in order to show the most important dairy t ypologies. Diagram 1- Standard process for cheese making MILK The raw material, milk, can be from different species: cow (for cow cheese), buf falo (for buffalo cheese), sheep (for sheep cheese), goat (for goat cheese), or it can be a mixture of milks from more than one species (in this case we speak o f mixed milk cheese). MILK PREPARATION Not all technologies include this phase. The milk is treated as to render it sui table for specific transformations (heating, pasteurisation, skimming, milk enzy me addition) COAGULATION In this phase milk is transformed in curd, i.e. from a liquid it becomes gel-lik e. There are three distinct types of coagulation: by rennet (rennet is added to the curd it is called renneting), by acid (the milk is left to become sour until it reaches pH = 4.6; at these conditions the caseins and milk proteins precipit ate) or mixed (acid with the addition of a small quantity of rennet). The initia l milk acidity, the temperature, the quantity of rennet used, the enzymatic comp osition of the rennet and the protein contents of the milk are usually the main factors that influence the coagulation process. A closer examination will follow in the chapter relative to the production technology of buffalo Mozzarella chee se. CUTTING With the cutting, the curd (a whole mass) is transformed in granules of differen t sizes depending on the kind of cheese that one wants to obtain: large granules (nut, hazelnut size) = high percentage of water = soft, fresh cheeses; small gr anules (rice, corn size) = low percentage of water = hard, ripe cheeses. There i s a vast range of tools used for the cutting process: knife, metal curd-knife, e tc. SCALDING Some technologies want the curd to be partially cooked (about 45C) or fully cooke d (about 55C); the names that are given to these cheeses are respectively, partia lly cooked (boiled) or cooked (boiled) cheeses. CURD MATURATION (OR ACIDIFICATION) This phase is carried out only during the production of stretched curd (pasta fil ata) cheeses (buffalo Mozzarella, Scamorza, Caciocavallo): cheeses characterised by an elastic string curd. Further explanations are given in chapter 4 (paragraph 4.4) STRETCHING

SHAPING OR MOZZATURA Shaping is the word used when one speaks of pasta filata cheeses: the mass is work ed into the desired shape (spherical, spherical with small head, braids, small k nots, etc.). Instead, for all the other types of cheeses, after the breaking and scalding (when necessary), the curd is put into appropriate moulds where it obt ains its final size and shape. SALTING The cheese can be salted when already dry (the salt is sprinkled directly on the cheeses) or brined (the cheeses are kept in a salty solution for a period of ti me that depends on their weight; usually 12 hours per kilo). SALE RIPENING OR MATURATION Only fresh cheeses (buffalo Mozzarella cheese) are sold at this stage. During th is phase the fresh curd becomes matured cheese. The ripening needs an environmen t with a specific temperature and humidity. Throughout this resting period, the proteins and the fats in the curd follow chemical transformations that are respo nsible for the aromatic characteristics of the final product. The ripening phase can last several months or even years. 9

Chapter 3 THE WORLD OF STRETCHED CHEESES: NOT ONLY BUFFALO MOZZARELLA CHEESE 10

Buffalo Mozzarella cheese belongs to the category of stretched curd, or pasta fil ata cheeses. By pasta filata is intended a dairy technique characterised by a doubl e process: - the cheese-making in itself, that implies the various phases of coa gulation, cutting, draining, shaping, salting and ripening (when necessary); - t he curd stretching, a treatment that renders the curd elastic. The category of pa sta filata cheeses includes different dairy types that differ one from another be cause of the raw material, technology, size, etc. Here are some examples. Scamorz a cheese This cheese has a very short ripening period; it has a sweet taste, a smooth and thin rind, a white, close and buttery texture; it is pear-shaped with a small he ad. What makes this cheese type different from buffalo Mozzarella cheese is mainl y the degree of whey loss; the curd used for the production of Scamorza cheese und ergoes more whey loss than for making buffalo Mozzarella cheese, consequently th e latter will be more humid. The cheeses are cooled down under running water and then salted in cold brine (18-20% NaCl) for one or more hours, according to the ir size. Furthermore, the Scamorza cheese technological process also s allows an in itial ripening period. They are normally marketed and eaten within 15 days. Scamo rza cheese can also be smoked. Scamorza cheese can be used in various ways: it can be eaten as fresh cheese, it can be grilled or used as an ingredient in many dis hes and recipes. Provola cheese From a technological point of view, its production process is very similar to th at of Scamorza cheese: they are different in shape (Provola cheese appears as a trun cated-cone, Scamorza 11

cheese is pear shaped with a little head) and weight (a Provola cheese weighs 700 g at most, "Scamorza" cheese 500 g at most). Provola cheese can be smoked as well; when it is smoked the external part darkens, acquiring a dark yellow colour and the cheese acquires a typical smoked flavour . Provolone cheese It is thought that the name Provolone derives from the Italian word prova, which in the past referred to the sample of pasta filata cheese that was taken from the vat to check its stretching degree. Technically, the curd is pulled out manually an d left on tables to dry and mature for about 24 hours at room temperature. It is then cut into strips for the stretching phase: it can be stretched manually or with the use of special spinners. The shading of Provolone cheese can be of variou s shapes: pear shaped with a truncated cone as a head, melon-shaped or of cylind rical shape. After cooling down, the fresh cheeses are salted in brine at a conc entration of 22-25%. For ripening the cheeses are tied together in pairs and the n hung over a beam for a period of time that can vary from one month to a year. Caciocavallo cheese Caciocavallo Palermitano Caciocavallo Silano Depending on the area of production and on the raw material used, Caciocavallo che eses have different names. There is the Caciocavallo Palermitano: its curd maturat ion takes place in whey - the liquid that remains after the production of Ricott a cheese - at 80C for 4 hours; the obtained pasta filata cheese is then placed on a special table where it is tossed over a few times with wooden boards resulting in the typical parallelepiped geometric shape. Another type is the Caciocavallo S ilano: cow milk cheese of medium s hard texture; the maturation phase takes 4 to 1 0 hours; when the curd is ready to be stretched, the cord-form is prepared and m anually handled to obtain an oval or truncated cone shape with or without a head . 12

