LEC 1: Introduction to

Biochemistry Nucleic acid as information molecule

= genes
Biochemistry “the chemistry of life”
Enzyme as catalyst that makes the
 The science concerned with the process faster.
chemical basis of life.
Historic Events
 The science concerned with the
various molecules that occur in Hans Krebs (1937)
living cells and organisms and with
their chemical reaction. For the discovery of the Citric Acid Cycle-
won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Definition of Biochemistry Medicine in 1953.

 Deals with the chemistry of James Watson & Francis Crick (1953)
living organisms.
For the discovery of the “DNA Double
 Deals with chemical processes Helix” = cycle inside metabolism
which go on in living matter.
They won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
 Study of the structure, Medicine in 1962.
composition, and chemical
reactions of substances in
living systems.

History & Development of Biochem

Carl Alexander Neuberg (German)

 The founder of Biochemistry Frederick Sanger (1955)

 “Chemistry of Lufe
For the determination of insulin sequence-
won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1956

Insulin is a hormone made by pancreas

that helps your body use sugar for energy.

F. Sanger & Walter Gilbert (1980)

For Sequencing of DNA-won the Nobel

Prize in Chemistry in 1980.
2 Notable Breakthroughs
They identified that humans have genes.
 Discovery of the role of enzymes
as catalysts
 Identification of nucleic acids as
information molecules
 Gene Engineering

It is the manipulation of genes.

Monosacharides is also known as “simple

sugar”.
Human Genome Project
How do monomers form
Analyze the complete sequence of genes polymers?
in our body. It was completed in 2003.
The condensation reaction involves
What does the Biochemistry dehydration.
discuss?
Fatty acids are structured in a styrole ring.
The structure and function of cellular
components: In condensation reactions (also called
 Proteins dehydration synthesis), a molecule of
 Carbohydrates water is removed from two monomers as
 Lipids they are connected together.
 Nucleic acids
 Other biomolecules

It also discusses about metabolism and

Regulation; Gene expression and
modulation.

Polymers and Monomers

Each of these types of molecules are

Polymers that are assembled from single
units called monomers.

Each type of macromolecule is an

assemblage of a different type of
monomer.
 Practical application of
catabolism and anabolism

The concept of anabolism and catabolism

have been adopted in the fitness industry
as well. They are employed to achieve two
different goals. The anabolic workout
focuses on building muscle mass whereas,
Differences between Catabolism catabolic workout focuses on shedding
and Anabolism weight and burning more calories.

Metabolism is a crucial part of growth,

development, and efficient functionality for Principles of Biochemistry
the body.
 Cells (basic structural units of
It can be categorized into two types based living organisms) are highly
on their functions: Catabolism and organized and constant source of
Anabolism energy is required to maintain the
ordered state.
Anabolism creates molecules the body
needs for functionality, and it uses energy  All organisms use the same type
in the process. (If mag bbuild = removal of of molecules: carbohydrates,
H2O) ; dehydration proteins, lipids & nucleic acids.

Catabolism breaks down complex  Living processes contain

molecules and releases energy which is thousands of chemical pathways.
available for the body to use. (addition of Precise regulation and integration
H2O) ; hydrolysis of these pathways are required to
maintain life.

 Instructions for growth,

reproduction and developments
for each organism is encoded in
their DNA.
 Biomolecules

 Just like cells are building blocks

of tissues, biomolecules are
building blocks of cells.

 Animal and plant cells contain

approximately 10,000 kinds of
biomolecules.

 Water constitutes 50-95% of cells

content by weight. Importance of Biochemistry
 Ions like Na+, K+ and Ca2+ may Biochemistry serves as a central
account for another 1%. component of all health sciences including
microbiology, genetics, physiology,
 Almost all other kinds of nutrition, and medicine.
biomolecules are organic (C, H, N,
O, P, S).
Application of Biochemistry
 Organic compounds are to Medicine
compounds composed primarily of
a Carbon skeleton.
 Prevent and treat health related
problems.
Chemical composition of a
normal man (weight 65kg)  It will set the pace in the search for
prevention and treatment of heart
disease, cancer, genetic diseases,
periodontal disease, nutritional
deficiencies, infectious diseases,
and other health disorders.

