Hermeneutics and Phenomenology of Borobudur

Uday Dokras Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
Hermeneutics and phenomenology of

Borobudur & ANGKOR WAT
DR UDAY DOKRAS
If Hermeneutics is the science of interpretation then one can say that
phenomenology is commonly used methodologies in qualitative research
within the social and health sciences. Used to describe how human beings
experience a certain phenomenon. There are many examples of cities that
collapsed before the arrival of the invading conquistadores. Borobudur is
just one of many mysterious monuments left behind- but why, no one is
certain. The biggest of the stones for this mysterious monument are 7 by 3
metres and weighs over 20 tons. Parts of the temple line up with the
summer solstice’s sunrise and sunset and there is a theory that this and
other structures may be even older than believed. The great mystery
surrounding these temples is that there is little evidence of a population
sophisticated enough to have built them on this plain.
But, what makes this historical construction so mysterious? There no

certainties regarding the purpose of this site. The most consensual opinion
is that this construction might has had multiple uses over the years, all of
them cult related. It’s considered a spiritual and sacred place for worship
with a connection to astronomy. Some believe that it was a sort of healing
place. While this mysterious monument dates and methods have become
clearer over time, there are still so many unanswered questions. There are
so many things about the Culture that we still don’t know. Theories
abound from astronomical alignments and directions to water sources, to
the usual believers in extraterrestrial visitors in need of landing strips. The
big mystery surrounding this fascinating (and, in some aways, advanced)
civilization revolves its disappearance. Indian History as well is full of the
rise and fall of many kingdoms and empires. Monuments, built by the
kings and they perform of every period throw light on the past history of
India. These monuments exhibit the glory of India and are part of our
cultural heritage. Almost all states of India boast of some or the other
important historical monuments. Thousands of tourists visit India to have
a glimpse of its important historical places.
There are two types of phenomenology: descriptive and interpretive

phenomenology. In descriptive phenomenology, the essence of an
1
experience is described. Inter- pretive phenomenology is also called

hermeneutic phenomenology. If Hermeneutics is the science of
interpretation then one can say that phenomenology is commonly used
methodologies in qualitative research within the social and health
sciences. Used to describe how human beings experience a certain
phenomenon.
For Hindus the universe was created by Brahma, the creator who made
the universe out of himself. After Brahma created the world, it is the
power of Vishnu which preserves the world and human beings. As part of
the cycle of birth, life and death it is Shiva who will ultimately destroy the
universe. A Hindu temple, or Devasthana or mandir or koil or kovil in
Indian languages, is a house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a
structure designed to bring human beings and gods together through
worship, sacrifice, and devotion. The temple, as a concrete structure took
form when spirituality in general population decreased; people stopped
seeing the divine and the sacred in everything and need was felt to create
a permanent structure in which a temple priest could officiate the sacred
process. Thus, the Hindu temple took its present concrete form. But it
should not be forgotten, that both the essence and the form of the Hindu
temple is derived from the Vedas and the Vedic fire altar, one way or the
other.
1. Temple as a Sacred Mountain

The mountains are the finest manifestation of Mother Nature.
According to Hindu beliefs, the gods reside in the mountains. The
Yogis, Sanyasis, Seers, and Sadhus have always found the
mountains to be especially suited for carrying out austerities or
Tapasya. The Hindu temple is built and perceived in the image of
Mount Meru, the sacred mountain. Mount Meru represents
ultimate knowledge and climbing it symbolizes attaining self-
realization.The Hindu temple is conceived as Mount Meru
because, above all, it is a spiritual institution.
The Vimana or Shikhara of the temple is constructed to resemble
a mountain. It is imagined as the sacred mountain because it
facilitates the spiritual journey of man, from being an individual to
realizing his oneness with the Supreme Consciousness. The Hindu
temple is an agent in this spiritual journey. The five central towers
of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru, which
according to Hindu mythology is the dwelling place of the gods.
2
The mountain is said to be surrounded by an ocean, and the

complex's enormous moat suggests the oceans at the edge of the
world.
2. The Garbha-griha as the Sacred Womb

The Garbha-griha is the most important part of the temple. This is
where the deity resides. The garbha-griha is so named because it
is literally the womb of the temple. It is the geometrical centre of
the temple site, with its centre, the brahmasthana, occupied by the
primary deity. It is called the womb, because under the deity, the
‘seed’ of the temple is inseminated in a kalasha (pitcher) and
buried. It is directly above this that the image of the deity is
installed.
3. The Temple as the Divine Tree

Besides the dominant feature of a temple's architecture,
comprising the gopuram (gateway tower), vimanam (tower), and
the sanctum, the temple tree is also considered holy. Some temples
and historical places derive their names from such trees. In the
contemporary era, the importance of these trees are reiterated by
doing pujas to them, and tying sacred threads and bells during
days of religious importance.
4. A Sthala Vriksha (Sanskrit: स्थलवृक्ष 'temple-tree') refers to a sacred

tree associated with a site, most often a Hindu temple. Such trees
form a prominent feature of koils, Hindu temples of the Dravidian
style.
5. Seed-The symbolism of the seed is also a representative of what a

temple stands for. This seed is believed to have sprouted upwards
in the form of the temple vimana and branching out in various
shoots, leaves and branches, it again coalesces at the top in
one kalash, bearing fruit which again contains the seed from
which it came, and thus directly above this, outside the temple,
over the vimana, another kalash is installed which has the same
‘seed’, which is deposited in the kalash underground.
6. The Temple as the Sacrificial Fire

The Hindu temple is, in fact, an evolution of the Vedic fire altar,
the Yajna Vedi, in which the Yajnas were performed. In Indic
3
religions, also known as havan, or homa; it is a fire ritual

performed on special occasions. A homa is sometimes called a
"sacrifice ritual" because the fire destroys the offering, but a homa
is more accurately a "votive ritual".The fire is the agent, and the
offerings include those that are material and symbolic such as
grains, ghee, milk, incense and seeds. The temple vimana is
imagined as the fire of a fire altar, of a Yajna vedi. The shape of
the vimana, which tapers, recedes and coalesces into one point at
the top with many of half-vimanas, or half-shikharas or miniature
aedicular vimanas decorating the ascent of the vimana resembles
the sacrificial fire of a fire altar.
Historical Context of the MATARAM Culture

The historical context surrounding the Mataram culture and civilization of
the Mataram Kingdom is not only interesting but a little confusing.
Religion in the Mataram Kingdom
It played much the same role throughout much of recorded history, giving
rise to early kingdoms such as Mataram. As the population of Java
continues to increase and becomes more modern and urban, the Indonesia
of today still holds strong to its cultural and historical roots.The Mataram
society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism
and Buddhism, along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs.
Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the Mataram Kingdom favored and
worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his symbol, the
Linga. The Mataram Kingdom flourished between 712 and 938 in Central
Java, an island of Indonesia and lies southeast of Malaysia and west of
Bali. It is also noted to be the world’s most populous island in the world
today.
4
Vande Mataram
The Mataram Kingdom, also called the Medang Kingdom, was a
Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom. It was based in central and east
Java and flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was ruled
by the Shailendra dynasty and was established by King Sanjaya.
The Trimurthi temple of Prambanan or Rara Jonggrang is the largest

Hindu temple of ancient Java, 9th from century. Built by Rakai Pikatan to
establish power of Sanjay dynasty and dedicated to Trimūrti-Brahma
Vishnu Mahesh, it is an UNESCO World Heritage Site; 2nd largest Hindu
temple in Southeast Asia.
Prambanan temple complex at night
Sanjaya (732-760) and Panangkaran (760-780)-shailendra dynasty

confusion is still there? both r related? few say Sanjay as Shaiv &
5
Shailendra kings as Buddhist? both faiths interlinked and overlapping

too, in my opinion
Vajrasattva. Eastern Java, Kediri period, 10th–11th century CE, bronze, 19.5 x 11.5
cm
Origins of the Mataram Kingdom

Mataram means mother in Sanskrit and this mother Kingdom named
itself so to give an ode to the motherland. The first major kingdom of
central Java was the Medang or Mataram Kingdom, founded at the
beginning of the 8th century. The earliest accounts of the Mataram
Kingdom are in the Canggal inscription, which dates back to 732.
The inscription gives an account of the erection of “Linga” (symbol of
Lord Shiva) in the Kunjarakunja area, which is located on the island of
Yawadwipa (Java). This Linga was raised under the rule of King Sanjaya,
the lord of Mataram.
According to the inscription, the kingdom was first ruled by King Sanna,
who was known for his wisdom and knowledge. After his demise, there
was a period of disunity, until Sanjaya, the nephew of king Sanna,
ascended the throne. During his reign, there was peace and prosperity for
all his subjects.
However, a Sundanese book called Carita Parahyangan gives a slightly
different account of the same story. In this book, Sanjaya is the son of
6
Sanna. It also states that Sanna was overthrown by the king of Galuh and
was forced to retreat to Mount Merapi. His son, Sanjaya, later avenged his
father and defeated the King of Galuh. The kingdom was finally restored
to the rightful heir, and Sanjaya ruled West Java, East Java, Central Java,
and Bali.
It is believed that King Sanjaya was the one who left the written records
of these events on the Canggal inscription, though it’s impossible to know
for sure.
Mataram Kingdom Name Origins

Initially, the kingdom was called “Yawadvipa,” another name for the
island of Java. Indonesian archaeologists such as Prof.Soekmono of
Indonesia identify the kingdom as Mataram, based on a geographical
location called Mataram in central Java. Additionally, king Sanjaya’s full
name was “Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya,” which may have been
another reason for the name of the kingdom. The etymology of the name
“Mataram” is derived from the Sanskrit term for “mother.”
7
The name Medang was found in East Javanese inscriptions. Some

historians believe that the Central Java period (732-929) was referred to
as Mataram, and the later Eastern Java period (929-1006) was identified
as Medang.
However, it is also believed that the kingdom was called Medang, and the
capital was Mataram, based on some phrases found in the inscriptions.
Etymologically, the name Medang is an ancient Javanese term that means
“to gracefully appear.”
Culture and Beliefs of the Mataram Kingdom and Mataram Social
Structure
The Javanese had a complex social structure and also recognized the
Hindu caste system. The ancient Javanese society was divided into four
classes:
 The royal family
 The religious authorities
 The commoners
Historians have discovered that the different classes had a dress code that
they strictly adhered to. The royal family and their servants could be
identified by their luxurious clothing and intricate golden jewelry. All the
priests wore robes or cloaks called “sinhels.” The commoners, who were
also described as villagers, wore very simple clothing and rarely adorned
any jewelry or ornaments.
Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

