Appendix-122

Appendix-122
Resolution No. 38 {38-1 [38-1-13(10)]}
Department of Distance and

Continuing Education
University of Delhi
Master of Business Administration (MBA)

Semester - I
Course Credit - 4.5
Core Course - MBAFT - 6101
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
Editorial Board
Prof. Vijay Kumar Shrotryia
Dr. Anuja Mathur
Content Writers
Dr. Reema Aggarwal, Dr. Nidhi Kesari,
Dr Anupreet Kaur Mokha, Dr. Dimpy Handa,
Ms. Veenu Shankar, Ms Manisha Yadav,
Dr. Jyotika Bahl
Academic Coordinator
Mr. Deekshant Awasthi
© Department of Distance and Continuing Education

ISBN: .............................
1st edition: 2022
e-mail: ddceprinting@col.du.ac.in
management@col.du.ac.in
Published by:
Department of Distance and Continuing Education under
the aegis of Campus of Open Learning/School of Open Learning,
University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007
Printed by:
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Organizational Behavior
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Lesson 1: Introduction to Organizational Behaviour ........................................................... 1
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 What do you mean by Organization?
1.4 Manager and interpersonal skills
1.5. What do managers do?
1.6 Management Skills
1.7. Managerial Activities: Effective versus Successful manager
1.8. Organizational Behaviour
1.9 Major disciplines that contribute to the domain of organizational behaviour
1.10 Level of analysis in organisation behaviour
1.11. Challenges and opportunities in Organisational behaviour
1.12 Managerial Implication
1.13 Summary
Lesson-2: Personality............................................................................................................ 22
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Concept of Personality
2.4 Determinants of Personality
2.5 Types of Personality
2.6 Theories of Personality
2.7 How personality develops?
2.8 How personality influences organizational behaviourr?
2.9 How to Measure Personality?
2.10 Summary
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© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

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Lesson-3: Perception and Individual Decision Making ...................................................... 46

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Perception
3.4 The Attribution Process
3.5 Perceptual Biases
3.6 Applications of Perceptual Biases (or Shortcuts) in Organizations
3.7 Individual Differences & Organizational Constraints
3.8 Ethics in Decision Making
3.9 Summary
Lesson-4: Attitude, Learning, Value, and Emotions ........................................................... 78
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Learning
4.4 Theories of Learning
4.5 Learning Organization
4.6 Attitude
4.7 Values
4.8. Values, Attitude and Behaviour
4.9 Emotions
4.10 Emotional Intelligence
4.11 Summary
Lesson-5: Interpersonal Relationship ................................................................................ 115

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Transactional Analysis
5.4 Ego States
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5.5 Types of Transactions

5.6 Need of Understanding Transactional Analysis
5.7 Life Positions
5.8 Stroke Analysis
5.9 Psychological Games
5.10 Johari Window
5.11 Summary
Lesson-6: Motivation .......................................................................................................... 145
6.1. Learning Objectives
6.2. Introduction
6.3. Process of Motivation
6.4. Approaches to Motivation
6.5. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
6.6. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
6.7. Alderfer's ERG Theory
6.8. Herzberg Two Factor Theory
6.9. Comparison Between Maslow’s & Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation
6.10. Theory X and Theory Y
6.11. Vroom's Expectancy Theory
6.12. Equity Theory
6.13. Goal Setting Theory
6.14. Reinforcement Theory
6.15. Types of Motivation: Cognitive Evaluation Theory
6.16. Application of Motivation Concepts
6.17. Alternative Work Arrangements
6.18. Management by Objectives (MBO)
6.19. Employee Involvement Program
6.20. Summary
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Lesson-7: Leadership .......................................................................................................... 184

7.2 Introduction
7.3 What Is Leadership?
7.4 University of Iowa Studies
7.5 Likert’s Management Systems By Rensis Likert
7.6 Theories of Leadership
7.7 Great Man Theory
7.8 Trait Theory
7.9 Behavioural Approach
7.10 Contingency Theories
7.11 Contemporary Theories
7.12 Summary
Lesson-8 : Work Teams & Groups………………………………………………………221
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Work Groups
8.4 Work Teams
8.5 Group Cohesiveness
8.6 Summary
Lesson-9: Decision Making ................................................................................................ 246
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Meaning and Definitions of Decision making
9.4 Process of Decision Making
9.5 Decision-making Models
9.6 Decision-making and Ethics
9.7 Summary
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Lesson-10: Stress and Wellbeing at Work ......................................................................... 271

10.2 Introduction
10.3 Understanding Stress
10.4 Sources of Stress
10.5 Consequences of Stress
10.6 Management of Stress
10.7 Well-Being
10.8 Summary
Lesson-11: Organisation structure and design .................................................................. 288
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Organization Structure
11.4 Organisational Designs
11.5 Organisational Structure and Employee Behaviour
11.6 Summary
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Organizational Behaviour
LESSON-1
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Dr. Reema Aggarwal
Assistant Professor
Department of Distance & Continuing Education,
Campus of Open Learning,
University of Delhi
Reemaaggarwal92@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 What do you mean by Organization?
1.4 Manager and interpersonal skills
1.5. What do managers do?
1.5.1 Management Functions
1.5.2 Managerial Roles
1.6 Management Skills
1.6.1 Technical Skills
1.6.2 Human skills
1.6.3 Conceptual skills
1.7. Managerial Activities: Effective versus Successful manager
1.8. Organizational Behaviour
1.9 Major disciplines that contribute to the domain of organizational behavior
1.10 Level of analysis in organisation behavior
1.10.1 Individual level analysis
1.10.2 Group level analysis
1.10.3 Organisational level analysis
1.11. Challenges and opportunities in organisational behavior
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1.12 Managerial Implication

1.13 Summary
1.14 Answers to In-text Questions
1.15 Self-Assessment Questions
1.16 References
1.17 Suggested Readings
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
● Define organizational behaviour.
● Explain the need for and importance of a manager in an organization.
● Develop an understanding of the functions of a manager and managerial roles in an

organization.
● Explain the Major disciplines that contribute to the domain of organizational

behaviour.
● Explain the level of analysis of the organization’s behaviour.
● Understand various challenges and opportunities managers face in applying

organisational behaviour concepts.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Organizational behaviour (OB) is the domain that deals with understanding people's
behaviour within an organization. The discipline deals with the individual behaviour of
employees, group behaviour of employees, and behaviour of employees at the organizational
level. In addition, the field investigates the impact of various cognitive, affective and
behavioural aspects of human resources on the effectiveness of an organization (like what
motivates employees, what makes a manager a good leader, how one can manage group
dynamics, etc.). Organizational behaviour is crucial in facilitating present-day managers in
dealing with various organisational challenges and opportunities.
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“Organizational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals,
groups, and structure have on behaviours within the organizations to apply such knowledge
towards improving an organization's effectiveness.”- Stephen P Robbins.
Before exploring the various components of organizational behaviour or the three levels of
analysis in organizational behaviour (namely, Individual, Group, and Organizational level), it
is crucial to understand what we mean by these three levels of analysis. How has the domain
of Organization behaviour formed? Furthermore, who are managers, and what functions and
roles do they perform in an organization.? Finally, it is also essential to understand managers’
present-day challenges and opportunities in organizational behaviour.
1.3 WHAT DO YOU MEAN ORGANIZATION?
A social unit that is structured and managed to pursue collective goals. All organizations have
a management “Structure” that determines relationships between different activities and the
members; assigns roles, responsibilities, and authority among members to carry out various
tasks. Organizations are open systems--they affect and are affected by their environment.
Organizations are formed to achieve some “Purpose”. An organisation's purpose is stated
through its vision, mission, goal, and specific objectives. To fulfil the underlying goals,
organizations need “People”. People form part of structures that allow them to collectively
work and accomplish the set Purpose (Refer to the last lesson to learn more about various
types of structures). The purpose or structure both differs from organization to organization.
Purpose Structure People
Figure 1.1 Features of an Organization
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1.4 MANAGER AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
Managers are the coordinators responsible for managing social units; these social units help
the organization achieve its goals. For managing people, a manager needs technical, human,
and conceptual skills (Refer to the 1.6. section of this lesson for more details). Earlier more
focus was on technical skills and less on interpersonal skills, but eventually, interpersonal or
people skills have become crucial; at times, they are preferred over technical skills.
Interpersonal skills or soft skills help a manager connect with others at work. Managers are
responsible for getting the job done through people. Their main task is not to complete the
task directly. Therefore, it becomes essential for a manager to understand people's behaviour
and connect with them. OB principles provide insights that help a manager develop their
interpersonal skills, which could yield various organizational-level outcomes (like employee
satisfaction with their respective jobs, employee commitment to an organization, employee
engagement, stress levels, etc.).
Managers with high interpersonal skills can attract high-performing employees and are also
able to improve employee retention. Recently, the organisations have been impacted by the
“Great Resignation”, a phenomenon that is used to describe situations in which huge numbers
of employees have quit organisations towards the end of the Covid-19 pandemic. Also known
as Big Quit or Great Reshuffle, it has made retaining employees critical to an organisation, as
a process of hiring them is both costly and time consuming. Consequently, it has become
essential to retain employees and control such trends.
1.5 WHAT DO MANAGERS DO?
Managers are the coordinators; they help an organization accomplish its objectives through
people most effectively and efficiently. Here “Effectiveness” means completing a given task
within the planned time frame. The manager should focus on “Doing The Right Things” to
achieve goals on time. “Efficiency” means achieving goals with minimum resources. To
achieve efficiency, managers should focus on “Doing Things Right” to minimize wastage as
much as possible. Both Effectiveness and Efficiency are essential to accomplish
organizational goals. Managers strive to achieve goals with minimum wastage.
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Figure 1.2 Efficiency and effectiveness