Chapter 4 BUFFALO MOZZARELLA CHEESE: THE TECHNOLOGY 13

Where does the term Mozzarella come from? It derives from the Italian word mozza, which refers to the final phase of the dairy process when the curd is cut into s hapes of established size (mozzatura). 4.1 THE RAW MATERIAL AND ITS ACIDITY Buffalo milk is the raw material used to pr epare buffalo Mozzarella cheese. The first technological phase is the straining of the milk through filters or sheets. This eliminates any big particles that co uld be present in the milk. At this point it is possible to: 1) start the dairy process as soon as the milking is finished: this is what usually happens in smal ler dairies that do not have structures and systems for the preservation of milk ; this way many problems due to microbial co ntamination can be avoided; 2) refr igerate the milk at 4C and start the dairy process later; semi -industrial dairie s use this procedure. Be careful though when using the refrigerator it is import ant to pay great attention to the information given by the manufacturing company . Acidity A very important parameter for the production of buffalo Mozzarella chee se is the milk acidity: the quality s of the cheese depends on its evolution. The acidity must be kept under control during all phases, from the milking to the s tretching. If the milk has the right degree of acidity it coagulates well: the a cidity and the temperature of the milk are the factors affecting the renneting i n its coagulation effect. Should the curd not reach the right degree of acidity during the maturation phase, it may then not be possible to stretched it; the pr oper acidity allows the chemical -structural alterations that are necessary for the entire stretching process. First of all: how do we measure acidity and how i s it expressed? Titration Titration is a colorimetric measurement used to determine the quantity of NaOH ( soda = basic solution) needed to neutralise all the acids present in the milk. N ecessary chemical glassware: 1) a graduated pipette with a tap 2) a glass 3) a s yringe 4) a glass stirring stick 5) a dropper Necessary reagents: 1) soda N/4 (N aOH) 2) phenolphthalein drops (indicator) 14

Procedure Fill the pipette with soda. Use the syringe to put 10 ml of milk in th e glass, add 3 drops of the indicator and stir well with the glass stick. Put th e glass under the pipette so that the soda may very slowly drip into it; it is i mportant to remember to keep stirring the milk. Continue until the milk gains a pinkish colour for at least 30 seconds (when this happens it means that the soda has neutralised all the acids in the milk sample). At this point immediately st op adding soda; thus notice on the graduated pipette how many ml of soda have be en used. These ml are the Soxhlet -Henkel degrees or SH; milk has usually an acid ity of about 7 SH. pH-meter The pH is the parameter that expresses the quantity of acid in a product. pH scale 0 Acid 7 Neutral Basic 14 The compounds with a pH value between 0 and 7 are called acid (lactic acid, hydr ochloric acid, citric acid, etc.), if the pH value is around 7 the compounds are called neutral (clear water), if the pH value is higher than 7 the compounds ar e called basic or alkaline (soda, potassium, etc.). It is possible to calculate the pH value with a pH -meter, a measuring instrument that works thanks to the s ensitivity of an electrode. The average values for milk are: pH Cow Ewe Goat Buf falo 6,6-6,8 6,4-6,6 6,5-6,7 6,5-6,7 Beware! Don get confused! A higher acidity value means a lower pH and a higher SH degree! t 15

Acidity = pH and SH Memorise this diagram Empirical measurement Should it not be possible to determine the degree of acidi ty by titra tion nor by using a pH -meter, it is always possible to measure it e mpirically. Do not expect very precise values, though. To calculate the acidity of milk empirically, it is first of all necessary to know its history: the animal h ealth, how much time h s passed since the milking, what kind of treatments it ha s undergone, at what temperature has the milk been kept, etc. When the milk arri ves at the dairy it is possible to determine if it has acidity problems even fro m its smell, but this occurs when the milk has a big acidity default, thus when it is very acid. as Different pH or acidity values mean that there is an anomaly. For example, a pH value higher than 6.7 could indicate mastitis, a microbial infection of the udde r that causes changes in the composi tion and technologic characteristics of the milk. Many bacteria can cause mastitis, but the specific agent that causes it i s Streptococcus agalactiae. Mastitis can easily be treated with antibiotics: the se are though cause of big inconvenients for the dair y industry; in fact, even a low quantity of antibiotics per litre can render the milk not fit for dairy pr ocessing because the antibiotics modify the milk microbial flora. s The first thi ng to do is to determine the acidity of the milk that will be used t o produce t he buffalo Mozzarella cheese, thus decide how to act next. It is important to re member that before the coagulation process starts the milk must be rendered acid to permit a normal maturation of the curd, which will then be fit to be stretch ed. To produce buffalo Mozzarella cheese we must also enrich the milk to produce a cheese with suitable sensory characteristics (taste, flavour, structure, etc. ). How do we proceed? There are various possibilities. After having measured the acidity of the milk it is possible to add: 1) natural whey culture 2) industria l lactic acid bacteria 3) citric acid, lactic acid or acetic acid Added natural whey culture The natural whey culture that is used is the whey from the dairy pr ocess of the day before, left to ac idify at 30-40C for 24 hours. To be more prec ise, the whey collected at the end of the ripening of the batch produced the pre ceding day is left to acidify. If 100 litres of milk are used each day, at the e nd of the day it is possible to obtain 10 litres of whey; it is also used to cle an the dairy tools and to prepare the water used to preserve the buffalo Mozzarell a cheese. The whey is put into a plastic or steel container covered by a sheet o r film as to avoid contaminations (by flies, dust, etc.). The container is trans ferred in a room at 30 -40C. It 16

is very important to keep the temperature constant during the 24 hours; a thermo meter in the room will help check this. Furthermore, there should not be any dra fts in the room; these could cause a drop of t he temperature or carry dust. Aft er 24 hours the acidity of the natural whey culture should be around 15 -20SH (ab out 4.5 pH). It is possible to measure this by titration, with the pH -meter, or by tasting the natural whey culture (you should have a sour taste in your mouth , as if tasting drops of lemon juice). If it difficult to obtain the required te mperature, the natural whey culture will not be acid enough after 24 hours. A pr ocedure to increase the degree of acidity is the following: 1st day milk buffalo Mozzarella cheeses 2nd day whey after 24 hours natural whey culture added milk buffalo Mozzarella Cheeses 1% added whey With this work-plan, on the second day the whey will already be slightly acid. N evertheless, if the added natural whey culture still presents a low degree of ac idity, it is possible to add more than the normal quantity to the milk. Before a dding the natural whey culture it is necessary to determine the acidity of the m ilk and heat it up to 35C. If the milk has the proper degree of acidity (7SH) it t akes about 3 litres of natural whey culture per hundred kilograms of milk; the a mount will of course vary according to the higher or lower acidity of the milk. Here are some numerical examples: Milk acidity 7 SH 7,5 SH 6,5SH Added natural whey culture 3 litre/100 kg of milk 2,5 litre/100 kg of milk 3,5 l itre/100 kg of milk Why is the added natural whey culture acid? Let take a step back in time. We have already seen that the milk useful micro -organisms, called lactic s s acid bacte ria, can be found in all dairy products: curd, whey and cheese. The acidity of n atural whey cu lture is thus due to the action of these lactic acid bacteria tha t induce lactose to ferment (technically, one would 17