 It explains the mechanisms on how

oncogenes convert normal cells
into tumor cells, how enzymes
catalyze chemical reactions, how
cholesterol contributes to heart
disease, and how aspirin lowers
Structural Hierarchy in the
body temperature.
molecular organization of cell
 It can manipulate and modify life
forms.

Attributes of Life

 Adaptation
 Growth and repair
 Reproduction
 Metabolism
 Complexity and organization
 Regulation
  Possess characteristic size and
shape Variation and change – explain why no
 Responsiveness to stimuli or two organisms are exactly alike and no
sensitivity organism remains unchanged forever.
 Locomotion
 Variation and change Chemicals of Life

 Water
Adaptation - presence of body structures  Organic compounds
that make living things fit to live in its a. Nucleic acids
habitat. b. Proteins
c. Carbohydrates
Growth – ability to add new tissue. d. Fats and lipids

Repair – ability to replace damaged parts.  Inorganic elements

a. Bulk elements – N, Na,
Reproduction – ability to beget off springs, Mg, P, S, Cl, K, and Ca
ensuring propagation and continuance of
species. b. Trace elements – Fe,
Zn, I
Metabolism - biological and chemical
activities or functions that provide energy.

Complexity – refers to elaborate

LEC 2: Cell Structure &
structures needed to carry out laborious Function
functions.
Cell
Organization – is putting the different body
-smallest living unit
structures into order so that the organism
can function effectively and efficiently. -most are microscopic

Discovery of Cell

Robert Hooke (mid-1600s)

– Observed sliver of cork
– Saw “row of empty boxes”
– Coined the term cell

Cell Theory

Theodor Schwann & Matthias

Regulation – ability to keep the functions Schleiden (1839)
under control through the use of hormones
and enzymes. “ all living things are made of cells”

Possess characteristic size and shape. Rudolf Virchow (50 yrs. later)

Responsiveness to stimuli or sensitivity “all cells come from cells”

– ability to respond favorably or
unfavorably to its environment.

Locomotion – ability to move on its

initiative under its control.
 Principles of Cell Theory

 All living things are made of cells

 Smallest living unit of structure and

function of all organisms is the cell

 All cells arise from preexisting cells

(this principle discarded the idea of
spontaneous generation)

Cell Size
Cell Types
Two types of cells:
• Prokaryotic
• Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic cells
- First cell type on earth
- Cell type of Bacteria and Archaea
- No membrane bound nucleus.
- Nucleoid = region of DNA
concentration
Cells Have Large Surface - Organelles not bound by
Area-to-Volume Ratio membranes.

Eukaryotic cells

Characteristics of All Cells - Nucleus bound by membrane.

- Include fungi, protists, plant, and
• A surrounding membrane animal cells.
- Possess many organelles.
• Protoplasm – cell contents in thick
fluid

• Organelles – structures for cell

function

• Control center with DNA

 Phospholipids
- Interacts with water.
Representative Animal Cell - Polar
• Hydrophilic head
• Hydrophobic tail

Representative Plant Cell

Movement Across the Plasma

Membrane:

• A few molecules move freely.

– Water, Carbon dioxide,
Ammonia, Oxygen

• Carrier proteins transport some

molecules.
– Proteins embedded in
lipid bilayer.
– Fluid mosaic model –
Organelles describes fluid nature of
a lipid bilayer with
-Cellular machinery proteins.

Two general kinds:

• Derived from membranes.

• Bacteria-like organelles

Bacteria-Like Organelles

- Derived from symbiotic bacteria.

- Ancient association
- Endosymbiotic theory: Evolution
of modern cells from cells &
symbiotic bacteria.

Plasma Membrane
- Contains cell contents
- Double layer of phospholipids and
protein.
Membrane Proteins

• Channels or transporters Cytoplasm

– Move molecules in one - Viscous fluid containing organelles
direction.
• Receptors components of cytoplasm:
– Recognize certain
chemicals.  Interconnected filaments &
fibers
 Fluid = cytosol
 Organelles (not nucleus)
 storage substances

• Glycoproteins
– Identify cell type.
• Enzymes
– Catalyze production of
substances.

Cell Walls
– Found in plants, fungi, & many
protists
– Surrounds plasma membrane
Cytoskeleton
- Filaments & fibers

Made of 3 fiber types

 Microfilaments
 Microtubules
 Intermediate filaments

3 functions:
• mechanical support
• anchor organelles
• help move substances.