Henry Fayol and Henry Mintzberg gave a detailed description of various functions and roles
performed by a manager. Functions of management are part of the classical approach
provided by Henry Fayol (French Industrialist). Later in the 1960s, Henry Mintzberg divided
the diverse responsibilities of a manager into ten roles performed by the manager.
1.5.1. Management Functions
Henri Fayol identified five management functions: planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating, and controlling. The manager performs various tasks of similar nature within
each function. The detailed description of all five Functions of Management are as follows-
Planning: The primary purpose of any organization is to achieve specific goals. The manager
needs to define these goals in line with the primary purpose and vision of the organization. It
is a complete process where the manager explores various alternatives, builds a strategy for
the whole organization, and sets employee objectives. Later these goals become a yardstick
against which outcomes are measured. Fayol summed up this role under a broad category
known as “Planning”.
Organizing: The manager is also responsible for building the structures in the organization.
The organizing function includes identifying various organisational tasks, grouping, and
classifying similar-nature tasks and designing reporting relationships.
Commanding: The manager is responsible for communicating planned strategies, goals, or
targets. In line with organizational goals and practices, a manager should direct and lead
subordinates. It is associated with communicating clear instructions to employees in line with
the company's mission and vision. In addition, a manager should be able to inspire and
motivate employees to achieve the company's goals.
Coordination: Coordination is one of the crucial functions of management. Setting goals,
creating structures, and giving instructions to employees will fail if all activities are not
appropriately coordinated. It is equally important to harmonize all activities in an
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organization. Managers should ensure that various activities complement each other.
Effective coordination will also reduce conflicts and stimulate employees’ motivation.
Controlling: The manager sets standards/objectives at the planning stage. However, the
planning stage will remain incomplete unless the manager compares the standards with actual
performance. Therefore, a manager should periodically compare the targets with the actual
performance and take corrective actions in case of any gap.
The five functions identified by Henry Fayol provide an overview of the main functions of
management; it may not cover all the complexities that a manager is expected to deal with in
their day-to-day functioning.
Planning
Controlling Organizing
Coordinating Commanding
Figure 1.3. Five Management Functions by Henry Fayol

1.5.2. Managerial Roles
The role of managers in an organization is multifold. Henry Mintzberg defined Managerial
Roles in 1960. Based on observation, Mintzberg segregated all the roles of a manager into
three broad categories, namely, Interpersonal, Informational, and Decisional. He stated that
these roles are highly interrelated and reflect a set of behaviours followed by managers in an
organization. The detailed description of all three categories of Managerial Roles is as
follows-
Interpersonal role of a manager: Interpersonal role of a manager includes three subsets
within it. First is “Figurehead”, a symbolic role where the manager works on routine level
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work of social and legal nature. This role inspires others in the organization. Secondly,
the manager acts as a “leader" responsible for hiring, motivating, and directing employees.
The third managerial role within interpersonal is called “Liaison”; under this role; he builds
his network. He can gather the required information through networking with people internal
or external to the organization. Such contacts also provide a manager with favours.
Informational Role of a manager: The informational role of a manager is associated with a
process where the manager gathers required information, transfers it into the organization,
and transmits it to the outside organization. This role includes three subsets. The first subset
is known as “Monitor”; under this role; the manager collects information through various
sources and analyses the internal and external environment. Later the manager transmits
relevant information to other members of the organization; this role also defines the second
subset known as “Disseminator”. Finally, under the third subset, the manager as a
“spokesperson” transmits the information outside the organisation.
Decisional Role of a Manager: The manager is not only a symbolic head who manages
information or directs employees but also a decision-maker. As an “Entrepreneur” manager
searches for new opportunities and brings new assignments/ projects to the organization, a
manager also initiates change. The manager is responsible for “handling disturbance” in the
organization. For example, suppose there is some roadblock in the organization's functioning;
the manager is responsible for handling it. The manager also acts as a “Negotiator”, where he
represents the organization in all the major negotiations. Lastly, as a “resource allocator,” he
is responsible for procuring and allocating resources.
Figure 1.4 Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
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Emerging Managerial Roles

What do managers do? Or what a successful manager is supposed to do? If asked by a
management student, the answer will be either associated with five basic functions
(namely, planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling) as defined by French industrialist
Henri Fayol or will be associated with ten managerial roles as defined by Henry
Mintzberg.
But in the current scenario, in addition to these functions and roles, a manager should
change and get away with the traditional approach while dealing with the employees. With
growing competition and technological advancement, a manager must change some
commonly followed practices like limiting his role to problem-solver, micromanagement,
giving direction to employees, etc. To meet the contemporary challenges in the workplace
the manager must shift from-
1. Directive to Instructive: The role of the supervisor has considerably changed with the
advent of technology. Robots driven by AI (Artificial Intelligence) have already replaced
manual & repetitive work in the majority of industries. AI could impact the present roles
of the employees, but it won’t be able to exclude the need for human resources. New roles
are emerging and are replacing the old ones. The present-day manager needs to explore
best practices to shape the impact of AI on the industry.
2. Restrictive to Expansive: Present-day competitive business environment needs

employees to think and learn quick decision-making. Centralization and
micromanagement by managers could restrict employees in the way they think. Therefore,
it is important for managers to delegate and motivate their employees to analyze the
market, think about a solution, and take decisions based on their analysis.
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3. Exclusive and Inclusive- Managers should include employees in the decision-making

process especially while dealing with some new situation (Like- WFH (Work from
Home); Virtual organizations, etc. during Covid-19), this brainstorming process adds
diversity and helps in identifying various perspectives around the problem. It also makes
the “process of change” easier in the organization.
4. Repetitive to Innovation- There is no best time for innovation, rather it is an ongoing

process. Innovation makes an organization successful, and a successful organization
needs innovation to remain competitive.
5. Problem solver to Challenger- The role of the present-day manager is not limited to
problem solver, today manager needs to be proactive in understanding, analyzing, and
solving upcoming challenges in the industry.
6. Employer to Entrepreneur- Present-day manager needs to think like an entrepreneur.

An entrepreneur facilitates development and helps others in growth.
For more details on how roles of managers are changing Read Pistrui, J., & Dimov,
D. (2018). The role of a manager has to change in 5 key ways. Harvard Business Review.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Efficiency means achieving goals with ______________.
2. Functions of management are part of the classical approach, given by_______
3. _________means completion of given task within planned time frame.
4. According to Mintzberg, manager transmits the information outside the

organisation, and this role is termed as _______
5. ________is a symbolic role, under this role manager inspires the employees.
6. The _______stage will remain incomplete unless manager will compare the
standards formed at ____stage with actual performance.
1.6 MANAGERIAL SKILLS
Robert L. Katz has identified various skills necessary for a successful manager. According to
him, a manager needs the following skills to accomplish their goals-
1.6.1 Technical Skills: Technical skills refer to the “Employees’ ability to apply specialized
knowledge or expertise while performing the given task”; in other words, technical skills
mean knowledge and the ability to accomplish the given task.
For example, for a manager at ABC Ltd. (an audit firm), technical skills could include
knowledge about the fundamentals of accounting, Indian Accounting Standard rules, and
procedure for conducting an audit. Education/ and qualification are essential for technical
skills (like a chartered accountant degree), along with knowledge gained through schooling/
college and / or on the job experience.
1.6.2 Human skills: The primary responsibility of managers is to communicate with
employees and coordinate the work between employees. A manager should be able motivate
and lead employees to accomplish the organisation’s purpose. In addition, a manager should
be able to resolve conflicts in the organisation.
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For example, an audit manager with a chartered accountant degree might possess sound
technical knowledge about the audit process. Still, he won't be able to manage a team or
accomplish goals unless he has good human skills (like- the ability to communicate, listen,
and motivate; the ability to create good coordination between team and client to achieve the
set targets; etc.)
1.6.3. Conceptual skills: The organisational environment today is highly Volatile, Uncertain,
Complex, and Ambiguous (VUCA). In such an environment, making a decision based on
only past knowledge is not possible. Therefore, to work in a present-day environment, a
manager should have the mental ability to deal with complex problems. The ability to analyse
a complex problem “Conceptual skill”. Furthermore, for decision-making in the VUCA
environment, a manager should have good conceptual skills.
For example, To handle diverse client-specific queries or any challenge posed by the external
environment (like the pandemic), a manager needs to analyze the problem, generate various
alternatives and choose the best alternative.
1.7 MANAGERIAL ACTIVITIES: EFFECTIVE VERSUS

SUCCESSFUL MANAGER
Fred Luthans and his associate found that all managers could be engaged in four activities,
namely-
✔ Traditional Management: This includes planning, organizing, making decisions, etc.
✔ Communication includes communicating information, handling paperwork, and

exchanging information.
✔ Human resource management: This includes managing people using human skills
(like motivation, training, handling conflicts, etc.).
✔ Networking: Building a social network and interacting with external publics.