The society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of
Hinduism and Buddhism, along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic
beliefs. Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the Mataram Kingdom favored
and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his symbol, the
Linga.
However, during the reign of Panangkaran, Mahayana Buddhism gained
popularity. Many temples were built to pay homage to Buddhist beliefs.
The kingdom gave importance to the priest class in both religions. The
Brahmins and the Sangha Buddhists represented their respective religions
and conducted the state’s religious ceremonies together in the temples.
There were many ardent temple construction projects in the kingdom
which were possibly motivated by the combined religious zeal of both
religions.
8
In the 16th century, Islam became a major religion as the island of Java
became a Muslim sultanate.
Art in the Mataram Kingdom

The importance of art in the kingdom depicted through the various
carvings found on the temple walls during this era. These carvings gave
rich portrayals of life during the ninth century.
The architecture was another form of art that flourished during this period,
and can still be seen in their magnificent temples that exist even today.
There was a cultural mingling in the south-western part of Java, where the
Javanese and Sundanese cultures combined to create the Banyusaman
culture. In addition to this, the most famous Javanese arts were gamelan
music and wayang puppet shows, which became traditional arts.
History of the Mataram Kingdom and flip flop betweem the Hindus
and the Buyddhists:

Historians believe that there were two prevailing dynasties that ruled
Central Java together; the Buddhist Sailendra and Shivanist
Sanjaya dynasties. This period of the dual dynasty was characterized by
peaceful co-operation. However, in the middle of the ninth century, the
relationship between the dynasties deteriorated. The Sailendra managed to
gain full control of Central Java and became the overlords of the
Sanjayas.
There is not much information regarding the Sailendra rule, but it

signified a cultural renaissance in the region. The kingdom saw rapid
growth during the 9th century.
However, the Sailendra rule was short-lived. In 852, the Sanjaya ruler,
Pikatan, defeated the Sailendra ruler’s offspring and ended their rule in
Java. The Sanjaya rule lasted until the end of the Medang Kingdom.
During his reign, King Pikatan built the royal Hindu Trimurti temple
known today as Candi Prambanan.
Mataram emerged in the highlands and fertile plains of Central Java,
where productivity in rice cultivation was aided by the advent of the
island’s iconic rice terraces. These high yields created the stable food
source necessary for high population growth and an organized state
society, led by those who were in control of the upland water sources.
9
This societal organization would later go on to become proficient builders

on not only the public infrastructure needed for water management, but
the monumental Hindu-Buddhist religious architecture that still dots much
of Java, including the renowned Borobudur and Prambanan temples.
Mataram in Eastern Java

Central Java was always the center of the Mataram Kingdom. But in 929,
the center was shifted to East Java. Historians are uncertain about the
exact cause for this sudden shift, but believe it may have been because of
a natural calamity or epidemic outbreak.
They also believe that the Merapi volcano may have erupted and
destroyed the Kingdom’s capital in Mataram. This expansion took place
under the rule of the last king of the Sanjaya dynasty, Mpu Sindok.
What Happened to the Mataram Kingdom?
Mataram flouruished between the Era: 712 – 938 CE and was located in
Central Java, Indonesia. Its Capital was Yogyakarta. However there was
an ongoing rivalry between the Sumatran Srivijaya and Javanese Medang
kingdoms, which became more hostile.
This rivalry may have been caused by the Srivijayan attempt to seize the
Sailendra lands in Java. This is because the Srivijaya maharajas, Balaputra
and his son, belonged to the Sailendra dynasty. The collapse of the
kingdom occurred in the tenth century.
In 1006, Srivijaya attacked and destroyed the Medang palace, killing most
of the royal family. With the death of king Dharmawangsa and the fall of
the capital, the kingdom finally collapsed.
However, a nephew of king Dharmawangsa had escaped capture and had
remained in exile. Later on, he reunited the fallen kingdom and re-
established the kingdom (including Bali) under the name of the kingdom
of Kahuripan. After many years, the kingdom was renamed as Kediri.
ANTECEDENTS to BOROBUDUR
The Sailendra Empire of Java and the kingdom of Sriwijaya in
Palembang were no doubt, two great empires between the 7th to 11th
centuries in Indonesia’s early history of civilization. The Empire of
Sriwijaya stretched from the Northern of Peninsular Malaysia to the
town of Sunda in Java. The Sailendras were of Buddhist and the
Sriwijayans were Hindus. Despite the differences in their religious
10
doctrines and worships, they were able to live together side by side
throughout Palembang and Java in peace and harmony, unlike the
conflicts between different ethnic groups and religions as we see in
today’s modern society.
Indian Buddhist missionaries, one may say, arrived in Indonesia around the
first and second century AD bringing with them both Hinayana and
Mahayana buddhism. The designation Hinayana was derogatory as the
Sanskrit word ‘hina’ means lesser, and ‘yana’, vehicle or teaching. The
former Hinayana Buddhism, which follows Buddha's core teachings or
the Doctrine of the Elders, condemns idol worship and seeks individual
salvation via consciousness and meditation. Hinayana Buddhists regard
Gautama Buddha as a regular human being who gained Nirvana. It
refers to the lesser vehicle and address a selected few and therefore
could not guide and lead believers to the ultimate goal of
enlightenment, as opposed to Mahayana teachings. Mahayana Buddhist
teachings incorporate the true and original teachings of Buddha which
will ultimately guide their believers to enlightenment. Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims and monks began to set sail to India through the South China
Sea and the Straits of Malacca when Buddhism began to spread its
doctrines in China. On their way, some stopped and stayed temporarily
in Indonesia to learn more about Buddhism.
Most Chinese Buddhist pilgrims embarked on journeys to India to

collect canonical texts from places such as Nalanda and Taxila-
(religious books and scriptures) which were needed to be codified in
accordance to Chinese practice of Buddhism. Some stayed in Srivijaya
to learn Sanskrit, while residing within a large community of local
people and Indian pilgrims. Here the Hindu and Buddhist kings of
Central Java ruled from the 8th to the 10th century under two different
dynasties- the Sanjaya and the Shailendra. The Sanjaya were Shaivites,
while the Shailendras were Buddhists of the Mahayana Buddhism
which therefore dominated the Island of Java in the courts of the
Shailendra Dynasty and permeated the lives of her population between
600AD to 900AD (7th - 10th century). This dynasty demonstrated their
prowess at that time by building the largest Buddhist Complex in the
world, Chandi Borobudur, located in the lowlands of South Central
Java. Its polylithic architectural design related to the Maurya and Gupta
styles of Stupa temple construction found in India. The Gupta age
architecture and art are effectively diverse in their characteristic
11
features, style, as well as design. Gupta age architecture includes

painting, Gupta sculpture and temples. They were the foremost rulers in
order to establish the cave temples of Hindus in India. The Gupta era is
well known for its excellence in different fields of Indian culture and
art. The study is going to discuss the architecture and art of the Gupta
Empire as well as analysis of the development of Indian classical
music. Sri Gupta established the Gupta empire effectively c. 240-280
CE.
The monuments at Sanchi today comprise a series of Buddhist

monuments starting from the Mauryan Empire period (3rd century BCE),
continuing with the Gupta Empire period (5th century CE), and ending
around the 12th century CE. It is probably the best preserved group of
Buddhist monuments in India. The oldest, and also the largest monument,
is the Great Stupa also called Stupa No. 1, initially built under the
Mauryans, and adorned with one of the Pillars of Ashoka. During the
following centuries, especially under the Shungas and the Satavahanas,
the Great Stupa was enlarged and decorated with gates and railings, and
smaller stupas were also built in the vicinity, especially Stupa No.2, and
Stupa No.3.
Simultaneously, various temple structures were also built, down to
the Gupta Empire period and later. Altogether, Sanchi encompasses most
of the evolutions of ancient Indian architecture and ancient Buddhist
architecture in India, from the early stages of Buddhism and its first
artistic expression, to the decline of the religion in the subcontinent
Architecture and art of Gupta ( and Mauryan) Empire
The era between the centuries of 4th and 6th, the CE (Common Era) is
recognised as the Golden era of India due to the considerable
achievements of the country in the fields of philosophy, science, and art.
On the concept of Gupta age architecture, it includes both sculptural
temples as well as the temples of rock-cut caves. Guptas established the
temples of Buddhist rock-cut at Bagh, Madhya Pradesh, and Ajanta,
Maharashtra.
In the Gupta period, the Guptas established Hindu structural temples for
the first time in India. The temples of Gupta era are:
 Varaha and Vishnu temples in Madhya Pradesh