say that lactose is the lactic acid bacteria substrate). The result of this proce ss is the lactic acid, thus acidity s with all the related substances that will give the buffalo Mozzarella cheese its characteristic aroma. The action of the l actic acid bacteria is called lactic acid fermentation.Let summarise it all in a diagram: s lactose lactic acid + substances responsible for the aroma action of the lactic acid bacteria (lactic acid fermentation) Industrial lactic acid bacteria The industrial lactic acid bacteria contains a mixture of different lactic acid bacteria. It is sold as a powder (lyophilised) in metallic -plastic packets and dissolves very easily. To produce buffalo Mozzarella cheese it is necessary to u se thermophil enzymes that can withstand the high temperatures of dairy producti on; in this case must be present contain Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacill us helveticus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus. As for the quantities to be used and the procedure, it is best to carefully follow the instructions on the label of the package. Acids If one decides to use citric acid, lactic acid o r acetic acid, these will be ad ded to obtain milk with an acidity of pH= 5.6. In this case the stretching immed iately follows the cutting of the curd: the ripening phase is skipped; it is cal led immediate stretching. Specific example with citric acid ( milk used: 100 kilograms) Weigh 120g of citr ic acid and add 5 litres of water, add this solution to the milk that will reach a pH value of 5.6 18

Depending on the acidifying agent, the buffalo Mozzarella cheese will have a dif ferent structure and aroma. In detail: CARACTERISTICS Mozzarella produced with added natural whey culture Ve ry aromatic Dense and spongy texture The outer and the inner part separate disti nctly Mozzarella produced with industrial lactic acid bacteria Slightly aromatic Dense and spongy texture The outer and the inner part separate distinctly Mozza rella produced with acids Not very aromatic Humid Dense and soft texture 4.2 COAGULATION The milk is heated up to 36 -38C (this temperature favours the co agulating effect of the enzymes that are in the rennet) and the rennet is added. The rennet The rennet is a mixture of various enzymes, each of which h as a spe cific function on the milk chemical s elements (especially on its fats and protei ns). The rennet can be of animal or plant origin. Animal rennet It is extracted from the abomasum (stomach) of ruminants, specifically from calv es, kids an d lambs (the rennet is never extracted from adult animals because th eirs has a different composition which renders it less active for dairy processi ng). Animal rennet can be industrial or farm-produced. The first one is usually liquid and mainly from calve s; it is possible to buy this type in specialised s hops. The farm-produced rennet is instead a paste; it is produced at the farm wi th the traditional methods [ e.g., the abomasum of young animals usually 20 -30 days old - are extracted and dried in open ai r for 10 days. After this period, they are layered 19

with salt layers in containers perforated at the bottom; this allows the liquid to drain. They will remain in these containers for 15 days. The abomasums are th en taken out of the salt and hung in a room a t a temperature of about 15C for 60 days. After this period the rennets are cleaned and then ground to obtain a hom ogeneous paste to which salt is added (15%). This paste is kept in opaque jars ( light damages the enzymes contained in the rennet). The quan tity of rennet used each time will vary depending on the technology. Practically one has to dissolv e the suitable amount of rennet in hot water, filter it with a strainer and add the filtrate to the milk]. Plant rennet Many plants produce enzymes that can cau se milk coagulation. Two plants have traditionally been used for this purpose: t he thistle ( Cynara Cardunculus) and the fig ( Ficus carica). Thistle Fig The coagulating enzyme of the thistle is located in its stamenswhich are first l eft to desiccate for 24 hours in a dry, hot (25-30C) and dark room, then put in p ure water for another 24 hours and finally filtered; when the filtrate is added to the milk it produces a very soft curd. The curdling element of the fig is its lattice; to prepare it, it is necessary to get small branches from the fig tree when it is vegetat ing, cut them in small pieces, incise them and leave them in a container filled with lukewarm water to macerate for about 1 hour. After havi ng strained this liquid, the filtrate is the rennet ready to be used. Plant renn et is traditionally used in Spain an d Portugal to produce certain cheeses. A di agram will help memorise: RENNET Animal Calf Kid Lamb Thistle Plant Fig farm-produced - paste industrial - liquid 20

Liquid industrial calf rennet is used for the production of buffalo Mozzarella c hee se. How do we determine the correct amount of rennet to be added to the milk to obtain coagulation at the times required by the technology? There is a param eter that refers to the coagulating capacity of milk: rennet title or strength. The higher the title , the lower the amount of rennet necessary to coagulate the milk. The title of the rennet used in most dairy products is of 1:10000. What d oes 1:10000 mean? The 1:10000 ratio is to be read as follows: 1 ml of rennet can coagulate 10 000 ml of milk at the temperature of 35C in 40 minutes. The label on the packages of industrial rennet must bear the title; it is also p ossible though to determine the title of the rennet at the dairy. Proceed as fol lows: heat one litre (1000 ml) of milk up to 38C while a lways stirring; when the milk reaches this temperature, add 0.1 ml of rennet and at the same time start a timer while introducing a straw in the milk. When the straw manages to hold up by itself in the milk (it means that the milk has started coagulating) stop the timer. At this point we have all the data we need to insert in the following fo rmula: F=(2400x1000)/0.1xT 2 400 = constant factor (40 minutes expressed as seconds) 1 000 = ml of milk tha t have been used 0.1 = amount of added rennet T = coagulation time (determined w ith the timer) Liquid calf rennet with a title of 1:10 000 is used for making buffalo Mozzarell a cheese; the amount of rennet to be added varies between 15 to 20 ml/100 kilogr ams of milk and the coagulation time is about 15 minutes. When the curd reaches the proper consistency, usually the hardening takes 30 -40 minutes and the cutti ng process starts. Beware: do not wait more than 1 hour. Let shed some light on t he terminology. s When speaking about coagulation time, we consider the wh ole p rocess, including the setting and the hardening time. Let see the diagram: s COAGULATION TIME Setting time Hardening time Renneting The first floccules appear 21 Compact and homogeneous gel

The hardening time is usually twice as long than the setting time. In the dairy it is possible to determine whether the hardening phase has finished by touching the surface of the mass with the back of the hand. If the hand remains dry, it means that the curd is dense and thus ready to be cut. Tools used Before starting to describe the tools, it is necessary to understand the heating system s. To heat milk it is possible to use: - wood - gas Wood is mostly used in dairy farms, where there are not large amounts of milk to be heated. Gas, ins tead, allows direct heating with the production of steam. Let take a look at the tools. s Dairy farm Tin plated copper vat Semi-industrial dairy Stainless steel vat Tool features Plated copper vat Stainless steel vat How to clean the tools It is usually possible to use either acid serum or alkali ne disinfectants to clean the tools. 22