Luthans and his associates conducted an empirical study based on a sample of 450
employees. Their study found that a successful manager spends 48% of their time networking
and hardly 13% of their time in traditional management. In contrast, an effective manager
spends 44% of their time communicating and barely 11% of their time is spent on
networking. An average manager spends 19%-32% of their time in all activities. In a nutshell,
networking is an important activity that makes a manager successful.
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Figure 1.5 Allocation of Activities by Time
Source: Based on F. Luthans, R. M. Hodgetts, and S. A. Rosenkrantz, Real Managers

(Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1988).
1.8 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
The definition of OB suggests that it is a “field of study, " meaning it is a distinct area with a
common body of knowledge. Further, the field of study investigates individuals or groups to
apply this knowledge to increase organizational effectiveness. The study focuses on the
behaviour of employees at the group, individual or organizational levels that impact the
performance of an organization. The study also focuses on various interpersonal skills that
could help to deal with employees effectively. Following are some critical areas in OB-
● Motivation
● Leadership
● Stress management
● Group Dynamics
● Conflict Management
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● Personality
● Change process
● Interpersonal communication
1.9 MAJOR DISCIPLINES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE

DOMAIN OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
OB is an applied behavioural science. It integrates knowledge from various disciplines like

psychology, social psychology, anthropology, sociology, etc.
Psychology: Psychology provides knowledge about factors that determine human behaviour.
It includes various sub-disciplines like clinical psychology, industrial psychology, etc.
Psychology has contributed to understanding the individual behaviour of employees in an
organization. Some key areas in the domain of OB that are influenced by the knowledge of
psychology are motivation, perception, personality, work stress, employee happiness,
attitude, etc.
Sociology: Psychology deals with an individual's behaviour whereas sociology deals with the
behaviour of a group. The domain of sociology includes status, society, social groups,
prestige, social behaviour, etc. Some key areas in the domain of OB that are influenced by the
knowledge of sociology are formal and informal organization, group dynamics, etc.
Social Psychology: The bent of psychology and sociology is termed Social Psychology. In
simple words, it means the influence of group members on individual members of the group.
Some key areas in the domain of OB that are influenced by the knowledge of social
psychology are group decision-making, change in attitude, behaviour, communication, etc.
Anthropology: Anthropology deals with the study of human culture. It includes knowledge of
various cultures and the impact of multiple cultures on human behaviour. With globalization,
workforce diversity is inevitable, and employees from different cultures come together to
accomplish organizational goals. Therefore, it is essential to understand the influence of
culture on human behaviour. Some key areas in the domain of OB that are influenced by the
knowledge of anthropology are cross-culture influences, values, etc.
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Figure 1.6 Major disciplines that contribute to the domain of organizational behaviour
Source: Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Vohra, N. (2019). Organizational behaviour by
Pearson 18e. Pearson Education India.
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1.10 LEVEL OF ANALYSIS IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
There are three levels of analysis in organizational behaviour employee behaviour can be
analysed at three levels individual, group, and organizational. The individual-level analysis is
a micro-level analysis, whereas the organizational-level analysis is a macro-level analysis.
This difference in the analysis is required because it has been observed that the behaviour of
employees is different when they work in groups compared to when they work individually.
1.10.1 Individual level analysis-
Unlike static resources, humans as a resource differ from one another. Organizations are
made up of people, and every employee in an organization is central to the study of OB.
Individual-level analysis or micro-level analysis helps in understanding individual
differences. Integrating these individual factors provides insights to a manager and facilitates
an understanding of human behaviour. Some factors that fall under this category could be an
input (like- personality, values, attitude, etc.) or a process (like perception, learning,
motivation of individual employees, etc.)
1.10.2. Group level analysis:
Employees are expected to work in a group. Working in teams is essential for surviving in a
competitive environment. Individual employees perform differently when they work in
groups. The group-level analysis, also known as meso-level analysis, helps understand group
dynamics. Areas of interest in this category include group cohesiveness, teamwork, power,
politics, group dynamics, etc.
Figure 1.7 Level of analysis in Organizational behaviour
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1.10.3. Organization-level analysis: It is also known as macro-level analysis. Several

groups/teams operate within an organizational structure. They together form the culture. The
organizational level analysis consists of a study of culture, climate, cross-culture analysis,
etc., For example, it has been observed that employees often resist change, and change is an
inevitable process. OB helps deal with resistance to change and facilitates a smooth change
process.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
7. Level of organization could be broadly classified into _______categories.
8. Individual level analysis is also known as micro level analysis. True / False
9. Following title could not related to individual level analysis-
a) Personality b) Attitude
c) Values d) Culture
10. __________ is also known as meso level analysis.
11. Organization represents a set of arrangement by group of people to accomplish

some underline _________.
1.11 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Organizational behaviour has grown in importance as the work environment has become
more challenging, and the understanding of organisational behavior is being looked upon to
provide solutions to the challenges. The diversity in the workplace has increased, and now
organizations need more flexible employees. With technological advancement and
globalization, new employment opportunities have emerged, and managing the workforce has
become more challenging. The emerging gig economy and use of artificial intelligence in all
spheres of business are presenting fresh challenges for managers. Following are emerging
challenges where the understanding of OB could provide a solution to the manager.
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Enabling Leaders to lead in a VUCA world: Leading in today’s VUCA world (Volatile,
Uncertain, Complex & Ambiguous) creates unprecedented challenges that traditional
leadership development fails to address. Leaders need to regain control of what they pay
attention to and be capable of maintaining focus whilst experiencing feelings of fear, self-
protection and, uncertainty. By practising mindfulness, leaders can equip themselves with the
ability to feel calmer, be more present and develop clearer thinking amidst these challenging
external conditions.
Agility and the Game of Teams: With the increasing need for organisations to become more
agile, teams are becoming the foundation of organisational structure. Cisco, for example,
already has more than 20,000 teams, with people sitting on many teams simultaneously.
Agile teaming as a work practice requires agile minds, focusing more on “we and our
priorities” and less on “me and my priorities”. The pace of forming-to-performing and team
disbanding has now become a strategic advantage. As we practice mindfulness, our default
“all about me” thinking patterns become less automatic and habitual, and we open up to more
inclusive thinking. Mindfulness also increases our cognitive flexibility, enabling us to think
about things in new ways, be that the new ways of working, new team members, or a new
project.
Responding to Globalization: Globalization refers to the integration of various economies.
Today businesses are no longer restricted to a particular region. Today companies have
presence in multiple countries; for example, Samsung a South Korean company has
worldwide operations and so does the Burger King Brazilian company. Companies hire
employees from other countries due to the cost of labour; like Apple Inc is an American
company, but most Apple employees are not from the US. Even the production process is
undertaken in a foreign land by some companies like Honda cars are built in Ohio. The world
has become a "Global village". Therefore, a manager needs to focus on global issues. An
expatriate manager must understand the cultural difference among employees. Something
that fits the culture of the homeland might not work in other countries.
Managing Workforce Diversity: Workforce diversity means differences and similarities
between employees in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, age, value, etc.
organizations operating globally have to deal with a diverse workforce. The heterogeneous
workforce is essential because it helps the organization understand the customer needs, it
helps in bringing new innovative ideas to the organization and increases the morale of other
employees. But the diversified workforce is also a challenge for management. It is difficult to
resolve conflicts as people tend to stick to their viewpoints which often centre around their
values, belief, religion, or ethnicity.
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Improving customer service: Employees in front roles (directly dealing with customers) play
an essential role in ensuring customer satisfaction. In addition, customer satisfaction plays a
vital role in a competitive environment. Therefore, there is a need for a “customer-
responsive” culture in an organization. Organizational behaviour could help managers bring
such a culture into the organization by working on employees’ attitudes and behaviour.
Working in Networked Organization: Network organizations allow employees to work
together even when they are far away from each other in terms of distance. Worldwide
lockdown around 2020 due to the pandemic (Covid-19), forced most organizations to move
to the virtual platform. Even today in 2022, many businesses are still working through virtual
platforms or have permanently adopted a hybrid mode. Managing such an organization needs
different set of skills virtually collaborating and coordinating with employees is an emerging
challenge for managers.
Helping employees in Work-life balance: Employees today find it challenging to create a
balance between their work and life. Long working hours are one of the main reasons for
work-life conflict. Today, employees from all over the world are virtually connecting through
online platforms. It may be a daytime for one employee and a night for another employee. So,
the world never sleeps. Work is endless, and there is no specific working time. Such
conditions of present-day work lead to work-life conflict. Work-life conflict could increase
burnout and stress among employees and, as a result, could drop the employee’s productivity.
Creating a positive work environment: The new wave of positivity within the organization
led to the growth of a new concept of positive organizational behaviour (POB), a study that
focuses on the strength of employees. The earlier focus of managers was to work on the
weakness of the employees or correct what is wrong, but the field of POB suggests that the
focus needs to be deviation from what is wrong to what is right. Therefore, a manager today
needs to learn how to get the best from the strengths of the employees.
Improving ethical behaviour: It is not that employees always want to do something
considered wrong on moral grounds for their benefit or that they are not aware of what is
right or ethical. It is just that people at work face Moral Distress, i.e., they mostly know what
is right, but due to the limitations and fear of adverse outcomes, they fail to do the right thing.
There is no clear line between what is right and wrong. Still, a manager needs to create an
“ethically- healthy climate”, which could minimize the vagueness between right and wrong
behaviours. Further, it is important to promote integrity in the organization at all levels.
Economic Pressure: Managing employees in bad times, like during Covid-19, is more
challenging than managing employees in good times. The Covid-19 pandemic besides
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impacting health conditions pushed organizations to cost-cut. Therefore, COVID -19 brought
about a suddenly change in the business environment and presented unprecedented
challenges to most businesses and their management. Under good economic conditions,
managers work on employee motivation through rewards, but under bad economic
conditions, managers need to deal with the growing stress conditions at the workplace.
The above challenges could also provide various opportunities to present-day managers. For
instance, workforce diversity brings new ideas to the organization but could also lead to
increased conflicts. Therefore, a manager must learn how to convert these challenges into
opportunities.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
12. To coordinate with employee’s manager needs ______ skills.
13. Role of manager is changing and becoming more challenging due to the
technological advancements. (True/False)
14. _____suggests that the focus needs to be a deviation from what is wrong
to what is right.
15. A manager needs ______ to analyse complex nature problem.
1.12 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATION
The following are the implications for the managers-