 The temple of Kankali Devi at Jabalpur
 The temple of Mahadeva and Parvati at Nachna Kuthara
12
 The temple of Dasavatara at Deogarh
The art of Gupta era primarily includes paintings and the paintings are
effectively found in Bagh cave as well as Ajanta caves. The Hindu
religion before the Gupta era used to be recognised as “Vedic religion”.
The iron pillar was established by Chandragupta II in Delhi. The iron
pillar has effective inscriptions that were implanted from the era of
Guptas. The inscriptions of the iron pillar in Delhi define Chandra’s name
that is effectively recognised as Chandragupta, the Gupta ruler. For
reasons that are not entirely clear, for the most part the Gupta period
represented a hiatus in Indian rock-cut architecture, with the first wave of
construction finishing before the empire was assembled, and the second
wave beginning in the late 5th century, just as it was ending. This is the
case, for example, at the Ajanta Caves, with an early group made by 220
CE at the latest, and a later one probably all after about 460. Instead, the
period has left almost the first surviving free-standing structures in India,
in particular the beginnings of Hindu temple architecture. As Milo
Beach puts it: "Under the Guptas, India was quick to join the rest of the
medieval world in a passion for housing precious objects in stylized
architectural frameworks", the "precious objects" being primarily the
icons of gods.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the

caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and
mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under other dynasties in
Central India, and in the case of Ellora after the Gupta period, but
primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta
contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the
surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a
long development, mainly in painting palaces.
The Gupta Empire can be described as the fourth largest entity of politics
who have ruled appropriately in India. Guptas followed decentralized
administration. The Gupta age of architecture brought effective
knowledge as well as architects in terms of making efficient and effective
structures and temples. The era of Guptas has an effective and positive
impact on Hindu religion in India. Majority of temples in the era of
Guptas were craving and represented Gods and goddesses, primarily
avatars of Lingams and Vishnu. The era has assisted to develop
knowledge among people in the field of art and architecture. Guptas have
13
developed effective advancements in philosophy, religion, astronomy,

logic, dialectics, art, engineering, as well as science. There is an effective
contribution of the Gupta Empire in the religion of Hinduism as well as in
the development of art and architecture in India.
General view of the Stupas at Sanchi by F.C. Maisey, 1851 (The Great Stupa on top of
the hill, and Stupa 2 at the forefront)
The Mahabodhi Temple an ancient, but rebuilt and
restored Buddhist temple in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India, marks the location
where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. The site
contains a descendant of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha
gained enlightenment, and has been a major pilgrimage destination of
Buddhists for over two thousand years.Some of the site's elements date to
the period of Ashoka (died c. 232 BCE). What is now visible on the
ground dates from the 6th century CE, or possibly earlier, as well as
several major restorations since the 19th century. The structure, however,
also potentially incorporates large parts of earlier work, possibly from the
2nd or 3rd century CE. Archaeological finds from the site indicate that the
place was a site of veneration for Buddhists since at least the Mauryan
period. In particular, the Vajrasana, which is located within the temple
itself has been dated to the third century BCE.
Many of the oldest sculptural elements have been moved to the museum
beside the temple, and some, such as the carved stone railing wall around
14
the main structure, have been replaced by replicas. The main temple's
survival is especially impressive, as it was mostly made of brick covered
with stucco, materials that are much less durable than stone. However, it
is understood that very little of the original sculptural decoration has
survived.
The temple complex includes two large straight-sided shikhara towers, the
largest over 55 metres (180 feet) high. This is a stylistic feature that has
continued in Jain and Hindu temples to the present day, and
influenced Buddhist architecture in other countries, in forms like the pago
Mahabhodi temple
15
Sanchi
stupa
The Borobudur is an art complex by itself, unlike the Stupas or the

temples of both Guupta and Mauryan periods, surrounded as it is by
balustrades and wall reliefs of Buddhist scriptures and Buddhist
statues with different meanings of the mudras as carved on the hands
of the Buddha statues found at the topmost level of Chandi. Being
the largest Buddhist monument in the world its massive constructed
solely out of an estimated 1.6 million blocks volcanic rocks. The
monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular
platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha
statues. A main dome, located at the centre of the top platform, is
surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupas in
meditation positions, with different hand gestures or ‘mudras’.
Mudras or hand gestures (in simplified terms) are usually practiced
together with the art of meditation. They could be preached and
practiced throughout the world regardless on the background of the
meditator’s religion and beliefs. The main figure and religion in the
history of meditation is the Buddha. He is considered the main
proponent in the practice of meditation and has been practiced, both
in the past and present since 500 BC. The teaching of the Buddhist
doctrines became popular in the Asian continent during this period
and established its foothold in the Island of Java and South Sumatra
since 200 AD.
16
Gunavarma was an Indian monk from Jibin (ancient Gandhara). He traveled to Java from Sri
Lanka around the beginning of the 5th century A.D. Not long after his arrival, the Javanese
king Po-duo-jia suffered from a foot injury caused by an arrow in a war. Gunavarma healed
the king's injury and won his trust and friendship. Showing respect and gratitude to
Gunavarma, King Po-duo-jia decided to rule his kingdom with Buddhist belief.
As a Buddhist cakravartin, he gave all his possessions to the poor and the people were
ordered to abstain from killing. The people were also instructed to respect Gunavarma and
even to receive the 5 precepts from him. The Chinese sources do not say that Gunavarma
helped King Po-duo-jia to implement the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya.
However, we may surmise that Gunavarma did this from the fact that he was officially
invited to China by Emperor Wen of the Song (424-453) and from his activities in the Song.
We describe these below. About 9 years after Faxian had brought the painting of Nagapuspa
back to the South, Emperor Wen of the Song decided to implement the belief as his political
ideology. In the 9th month of the first year of the Yuanjia reign (424), the monks Huiguan
and Huicong persuaded the emperor to send letters to the Javanese king and Gunavarma,
respectively, inviting Gunavarma to China. Later, the monks Fachang, Daochong and Daojun
etc., were despatched to bring Gunavarma to China.
Gunavarma arrived in China in the year 431. Another Indian monk, Senghavarma also
arrived in 433. Both subsequently translated the Suhrllekha for the emperor. The Suhrlleka
was a letter sent by Nagarjuna to King Satavahana persuading him to practice Buddhism and
to implement the cakravartinship to rule his kingdom. Gunavarma must have been an expert
in promoting the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. Otherwise, he would not have
been invited by Emperor Wen of the Song to China. Besides translating the Suhrlleka for
Emperor Wen, Gunavarma was also appointed by him to oversee the ritual of Bodhisattva
pratimoksa.
Bodhisattva pratimoksa. is the most important ritual that initiates an emperor to become a
cakravartin or a Buddharaja. Soon after his arrival at the capital of the Song, Gunavarma was
appointed to perform this ritual. But due to an internal revolt that erupted suddenly, Emperor
Wen immediately dropped the idea of becoming a cakravartin/Buddharaja Maitreya.
The Chinese sources tell us that Gunavarma had stayed and preached the Dharma in Sri
Lanka for quite a while thus making him an expert in the implementation of the belief and
it is likely that he would have helped the Javanese king to promote it. One can surmise that
in 2 succession of countries he transmitted the belief i.e. to Java from Sri Lanka. There
were two historical accounts of Chinese monks bear witness to this: a Chinese Buddhist
monk by the name of Fa Hsien, was caught in a storm and landed in Java, . in 144 AD.
Another Tang Dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk, I-Ching, spent some ten years (671-681
AD), studying the old Hindu language of Sanskrit and Buddhist dharma in Srivijaya.
Writing about the city of Srivijaya, he wrote …….
“there are more than a thousand Buddhist priests whose minds are bent on the study
of Buddhist scriptures and their good works (teachings); their rules are ceremonies
that are identical with those in India.”
17
Stupa No.2/ Stupa No.3
18
SANCHI BOROBUDUR
Borobudur
19
Angkor Antecedents
Just as Rome was not built in a day, neither was Angkor, part of mainland
Southeast Asia’s dominant Khmer civilisation which flourished from the beginning
of the ninth century till the mid-fifteenth century CE. Khmer’s greatest monument,
Angkor Wat, was a culmination of centuries of temple building, design innovation
and artistic refinement, which was first experimented on smaller temples. One such
temple was located at Vimayapura, a frontier town in today’s Nakhon Ratchasima
province in northeast Thailand. This is important because ancient Angkor is not
just a single city in Cambodia, but a collection of cities scattered over Cambodia,
Laos, Vietnam and Thailand.
These cities were connected to each other by a network of royal highways that
allowed easy transport and human migration. Vimayapura was located on one of
the longest highways—250 km—connecting Angkor’s capital at Yashodharapura to
the Khorat Plateau. Many temples and arogyashalas (hospitals) dot this strategic
route, including at Phanom Rung, Prasat Muang Kao, Prasat Huay Khaen, Prasat
Muang Tam and Prasat Phanom Wan. The road continued further west to Lopburi, a
major outpost of Angkor in the Chao Phraya River basin. Later becoming a
provincial capital. The dominant culture at Angkor was Hindu, centered around
veneration of the Devaraja (god-king) which manifested in a royal lingam.
Buddhism, though widely practiced by the population and even by some rulers, did
not enjoy the same patronage as Hindu cults. It is possible the Mahidharapura
dynasty did not want to break from the long-established Hindu traditions, hence
though they commissioned a Buddhist shrine, it retained the iconography and
design principles of a Hindu temple.
More structures were added by the next king Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107–12
CE). His successor, Suryavarman II (r. 1113–50 CE), expanded the empire and
reunited political authority at Angkor. He patronised the Hindu god Vishnu, to
whom he dedicated Angkor Wat, the largest religious monument in the world.
Suryavarman II was greatly impressed by the graceful lotus form of the shikara at
Vimayapura Temple and used that template for the five central towers at Angkor
Wat, built in the same century, a few decades later. Jayavarman VII (r. 1181–1218
CE), the first king to majorly patronise Buddhism in Angkor, commissioned two
towers flanking the Vimaya Temple. A devout Buddhist, he had a statue of himself
installed in the temple, now shifted to the Phimai Museum. He also constructed 17
arogyashalas (hospitals) along the royal highway. Jayavarman VII’s reign saw
hectic building activity, but in doing so, he had overstretched the resources of the
empire, and Angkor saw a steady decline by the mid-thirteenth century.
This period of Angkor’s slow decline also saw the emergence of the Tai people as
strong challengers to Angkor’s authority in the Chao Phraya River basin. The
Sukhothai kingdom rebelled against Angkor, and Vimayapura was later absorbed
within the Ayuthhaya kingdom. Unfortunately for Angkor, the Thais used the same
highway network to make repeated raids on Angkor’s capital, which, in 1431 CE,
was shifted further south, and thereafter the empire survived as a rump state. With
Angkor’s decline, Vimayapura also suffered a decline, and the temple was
abandoned. The site was destroyed in a raid made by Laotians in the nineteenth
century.
20
It was during the period of Thai rule that Vimayapura was renamed Phimai, and the
temple was termed a prasat (palace). In 1964, a new museum was built in Phimai
town to store artefacts recovered from the temple site. Between 1964 –69, the Royal
Thai Government and French archaeologists jointly restored the damaged shikara
by the anastylosis method. In 1976, the Fine Arts Department undertook a
restoration project of the temple site and historical structures in Phimai town, and
the Phimai Historical Park was officially inaugurated by Princess Maha Chakri
Sirindhorn on April 12, 1989.
Khmer master craftsmen used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood for their main structures.
However, the wood elements having been lost due to destructive processes so the ruins
remain of brick, sandstone and laterite.Natural and semi-natural green spaces have been
defined as “land, water and. geological features which have been naturally colonised by
plants and animals. and which are accessible on foot to large numbers of residents.
ANGKOR
Suryavarman II built Angkor Wat temple - Surya means ‘sun’and Varman
‘Shield”
In Sanskrit language, Varma is the masculine form of the word for "Shield,
Defensive armour". The word Varman derive from Varamban as in the Chera king
title Vana-varamban, meaning one whose kingdom is bounded by the sky. Its usage
can be traced back to the Sangam period. Not surprising that his thought was
focused on his name. Some solar alignments that can be observed in the
planning of the Angkor Wat temple complex in Cambodia. This complex was
originally constructed in the early 12th century as a Hindu temple for the
Khmer Empire and gradually transforming into a Buddhist temple. To
illustrate the solar alignments we use SunCalc.net software and
Photographer’s Ephemeris on Google Earth satellite images. 5.
In 1976, researchers of the Michigan University carried a comprehensive analysis