Dairy farms also use wooden vats Particularly, milk is heated in a tin plated copper vat, acidified with added na tural whey culture or acid and then put into a wooden vat; the milk is then renn eted. 4.3 THE CUTTING OF THE CURD. A CRITICAL STAGE! The cutting expels the whey from the curd. Let go step by step: the coagulation has transformed the milk s (liquid state) into curd (gel state); more specifically, the curd contains whey - a liq uid made up of water, lactose and proteins. Depending on the kind of cheese that we want to produce, the cutting can be of two different types. If we want to ma ke soft cheese (like buffalo Mozzarella cheese) the cutting process must be divi ded in two phases separated by a more or less long lapse of time: in the first p hase the curd is cut into big cubes using a knife; during the following pause ca n be noticed the separation between whey and curd. During the second cutting (wi th a curd knife) the cubes are reduced into nut -size granules, soft and very mo ist because of the whey, that will give birth to a soft cheese. Instead, only on e cutting will be necessary (always with a curd knife) if we want to produce a h ard cheese; in this case the cutting takes longer and finishes when the curd has been transformed in corn - or rice-sized granules: very small granules that do not contain much whey, the refore hard, permitting to give birth to a hard chees e. Thus: Big curd granules = a lot of whey = soft = soft cheeses Cutting Small curd granu les = little whey = hard = hard cheeses Beware! Soft cheeses are very rich in whey and must be e aten almost immediately , otherwise the fermentation process spoils the cheese. Instead hard cheeses can be matured (the ripening time depends on the cheese) and is eaten after this ti me spent in ripening rooms. In the specific case of buffalo Mozzarella c heese, the curd is cut during two p hases: with the first cutting the curd is cut in cubes with a knife; after about 5 minutes takes place the second cutting, that reduces the curd 23

into nut-size granules (3 -6 cm) with a curd knife. This phase is very import an t for the buffalo Mozzarella cheese composition and its final production yield. F or example, during the cutting some fat is always lost s into the whey (i.e., pa rt of the fat passes from the curd to the whey; there can be up to 1% of loss). A good cutting is thus fundamental to reduce these losses: it is best to always stir the curd gently. Having finished the cutting, another very important phase takes place: curd maturation. Tools used Farm dairy and Semi -industrial dairy Knife (first cutting) Metal curd-knife (se cond cutting) Tools features Metal curd-knife Metal curd-knife How to clean the tools Acid serum and alkaline detergents are excellent disinfect ants in this case as well. 4.4 THE MATURATION OF THE CURD UNDER WHEY. A CRITICAL STAGE! In the specific cas e of buffalo Mozzarella cheese, maturation takes place under whey. Once the cutt ing is finished 60% of the whey is withdrawn (the whey is extracted until the cu rd is almost visible); part of this whey is heated up to 46C and then added again to the ma ss, this operation allows the curd to be kept at a temperature of abo ut 36C. Lactic acid starts being produced during this rest (the pH value goes dow n and the curd becomes more acid); the acid captures the calcium ions (the miner al that allows casein to aggregate and thus form curd) and causes curd demineral isation, which acquires flexibility. Practically, during the maturation takes pl ace a reduction of the calcium in the curd with its increase in the whey. 24

Let take a look at the diagram s Curd maturation present in the curd lactose the lactic acid captures the calcium ions curd - calcium ions = demineralisation = flexibility = stretching Graph 1 - pH variation of the curd in function of time 7 6,5 6 5,5 5 4,5 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 hours pH 25

Graph 2 - pH trend of the curd during maturation 6 5,8 5,6 5,4 pH 5,3 5 4,9 Fusion 4,8 start finish On average it takes 3 hours (at a room temperature of 20C). The optimal pH for th e curd, at the end of the maturation stage, is of 4.9. The maturation can also be natural; in detail, the curd does not become acid und er whey, but it is put on a table where it is left to ripen for a length of time that mainly depends on the room temperature. Usual ly, when we have a room temp erature of 21C the mass reaches its right acidity after 12 -18 hours. Beware! Should the curd be too matured or, on the contrary, not matured enough, the buffalo Mozzarella cheese will have consistency defects. 4.5 THE STRETCHING How do we determine when to stop the maturation process? How do we know that the curd is matured enough and thus ready to be stretched? At an instrumental level, it is possible to follow the pH trend with a pH-metre and t hus determine when the stretch ing value has been reached. 26

Stretching trial A stretching trial is otherwise possible with the following procedure: 100 g of matured curd are cast in boiling water; the melted paste is then transferred on a stick and pulled by hand, if it stretches threads that are more than one metre long, it can be considered ready for the stretching process. At this point it i s necessary to distinguish between the technology used on farm dairies and semi -industrial dairies. in unbroken Farm dairy curd ready for the stretching it is put on a curd-draining table on which it is left for 10 minutes cut into thin strips with a knife transfer into a wooden or iron curd vat boiling water (95C) is added manual stre tching done with the help of wooden sticks and a ladle Semi-industrial dairy curd ready for the stretching the curd is cut into small pieces by a machine with rotary blades stretching done with mechanic equipment The stretching is usually considered finished when the cheese becomes shiny and homogeneous. The manual stretching is a very difficult st age and it is necessary to pay atte ntion to many small, but extremely important, details. When the paste is in the vat it is necessary to add water in an amount that is double the quantity of pas te and continuously stir the mixture with a stick. When the c heese starts to st retched, keep on stirring and with a ladle pour enough water out until the chees e is nearly dry (filter this water, you will surely find some granules to be put back into the vat). At this point, the cheese is gathered around the stick an d stretched with the ladle; should some more whey come out during these movements , it 27

is eliminated. The cheese is now ready for the shaping or mozzatura (the cutting o f the curd into pieces of established size). Tools used Before describing the eq uipme nt used for this technological phase, we must remember that it is necessar y to have very hot water at one disposal; in particular the temperature of the wa ter during the stretching phase is s of 95C. For this reason it is necessary to b e able to produce hot water with a fire or gas heating system, or to have at one di sposal specific iron implements, double -walled and steam fed. Let proceed to the tools. s s Farm dairy Wooden or iron vat Wooden stick Ladle Semi-industrial dairy Stretching machines Tools features On farms dairies, wooden vats are used; they have a truncated con e shape with an upper diameter of 90 cm, a lower diameter of 75 cm and are 25 cm in height. The diameter -height ratio is of fundamental import ance. These size characteristics allow a high speed rotation of the stretched curd and a vaster area of thermal exchange with the air while the cheese is being dried and gettin g ready for shaping. Wooden vat Iron vat Wooden stick Ladle 28