1. Human behaviour is complex, and it is challenging to generalize human behaviour.
Though some provide insights for understanding and generalizing human behaviour,
most of them are erroneous.
2. Managers often try to use intuition/idea/ or feeling while explaining cause-and-effect
relationships. But sometimes feelings lead to incorrect decisions. Therefore, it is
important to use metrics and rely on facts.
3. Managers should learn interpersonal skills. In a managerial role, soft skills like
empathy, communication, leadership skills, etc., are way more important than technical
skills.
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4. Work environment is changing continuously. Hence a manager needs to upgrade their

technical and conceptual skills. In addition, managers must also update themselves with
the new OB trends like Big Data.
5. Concepts of OB could provide various insights that could help a manager resolve
conflicts, improve work-life balance, reduce stress, etc.
1.13 SUMMARY
The lesson aims to highlight the meaning of organizational behaviour, the need for
interpersonal skills, and managerial functions and roles. The present-day managerial roles
have changed with technological advancement, globalization, organizational structures, and
changing employee lifestyles. A manager needs to learn how to convert these challenges into
opportunities. Additionally, with increasing complexity in an organization, the skills required
by a manager could also vary. The domain of organizational behaviour integrates the
knowledge drawn from various disciplines like psychology, social psychology, anthropology,
and sociology. It helps in understanding people's behaviour at an individual, group, and
organisational level. It applies knowledge that enhances organizational effectiveness.
1.14 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Minimum Resources 9. Culture

2. Henry Fayol 10. Group-level analysis
3. Effectiveness 11. Purpose/ goal (Both are correct)
4. Spokesperson (or Informational role of 12. Human skills
manager
13. True
5. Figurehead
14. Positive Organisation Behaviour
6. Planning Stage
15. Conceptual Skills
7. Three
8. True
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1.15 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Assume you become a bank manager. As per Mintzberg's theory, what roles do you
think you will be required to play as a manager? (BMS; Open book exam)
2. An effective manager may not be an efficient manager. Comment. explain the various
skills required by a manager to become successful
3. Explain the difference between various levels of management, along with a suitable
example.
4. Write short note on the functions of a manager. State how functions of management
are different from managerial roles.
5. Explain the various challenges faced by present-day managers. Elaborate on how the
role of manager is changing with time.
6. “Management is a universal concept”. Do you agree? Comment.
1.16 REFERENCES
Robbins, S. P., & Coulter, M. (2017). Management 13E. Noida, India: Pearson India.
Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Vohra, N. (2019). Organizational behavior by Pearson 18e.
Pearson Education India. (Chapter 1)
Pistrui, J., & Dimov, D. (2018). The role of a manager has to change in 5 key ways. Harvard
Business Review.
F. Luthans, R. M. Hodgetts, and S. A. Rosenkrantz, Real Managers (Cambridge, MA:
Ballinger, 1988).
Bartol, K. M., & Martin, D. C. (1994). Management (International 2nd ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill
1.17 SUGGESTED READINGS
Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Vohra, N. (2019). Organizational behavior by Pearson 18e.
Pearson Education India.
Kaul, V. (2011). Business Organization and Management: Text and Cases. Pearson
Education India.
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MBA
LESSON-2
PERSONALITY
Dr. Anupreet Kaur Mokha

Assistant Professor
SGTB Khalsa College
University of Delhi
anupreetmokha.6@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Concept of Personality
2.4 Determinants of Personality
2.5 Types of Personality
2.6 Theories of Personality
2.7 How personality develops?
2.8 How personality influences organizational behavior?
2.9 How to Measure Personality?
2.10 Summary
2.11 Glossary
2.14 References
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After this lesson, you will be able:

1) To understand the concept of personality and various factors that determine
personality.
2) To identify various types and theories of personality.
3) To comprehend the development and assessment of personality.
4) To examine how personality influences organizational behavior.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Personality is a key psychological component that influences an individual's behavior.

Personality is the role that an individual performs in public. The personality of an individual
is distinct, personal and a major determinant of his behavior. Hence, it is important to
understand the concept of personality in shaping individual behavior.
This lesson provides an overview of personality. It discusses various factors that determine
personality. The next part of the lesson briefly explains the types and theories of personality.
The lesson also explores the development of personality. Later on, this lesson also examines
how personality influences organizational behavior.
This lesson will help the learners to understand various traits of personality and how it has a
significant impact on organizational behavior. It will assist them in shaping their behavior in
real-life situations.
2.3 CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY
The term "personality" originates from the Latin word "persona," which means "to speak
through." This Latin term refers to the masks used by the actors. As a result, personality is the
role that an individual performs in public. Personality does not just refer to a person's charm,
appearance, smiling face, and attitude toward life. However, it is a dynamic notion that
represents the evolution and development of an individual's entire psychological system.
Traditionally, the idea of personality pertains to how individuals affect others through their
outer appearances and conduct. Personality is a reasonably consistent set of characteristics
that impact an individual's behavior and may be defined as the sum total of an individual's
reactions and interactions with others.
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Personality was interpreted differently by different psychologists. The following definitions

will help you better understand the notion of personality:
According to Gordon Allport, personality is defined as “the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment”.
In the words of Floyd L. Ruch, “Personality includes external appearance and behavior,
inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force and the particular pattern or
organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer”.
Fred Luthans defined personality as “how a person affects others and how he understands
and views himself as well as pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person-
situation interaction.”
The definitions of personality provided above clearly demonstrate that the meaning of
personality is considerably more than just the part that an individual performs in public.
Integrating all of these definitions, one may say that personality is the sum of various
characteristics that are evident in an individual and define his behavior pattern.
2.4 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
Now that you have understood the meaning of personality, the next question arises about how
an individual's personality is developed.
Personality is an intangible idea. It is complicated since it is linked to cognitive and
psychological processes. It is said that an individual is born with certain mental and physical
characteristics, but personality gets shaped depending on the environment in which a person
has been raised. A variety of factors influence an individual's personality, including
biological factors, family and social factors, situational factors, and environmental factors.
Let us discuss them one by one.
Biological Factors
Biological factors are those factors that are related to the human body. Three factors are
considered to be relevant namely:
● Heredity: It refers to the characteristics of a person's personality that are passed down
from parents to their children. These parameters are decided at the time of conception.
Temperament, sex, energy level, reflexes, etc. are often inherited totally or partially
from the parents. This viewpoint contends that the molecular structure of genes is the
foundation of human personality.
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● Physical Attributes: Personality is influenced by physical attributes and maturation

pace. The pace of maturation is linked to physical stature. It is considered that an
individual's physical appearance has a significant impact on their personality. For
example, height, color, facial attractiveness, physical strength, etc., all have an impact
on one's self-concept.
● Brain: Biological factors have an impact on the brain. The composition and structure
of the brain have a significant impact on one’s personality. Few scientific studies
show the brain impacts personality.
Family and Social Factors
Family and social factors have a vital role in developing an individual's personality. The
personality is influenced by three key factors namely:
● Socialization: It is the process by which a new-born acquires a wide variety of
behavior from an extremely vast range of behavioral potentialities that are available at
birth. Those patterns of behavior are considered acceptable and normal by the family
and social groups. Family members force the infant to adhere to particular acceptable
behaviors.
● Identification: The process of shaping one's personality begins with the identification
process. The identification process happens when a person attempts to identify oneself
with someone in the family who is considered ideal. Normally, children emulate their
father or mother.
● Birth order: Another important factor determining an individual's personality is birth
order. For example, firstborn children are more likely to be reliant, logical, ambitious,
cooperative, diligent and less aggressive, as well as more prone to anxiety and guilt.
Situational Factors
The impact of situational factors on personality has become more widely recognized in recent
years. In general, an individual's personality is constant and stable, yet it fluctuates depending
on the situation. Life is typically described as a series of experiences. Every person goes
through many situations in his life that have a significant impact on his personality
development. It sometimes exercises restrictions and sometimes boosts an individual's
behavior. For example, a coward and a physically frail person might occasionally act bravely
to save the life of a close one.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors are the ones that exist within and around an individual. They are
cultural considerations. Culture influences human decision-making, independence,
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dependency, attitudes, soberness, violence, competitiveness, cooperation and shyness.