of the role of astronomy and cosmology in the planning of the temple [5]. The
Michigan researchers suggested in their paper that the architects of Angkor Wat
had encoded calendrical, historical and cosmological themes into the architectural
layout. As shown by [5], the researches demonstrated how Angkor Wat's architects
21
had established solar alignments between the temple and a nearby mountaintop
shrine that took place during the summer solstice]. In fact, twenty-two possible
alignments had been identified and their relationship to bas relief and Hindu time
cycles examined. The authors in [5] concluded that: 1. The rising sun appears
aligned on equinox and solstice days with the western entrance of Angkor Wat; 2.
The movements of the moon can be observed from a variety of positions within the
temple, and lunar cycles may have been recorded in the three sets of libraries; 3.
The bas reliefs of the third gallery can be understood in relation to the movements
of the sun; 4. The measurements of the temple appear proportional to calendric
and cosmological time cycles. 6
In the central tower, the topmost elevation has external axial dimensions of 189.00
Cambodian cubits east-west, and 176.37 Cambodian cubits north-south, with the
sum of 365.37. This last figure is “perhaps the most outstanding number (in the
Angkow Wat complex), almost the exact length of the solar year” [5,6]. However, as
shown by Subhash Kak in his very interesting work; also the other two figures are
remarkable: they are evidence of Vedic roots for the division of the solar year in
Angkor Wat into two unequal parts. Kak tells that the inequality of the two
dimensions with figures corresponding to the two parts of the year, a fact that the
Michigan researchers were not able to explain, was not a mere accident but based
7
on the ancient Indian astronomical knowledge.
A new study of Angkor Wat (pictured) and surrounding temples in Siem Reap has
revealed that many of the temple’s orientations were planned with astrological
8,9
alignment in mind.
“heirophany : Giulio Magli, professor of archaeoastronomy at Politecnico di

Milano, used modern technology to test age-old thought in a bid to prove the clear
orientation of buildings to the west was “connected with the temple’s symbolism
22
and the management of power by the Khmer kings” and went about the task of
verifying with angles and axes what has long been theorised about Cambodia’s
iconic Angkor Wat – that the temples took their cues from the sky.
Using previously unavailable Google Earth satellite data, geographic information

system (GIS) data from the Greater Angkor Project and by reconstructing the
ancient sky with software called Stellarium, he traced the phenomenon of the sun
disappearing vertically behind the temple at equinoxes. He described the
phenomenon as a “heirophany” – a manifestation of the divine – that created a
connection between the temple and the heavens, while island temples built in
barays (water reservoirs) aligned later kings with those who went before in a
symbolic legitimisation of their rule. These buildings have explicit messages
encoded in the astronomical content with the finding that all 31 monuments
aligned east-west, within a margin of 5 degrees, but his research also hinted that
another, peripheral state temple in Cambodia – Preah Khan of Kampong Svay,
roughly 100 kilometres east of Angkor in Preah Vihear province – had “a very clear
astronomical solution”, involving not the sun, but the moon.
In his report, Archaeoastronomy in the Khmer heartland, on the Cornell University

Library open-access site arXiv.org, he also dismissed the idea that any of the
temples functioned as precise “calendars in stone”. Apsara Authority spokesperson
Chau Sun Kerya has further confirmed that these new findings added to past
researchers’ discoveries about the links between the construction of the temples,
astronomy and patterns of the sun showing evidence that on 23 or 24 March, every
year, the sun is exactly above of the central tower of Angkor Wat temple.
What is interesting is that the principles of the Vedas are fully used in a Temple,
which is in Cambodia.It is the Angkor vat Temple. The number 108 represents the
distance from the earth to the sun and the moon in sun and moon diameters,
respectively. The diameter of the Sun is 18 times the diameter of the earth
The distance between the human body and its inner Sun is also 108.
Number 360,taken to represent an year is the number of bones in the Human body
at the time of birth and they get fused into 206 when the Body grows (Satapatha
Brahmana)
The primary Vedic number is three, representing the tripartite division of the
physical world into the earth, the atmosphere, and the
sky and that of the person into the physical body, the pranas, and the inner sky.
Hindu Temples represent the Meru Mountain and Bruhat Samhita lists 56
principles on this.
The AngkorVat.
The most impressive aspect of the temple representation is that it occurs both at
the level of the part as well as the whole in a recursive fashion, mirroring the Vedic
idea of the microcosmsymbolizes the macrocosm at variouslevels of expressions.
This is done not only in the domain of numbers and directions, but also using
anppropriate mythological themes and historical incidents. Speaking just of
numbers, the various lengths and circumferences of units representing the motion
of the moon may equal 27, 28, 29 (nakshatras or days of the month), 354 (days of
the lunar year), or 360 (tithis of the lunar year). Other lengths represent the solar
year (360, 365, or 366) or larger time cycles. For example, the west-east axis
represents the periods of the yugas. The width of the moat is 439.78 cubit;
23
1. the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to
balustrade wall at the end of causeway is 867.03 cubit; the d istance
fromthe first step of the western entrance gateway to the first step of
2. the central tower is 1,296.07 cubit; and the distance from the first step of
bridge to the geographic center of the temple is 1,734.41 cubit.
3. These correspond to the periods of 432,000; 864,000; 1,296,000; 1,728,000
years for the Kali, Dvapara, Treta, and Kritayuga, respectively.
Sacred Number 108: The Mystic Meaning
Some numbers carry a universal meaning across different cultures and religions.
Many forms of the numeral 108 have made its appearance in various fields of
knowledge, religion and culture. Although the association with its occurrence is
unknown, it is believed that this magic number connects the modern and the
ancient world mysteriously.
Invoking such numbers or even by just viewing the number activates a deep
subconscious urge for unity. One such number is 108.
For example India, as a diverse country, has defined languages and dialects for
each state, and there are 108 different dance forms in the Indian tradition.
There are many more interesting facts associated with this number. Let us ponder
about the significance of this figure, its representation and importance across
countries.
Secret Society of Hung League
The Hung League is considered as one of the most mysterious and archaic societies
of China. Their rituals take us back to the pre-Buddhist religions.
A group of sacred numbers possessing a mystical significance has been absorbed

into the ritual and statutes of the Hung League.
These number are:
2x9 = 18; 3x7 = 21; 3x12 =36; 2x36 =72; 36+72 = 108; 30x12 = 360
This community followed a ritual of planting 108 plants in a pot and 108 groves of
red bamboo.
24
According to Z. Sitchin, The 12th Planet, a Sumerian king Gudea of the city of
Lagash, built a temple to Ningirsu employing 216,000 workers. His meal usually
consisted in 108 different servings. See Thian Ti Hwui; The Hung-League, or
Heaven-Earth-League, a Secret Society with the Chinese in China and
India Paperback – Import, 26 June 2012,by Gustaaf Schlegel.1866 ed.
Rarebooksclub.com
Significance in Vedic Cosmology
The numeral 108, as per the Vedic cosmology, is the basis of creation and it
represents our universe and our existence. Number 1 indicates God
consciousness, 0 implies void and 8 indicates infinity. In fact, ancient Vedic texts
of cosmology state that 108 represents the sacred numerological relationship of the
Earth to the Moon and the Sun. Here is a simple fact to prove the numerological
relationship: Earth’s diameter at the equator is 7926 miles. The diameter of the
Sun is about 108 times which is 865,000. The average or midpoint distance
between Earth and Sun is 93,020,000 miles (again 108 times the sun’s diameter).
Similarly, the Moon’s diameter is 2,180 miles. The average distance from Earth to
Moon is 238,800 miles. Again, it is 108 times the Moon’s diameter!
Buddhism in Numbers
The prayer bead or mala of the Tibetan monks consists of 108 beads or stones.
The prayer bead is used to keep the count of the mantras or hymns in their ritual
of meditation. In Buddhism there are 108 types of meditation. The famous
Tibetan work, “Gandjour”, contains 108 volumes of Buddha doctrines. On New
Year’s Eve, in Japan, the bell in Buddhist temples are chimed 108 times to mark
the end of an old year and to welcome the new year. Each ring is believed to
represent the 108 earthly temptations that a man is supposed to overcome to
attain nirvana or reach enlightenment.
The 14 th Century Bodnath Stupa, the largest stupa in Kathmandu, Nepal

associated with Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara has a wall whose base is decorated
with 108 images of Buddha and his mantra Om Mani Padme Hum is carved on the
prayer wheels. The total of the numbers 108 gives us a result of 9. When we
multiply each number by 9 and on summing, we get 9 as the result!
25
Stupa at LEFT and some of the 108 CARVINGS to the right