Cell wall differences:

• Plants
• Fungi
 Centrioles
– Pairs of microtubular structures
– Play a role in cell division

A = actin
IF = intermediate filament
MT = microtubule
Membranous Organelles
Cilia & Flagella
– Pairs of microtubular structures
– Provide motility. – Play a role in cell division.
– Basal bodies like centrioles
– Bundles of microtubules
– With plasma membrane

• Cilia
– Short
– Used to move
substances outside
human cells
• Flagella
– Whip-like extensions Nucleus
– Found on sperm cells
– Control center of cell
– Double membrane
– Contains: Chromosomes &
Nucleolus
 • Not all ribosomes
attached to rough ER
Nuclear Envelope – May modify proteins from
ribosomes
– Separates nucleus from rest of cell
– Double membrane
– Has pores

DNA
– Hereditary material
– Chromosomes: DNA, Protiens,
form for cell division
– Chromatin

Nucleolus

– Most cells have 2 or more Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

– Directs synthesis of RNA – No attached ribosomes
– Forms ribosomes – Has enzymes that help build
molecules: Carbohydrate
& Lipids

Golgi Apparatus
– Involved in synthesis of plant cell
wall.
– Packaging & shipping station of
cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Helps move substances within
cells
– Network of interconnected
membranes
Golgi Apparatus Function:
– Molecules come in vesicles.
Two types: – Vesicles fuse with Golgi
• Rough endoplasmic membrane
reticulum – Molecules may be modified by
• Smooth endoplasmic Golgi.
reticulum – Molecules pinched-off in
separate vesicle.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – Vesicle leaves Golgi apparatus
– Ribosomes attached to surface. – Vesicles may combine with
• Manufacture proteins plasma membrane to secrete
contents
 Mitochondria

– Have their own DNA

– Bound by double membrane
– Break down fuel molecules
(Cellular respiration)

= Glucose & Fatty acids

- Release energy

= ATP
–
Lysosomes
– Contain digestive enzymes.

Functions:
– Aid in cell renewal
– Break down old cell parts.
– Digests invaders

Vacuoles
– Membrane bound storage sacs
– More common in plants than
animals
– Contents: Water ,Food, wastes

Chloroplasts
- Derived from photosynthetic
bacteria
- Solar energy capturing organelle.

Bacteria-Like Organelles
– Release & store energy

Types
Photosynthesis
• Mitochondria (release energy) - Takes place in the chloroplast.
- Makes cellular food (glucose)
• Chloroplasts (Store energy)
Review of Eukaryotic Cells Types of Passive Transport:

• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitated diffusion

–
Diffusion
– Molecules move to equalize
concentration

Osmosis
– Special form of diffusion
– Fluid flows from lower solute
concentration
– Often involves movement of water:
• Into cell
• Out of cell

Solution Differences & Cells

solvent + solute = solution

Hypotonic
– Solutes in cell more than outside
– Outside solvent will flow into cell

Molecule Movement & Cells: Isotonic

– Solutes equal inside & out of cell
• Passive Transport
• Active Transport Hypertonic
• Endocytosis – Solutes greater outside cell
• (phagocytosis & pinocytosis) – Fluid will flow out of cell
• Exocytosis

Passive Transport
• No energy required.
• Move due to gradient.
– differences in
concentration, pressure,
charge
– Move to equalize gradient.
– High moves toward low
Facilitated Diffusion Types of endocytosis:
– Differentially permeable • bulk-phase (nonspecific)
membrane • receptor-mediated (specific)
– Channels (are specific) help
molecule or ions enter or leave the Process of Endocytosis:
cell. 1. Plasma membrane surrounds
– Channels usually are transport material
proteins. (Aquaporins facilitate the 2. Edges of membrane meet
movement of water) 3. Membranes fuse to form vesicle
– No energy is used.

Process of Facilitated Transport:

1. Protein binds with molecule
2. Shape of protein changes
3. Molecule moves across
membrane.

Active Transport
– Molecular movement
– Requires energy (against gradient)
– Example is sodium-potassium Forms of Endocytosis
pump
• Phagocytosis – cell eating
• Pinocytosis – cell drinking

Exocytosis
– Reverse of endocytosis
– Cell discharges material
– Vesicle moves to cell surface
– Membrane of vesicle fuses
– Materials expelled.

Endocytosis

- Movement of large material

• Particles
• Organisms
• Large molecules.

- Movement is into cells.