Culture comprises two essential components – individual conformity and approval by the
wider group. Culture creates rules, attitudes and values that are imposed by various social
groups. Individuals are obliged to adapt to the culture that society has built. Every culture has
its sub-cultures further specifying success criteria, moral standards, appropriate style of dress,
and cleaning standards. These cultural subgroups have a large influence on an individual's
personality development. For example, a girl born and raised in a rich family in an urban
region will act differently than a girl born and raised in a poor family in a slum area. Thus,
culture has a stronger impact on an individual's personality.
Thus, it is evident from the above discussion that a variety of factors determine an
individual's personality. As a result, one must consider personality as a comprehensive
system.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. _______refers to the characteristics of a person's personality that are passed down
from parents to their children.
a) Heredity b) Physical Attributes
c) Brain d) Socialization
2. Which of the following are the factors that determine personality?
a) Biological b) Environmental
c) Situational d) All of these
3. ________ is the process by which a newborn acquires a wide variety of behavior
from the extremely vast range of behavioral potentialities that are available to him
at birth.
a) Identification b) Physical Attributes
c) Birth order d) Socialization
4. A coward and a physically frail person might occasionally act bravely to save the
life of his close one is an example of which factor of personality?
a) Biological b) Situational
c) Environmental d) All of these
5. When a person attempts to identify himself with someone in the family who he
considers ideal it is known as:
a) Birth order b) Physical Attributes
c) Identification d) Socialization
2.5 TYPES OF PERSONALITY
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Personality qualities help people understand their personality types. The personality types
have been discussed below:
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
The MBTI is a personality assessment instrument that is widely used across the world. This
instrument consists of 100 statements on human personality. It asks individuals how they
generally feel in specific scenarios. Based on the responses provided by the individuals, they
are categorized as:
● Extraverted vs. Introverted (E or I): Extraverted individuals are outgoing, friendly,
and self-assured, whereas introverted people are calm and reserved.
● Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F): Feeling types of individuals often base their decisions
on their own morals and feelings, whereas thinking individuals are more logical and
sensible in general.
● Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or I): Sensing individuals are highly practical and tend to
stick to routines and orders. In contrast, intuitive individuals are not practical and
typically rely on unconscious processes.
● Judging vs. Perceiving (J or P): Judging personalities appreciate order and
organization in their surroundings and seek control, whereas perceiving personalities
are more adaptable and impulsive.
Higher and lower scores in each of these characteristics aid in categorizing individuals into
16 different personality types. For instance, Extraverted/Sensing/Thinking/Judging (ESTJ)
people are effective organizers and decision-makers because they are logical, reasonable, and
analytical. Introverted/ Intuitive/ Thinking/ Judging (IITJ) persons are self-sufficient, driven,
excellent creative thinkers, and have a strong desire to pursue their own ideas. As a result, it
can be stated that MBTI is a highly effective instrument that is frequently used for employee
selection, enhancing self-awareness, and offering career direction.
The Big Five Personality Model
The Big Five Personality Model is a paradigm that identifies five essential personality
dimensions namely conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion, agreeableness, and
openness to experience. These five characteristics are fundamental and accurately reflect the
majority of the substantial differences in personality. These factors are discussed below:
● Conscientiousness: This factor measures an individual's reliability. Individuals that
are very conscientious are more trustworthy, reliable, systematic and organized. An
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individual with poor conscientiousness, on the other hand, is reckless, less

trustworthy, negligent, and unorganized.
● Agreeableness: This factor relates to a person's capacity to collaborate with others.
Highly agreeable individuals are compassionate and cooperative. Individuals that
score low on this dimension, on the other hand, are likely to be non-cooperative,
disagreeable, and self-centered.
● Extraversion: This factor defines an individual's level of ease in interpersonal
connections. Extroverts are more talkative, friendly, social and self-assured.
Introverts, on the other hand, are more calm, more reserved and less social.
● Emotional Stability: This factor demonstrates a person's capacity to cope with stress.
Individuals that are emotionally stable are usually calm, secure and self-assured.
Emotionally weak individuals, on the other hand, are likely to be depressed,
apprehensive, and insecure.
● Openness to Experience: This factor assesses a person's creativity and interests.
Extremely open individuals are incredibly creative and are constantly open to new
ideas. On the other hand, individuals that score low on this factor are less interested
and do not respond to new ideas. They normally follow conventional methods of
doing things.
Type A and Type B Personalities
Individuals are termed as Type A personalities who are impatient, highly competitive and
aggressive whereas Type B personality individuals are easy-going, non-competitive and laid-
back. Type A individuals are likely to be very productive as they work really hard, however,
they are more irritable, not good team players, impatient and have poor judgment, whereas
Type B individuals perform better on complex tasks involving accuracy and judgment rather
than hard work and speed.
Introversion and Extroversion
These terms are usually associated with the sociability and interpersonal orientation of an
individual. While extroverts are more gregarious; introverts are more self-assured and driven
by their own distinct thoughts. Extroverts are reality-oriented, sociable individuals and are
performers whereas introverts, on the other hand, are less risk-taking and more directive.
They need strong encouragement and clear instructions. While extroverts think in terms of
interactive and objective interactions; introverts think in terms of their own philosophy and
belief.
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2.6 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
In the preceding section, you have learned about types of personality. Now, the next question
arises about theories that shape personality. Personality theories have been established to give
insight into an individual's personality. They aid in comprehending the factors that form
personalities. There are four main theories of personality. Let us discuss them one by one.
Psychoanalytic Theory
The psychoanalytic theory is a personality theory that holds that an individual is more driven
by unseen forces that are influenced by conscious and logical thinking. The psychoanalytic
theory is directly associated with Sigmund Freud. He contends that the interaction of the
three components of the mind shapes human behavior namely:
● Id: The primitive aspect of the mind that desires instant fulfilment of biological or
instinctive needs is known as the id. Biological needs are the fundamental physical
requirements, whereas instinctive needs are the unlearned or natural demands, such as
hunger, thirst, sex, and so on. Id is indeed the unconscious component of the mind
that acts instantly and without giving any consideration to what is right and what is
wrong. Id is, therefore, the source of psychic energy and the driving factor underlying
all mental forces.
● Super-Ego: The Super-Ego is associated with the social or moral norms that an
individual instils as s/he gets older. It serves as an ethical restriction on action and
aids in the development of an individual's conscience. As an individual matures in
society, cultural values and social conventions leading towards distinguishing right
and wrong get acquired.
● Ego: The ego is the rational and conscious aspect of the mind that is linked to the
reality principle. This implies that it balances the needs of the Id and the super-ego in
real-life situations. While the Id is an unconscious part, the ego is conscious of the
realities of the external world, hence, the ego keeps the id in control through intellect
and reason.
Self-Concept Theory
The self-concept theory focuses on an individual's set of perceptions about oneself, as well as
the perceptions of his/her interactions with others and other areas of life. Carl Rogers made
substantial contributions to the self-theory. He defined self-concept theory as “an organized,
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consistent, conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of I or Me”. There are four factors
that comprise self-concept theory namely:
● Self-Image: Self-image refers to “what an individual perceives about himself”.

Everyone has specific views about themselves, for example, who or what they are;
these beliefs shape an individual's self-image and identity. According to Erikson, an
identity is created through a lifetime development that is typically unconscious to the
individual and his society. In other words, an individual builds perceptions about
himself unknowingly, based on social conditions.
● Ideal-Self: The term "ideal-self" refers to the “way an individual would like to be”. It
differs from the self-image as it depicts the ideal position that is perceived by an
individual, whereas the self-image represents the reality that an individual
experiences. The difference between these two factors may thus exist. The ideal-self
acts as a stimulus to drive an individual to engage in activities that are consistent with
the features of his ideal self.
● Looking-Glass-Self: The looking-glass self refers to “an individual's impression of

how others see his attributes or feel about him”. In other words, it is the perception of
other's perception that is perceiving what others perceive about oneself rather than
seeing who you truly are.
● Real-Self: The real-self is “what others show you in terms of your self-image”. An
individual's self-image is verified when others respond to him and express their
beliefs or perceptions about how they genuinely feel about him. This is seen as an
input from the environment, which allows an individual to modify the self-image in
accordance with the information received.
Socio-Psychological Theory
According to the belief of socio-psychological theory, person and society are found to be
closely linked. This indicates that an individual seeks to satisfy the demands of society and
society assists him/her in accomplishing the goals. An individual's personality is formed as a
result of this interaction. Adler, Horney, Forman, and Sullivan contributed to the socio-
psychological theory. This theory (also known as Neo-Freudian Theory) varies from Freud's
psychoanalytic theory in the following ways:
1. This theory contends that social variables rather than biological instincts play an essential
role in forming an individual's personality.
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2. In this, motivation is conscious, which means that the individual is aware of his or her own
needs and desires, as well as the kind of behavior necessary to achieve those requirements.
Thus, the theorists think that socio-psychological factors are a mix of social (family,
religion, society, money) and psychological (ideas, feelings, beliefs) factors that are regarded
to have a significant impact in determining an individual's personality.
Trait Theory
According to trait theory, an individual is made up of a set of defined predisposition
characteristics known as traits. These characteristics are identifiable and often long-lasting
qualities of an individual that set him apart from others. There are two main trait theories
namely:
● Allport Trait Theory: This theory was proposed by Gordon Allport. According to
him, an individual's personality may be examined by distinguishing between common
traits and personal dispositions. The common traits are used to compare people based
on six values, i.e., religious, economic, social, political, theoretical and aesthetic.
Apart from common traits, there are personal dispositions that are distinct and are
categorized as follows:
o Cardinal Traits: The cardinal traits are strong and few people have personalities
that are dominated by a single trait such as Mother Teressa's selflessness.
o Central Traits: These are the general features that numerous individuals share in
varying degrees such as friendliness, loyalty, kindness, agreeableness, etc.
o Secondary Trait: Secondary traits explain why an individual acts differently than
his/her usual behavior at times. For example, a cheerful individual may become
irritated when others taunt him.
● Cattell's Trait Theory: Raymond Cattell developed this trait theory. According to
him, a vast number of factors should be investigated to have a good comprehension of
an individual's personality. He gathered life data (individuals' daily life behaviors),
experimental data (standardizing experiments by evaluating actions), questionnaire
data (responses gained through introspection of an individual's behavior), and
performed factor analysis to find traits that are connected to one another. He identified
16 key personality factors by performing factor analysis techniques (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1: Cattell’s 16 Key Personality Traits
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Traits
Abstractedness Imaginative Vs. Practical
Apprehension Worried Vs. Confident
Dominance Forceful Vs. Submissive
Emotional Stability Calm Vs. anxious
Liveliness Spontaneous Vs. Restrained
Openness to Change Flexible Vs. Stubborn
Perfectionism Controlled Vs. Undisciplined
Privateness Discreet Vs. Open
Reasoning Abstract Vs. Concrete
Rule-Consciousness Conforming Vs. Non-Conforming
Self-Reliance Self-sufficient Vs. Dependent
Sensitivity Tender Vs. Tough
Social Boldness Uninhibited Vs. Shy
Tension Impatient Vs. Relaxed
Vigilance Suspicious Vs. Trusting
Warmth Outgoing Vs. Reserved
The trait theory is based on the premise that traits are shared by many individuals and
fluctuate in absolute amounts. Furthermore, the traits remain constant over time and may thus
be assessed using behavioral indicators.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. ___________individuals are outgoing, friendly, and self-assured.