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 x 2 = 18 (1 + 8 = 9)
36 x 9 = 324 (3 + 2 + 4 = 9)
285 x 9 = 2565 (2 + 5 + 6 + 5 = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9)
Ancient Vedic sages who dealt with astronomy and mathematics considered this
number as a magic number that is associated with success and perfection.
Background:
One of the most spectacular structures of astronomical significance that has ever been built is
the temple of Angkor Wat in what is now Cambodia. Rarely in history has any culture given
rise to a structure that so elaborately and expansively incorporates its concept of the cosmos.
Angkor Wat stands as a striking and majestic monument in honor of the Universe and our
place in it.
Angkor Wat is the most famous temple at Angkor, a former capital of the Khmer empire. It
was built by King Suryavarman II in the 12th century, and is as immense as it is beautiful.
Surrounded by a rectangular moat 1.5 kilometers (0.9 mile) long and 1.3 kilometers (0.8
mile) wide, the structure itself consists of two rectangular walls enclosing three nested
rectangular galleries that culminate in a central spire surrounded by four smaller towers. The
straight lines of its moat, walls and galleries are oriented along the north-south, east-west
directions, and unlike most temples in the area its entrance faces west, being approached by
way of a long bridge that spans the moat.
The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world's oldest religious text, the Rigveda,
one of the four Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. This text describes the gods of heaven and
earth, including the earthly god Vishnu, "The Preserver." It is to Vishnu that Angkor Wat is
consecrated, and with more than mere symbolic intent. Hindu temples were built to be earthly
abodes for the gods. The central sanctuary was the most sacred place, directly inline with the
vertical axis of the central spire that provided the connection between the realms of heaven
and Earth. The surrounding architecture of the temple would then mirror Hindu cosmology,
being essentially a mandala in stone—a diagram of the cosmos itself. Furthermore, the
Khmer civilization had by the time of Angkor Wat's construction incorporated the idea that a
king would, after his death, be transmuted into one of the gods. Hence, it was at Angkor Wat
that Suryavarman II, after his death, was believed to reside as Vishnu.
26
Astronomical.significance:
Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are inseparably entwined at Angkor Wat. Nowhere is this
more evident than in the interior colonnade, which is dedicated to a vast and glorious carved
mural, a bas-relief illustrating the gods as well as scenes from the Hindu epic
the Mahabharata. Along the east wall is a 45-meter (150-foot) scene illustrating the
"churning of the sea of milk," a creation myth in which the gods attempt to churn the elixir of
immortality out of the milk of time. The north wall depicts the "day of the gods," along the
west wall is a great battle scene from the Mahabharata, and the south wall portrays the
kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has been suggested that the choice and arrangement of
these scenes was intended to tie in with the seasons—the creation scene of the east wall is
symbolic of the renewal of spring, the "day of the gods" is summer, the great battle on the
west wall may represent the decline of autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might signify the
dormancy, the lifeless time of winter.
The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous astronomical aspects beyond the
basic mandala plan that is common to other Hindu temples. As many as eighteen
astronomical alignments have been identified within its walls. To mention but three of them:
when standing just inside the western entrance, the Sun rises over the central tower on
the spring (vernal) equinox; it rises over a distant temple at Prasat Kuk Bangro, 5.5
kilometers (3.4 miles) away, on the winter solstice; and on the summer solstice it rises over a
prominent hill 17.5 kilometers (10.9 miles) away.
Finally, some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at
Angkor Wat have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from consideration
of the unit of length that was in use at that time, a unit known as the hat or "Cambodian
cubit." There is some question as to how long a hat was, and indeed its definition may not
have been uniformly applied; but a value of 43.45 centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of
a hat is suggested by the structures themselves.
Using this value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that seem to
have astronomical and cosmological significance—for example, the following:
 The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the east-
west direction and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together these give
365, the number of days in one year.
 In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately 12 hat.
There are roughly 12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to full Moon,
say—the basis for our modern month) in one year.
 The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On
average, there are 91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox
and the next solstice.
Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative to the
background stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the Moon just over 27
days to complete one orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will during this time appear to
move through 27 successive regions of the sky. In Hindu cosmology, these regions were
known as the naksatras, or lunar mansions. In some contexts there were 27 lunar mansions,
27
while in other contexts an additional naksatra containing the star Vega was included, giving
28 lunar mansions. The central tower at Angkor Wat contains nine inner chambers. If you
total the dimensions of all of these chambers it equals 27 hat in the north-south direction and
28 hat in the east-west direction, corresponding to the possible number of lunar mansions.
Also, the libraries have lengths measured along their interiors of 16 hat in the east-west
direction, and either 12 or 11 hat in the north-south direction, depending upon whether or not
the doorways are included. Added together, these also give either 28 or 27 hat. Finally, the
north-south width of the libraries measured from the exteriors of the walls is again 28 hat.
Hindu cosmology recognizes four time periods, or Yugas, that are represented in the
dimensions of the temple:
 The length of the Kali-Yuga, our current time period, is 2 x 603 years, or 432 thousand
years. The width of the moat that surrounds the
temple, measured at the water level, is approximately 432 hat.
 The length of the Dv apara-Yuga is 4 x 603 years, or 864 thousand years. The distance
from the entrance to the inner wall is 867 hat.
 The length of the Treta-Yuga is 6 x 603 years, or 1,296 thousand years. The distance from
the entrance to the central tower is 1,296 hat.
 The length of the Krita-Yuga is 8 x 603 years, or 1,728 thousand years. The distance from
the moat bridge to the center of the temple is 1,734 hat.
According to the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian tradition of architecture), the temple and the
town should mirror the cosmos. The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore,
related in their conception. Volwahsen (2001) has remarked on the continuity in the Indian
architectural tradition. The Harappan cities have a grid plan, just as is recommended in the
Vedic manuals. The square shape represents the heavens, with the four directions
representing the cardinal directions as well as the two solstices and the equinoxes of the
sun’s orbit.
Although it has long been known that the Angkor Wat temple astronomy isderived from
Puran.ic and Siddhantic ideas, the Vedic roots of this astronomyhave only recently been
identified. We have found the Vedic altar astronomynumbers 21, 78, and 261 in the temple
design. The division of the solar yearinto two unequal halves is explained by the design of
theSatapatha Brahman.aaltar on the asymmetric circuit of the sun. We need a more thorough
exami-nation of the altar numbers in the design to interpret their signicance in thecontext of
di
erent architectural units so brilliantly decoded by Mannikka.For example, was there any
obvious in
influence of the Agnicayana ritual on the phased construction of the Angkor Wat temple?The
decoding of the astronomy of Angkor Wat has opened the way for asimilar examination of
medieval and ancient Indian temple complexes, which were built with astronomical
.2
observations in mind
The monument that has been studied most extensively for its cosmological basis is the
Angkor Wat temple. Although it is located in Cambodia, it was built according to the
principles of Indian architecture and, therefore, we will describe it at some length. The
28
connections between Angkor Wat and Vedic astronomy emerged out of my own work
(Kak, 1999 and Millar and Kak, 1999).
The astronomy and cosmology underlying the design of the Angkor Wat temple was
extensively researched in the 1970s and it is well summarized in the book by Eleanor
Mannikka (1996). Basically, it was found that the temple served as a practical
observatory where the rising sun was aligned on the equinox and solstice days with the
western entrance of the temple, and many sighting lines for seasonally observing the
risings of the sun and the moon were identified.
This paper presents the basis of the Hindu temple design going back to the earliest period.
We trace this design back to the fire altars of the Vedic period which were themselves
designed to represent astronomical knowledge (Kak, 1995, 2000, 2002). An assumed
equivalence between the outer and the inner cosmos is central to the conception of the
temple. It is because of this equivalence that numbers such as 108 and 360 are important in
the temple design.
The number 108 represents the distance from the earth to the sun and the moon in sun and
moon diameters, respectively. The diameter of the sun is also 108 times the diameter of the
earth, but that fact is not likely to have been known to the Vedic rishis. This number of
dance poses (karanas) given in the Natya Shastra is also 108, as is the number of beads in a
rosary (japamala). The “distance” between the body and the inner sun is also taken to be
108, and the number of marmas in Ayurveda is 107. The total number of syllables in the
Rigveda is taken to be 432,000, a number related to 108.
The number 360, the number of days in the civil year, is also taken to be the number of
bones in the developing foetus, a number that fuses later into the 206 bones of the adult.
The centrality of this number in Vedic ritual is stressed in the Shatapatha Brahmana.
The primary Vedic number is three, representing the tripartite division of the physical
world into the earth, the atmosphere, and the sky and that of the person into the physical
body, the pranas, and the inner sky.
The Hindu temple also represents the Meru mountain, the navel of the earth. The Brihat
Samhita 56 lists the many design requirements that the temple building must satisfy. For
example, it says “the height of the temple should be double its width, and the height of the
foundation above the ground with the steps equal to a third of this height. The sanctum
sanctorum should be half the width of the temple” and so on. It also lists twenty types of
.3
temples that range from one to twelve storeys in height
29
Angkor Wat, the front side of the main complex (Bjørn Christian Tørrissen/Wikimedia
Commons)
Snapshot
 The great Visnu temple at Angkor Wat in north-central Kampuchea (Cambodia) is
known to have been built according to an astronomical plan.
The astronomy of Angkor Wat has the lesson that the medieval and ancient Indian
temple complexes should be examined for their astronomical bases.
The great Visnu temple of Angkor Wat was built by the Khmer Emperor Suryavarman II,
who reigned during AD 1113-50. This temple was one of the many temples built from AD
879-1191, when the Khmer civilisation was at the height of its power. The Visnu temple has
been called one of humankind’s most impressive and enduring architectural achievements.
More than 20 years ago, Science carried a comprehensive analysis by Stencel, Gifford and
Morón (SGM) of the astronomy and cosmology underlying the design of this temple. The
authors concluded that it served as a practical observatory where the rising sun was aligned
on the equinox and solstice days with the western entrance of the temple, and they identified
22 sighting lines for seasonally observing the risings of the sun and the moon. Using a survey
by Nafilyan and converting the figures to the Cambodian cubit or hat (0.435 m), SGM
demonstrated that certain measurements of the temple record calendric and cosmological
time cycles.
In addition, SGM showed that the west-east axis represents the periods of the yugas. The
width of the moat is 439.78 hat; the distance from the first step of the western entrance
gateway to balustrade wall at the end of causeway is 867.03 hat; the distance from the first
step of the western entrance gateway to the first step of the central tower is 1,296.07 hat; and
the distance from the first step of bridge to the geographic center of the temple is 1,734.41
hat. These correspond to the periods of 4,32,000, 864,000, 1,296,000, 1,728,000 years for the
Kali, Dvapara, Treta, and Krta yuga, respectively. SGM suggest that the very slight
discrepancy in the equations might be due to human error or erosion or sinking of the
structure.
In the central tower, the topmost elevation has external axial dimensions of 189.00 hat east-
west, and 176.37 hat north-south, with the sum of 365.37. In the words of SGM, this is
“perhaps the most outstanding number” in the complex, “almost the exact length of the solar
year.” But SGM were not able to explain the inequality of the two halves, which is the
problem that we take up in this paper. We will show that these numbers are old Satapatha
Brahmana numbers for the asymmetric motion of the sun.
30
The Historical Background of Angkor Wat