Stretching machines How to clean the tools Acid whey and alkaline disinfectants are perf ect detergen ts. 4.6 SHAPING OR MOZZATURA Also in this phase the handcraft -technology differs from the semi -industrial one. On farms dairies the stretched cheese is handled with great care, performing characteristic movements that finish with the mozzatura to obtain buffalo Mozzarella cheese. In semi-industrial dairies instead, the whole operation is totally mechanized and when coming out of the dairy, the buffalo M ozzarella cheese has a pre -established size. Manual shaping Manual shaping Mechanised shaping 29

Farm dairy Manual phase Semi -industrial dairy Mechanised dairy Two people carry out the shaping: one cheese-maker chops (mozza) the stretched cur d with his thumb and index, while the other one holds the curd In addition to the characteristic spherical shape of buffalo Mozzarella cheese, other shapes can be created, for example bite-sized portions called bocconcini (li ttle snacks), perline (little pearls) , ciliegine (little cherries), as well as trecce (braids) and nodini (small knots) . In the specific case of buffalo Mozza rella cheese, the weight can vary from 200 to 800 g. Bocconcini (little snacks) Nodini (small knots) Ttrecce (braids) Tools used Farm dairy Hands Semi-industrial dairy Shaping machines Tools features If we consider the fact that at the time of shaping the temperatu re of the cheese is about 70C, we can easily realise that while using our h ands it is possible to receive severe burns. 30

With the use of moulders, the whole phase is mechanised. How to clean the tools It is better to use the detergents that the supplying fir m recommends to clean the moulders. After the shaping, the produced buff alo Mozzarella cheese is allowed to fall in to containers or tanks filled with cold water to allow the cooling, as to insure that the cheese maintains its shape. After being cooled, the product is salted. 4.7 THE SALTING Nowadays there is a great trend towards the elimination of this phase. There are various ways in which one can operate: - salting in brine: to p repare the brine it is necessary to boil the water, add salt (usually about 200 g of salt per litre of water) and then cool the solution taking i t down to 20C. The produced brine can be used until a contamination phenomenon can be noticed ( the brine becomes cloudy). After the cooling the buffalo Mozzarella cheese is so aked in the brine for a time that varies according to its size ( e.g., for a che ese that weighs 400-500 g, the time is of about 2 hours); - stretching the curd with salted water (1% of salt); - using a sauce: the stretching water is used to p repare a solution (1 part) + water (1 part) + acid whey collected at the beginni ng of the ma turation (just enough to take the acidity of the solution to pH 4; 8SH) + salt (2%); the buffalo Mozzarella cheese is soaked in this solution up to when it is sold. Beware! The sauce will have a whitish colour because of the str etching water. Basically t he sauce acts as a conservation liquid; - using a sol ution made of water + citric acid (an amount sufficient to take the solution to a pH 4; 8SH) +salt (2%); in this case the solution will be clear. 4.8 THE DAIRY YIELD The usual yield (the productivity f rom milk into cheese) is about 20%. This means that if we transform 100 kg of milk we will produce, on a verage, 20 kg of buffalo Mozzarella cheese. 4.9 THE PACKAGING AND SALE As briefly mentioned in the paragraph relating to sal ting, it is very usual to keep buffalo Mozzarella cheese in solutions that contain salt, amongst other ingredients. This allows to enclos e in just one phase both the salting and the packaging; in particular, until it is consumed, the salt acts on the product. When instead traditional salting or s tretching with salted water is chosen, the buffalo Mozzarella cheese is conserve d in the liquid. This is usually composed of: water, salt and citric acid. The b uffalo Mozzarella cheeses can be packed in small plastic bags or trays. 31

Trays Bags Buffalo Mozzarella cheese is then kept at 15C. The product is usually eaten withi n 1 or 2 days. Beware! To be able to appreciate all its flavours, buffalo Mozzarella cheese mus t be at room temperature when eaten. 4.10 SMOKING This phase is not always performed. When carried out, the buffalo M ozzarella cheese is exposed to the smoke made from the burning of wood chips and straw or is dipped into solutions of smoke essences (acrolein, pyrene, etc.). I n this case one will talk about smoked buffalo Mozzarella cheese. When the opera tion is finished the product is packaged. 32

4.11 A NUMERIC EXAMPLE With the intention of making the whole producing process cl earer, we will conclude the chapter with a recapitulatory diagram showing a prac tical production example. Diagram 2 - Recapitulatory diagram of the entire buffa lo Mozzarella cheese production process 100 l of buffalo milk ? 4 l of added natural whey culture or 30 g of citric acid (at 10 %) ? 15 ml of rennet (if we add natural whey culture) or 30 ml of rennet (if we use citric acid) ? curd cutting ? maturation of the curd under w hey . ab out 80 l of whey ? stretching ? shaping (20 kg of buffalo Mozzarella cheese) ? s alting ? packaging ? sale When reading this diagram it is possible to notice that if we start with 100 l o f milk, besides obtaining 20 kg of buffalo Mozzarella cheese, we will have the p roduction of 80 l of whey. What can we do with this sub product? It is excellent to be fed to animals and represents as well the raw material for the production of Ricotta cheese (see the specific chapter 6). 33

Chapter 5 TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AND DEFECTS 34

5.1 TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS A slow acidification of the milk or of the curd and a n excessive curd acidity are the main production problems that occur during the dairy technology of buffalo Mozzarella cheese. If the acidification process is s low, then the buffalo Mozzarella cheese will be hard, while a curd that undergoe s an excessive acidification process will show an elasticity defect that wi ll d isturb the shaping. The causes of these problems can derive from the adding of a non -suitable natural whey culture , curd and milk temperatures that can be too high or too low, the adding of too much natural whey culture or the use of milk with a too high a degree of acidity. Let observe the diagram: s Slow acidification = hard buffalo Mozzarella cheese Excessive acidification = bu ffalo Mozzarella cheese with elasticity defects 5.2 DEFECTS Cheeses are usually liable to defects that transform more or less de eply their physical, chemical and sensory characteristics, depreciating their co mmercial value. In most cases the deterioration depends on: - the use of milk ch arged with anti -dairy micro -organisms; - milk contamination during various phase s of t he dairy production; - technological mistakes during the various working phases; -the use of rooms not fit for milk processing and/or for cheese storage. As far as buffalo Mozzarella cheese is concerned the most common defects are: bubbles or blowing putrescence and whey-excess development of moulds peeling too hard or too soft texture When looking at the buffalo Mozzarella cheese, if we notice the presence of bubb les or blowing, it means that the milk or the cheese have been microbiologically contamina ted (in particular by coliform germs). To avoid this defect, it is ne cessary to pay special attention to hygiene and to increase the acidity. If the buffalo Mozzarella cheese presents signs of putrescence and whey-excess, it means that the milk or the cheese have been contaminated by putrescent spore -forming bacteria. 35