a) Extraverted b) Introverted
c) Thinking d) Feeling
7. ___________ measures an individual's reliability.
a) Conscientiousness b) Emotional stability
c) Extraversion d) Sensing
8. Which is not a factor that belongs to Big Five personality traits:
a) Sensing b) Extraversion
c) Conscientiousness d) Sensing
9. The __________is a personality theory that holds that an individual is
more driven by unseen forces that are influenced by conscious and logical
thinking.
a) Psychoanalytic Theory b) Self-Concept Theory
c) Socio-Psychological Theory d) Trait Theory
10. Which theory is also known as Neo-Freudian Theory?
a) Trait Theory b) Psychoanalytic Theory
c) Socio-Psychological Theory d) Self-Concept Theory
ACTIVITY
Observe persons you know very closely and note down the various attributes of
Id, Super Ego and Ego they possess.
2.7 HOW PERSONALITY DEVELOPS?
There are two main prominent psychologists namely Sigmund Freud and Erikson that
described the development of personality. Let us discuss them one by one.
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Sigmund Freud's Stages of Personality Development

Sigmund Freud proposed that there are five universal stages of personality
development namely oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. These stages are explained
below:
● The Oral Stage: This stage extends throughout the first year of life. During this time,
the child's mouth is the most sensitive area of the body and the primary source of
pleasure and joy. For instance, an infant’s thumb sucking or biting when teeth erupt.
The way the mother cares for the child influences whether the infant trusts or distrusts
the environment (represented by the mother) around him. If his desires are frequently
fulfilled, he develops trust and assumes that the world will look after him.
● The Anal Stage: This stage expands from one to three years in which the center of
libidinal energy transfers from the mouth to the anal area. In other words, the anal
zone of the body becomes the source of sexual satisfaction. Young children take great
enjoyment in both the retention and ejection of feces. Toilet training provided by the
parents to the child has an impact on the child's adulthood. If the mother is overly
strict and controlling, the child will withhold feces and if this happens frequently
enough, the child will become anal-retentive. When a child grows up, such a
personality will show traits of stubbornness, frugalness, punctuality, excessive
cleanliness or extreme messiness.
● The Phallic Stage: Around the age of three to six years, the focus on sexual
enjoyment moves to another erogenous bodily zone, the sex organs. During this time,
children might be seen gratifying themselves by inspecting and fondling their
genitalia, masturbating, and exhibiting excitement in the matter of birth and sex.
● The Latency Stage: The latency stage is the fourth stage lasting six years until
puberty. The libido is dormant at this stage, and no more psychosexual development
occurs. During this time, the child lacks interest in sexual things and seeks libido
gratification from the outside world, such as interest, knowledge, and so on. It is a
stage of social development during which the child gains information and abilities for
interacting with the outside world.
● The Genital Stage: The genital stage lasts from puberty to adulthood. There is a
resurgence of sexual and violent impulses, as well as an enhanced awareness of a
desire for the opposite sex. The individual finds satisfaction via heterosexual love.
Libido discharge through mature sexual encounters with an opposite sex partner
opens the door to true compassion for one's fellow. Freud believes that if an
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individual wants to attain ideal genital attributes then they should learn to work, delay
gratification, become responsible, and, most importantly, take a more active part in
dealing with life's issues.
Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development
Erikson criticized Freud's emphasis on biological and social factors in the
development of personality. He believed that social concerns should be given more
consideration. Erikson established eight stages of life that reflect a person's continuous
development. He described each stage as a specific conflict that must be successfully
resolved before moving on to the next. These eight stages are explained below:
• Infancy: During the first year of life, a child resolves the fundamental problem of
trust vs. mistrust. An infant who receives love and care develops a sense of trust for
other people whereas mistrust develops from a lack of love and care. This period has a
significant impact on a child's future events.
• Early Childhood: A child's independence begins to develop in the second and third
years of life. A sense of autonomy will emerge if the child is permitted to govern
those parts of life that the child is capable of controlling. If the child often faces
rejection from adults, a sense of self-doubt and humiliation is likely to emerge.
• Play Age: The four and five-year-olds are curious about their abilities. A child will
acquire a feeling of initiative if he is encouraged to try and attain appropriate goals. If
the child is controlled and made to feel incompetent, he will develop remorse and a
lack of self-confidence.
• School Age: A child learns numerous new skills and develops social talents between
the age of 6 and 12 years. A child will acquire a sense of enterprise if he sees actual
progress at a rate that is appropriate for his abilities, whereas, in the opposite scenario,
a child will acquire a sense of inferiority.
• Adolescence: The problem of adolescence is gaining a sense of identity rather than
being confused about who you are. While enduring rapid biological changes, the
adolescent is simultaneously attempting to distinguish himself or herself as socially
distinct from the parents. The autonomy, enterprise and initiative established in earlier
stages are critical in assisting the teenager to effectively resolve this issue and prepare
for adulthood.
• Early adulthood: The young adult in his or her twenties faces the conflict of
intimacy against isolation. The feeling of identity acquired throughout the adolescent
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years permits the young adult to begin building meaningful and enduring
relationships.
• Adulthood: During this stage, adults must choose between generativity and self-
absorption. A self-absorbed individual never learns to see beyond themselves. They
become preoccupied with maintaining and advancing their careers, and they never
learn to care about the well-being of future generations, the organizations to which
they belong, or the welfare of society at large. A generative individual perceives the
world as much larger than themselves. Workplace productivity and societal growth
become vital to them. They start to exert influence that is advantageous to their
organizations through innovation and creativity.
• Mature Adulthood: In this stage, an individual is developed as a very mature

individual. He has gained a sense of wisdom or despair and has earned insight and
perspective that can truly lead future generations.
2.8 HOW PERSONALITY INFLUENCES ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOR?
The personality traits of employees are used to analyze their behavior and to build
appropriate tactics to cope with their behavior. The following are some of the attributes that
impact organizational behavior:
● Authoritarianism: Authoritarianism is a term used to characterize people who have

negative perceptions of their jobs and workers. Authoritarian persons often see
obedience to authority as vital, have a negative attitude about people, adhere to
traditional value systems regarding people and work, are highly inflexible, and are
opposed to making decisions based on feelings and emotions. Such individuals want a
well-organized and structured job environment guided by rules and regulations. They
prefer autocratic or directive leadership, respect those who are in higher positions in
the organizational hierarchy and also want respect from those who work for them.
● Locus of control: The belief about the results of their actions is termed the locus of
control. Some people feel that their talents and abilities have an impact on the result
of an activity. Others think that external factors such as fate or chance impact their
outcome. Individuals who feel they have control over what happens to them are
termed internals, whereas those who believe it is governed by other forces such as
luck or chance are called externals. Internals are typically more satisfied with their
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jobs and are more active in seeking out information to make decisions than externals.
Externals are more likely to be absent from their work, less satisfied and less
committed to their jobs than internals.
● Machiavellianism: The term Machiavellianism is named after the works of Nicolo
Machiavelli. Machiavellianism refers to an individual's tendency to manipulate others
in order to gain and achieve power. Such people are more inclined to be active in
organizational politics. Those individuals who exhibit this attribute with greater
intensity are known as high Machs. High Machs are more realistic, emotionally
stable, and willing to use any means to attain their goals. They manipulate more and
generally win more. They are more likely to succeed in an environment with few rules
and restrictions and are more self-assured and have higher self-esteem. They perform
well in jobs that are more rewarding or that demands bargaining skills.
● Achievement orientation: It is a personality attribute that is used to predict an
individual’s behavior at work. An individual having a strong desire to succeed will
make continuous attempts to do things better. Such individuals are convinced that
their failure or success is the result of their own talents and flaws, as well as their own
actions. These individuals dislike performing easy jobs because they do not appear to
be challenging, nor do they enjoy performing tough tasks since the odds of failure are
significant. As a result, they favor tasks with a moderate level of difficulty. High
achievers often work better when they receive continuous performance feedback and
the job has a direct link between efforts and rewards.
● Self-Esteem: A sense of liking or disliking oneself is referred to as self-esteem. A
person with a strong drive for achievement is said to have high self-esteem. Such
individuals feel that they have the necessary skills to succeed in work. People who
have high self-esteem are risk-takers. They like dangerous and difficult tasks. They
have an internal locus of control. They value pride, flair, recognition, achievement,
and independence and are fulfilled with higher-order requirements over simple
monetary motivation. People with low self-esteem, on the other hand, are impacted by
external factors. They value and appreciate other individuals' perspectives more. They
do not wish to be in an uncomfortable situation. As a result, they strive to please.
● Risk Taking: People's attitudes toward taking risks vary. The willingness to accept
risks impacts decision-making. The risk-takers are more inclined to make quick
decisions. Taking risks is also linked to job demands. High risk-taking is more
prevalent in some castes, nationalities, religions and gender groups. Risk-taking
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behavior in organizations is connected to employees' capacity to take up difficult jobs