The kings of the Khmer empire ruled over a vast domain that reached from what is now
southern Vietnam to Yunan, China and from Vietnam westward to the Bay of Bengal. The
structures one sees at Angkor today, more than 100 temples in all, are the surviving religious
remains of a grand social and administrative metropolis whose other buildings - palaces,
public buildings, and houses - were all built of wood and are long since decayed and gone. As
in most parts of India, where wood was plentiful, only the gods had the right to live in houses
of stone or brick; the sovereigns and the common folk lived in pavilions and houses of wood.
Over the half-millenia of Khmer rule, the city of Angkor became a great pilgrimage
destination because of the notion of Devaraja, which has been explained by Lokesh Chandra
as a coronation icon. Jayavarman II (802-850) was the first to use this royal icon. According
to Lokesh Chandra,
Devaraja means ‘King of the Gods’ and not ‘God-King’. He is Indra and refers to the highly
efficacious aindra mahabhiseka of the Rgvedic rajasuya tradition as elaborated in the
Aitareyabrahmana. It was not a simple but a great coronation, a mahabhiseka. It was of
extraordinary significance that Jayavarman II performed a Rgvedic rite, which lent him
charismatic authority.
The increasingly larger temples built by the Khmer kings continued to function as the locus
of the devotion to the Devaraja, and were at the same time earthly and symbolic
representations of mythical Mt Meru, the cosmological home of the Hindu gods and the axis
of the world-system. The symbol of the king’s divine authority was the sign (linga) of Siva
within the temple’s inner sanctuary, which represented both the axes of physical and the
psychological worlds. The worship of Siva and Visnu separately, and together as Harihara,
had been popular for considerable time in southeast Asia; Jayavarman’s chief innovation was
to use ancient Vedic mahabhiseka to define the symbol of government. To quote Lokesh
Chandra further,
The icon used by Jayavarman II for his aindra mahabhiseka, his Devaraja = Indra
(icon), became the symbol of the Cambodian state, as the sacred and secular sovereignty
denoted by Prajapatısvara/Brahma, as the continuity of the vital flow of the universal (jagat)
into the stability of the terrestrial kingdom (raja = rajya). As the founder of the new Kambuja
state, he contributed a national palladium under its Cambodian appellation kamraten jagat ta
raja/rajya. Whenever the capital was transferred by his successors, it was taken to the new
nagara, for it had to be constantly in the capital.
Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of the temple fall far
short of communicating the great size, the perfect proportions and the astoundingly beautiful
sculpture that everywhere presents itself to the viewer.
As an aside, it should be mentioned that some European scholars tended to date Angkor Wat
as being after the fourteenth century. The principal reason was that some decorative motifs at
Angkor Wat show a striking resemblance to certain motifs of the Italian Renaissance. This
argument, which is similar to the one used in dating Indian mathematical texts vis-a-vis
Greek texts, has been proven to be wrong. In the words of Cœdes, “If there is some
connexion between the twelfth-century art of the Khmers, the direct heirs to the previous
centuries, and the art of the Renaissance, it must have been due to a reverse process, that is to
the importation of oriental objects into Europe.”
Astronomy of Altars and Temples

To understand the astronomical aspects of Angkor Wat, it is necessary to begin with the
Indian traditions of altar and temple design on which it is based. And since the Angkor Wat
31
ritual hearkened to the Vedic past, it stands to reason that its astronomy was also connected to
the Vedic astronomical tradition.
In a series of publications I have shown that the Vedic altars had an astronomical basis. In the
basic scheme, the circle represented the earth and the square represented the heavens or the
deity. But the altar or the temple, as a representation of the dynamism of the universe,
required a breaking of the symmetry of the square. As seen clearly in the agnicayana and
other altar constructions, this was done in a variety of ways. Although the main altar might be
square or its derivative, the overall sacred area was taken to be a departure from this shape. In
particular, the temples to the goddess were drawn on a rectangular plan. In the introduction to
the Silpa Prakasa, a ninth-twelfth century Orissan temple architecture text, Alice Boner
writes, “[the Devı temples] represent the creative expanding forces, and therefore could not
be logically be represented by a square, which is an eminently static form. While the
immanent supreme principle is represented by the number ONE, the first stir of creation
initiates duality, which is the number TWO, and is the producer of THREE and FOUR and all
subsequent numbers upto the infinite.” The dynamism is expressed by a doubling of the
square to a rectangle or the ratio 1:2, where the garbhagrha is now built in the geometrical
centre. For a three-dimensional structure, the basic symmetry-breaking ratio is 1:2:4, which
can be continued further to another doubling.
The constructions of the Harappan period (2,600-1,900 BC) appear to be according to the
same principles. The dynamic ratio of 1:2:4 is the most commonly encountered size of rooms
of houses, in the overall plan of houses and the construction of large public buildings. This
ratio is also reflected in the overall plan of the large walled sector at Mohenjo Daro called the
citadel mound. It is even the most commonly encountered brick size.
There is evidence of temple structures in the Harappan period in addition to iconography that
recalls the goddess. Structures dating to 2000 BC, built in the design of yantras, have been
unearthed in northern Afghanistan. There is ample evidence for a continuity in the religious
and artistic tradition of India from the Harappan times, if not earlier. These ideas and the
astronomical basis continued in the architecture of the temples of the classical age. Kramrisch
has argued that the number 25,920, the number of years in the precessional period of the
earth, is also reflected in the plan of the temple.
According to the art-historian Alice Boner,
[T]he temple must, in its space-directions, be established in relation to the motion of the
heavenly bodies. But in as much as it incorporates in a single synthesis the unequal
courses of the sun, the moon and the planets, it also symbolises all recurrent time
sequences: the day, the month, the year and the wider cycles marked by the recurrence
of a complete cycle of eclipses, when the sun and the moon are readjusted in their
original positions, anew cycle of creation begins.
It is clear then that the Hindu temple is a conception of the astronomical frame of the
universe. In this conception, it serves the same purpose as the Vedic altar, which served to
express the motions of the sun and the moon. The progressive complexity of the classical
temple was inevitable given an attempt to bring in the cycles of the planets and other ideas of
the yugas into the scheme.
A text like the Silpa Prakasa would be expected to express the principles of temple
construction of the times that led to the Angkor Wat temple. Given the prominence to the
yuga periods in Angkor Wat and a variety of other evidence, it is clear that there is a
32
continuity between the Vedic and Puranic astronomy and cosmology and the design of
Angkor Wat.
Solar and lunar measurements

Some of the solar and lunar numbers that show up in the design of the Angkor Wat temple
are the number of naksatras, the number of months in the year, the days in the lunar month,
the days of the solar month, and so so. Lunar observations appear to have been made from the
causeway. SGM list 22 alignments in their paper, these could have been used to track not just
the solar and lunar motions but also planetary motions.
The division of the year into the two halves: 189 and 176.37 has puzzled SGM. But precisely
the same division is described in the Satapatha Brahmana. In layer 5 of the altar described in
the Satapatha, a division of the year into the two halves in the proportion 15:14 is given. This
proportion corresponds to the numbers 189 and 176.4, which are just the numbers used at
Angkor Wat.
Consider the physics behind the asymmetry in the sun’s orbit. The period from the autumnal
equinox to the vernal equinox is smaller than the opposite circuit. The interval between
successive perihelia, the anomalistic year, is 365.25964 days, which is 0.01845 days longer
than the tropical year on which our calendar is based. In 1,000 calendar years, the date of the
perihelion advances about 18 days. The perihelion was roughly on 18 December during the
time of the construction of Angkor Wat; and it was on 27 October during early second
millennium BC, the most likely period of the composition of the Satapatha Brahmana. In all
these cases, the perihelion occurs during the autumn/winter period, and so by Kepler’s 2nd
law we know that the speed of the sun in its orbit around the earth is greater during the
months of autumn and winter than in spring and summer.
During the time of the Satapatha Brahmana, the apogee was about midway through the
spring season, which was then somewhat more than 94 days. The extra brick in the spring
quadrant may symbolically reflect the discovery that this quarter had more days in it, a
discovery made at a time when a satisfactory formula had not yet been developed for the
progress of the sun on the ecliptic.
It is possible that the period from the spring equinox to the fall equinox was taken to be about
189 days by doubling the period of the spring season; 176 days became the period of the
reverse circuit.
Why not assume that there was no more to these numbers than a division into the proportions
15:14 derived from some numerological considerations? First, we have the evidence from
the Satapatha Brahmana that expressly informs us that the count of days from the winter to
the summer solstice was different, and shorter, than the count in the reverse order. Second,
the altar design is explicitly about the sun’s circuit around the earth and so the proportion of
15:14 must be converted into the appropriate count with respect to the length of the year.
Furthermore, the many astronomical alignments of the Angkor Wat impress on us the fairly
elaborate system of naked-eye observations that were the basis of the temple astronomy.
But since precisely the same numbers were used in Angkor Wat as were mentioned much
earlier in the Satapatha Brahmana, one would presume that these numbers were used as a
part of ancient sacred lore. We see the count between the solstices has been changing much
faster than the count between the equinoxes because the perigee has been, in the past two
thousand years, somewhere between the autumn and the winter months. Because of its
relative constancy, the count between the equinoxes became one of the primary ‘constants’ of
Vedic/Puranic astronomy.
The equinoctial half-years are currently about 186 and 179, respectively, and were not much
different when Angkor Wat temple was constructed. Given that the length of the year was
33
known to considerable precision, there is no reason to assume that these counts were not
known. But it appears that a ‘normative’ division according to the ancient proportion was
used.
As it was known that the solar year was about 365.25 days, the old proportion of 15:14 would
give the distribution 188.92 and 176.33, and that is very much the Angkor Wat numbers of
189 and 176.37 within human error. In other words, the choice of these ‘constants’ may have
been determined by the use of the ancient proportion of 15:14.
Conclusions
It has long been known that the Angkor Wat temple astronomy is derived from Puranic and
Siddhantic ideas. Here we present evidence that takes us to the Vedic roots for the division of
the solar year in Angkor Wat into two unequal halves. This division is across the equinoxes
and that number has not changed very much during the passage of time from the Brahmanas
to the construction of the Angkor Wat temple, so it is not surprising that it figures so
prominently in the astronomy. It also appears that the count of 189 days may have been
obtained by doubling the measured period for the spring season.
The astronomy of Angkor Wat has the lesson that the medieval and ancient Indian temple
complexes, which were also built with basic astronomical observations in mind, should be
examined for their astronomical bases.
The Khmer temple was designed as a microcosm of the Hindu cosmological universe.
Moving from the temple’s entrance to the sanctuary at its center, the visitor undergoes
a symbolic three-staged journey to salvation through enlightenment.
Each of the steps are laid out in the exhibit at right.
34
Stage 1: Moat as Cosmic Sea