If we notice the presence of moulds, it means that the buffalo Mozzarella cheese has undergone a superficial contamination. To avoid this defect it is necessary to pay attention to the envir onmental hygiene and to perform surface treatment s on the cheese or on the conservation liquid. If we notice some peeling of the buffalo Mozzarella cheese while it is in the co nservation liquid, it means that there is an incorrect salt -acid balance betwee n the product and liquid. If the buffalo Mozzarella cheese texture is too hard or too soft, it means that t here have been some s mistakes made during the phase of whey drainage that have determined a too high or too low level of humidity. If while eating buffalo Mozzarella cheese we notice a bitter taste, it means tha t too much rennet has been added, or that the rennet had a high proteolytic acti vity, or that there is an excessive presence of proteolytic microflora (lactococ cus). 36

Chapter 6 RICOTTA CHEESE 37

At the end of the dairy process, besides having obtained buffalo Mozzarella chee se, we will have at our disposal a certain quantity of whey. It is possible to u se the latter to feed animals or to produce Ricotta cheese. But let proceed in or der. s What is whey? After the coagulation phase, precisely after the curd has b een cut, there is the separation of a jelly -like mass from a greenish liquid, t he whey. We can thus consider without any doubt whey as a dairy sub -product. It s chemical compositio n is water, lactose, whey proteins and a small percentage of fat. Actually, its constituent characteristics vary according to the type of cheese that has been produced. Where does the word Ricotta come from? Etymologic ally, the word derives from the Latin term recoctus that stands for re-cooking of the whey; in fact, Ricotta cheese is the product of the thermo-acid coagulation of the whey. It is possible to start from sheep, goat, buffalo or mixed whey. Bu t let have a look at the specific technology and s especially reveal the secrets to obtain good quality Ricotta cheese. The whey must be strained, put into a vat of adequate capacity and continuously stirred while heated till it reaches boil ing point. When the temperature of about 85C is reached, the whe y proteins start to separate from the whey, surfacing as small flakes that gather on the surface forming a white layered stratum. Beware! To avoid the formation of granules in the final product it is necessary to stop stirring as soon as the flakes start to surface. At this point it is necessary to wait until all the flakes have come up and then the mass is pulled out. The structural characteristics of the final product are affected to a great degree by the way the flakes are skimmed off. A perforated ladle is used. 38

By working very carefully the Ricotta cheese is put into moulds or in a cloth bu ndle for the draining phase, which usually takes about 3 -4 hours. This technolo gy allows us to obtain fresh Ricotta cheese. fresh Ricotta cheese The liquid left over after the production of Ricotta cheese is no longer called whey but scotta. Beware! During the heating phase it is possible to add an acid solution to promote the s urfacing of the flakes, in part icular acid whey, hydrochloric, citric or tartar ic acid. It is furthermore possible to add a certain percentage of milk to the w hey before the heating to increase the productive yield and produce more Ricotta cheese. To render the Ricotta cheese tastier, it is possible to add 1% of salt to the wh ey during the heating phase. If we want to produce salted Ricotta cheese we must dry-salt the product after t he draining and then leave it to mature for 15-30 days. If the ripening lasts fo r months, then one will s peak of mature Ricotta cheese. salted Ricotta cheese In general, the chemical composition of Ricotta cheese depends on the whey we st art off with, which, as we have already said, depends on the cheese that has bee n produced. Fresh Ricotta cheese can present microbiologic and structural defects. As far as the structure is concerned, big granules - due to heavy stirring during the sur facing, mistakes during the ski mming or bad transfer into the moulds - can ofte n be found; to avoid this defect the secret is to take out with the perforated l adle only 39

the exact quantity of Ricotta cheese that it can hold. Furthermore the curd may present some granules; this happens wh en the whey has been poorly or insufficie ntly filtered. When Ricotta cheese is kept at temperatures that are too high, th ere may be the formation of a surface micro -flora. Mature Ricotta cheese instea d can present structural defects such as friability and chalkiness (the cause of this is an excessive acidification) or superficial cracks (due to mistakes duri ng the drying phase: too high temperatures and insufficient humidity). 40

Chapter 7 THE DAIRY 41

The word dairy indicates all structures that are ap pointed to host milk transform ation activities. Once the most favourable site has been found, it is necessary to orientate the building as to avoid exposing the area in which milk is process ed and transformed to the north, the south or the direction in whi ch the wind b lows. A good rule to follow is to position the corners of the building towards t he cardinal points. The nature of the building depends on numerous factors, such as: the dairy size, the dimensions of the s machinery, etc. Furthermore, the cho i ce of systems and of building materials is subordinated to the building typolog y, size, costs, etc. Usually, the materials are reinforced concrete (the concret e structure has s a cumbersome and heavy appearance, but the execution time is s hort and it ensur es a longer life and better resistance to atmospheric conditio ns), precast reinforced concrete (this is the most sought after structure nowada ys because of the short execution times, reasonable costs and, least but not las t, good resistance, life service and ease with which it is possible to adapt the structure to other activities), traditional brickwork (this type of structure i s rarely used; it is less economically convenient because of the execution costs and duration, even though its resistance and life service are valuable). The da iry must, in general, be very clean, with nets at the windows and curtains at th e doors to prevent insects from entering the building. The floor must preferably be covered, with non -slippery tiles and with a slope of at least 2% towards th e door to allow the drainage of the dairy effluent. It would be better for the w alls to be covered in washable tiles up to 1.50 m of height and the corners must be rounded off to ease cleaning. 8.1 ORGANISATION OF A DAIRY WITH A WORKING CAP ACITY OF 20 TO 200 L OF MILK Drawing 1 Exterior Brick or reinforced cement structure Transom window with an anti -insect net Was hable tiles or walls Floor covered with nonslippery tiles or made from wrought c ement or stone leaves sloping towards the main door (M. Pizzillo) 42