and possess a high level of achievement motivation.
● Self-Monitoring: Self-monitoring is the capacity to adjust to the demands of the
situation. Individuals with a high self-monitoring score closely examine the behavior
of others to change their own behavior. They value professional mobility. They are
more effective at performing opposing roles. These individuals can wear a mask that
is more appropriate to the situation. As a result, highly self-monitoring persons exhibit
a high degree of behavioral inconsistency. Therefore, the self-monitoring attribute
assists managers in understanding their subordinates' personalities and behaviors to
guide, motivate, communicate and control them on the job.
2.9 HOW TO MEASURE PERSONALITY?
There are several reasons for assessing an individual's personality. Understanding personality
impacts numerous decisions, including recruiting personnel, developing relationships,
designing motivational packages, and so on. A variety of metrics and procedures must be
employed to comprehend an individual's personality. This, in turn, emphasizes the need of
developing appropriate methodologies for assessing personality. Depending on the goal of the
personality assessment, the usage of assessment methods for understanding personality may
change from time to time and from circumstance to circumstance. There are three ways that
are extensively utilized among the different methods of analyzing personality i.e.
• Personality Inventories (Objective Tests)
• Projective Tests
• Assessment Center
Personality Inventories (Objective Tests)
Personality inventories (often known as objective tests) are the most widely used method of
measuring personality. They are standardized and can be administered to a large group of
people at the same time. As the name implies, this approach consists of a series of statements
referring to a specific aspect of the individual's personality. These statements are collectively
known as 'Personality Inventories,' and they serve as the foundation for prediction, or
perhaps more accurately, understanding of personality. It is a questionnaire-based way of
assessing personality that asks an individual to express reactions or feelings in certain
scenarios. Individuals are asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with
each statement. Sometimes even a simple yes or no answer pattern is required.
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However, these replies are considered to have drawbacks such as faking a positive reaction.
This highlights the importance of taking corrective actions to avoid and manage these
drawbacks in order to generate a more and more trustworthy personal inventory. One method
is to ask both positive and negative statements about the same aspects of personality, as well
as to reverse the degree of agreement or disagreement values. The most popular personality
inventories is the 'Locus of Control' developed by J.B. Rotter. As per Rotter, locus of control
is a method of personality assessment that examines an individual's internal and external
orientation, as well as his or her attitude toward control. On the basis of this, individuals are
usually categorized into two extremes i.e., internal and external locus of control. People with
an "internal locus of control" are those who think they have total control over their destiny
and luck, whereas, people with an “external locus of control” are those who feel that what
occurs to them is completely at the mercy of forces outside their control. The locus of control
influences the individual’s behavior and performance.
Projective Tests
Projective tests, as opposed to the inventory method of personality measurement, are
primarily used to determine the more subtle characteristics of personality. As a result, these
tests are predicated on the underlying fundamental beliefs that an individual’s personality
may be judged by assessing some of his or her dormant feelings, ambitions, aspirations, and
hopes. Numerous projective tests for assessing personality have been developed over time.
Projective tests include the Inkblot Test, Sentence Completion Test, Thematic Appreciation
Test (TAT), Picture Frustration Test and World Association Test. Among them, the most
extensively used projective test to measure personality is the Inkblot test, popularly known as
the Rorschach test, devised by the Swiss psychiatrist named Herman Rorschach. In the
Inkblot test, Rorschach employed ten ambiguous and unstructured images termed inkblots,
with one-half identical to the other. The individuals are then shown these inkblots/images and
asked to describe what they perceive in the inkblots/images. The interpretations of these
inkblots/images represent their sentiments or feelings, which serve as the foundation for their
personality assessment. Whereas, Morgan and Murrary devised the Thematic Appreciation
Test (TAT) projective test, which is also used to measure an individual's personality. It is
made up of twenty images that depict various societal situations. Unlike the Rorschach test,
these images depict a more precise picture of a situation. Individuals are then asked to
compose a story about what may be happening in such a social context.
Assessment Centre
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In the 1930s, the notion of an assessment center was first applied to military situations in the
German army. The primary goal of this approach was to evaluate applicants in a social
setting. During the 1960s, this paradigm spread from the army to the business world. An
assessment center is a tool that is used to examine personality. Situational tests, management
difficulties, business plan presentations, in-basket exercises, scenario-based decision-making
exercises and other simulated activities are used to evaluate personality. Individuals are
required to take part in these activities. Multiple trained assessors, who might be from inside
or outside the business, monitor the applicants' behavior and grade them based on specified
aspects considered significant in their job. A job analysis is used to discover the critical
aspects of a job. Each assessor creates an evaluation report for each applicant in the
assessment exercises. Finally, all of the reports are combined to create the employee's profile.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. Which is a term used to characterize people who have negative perceptions toward
their jobs and workers?
a) Authoritarianism b) Locus of Control
c) Machiavellianism d) Achievement Orientation
12. A person with a strong drive for achievement is said to have _____self-esteem.
a) Low b) Medium
c) High d) None of the above
13. _________is the capacity to adjust to the demands of the situation.
a) Machiavellianism b) Locus of Control
c) Achievement Orientation d) Self-Monitoring
14. Which approach is a questionnaire-based way of assessing personality that asks an
individual to express reactions or feelings in certain scenarios?
a) Personality Inventories b) Projective Tests
c) Assessment Center d) Regressive Tests
15. Sentence completion test is an example of____________.
a) Projective Tests b) Personality Inventories
c) Assessment Center d) Regressive Tests
The assessment center approach to personality evaluation is beneficial for both the
organization as well as employees. Organizations gather enough information about their
employees to determine their strengths and weaknesses. This data assists the organizations in
planning the selection, training, career paths and promotions of their employees. On the other
hand, employees, gather favorable impressions about their jobs, chances of promotions and
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long-term loyalty to the organization. Many Indian companies, including Hindustan Lever,
Modi Xerox, Crompton Greaves, Eicher, etc., have embraced this approach of assessment.
This strategy, however, is not without limitations. One is that many stimulating approaches
could not accurately represent the circumstance, and as a result, the applicant might not act
genuinely. Second, even if the employee will be evaluated by many assessors, the halo effect
in terms of personal abilities may affect the assessment.
2.10 SUMMARY
• Personality is the role that an individual performs in public.

• A variety of factors influence an individual's personality, including biological factors,
family and social factors, situational factors and environmental factors.
• Personality qualities help people understand their personality types. The following
personality types have been classified as The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI),
The Big Five Personality Model, Type A and Type B Personalities and Introversion
and Extroversion.
• The MBTI is a personality assessment instrument that is widely used across the world
and includes various personality types such as extraverted vs. introverted, thinking vs.
feeling sensing vs. intuitive and judging vs. perceiving.
• The Big five Personality Model is a paradigm that identifies five essential personality
dimensions namely conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion,
agreeableness, and openness to experience.
• Personality theories have been established to give insight into an individual's

personality.
• There are four main theories of personality namely psychoanalytic theory, self-
concept theory, socio-psychological theory and trait theory.
• The psychoanalytic theory is a personality theory that holds that an individual is more
driven by unseen forces that are influenced by conscious and logical thinking.
• The self-concept theory focuses on an individual's set of perceptions about himself, as

well as the perceptions of his interactions with others and other areas of life.
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• Socio-psychological theory indicates that an individual seeks to satisfy the demands

of society and society assists him in accomplishing his goals.
• According to trait theory, an individual is made up of a set of defined predisposition

characteristics known as traits.
• Freud proposed that there are five universal stages of personality development namely
oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
• Erikson established eight stages of life that reflect a person's continuous development
namely infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescence, early adulthood,
adulthood and mature adulthood.
• The personality traits of employees are used to analyze their behavior and to build
appropriate tactics to cope with their behavior. The following are some of the
attributes that impact organizational behavior: authoritarianism, locus of control,
Machiavellianism, achievement orientation, self-esteem, risk-taking and self-
monitoring.
• The three ways of measuring personality are personality inventories (objective tests),
projective tests and assessment centers.
2.11 GLOSSARY
Agreeableness: A person's capacity to collaborate with others.

Authoritarianism: People who have negative perceptions toward their jobs and workers.
Conscientiousness: A measure of an individual's reliability.
Emotional Stability: A person's capacity to cope with stress.
Extraversion: An individual's level of ease in interpersonal connections.
Extrovert: Individuals who are reality-oriented, sociable individuals and performers.
Heredity: Characteristics of a person's personality that are passed down from parents to their
children.
Ideal-Self: “Way an individual would like to be”.
Introvert: Individuals who are self-assured and driven by their own distinct thoughts.
Locus of Control: Belief about the results of an action.
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Looking-Glass-Self: “An individual's impression of how others see his attributes or feel
about him”.
Machiavellianism: An individual's tendency to manipulate others to gain and achieve power.
Openness to Experience: A person's creativity and interests.
Real-Self: “What others show you in terms of your self-image”.
Risk Taking: Willingness to accept risks.
Self-Esteem: A sense of liking or disliking oneself.
Self-Image: “What an individual perceives about himself”.
Self-Monitoring: Capacity to adjust to the demands of the situation.
Socialization: Process by which a newborn acquires a wide variety of behavior from the
extremely vast range of behavioral potentialities that are available to him at birth.
1. Heredity 9. Psychoanalytic Theory

2. All of these 10. Socio-Psychological Theory
3. Socialization
11. Authoritarianism
4. Situational
12. High
5. Identification
6. Extraverted 13. Self-Monitoring
7. Conscientiousness 14. Personality Inventories
8. Sensing 15. Projective Tests
1. Explain the concept of personality. Discuss the various factors that determine
personality.
2. Briefly explain various theories of personality. According to you, which theory is
more comprehensive? Give reasons.
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3. Discuss how personality influences organizational behavior.