The outermost boundary of a Khmer temple was often surrounded by a moat, a body of water
symbolic of the Cosmic Sea (blue highlights above). For Hindus, the Cosmic Sea is the
source of creative energy and life, the starting point for the journey toward salvation.The
temple visitor begins his journey by crossing the sea on causeways lined with serpents, beasts
similarly intimately associated with both Hindu and Khmer myths of creation (we explore the
serpent in detail in our guidebook to Angkor).
Stage 2: Enclosure Walls as Sacred Mountain Ranges
Continuing on his way to the center of the temple, the visitor passes through a series of
massive enclosure walls; these walls recreate sacred mountain ranges, symbolic of obstacles
that must be overcome on the path to enlightenment (green highlights in Fig. 1).
Monumental tower gateways, called gopurams, grant the visitor passage through the walls,
each successive one revealing a more sacred area, farther removed from the outside world.
The combination of concentric enclosure walls with large gateways was derived directly
from South Indian Hindu architectural precedent. Enclosure walls make their first
appearance very early in the Khmer building tradition — at the late 9th century pre-Angkor
site of Roluos in the temples of Preah Ko, Bakong and Lolei — and are a constant feature in
all subsequent temples.
35
Stage 3: Five Sanctuary Towers as Mount Meru
At the center of the temple stand sanctuaries with tower superstructures (red highlights
above).
 The mountain residence of the gods. Under Hindu cosmology, the gods have always
been associated with mountains. The sanctuary’s form, dominated by its large tower,
recreates the appearance of the gods’ mountaintop residence, Mount Meru. The
mountaintop residence of the gods carried particular symbolic resonance for the Khmer
people.
 God’s cave. The sanctuary proper, located directly under the tower, is where an image of
the deity resides (see exhibit at right). Its dark interior is designed to represent the cave
into which god descends from his mountain home and becomes accessible to human
beings.
 The sacred intersection. At the Hindu temple’s sanctuary, the worlds of the divine and
living connect: the god’s vertical axis (mountaintop to cave) intersects with the visitor’s
horizontal axis (temple entrance to cave). The entire universe emanates from this
intersection, as unity with god is the goal of earthly existence. In Hinduism, god is
believed to temporarily physically inhabit his representation in the sanctuary; the Hindu
temple is arranged to enable the direct devotee-to-deity interaction that necessarily
follows. Unlike other faiths, there is no religious intermediary and no abstraction; god is
manifest before the devotee’s eyes, a profound encounter.
It is here, among the peaks of Mount Meru, that the visitor’s symbolic journey ends in
nirvana: the pairs of opposites characteristic of worldly existence (e.g., good versus bad, right
versus wrong) fuse into a single infinite everythingness beyond space and time.
36
“Although it has long been known that the Angkor Wat temple astronomy is derived from
Pur¯an. ic and Siddh¯antic ideas, the Vedic roots of this astronomy have only recently been
identified. We have found the Vedic altar astronomy numbers 21, 78, and 261 in the temple
design. The division of the solar year into two unequal halves is explained by the design of
the Satapatha Br¯ ´ ahman. a altar on the asymmetric circuit of the sun. We need a more
thorough examination of the altar numbers in the design to interpret their significance in the
context of different architectural units so brilliantly decoded by Mannikka. For example, was
there any obvious influence of the Agnicayana ritual on the phased construction of the
Angkor Wat temple? The decoding of the astronomy of Angkor Wat has opened the way for
a similar examination of medieval and ancient Indian temple complexes, which 13 were also
.5
built with basic astronomical observations in minds”
Discovery Of India’s ‘Oldest Observatory’ Reconnects Us To Our Ancient Sacred

Culture
byAravindan Neelakandan-Dec 31, 2016
Archaeologists this year discovered what is perhaps India’s only megalithic site, at Mudumal
in Telangana.This discovery is of great significance for India as it uncovers a dimension of
our culture that is now unfortunately forgotten.
Of all the discoveries made in 2016, there is one among the few that stood out. It is the discovery by a
team of Indian archeologists in a remote village in the newest state of India – a place that should be
considered ‘the oldest observatory’ in the Indian region. The site is a 7,000 years Before Present
(BP) megalithic site in Mudumal village in Telangana, India. In south-Indian
languages, mudumal means ancient hill.
37
The discovery in Mudumal, Telangana, India
Here, the archeologists have discovered “a depiction of a star constellation”, perhaps only
one of its kind discovered in a megalithic structure in India. The megalithic site itself is just
one of several with 80 large menhirs (3.5-4m) and about 2,000 alignment stones, (30-60cm),
spread over an area of 80 acres. Such a large concentration and arrangement of megalithic
structures in such a small area is in itself a rarity. The central part of the entire site is the most
densely populated.
The findings related to astronomy are especially fascinating. There is a cup-mark depiction of
Ursa Major (Saptarishi) of the northern skies. Another feature is the arrangement of 30 cup-
marks that seems to imitate the stellar configuration of the night skies. Also discovered is an
imaginary line drawn from the upper two stars (Kratu and Pulaha) in megalithic imitation of
Saptarishi pointed to the Pole Star (Dhruva). The findings await further confirmation, though
the initial scholarly responses appear positive.
Meanwhile, almost 7,800km away in Australia, an astronomer at Monash University, Duane

Hamacher, who is studying the Wurdi Youang stone arrangement – an aboriginal sacred site
– is coming to a conclusion similar to that of Indian astronomers. These stone arrangements
were made in the past for the sake of astronomical observations.
The stone arrangement is made up of about a hundred basalt stones. Arranged like an
incomplete egg, the key stones in the arrangement are aligned to mark the solstice and
equinox sunsets. Hamacher’s in-depth and ongoing study of aboriginal astronomy and other
knowledge systems has made him alert to the biases in academia and media with respect to
his findings. “Some academics have referred to this stone arrangement here as Australia's
version of the Stonehenge,” he points out; however, he says, “The question we might have to
ask is, is Stonehenge Britain's version of Wurdi Youang? Because this could be much, much
older.”
The archeo-astronomical discovery has other ramifications too. It challenges the colonial
myth, which is still the dominant historical narrative, that the aborigines were nomads. The
stones are estimated by geologists to be almost 11,000 BP. If such structures were created by
people with knowledge of astronomy, they were more sedentary than they were nomads, and
that might offer a clue to the origin of agriculture as well.
Science writer Ray Norris writes about “the remarkable similarity between Aboriginal stories
about stars and those of the Ancient Greeks” in his recent article for the New
Scientist ('Written in the Stars'). The Greek and Hindu mythological parallels have already
been well-established. So, perhaps, the proposal of British geneticist and author Stephen
38
Oppenheimer of a common origin for mythologies in Southeast Asian and Oceanic regions
needs a serious relook.
Australian aboriginal observatory

Of course, solstices and equinoxes have been celebrated the world over. And megalithic
structures and indigenous cultures have created sacred spaces based on these two times of the
year. In the Petrified Forest National Park in Navajo and Apache counties of Arizona, the
United States, during summer solstice, a sunbeam is projected onto a sacred rock, which then
travels down to the centre of the spiral.
In England, there is the famed Stonehenge. This, too, was once a pagan ritual centre. Famous
physicist, polymath and a somewhat controversial figure Sir Fred Hoyle was also a
Stonehenge expert. He conjectured that this stone structure was constructed with
astronomical knowledge, and was used to predict solar and lunar eclipses (On Stonehenge,
1977). Eclipse rituals were perhaps performed here. Archeologist Aubrey Burl, who had
spent a lifetime studying stone circles, also thinks that these structures have religious
significance related to lunar circles.
Summer solstice ritual petroglyph in Arizona

The discovery of an implicit order in the immense celestial circles should have filled the
human mind with awe, which would have become the womb for all artistic and scientific
39
achievements of humanity. Hoyle points out that the eighteenth-century poet and painter
William Blake seemed to have intuitively grasped this connection when he portrayed the
Stonehenge with a lunar eclipse and three figures whom he identified as Bacon, Newton and
Locke, in the drawing for his poem ‘Jerusalem’.
William Blake: Stonehenge, lunar eclipse and three figures

Even in Mecca, the famous Kaaba stone was said to have been surrounded by 360 stone
deities arranged in a circle, before the sword of Islam destroyed those shrines. Perhaps there
too existed a cultural continuity from megalithic astronomical spirituality which was
destroyed by the monotheistic zeal of Muhammad.
Back in India, solstices and equinoxes have been embedded in the living culture, and the
roots perhaps would have been embedded in the megalithic astronomical substratum. Even
today, there are scores of centuries-old temples where the first rays of the solstice sun strike
the interior shrine.
A detailed study of the famous Gavi Gangadhareshwara Temple in Karnataka, where the sun
rays touch the Shiva Linga on Makara Sankranthi, was taken up by the astronomers of
Jawaharlal Nehru Planetarium, Bengaluru. They discovered that it was a unique temple which
incorporated a marking for both the solstices. They studied a painting of the temple dated
1792, which showed that “the passage of the sunlight into the cave was probably intended for
marking winter solstice”. And the new construction made in the last two centuries had
actually disrupted the way sunlight interacted with this cave temple as originally intended.
40
Gavi Gangadhareshwara temple: solstice alignment