Drawing 2 Interior 10 4 3 9 5 7 2 2 6 8 1 (M. Pizzillo) PRODUCTION COURSE 1. Cupboard Place in the cupboard the small equipme nt and various ingredients ( milk strain, curd cutting knife, stretching rod, rennet, etc.) 2. Area in which milk is received Stainless steel thank of 20 -50 litres are present. The milk mu st be processed within two hours of milking; if this is not possible it is neces sary to cool the milk down to 8-10C. This type of dairy does not usually buy a re frigerator, thus the milk can be cooled by putting the thanks under running cold water, remembering to shake the milk, or, where small quantities of milk are co nce rned, it may be put in a fridge, but always remembering to shake it now and then. 3. Coagulation area There is a vat plated copper or a stainless steel vat 4. Natural whey culture container 5. Spreading table It is used for the drainage of the matured curd. It can be in stainless steel or wood. 6. Vat for stretchin g It can be in stainless steel or wood. 7. Cooling area There is a plastic or st ainless steel food basin. 8. Brine container The brine can be prepared in a stai nless steel or plastic contai ner. 9. Supply water container 10. Wash basin 43

8.2 ORGANISATION OF A DAIRY WITH A WORKING CAPACITY OF 100 TO 600 LITRES OF MILK Drawing 3- Exterior Brick or reinforced cement structure Transom windows with an anti-insect net Central stainless steel drain with a siphon that can be inspected Floor covered in non-slippery tiles or made from wrought cement (M. Pizzillo) 44

Drawing 4- Interior 9 W.C. Dressing-room 10 8 7 11 6 A B 1 2 3 5 4 (M. Pizzillo) A B staff entrance milk reception PRODUCTION COURSE Cupboard Place in the cupboard the small equipment and various ingredients (milk strain, curd cutting knife, stretching rod, rennet, etc.) 2. Milk refrigerator 3. Natural whey culture container 4. Cowl for the aspiration of fumes and vapour s 5. Stainless steel coagulating vat 6. Spreading table It is used for the drain age of the matured curd. It can be in stainless steel or wood. 7. Vat for stretc hing It can be in stainless steel or wood. 8. Cooling tank 9. Brine tank 10. Was h basin 11. Fridge 45 1.

8.4 GOOD BEHAVIOUR IN A DAIRY To obtain a good quality cheese it is necessary to check on sources of contamination, keep everything thoroughly clean, check on t he workers and visitors hygiene, pay attention to the quality of air and water, an d not neglect waste and parasites. Let proceed in order. s -At the end of each da iry process it is necessary to clean the rooms and tools. By cleaning we intend eliminating all v isible stains and leaving all surfaces clean. The tools can be cleaned either with drinking water or with the residues of the processed whey, which is a very good detergent; avoid using sponges that could be the receptacle of micro-organisms that contamina te the environment, it is better to use brush es. Floors, instead, must be cleaned with water and specific products; the best tools in this case are brooms. -Man can transport various contaminations: hair, respiratory system, hands, clothes, shoes, etc., a re the main sources of contam ination. For this reason all the people that enter the dairy must follow very st rict hygiene rules. For example, a mask must be used if one has an infection of the respiratory system, gloves if one has a skin infection. Furthe rmore the clo thes and the boots used in the dairy must not be used elsewhere (in the cowshed or near the animals, for example). Finally, it is good custom to cover hair with a cap or a bonnet. 8.5 PHOTOS IN DAIRY Plastic tanks Stainless steel coagulating vat Cowl Cooling container Spreading table Milk refrigerator 46

Chapter 8 GLOSSARY 47

A ACID Compound which liberates in a water solution pro tons H+, giving a pH facto r lower than 7; e.g. hydrochloric acid and lactic acid. See also Lactic acid and La ctic acid bacteria. ACIDITY pH values lower than 7. The acidity of fresh milk is between pH 6.65 and 6.67. The titrated acidity and the pH vary in opposing ways: the higher the acidity, the lower the pH value. AEROBIC Adjective indicating mi cro -organisms that can develop only in presence of air or free oxygen. AMMINOAC ID Base molecule of the complex protein structure (a protein is made up of h und reds of amino acids). ANAEROBIC A micro-organism that develops in air and oxygen free environments. B BACTERIA Unicellular micro -organisms that represent an intermediate kingdom bet ween plants and animals. Their size is between 0.3 and 10 ? . They can be of var ious shapes: i.e. small rods ( bacillus) or spherical (coccus). They trigger var ious fermentations, e.g. lactic fermentation. See also Lactic acid bacteria. BLOWI NG Cheese defect due to gas fermentation caused by coliform or spore-formin g ba cteria. C CALCIUM Metal associated to casein that contributes to curd formation. CASEIN Ma in protein in ruminant milk; it is present as micelle. Rennet acts on this specif ic protein, transforming s milk into curd. CHEESE A fresh or aged product obtain ed from the coagulation of milk, cream, skimmed or semi -skimmed milk. Different cheeses present specific characteristics linked to the type of coagulation, dra inage, microbial flora 48

that liberate the enzymes responsible of the flavour, texture and general appear ance. The milk used as raw material can originate from various animal species (c ow, buffalo, goat, ewe). CHEESE MATURATION A phase that concerns only hard matur e cheeses. Period during which cheeses undergo, because of natural and microbial enzymes that exert their action on them, physical -chemical transformations tha t determine the characteristics of the final product (texture, flavour, aroma, a ppearance). The length of the ripening period depends on the type of cheese prod uced. See also Maturation. COAGULATION Process during which numerous factors (temp erature, acidity, milk composition, rennet) cause casein precipitation with the formation of curd and whey. There are three types of coagulation: acid (the case ins precipitate because of acidification), rennet (rennet addition causes precip itation) and mixed (the coagulation takes place because of both the acidity acti on and effect). COLIFORM Bacteria normally present in mammal intestines; if foun d in water or milk, it indicates that there faecal contamination, thus bad hygie ne control. COLOSTRUM The first liquid secreted by the mammary gland after givin g birth. Its composition and appearance is very different from milk; it is very rich in protein and vitamins. CURD Protein network that derives from milk coagul ation. It is obtained by adding rennet (rennet curd) or leaving the milk to acid ify (acid curd). CURD CUTTING Operation in which the curd is fragmented into sma ll pieces (from cubes into rice -sized granules the size depends on the cheese t hat one wants to produce). Its purpose is to help whey drainage. CURD GRANULES P articles resulting from curd cutting. CUTTING See Curd cutting. has been D DRAINAGE Physical phenomenon that consists in the separation of whey from the cu rd. Drainage allows the regulation of humidity in cheeses. It begins with the cu tting of the curd and finishes with the ripening of the cheese. 49