In Tamil Nadu, there are many such temples which await a proper study.
- In the southern district of Tirunelveli, at Srivaikuntam, is a Vishnu temple. On the fifth and
sixth days of the first month of the Tamil calendar (during the period of spring equinox), the
local legend says that the sun arrives here to worship Vishnu. On those days, the morning sun
rays directly touch the murthi placed in the sanctum.
- At the Nageshwar temple in the famous temple town of Kumbakonam, starting on the
eleventh day of the first month of the Tamil calendar, the sun rays directly touch the linga in
the sanctum of the temple for three days.
- At the Nelli Vananageshwar temple in Tanjore district, during the seventh month of the
Tamil Calendar (aligning with the autumnal equinox period), the sun is said to pray to the
deity for seven days.
In Trivandrum, Kerala, one can see inside, through the doors of the gopuram of the temple, a
dramatic slow descent of the autumnal equinox sun.
41
Autumnal solstice: Padmanabhaswamy Temple, Thiruvananthapuram
There is a strong possibility that while the shrines and temples were later additions, the
original sanctum deity – usually a swayambhu – could have been an astronomically-aligned
sacred stone that has come to us from the megalithic times. Perhaps only in Indian culture
have these elements been preserved in the subsequent temple architecture and the
mythologies.
Mythologies too may have encoded the continuity of the ancient megalithic astronomical
traditions. Samba Purana speaks of Samba, the son of Krishna, through the bear clan leader
Jambavan as the one who built three temples for the sun in India; Konark was built for the
morning sun and in eastern India; the Modhera temple in Gujarat, which was built for the
evening sun and situated along the western coast of India; Multan temple (now in Pakistan)
for the afternoon sun. Though Samba Purana is a later-day mythology, the sun temples
themselves should have been older. For example, even a Greek account of Alexander’s time
mentions a magnificent sun temple in Taxila (which is now in Pakistan). We don’t know if
these temples were aligned to the movement of the sun on a pan-Indian scale.
The sun raises exactly on the peak of the main Angkor Temple. This only
happens twice a year, at the so called equinox – time of the year when the sun
crosses the plane of the earth's equator and day and night are of equal length.
42
Pan-Indian sun temples attributed to Samban, the bear-clan son of Krishna

Samba Purana also speaks of bringing Maga Brahmins from Mithra Desa, meaning the
cross-fertilisation of the Mithra tradition, then flourishing in Persia, with Indic sun
veneration. Persian Mithra tradition itself could have branched from the Vedic sun worship,
and we do know that the sun mythology embedded in Mithra worship ultimately was carried
by Romans to the West, where it enriched the solar Jesus myth, whose birth and resurrection
would align with winter solstice and spring equinox respectively.
The seventh-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, or Hsüan-tsang, also mentions the well-
established sun temple at Multan which, today, is utterly destroyed to a pile of stones and in
quite a degraded condition. Hsüan-tsang’s description speaks of “the image of the Sun cast in
yellow gold and ornamented with rare gems”. Though himself a Buddhist, he felt its “divine
insight” and “its spiritual powers made lain to all”. Then, he describes women playing music
and of constant royal patronage. The temple was also a centre for compassion. He writes:
They have founded a home of mercy (happiness), in which they provide food and drink, and
medicines for the poor and sick, affording succour and sustenance. Men from all countries come here
to offer up their prayers; there are always some thousands doing so. On the four sides of the Temple
are tanks with flowering groves, where one can wander about without restraint.
Today, all that remains of this grand multifaceted sun temple is a heap of stones – destroyed
by Islamists repeatedly. Early Islamic invaders destroyed most of the temple and kept the
sanctum just to blackmail the Hindu confederacy to not attack their base. They would
threaten to destroy this temple sanctum if Hindu kings invaded the aggressors. However, they
placed a skinned cow hide over the deity to underline the humiliation.
43
Martanda Temple, Kashmir
In Kashmir, where yet another magnificent sun temple was present, archeo-astronomical
studies have revealed an impressively constant human fascination with celestial events and
their attempts to record it. Naseer Iqbal et al of the University of Kashmir investigated a rock
carving of multiple concentric circles in Bomai Sopore (Baramullah) as the recording of “a
meteorite impact that occurred sometime between 40,000 BP and 6,000 BP”.
Another Neolithic hunting scene depicted at the site of Burzaham (Srinagar, Kashmir) might
have been a sky map depiction of “the prominent constellations and the moon on the night
when a supernova was observed”. The Martand sun temple built by Lalitaditya in Kashmir in
eighth century CE, which in turn was built as an improvement over on an earlier existing
structure, could be the culmination of a movement that dated back to upper Palaeolithic times
in Kashmir.
Of all cultures around the world, India alone is unique today in preserving, nourishing and
maintaining the archeo-astronomy-based sacred culture embedded in the mythology, temple
architecture and, perhaps, even town planning. The discovery in Mudumal of the oldest
megalithic observatory, thus, is a discovery of great importance in uncovering a dimension of
our culture that we have neglected in the two centuries of colonisation and the resulting
mindset.
With the vast democratisation of the tools of knowledge and decentralised digital knowledge
dissemination, time has come for us to view our temples and mythologies with a new
perspective of archaeo-astronomy and look ahead to the discoveries that await us in the
6
future.
44
SUNRISE AT ANGKOR WAT DURING THE EQUINOX IN

C A M B O D I A - INGAJANUARY 4, 2013
“Quest for the Lost civilization”, by Graham Hancock, is a fascinating documentary about
the world’s ancient monuments. By the minute 29:00 of the video you can see the amazing
scene of a very special sunrise at Angkor. The sun raises exactly on the peak of the main
Angkor Temple. This only happens twice a year, at the so called equinox – time of the year
when the sun crosses the plane of the earth’s equator and day and night are of equal length. It
is hard to believe how people were able to build up such amazing events already in ancient
times.
Connecting the earth with the sky at Angkor
Archaeologist believe during ancient times kings wanted to connect the earth with the sky.
Hence they used to integrate sky events to temples, not just at Angkor but all over the world.
The equinox sunrise at Angkor Wat is only one of those.
Exciting facts surrounding Angkor Wat
Researchers have found that the main route to Angkor Wat temple differs by three quarters of
a degree from the east-west axis to the north. According to the precession of the earth’s axis,
the North Pole is not fixed but moves like a spiral. This happens extremely slowly. Around
72 years for each degree. It takes about 26,000 years for a complete revolution.
Multiplying the precession of the earth’s axis – the aforementioned three quarters of a degree
– with the number 72 results in the number 54. The number 54 is more frequent in Angkor
Park. For example, the four-faced towers at the Bayon Temple or the guards in front of the
South Gate of the city of Angkor Thom.
The Equinox in Cambodia
45
In Cambodia, this astronomical event happens during Spring (around 20th of March), and
during Autumn (around 23rd of September). Dates are:
Primary equinox
20.03.2017 um 17:29 Uhr

20.03.2018 um 23:15 Uhr
21.03.2019 um 04:58 Uhr
20.03.2020 um 10:50 Uhr
Secondary equinox
22.09.2017 um 04:02 Uhr

23.09.2018 um 09:54 Uhr
23.09.2019 um 17:50 Uhr
22.09.2020 um 21:31 Uhr
46

Hermeneutics and Phenomenology of Borobudur

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hermeneutics and Phenomenology of Borobudur

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hermeneutics and Phenomenology of Borobudur

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Uday Dokras Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Hermeneutics and phenomenology of

But, what makes this historical construction so mysterious? There no

There are two types of phenomenology: descriptive and interpretive

experience is described. Inter- pretive phenomenology is also called

1. Temple as a Sacred Mountain

The mountain is said to be surrounded by an ocean, and the

2. The Garbha-griha as the Sacred Womb

3. The Temple as the Divine Tree

4. A Sthala Vriksha (Sanskrit: स्थलवृक्ष 'temple-tree') refers to a sacred

5. Seed-The symbolism of the seed is also a representative of what a

6. The Temple as the Sacrificial Fire

religions, also known as havan, or homa; it is a fire ritual

Historical Context of the MATARAM Culture

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

The Trimurthi temple of Prambanan or Rara Jonggrang is the largest

Prambanan temple complex at night

Sanjaya (732-760) and Panangkaran (760-780)-shailendra dynasty

Shailendra kings as Buddhist? both faiths interlinked and overlapping

Origins of the Mataram Kingdom

Mataram Kingdom Name Origins

The name Medang was found in East Javanese inscriptions. Some

Culture and Beliefs of the Mataram Kingdom and Mataram Social

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

Art in the Mataram Kingdom

and the Buyddhists:

There is not much information regarding the Sailendra rule, but it

This societal organization would later go on to become proficient builders

Mataram in Eastern Java

What Happened to the Mataram Kingdom?

Most Chinese Buddhist pilgrims embarked on journeys to India to

features, style, as well as design. Gupta age architecture includes

The monuments at Sanchi today comprise a series of Buddhist

 Varaha and Vishnu temples in Madhya Pradesh

 The temple of Dasavatara at Deogarh

The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the

developed effective advancements in philosophy, religion, astronomy,

The Borobudur is an art complex by itself, unlike the Stupas or the

Stupa No.2/ Stupa No.3

In 1976, researchers of the Michigan University carried a comprehensive analysis

“heirophany : Giulio Magli, professor of archaeoastronomy at Politecnico di

Using previously unavailable Google Earth satellite data, geographic information

In his report, Archaeoastronomy in the Khmer heartland, on the Cornell University

Sacred Number 108: The Mystic Meaning

Secret Society of Hung League

A group of sacred numbers possessing a mystical significance has been absorbed

Significance in Vedic Cosmology

The 14 th Century Bodnath Stupa, the largest stupa in Kathmandu, Nepal

Stupa at LEFT and some of the 108 CARVINGS to the right

The Historical Background of Angkor Wat

Astronomy of Altars and Temples

Solar and lunar measurements

Stage 1: Moat as Cosmic Sea

Stage 3: Five Sanctuary Towers as Mount Meru

Discovery Of India’s ‘Oldest Observatory’ Reconnects Us To Our Ancient Sacred

The discovery in Mudumal, Telangana, India

Meanwhile, almost 7,800km away in Australia, an astronomer at Monash University, Duane

Australian aboriginal observatory

Summer solstice ritual petroglyph in Arizona

William Blake: Stonehenge, lunar eclipse and three figures