E ENZYME Organic substance of protein origin produced by living organisms that act by promoting or accelerati ng biochemical reactions. Their names derive from th e substrate on which they exert their action; we have, in fact, protease (acting on proteins), lipase (acting on lipids or fats), lactase (acting on lactose) an d so on. Coagulation takes place thanks to e nzymes that are present in the renn et. Cheese maturation occurs under the action of enzymes that come from the renn et, the milk and the environment. F FAT GLOBULES Microscopic drops (with a diameter from 2 to 5 ? ): fat assumes thi s form in milk. FERMENTATION Transformation of certain substances triggered by m icro -organisms called yeasts. For example, in lactic fermentation, lactic acid bacteria ferment lactose with the production of lactic acid. FERMENTS Fermentati on agents: micro -organisms (yeasts, moulds, bacteria) that trigger fermentation thanks to the action of their specific enzymes. In the case of milk, we speak a bout milk enzymes. G GLOBULES See Fat globules. GRANULES See Curd granules. H HARDENING TIME Time that runs between the formation of the curd and the start of cutting. 50

HUMIDITY It indicates the water content in food. It is expressed as a percentage ; in milk it can vary from 80 to 87% (depending on the species). HYDROLYSIS Chem ical degradation of a substance, usually a big molecule split into a smaller one . Protein hydrolysis is called proteolysis, fat (lipid) hydrolysis is called lip olysis. I IMMUNOGLOBULINS Whey proteins with an immunity role, i.e. the organism defence. s L LACTATION Milk secretion an d production related to the mammals sexual phases of life. The length varies depending on the species (about 1 year for cows, buffalo es and goats; about 6 months for ewes). The lactation cycle includes: the delive ry (the first days represent the colostrum phase), the lactation phase and the e nd of lactation in which the milk starts to assume some modifications in its com position that may cause coagulation problems. LACTIC ACID Product of lactose fer mentation sustained by specific milk bacteria. LACTIC ACID BACTERIA Typical dair y micro -organisms; they multiply in milk and curd, allowing an increase in acid ity and the production of specific aromas. They ferment lactose with the product ion of lactic acid. An important origin of milk lactic acid bacteria i s natural w hey culture. It is also possible to find lactic acid bacteria under a lyophilise d form, in small packages. They are classified as homofermentative (if they only produce lactic acid) and heterofermentative (if they produce other substances a s wel l as lactic acid). LACTOSE It is milk sugar. The average content of lactose in milk is of 48 -50 g/l. s LADLE Wood utensil using for the manual stretching of curd; it specifically used to el iminate excess water. LIPASE Enzyme that can degrade fats (or lip ids). 51

LIPID Fat component that can be liquid (oil) or solid (fat). LIPOLYSIS Splitting of fats made possible by a specific enzyme (lipase). M MASTITIS Udder infection of bacterial origin. MATURATION Generic word that indic ates the physical -chemical modifications that milk or dairy products undergo. T here is to be made a distinction between: milk maturation (or acidification) and cheese maturation (see also). MESOPHYLL Group of bacteria that ideally develop between 25 and 30C. MICELLE In milk, casein is present as micelle, i.e. big molec ules in suspension. The individual casein molecules bind together with mineral bri dges. If the micelles degrade, the casein precipitates and milk curdles; it is t he rennet that degrades the casein complex. MINERALS We can usually find sulphat es, chlorides, phosphate, sodium, magnesium and potassium in milk. MOULDS Micros copic mushrooms. If their presence is undesired, it is a defect. If instead they are desired, the cheeses are called blue cheeses (when the mo uld is inside the cheese) or cheeses with surface mould (when the mould develops on the surface). N NATURAL WHEY CULTURE Whey developed from a precedent manufacture, which added to milk allows the development of specific fermentations, e.g. lactic fermentation . 52

O ORGANOLEPTIC CHARACTERISTICS Flavours, smells and tastes perceived by our senses . P PASTEURISATION Thermal process that destroys indifferently the harmful and usefu l micro -organisms in milk. After this treatment it is necessary to add lactic a cid bacteria to at least partly re -establish the initial microbial flora. Paste urisation usually takes place at 73 -74C and lasts for 15 -20 seconds. pH It indi cates a product acidity degree. Values between 1 and 6 indicate an acid pH, 7 is neutral and from 8 to s 14 indicates a basic or alkaline pH. PRESERVATION Phase that ensures the integrity of food products. Sterilisation, freezing, cooling, s alting, etc., are some types of preservation. PROTEIN A chain with more than 100 amino acids. Milk proteins are caseins and whey proteins. PROTEOLYSIS Splitting of big protein molecules into simpler substances (peptides, amino acids). PSYCH OTROPHIC Non-pathogenic germs that develop in refrigerated milk. Q QUALITY Food product properties and characteristics, in particular its nutrition al, hygienic, sensory, technological and economical ones. R REFRIGERATION Lowering of the temperature under 5C. 53

RENNET Enzymatic product extracted from the abomasum of ruminants containing the enzyme s responsible for milk coagulation. Rennet can be of animal, plant or mi crobial origin. RENNET TITLE (OR STRENGTH) It indicates rennet coagulation activ ity; it is usually defined as the quantity of milk coagulated by 1 ml of rennet in 40 minutes at 37C. The rennet title is usually of 1:10 000, i.e. 1 ml of renne t coagulates 10 000 ml of milk. RICOTTA CHEESE Dairy product obtained from heati ng the whey. S SALTING Operation performed to favour whey elimination, limit the development of undesired mi cro-organisms, encourage rind formation (in the case of matured ch eeses) and add flavour to the cheese. SALMONELLA Pathogenic bacteria responsible f or toxic infections in the consumer. SCOTTA Remaining whey after Ricotta cheese ha s been produced. SETTING TIME Time that goes from the rennet addition in the mil k to the appearance of the first flakes in the curd. SKIMMING Separation of the fat from the milk. SMOKING Exposure of food to the combined action of heat and s moke coming from the burning of s pecific types of wood (beech, chestnut tree, o ak, etc.). Herbs can also be used (bay, juniper, rosemary, etc.). SOLUTION Homog eneous mixture between a substance that can dissolve (solvent) and one or more s ubstances that are dissolved in it (solute). SPORE Some bacteria produce them to be able to resist when in difficult conditions. STRENGTH See also Rennet title. 54

T TECHNOLOGICAL YIELD Yield measurement of milk into cheese; it is expressed in pe rcentage (amount of cheese in kg obtained from 100 kg of milk). THERMIZATION Mod erate thermal milk treatment that takes place at 65C and lasts only a few seconds . It implies a smaller loss of useful bacteria than pasteurisation. THERMOPHILE A bacteria group whose optimal development temperature is betw een 45 and 55C. TI TLE See Rennet title. W WHEY Liquid that starts to separate during the cutting. It is rich in water, l actose, proteins (whey proteins) and minerals. It is the raw material for the pr oduction of Ricotta cheese. Y YEAST Micro-organism of 2 to 9 ? of size that belongs to the plant kingdom. Yeas t can be found in raw milk and in dairy products. It sometimes causes technologi cal defects: undesired blowing and fermentation. 55