4. Write a note on:
a) Self-Concept Theory
b) Freud’s Stages of Personality Development
c) Locus of Control
d) Introversion and Extroversion
5. CASE STUDY
Rahul is the CEO of ABC Ltd. He is very particular about his work and is very obedient
toward his authorities. He is self-centered and is not in favor of making decisions based on
feelings and emotions. He has a negative attitude toward other people who are not like him.
He does not like changes and follows traditional ways of meeting challenges, hence, he is
very stubborn. On the other hand, Dhruv is an employee of ABC Ltd. He is opposite to
Rahul. He makes a decision based on his feelings and emotions and is open to new challenges
and experiences, hence flexible. But, Rahul wants his employees to work like him.
Based on this study, answer the following questions:
a) Which personality trait(s) does Rahul possess? Discuss.
b) Does this trait(s) influence organizational behavior?
c) Enumerate the differences between the personality traits of Rahul and Dhruv.
d) Which theory of personality does apply in this case?
2.14 REFERENCES
Pareek, U. & Khanna, S. (2016). Understanding Organizational Behavior (4th Ed.). New
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Robbins, S. P., Judge, T.A., & Vohra, N. (2015). Organizational Behavior (16th Ed.). New
York: Pearson Education.
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Nelson, D. L., Quick, J.C., & Khandelwal, P. (2016). ORGB: A South Asian Perspective (2nd
Ed.). India: Cengage Learning India Pvt. Ltd.
Robbins, S. P., Judge, T.A. & Vohra, N. (2015). Organizational Behavior (16th Ed.). New
York: Pearson Education.
Singh, K. (2015). Organizational Behavior: Text and Cases (3rd Ed.). New Delhi: Vikas
Publication.
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LESSON-3
PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL

DECISION MAKING
Veenu Shankar
Doctoral Scholar
Department of Management Studies
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
veenu.dms.iitd@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Perception
3.3.1 Perception: Definition
3.3.2 Perception: The Three Stages
3.4 The Attribution Process
3.4.1 Three Types of Information in Attribution
3.4.2 Behaviour & Attribution
3.5 Biases in Perception (Perceptual Biases)
3.6 Applications of Perceptual Biases (or Shortcuts) in Organizations
3.7 Individual Differences & Organizational Constraints
3.8 Ethics in Decision Making
3.9 Summary
3.10 Glossary
3.13 References
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The primary goal of this lecture is to comprehend perception and attribution theory in depth.
After going through this lesson, the learner will be able to comprehend the following:
● Perception and its process, biases in perception, and three stage perception process
● The theory of attribution and its consequential determinants
● How to apply the rational framework of decision making
● Identify the shortcuts individuals use in making judgments about others
OPENING CASE STUDY

BUZZ09’S ALGORITHM FOR SOCIAL MEDIA POSTING
Data Analysts differ from ordinary people in clear ways. They frequently have
particularly strong mathematical orientations and don't find it distressing to consider
losing hundreds or even millions of dollars on a poor wager. Depending on variables
they have little control over, their careers may advance or decline.
Ankit Kashyap stands out even with this unique group. He is the CEO and co-chair of
an agency based out in Delhi, and he is just 27 years old. Mr. Kumar launched Buzz09-
The Digital Ecosystem after earning his MBA from Ambedkar University Delhi
together with two other recent college grads (Kushal Gupta and Ambuj Agarwal) and a
third partner (Veenu Kashyap), who was still a student. Of course, Kumar and his
fellow partners are too young to be running a Delhi based social media agency. The
method they're using is much more intriguing. Analytics are a skill that all social media
managers possess. Buzz09 stands out because of how far the company has gone with
them. To really make buy, sell, or hold choices and to learn from its errors, the
company has handed over computers to each of its employee as well as access to
Hootsuite, which automatically posts creative on social media just by linking a client’s
social media accounts to it. According to Mr. Kumar, "it's quite obvious that humans
aren't becoming any better." But technology and social media algorithms are becoming
more reliable.
------Continued next page
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OPENING CASE STUDY
BUZZ09’S ALGORITHM FOR SOCIAL MEDIA POSTING (CONTD.)

Due of the profits Buzz09 was able to provide, other businesses like RepDelhi’s
and ABC Company’s Advisors decided to follow suit. According to proponents,
computers outperform people because they can process schedules more rapidly, "learn"
what functions, and change more easily and objectively. To assess social media content,
Buzz09’s software examines more than ten years' worth of social media data as well as
the most recent market trends. When the algorithm shows that the number of impressions
is declining, it automatically adjusts the schedules of online posting. Also, based on the
library of images fed to the system, it automatically creates design for its client’s social
media accounts. Leaders of the Buzz09 have confidence in their artificial intelligence (AI)
strategy. Mr. Kashyap believes in challenging AI as it purveys tech-innovative strategies
to the company and its clients.
Not just social media posting decision is being replaced by machines. Computers
are progressively replacing and even replacing human judgement in a variety of tasks,
including operating nuclear power plants, hedge funds decision, piloting aeroplanes, and
making medical judgments.
Not everyone believes AI always outperforms human reasoning and decision-
making. Some claim that the use of computers makes complicated systems more prone to
mistakes since no computer can foresee every circumstance, and people perform worse as
the passive observers that AI transforms them into (Robbins & Judge, 2013). "When the
human has no participation in the activity, there is a far larger risk of complacency,"
observes the pilot of one complicated system.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
The opening case study (Buzz09’s Algorithm for Social Media Posting- mentioned above)
demonstrates a few of the issues that people encounter while seeking for strategies to improve
their decision-making abilities. One of the reasons why some individuals favour rational
decision making is the possibility that human decision makers may be biased or wrong in
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many ways. This chapter examines some of these biases in human decision-making as well as
the possibility that people may outperform computers, particularly in terms of innovation.
3.3 PERCEPTION
Through the process of perception, people organize and interpret their sensory experiences
to give their surroundings meaning. However, there could be a significant discrepancy
between what we perceive and what is real. For example, the whole employees of a company
may agree that it's a great place to work because of the friendly office atmosphere, fascinating
job assignments, competitive pay, first-rate benefits, and considerate management. However,
as most of us are aware, it is rare to see such unanimity. Why is perception important in OB
research so much? As opposed to reality, behavior is dependent on one's perspective of
reality.
Fig 3.1. Factors That Influence Perception

Source: (Robbins & Judge, 2013)
How can we explain the fact that various people may observe the same thing and form quite
different opinions about it? Many factors affect perception, sometimes skew it as well. The
perceiver, the object, target being perceived, or the context in which the perception is
produced may all have these components (or a few of them) (see Figure 3.1).
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Your attitudes, personality, aspirations, interests, prior experiences, and expectations all
have a significant impact on how you interpret what you see while trying to understand a
target. Regardless of their real features, you can see someone as authoritarian if you consider
police officers to be that way or as slow if you assume young people to be that way.
The target's characteristics also influence how we see it. Silent individuals are less likely to
stand out in a crowd than loud individuals. The link between a target and its backdrop, as
well as our tendency to group nearby items and those with similar characteristics together, all
influence perception since humans do not examine targets in isolation. Male and female, as
well as members of any other group that can be quickly classified in other, unrelated ways,
frequently have something in common. How attentive we are can vary depending on the
environment, including the time of day, location, light, temperature, and several other
variables.
SATURDAY VERSUS MONDAY

On a Saturday night in a club, a young client "dressed to the nines" might not be
there. But if that individual were dressed that way, you would see them in your
management class on Monday morning (and that of the rest of the class). The
perceiver (the person about whom we are projecting our perceptions) and the
target are unaffected.
On the other hand, Saturday night and Monday morning are two separate
times.
3.3.1 Perception: Meaning

The core elements of the perception process are the choice, interpretation, and usage of
inputs and signals. The high error rate of the process used to create perceptions is a serious
drawback of perception. Think over the photos for a while (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). Figure 3.2
shows the standard physical perception assessments. Did you make the same mistakes that
most people do? We are unable to see pictures appropriately even when we are aware of our
error and can evaluate them objectively. Brand logos in figure 3.3 have a hidden message that
once understood, is difficult to forget.
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“Perception alters what we perceive. It is subject to error”

Another example that highlights the power of perception is shown in Figure 3.3. The figure
reflects "Closure". It focuses on the gaps that people fill in to comprehend a stimulus. Even
though we know the lines in forms like rectangles and triangles are crooked, we nonetheless
fill them in. Therefore, closure is essential to how perception works. Most of the time, we
don't know all the facts, so we fill in the blanks with assumptions. Closure enables us to
analyse a blur (or faded) situation by completing that incomplete picture with the help of
our experiences. Figures 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 show the progression of perception. Social
perception does use similar techniques. We draw conclusions based on our presumptions
even when we cannot see everything.
Fig 3.3. What do you perceive of these brands?

Source: Suggested Readings
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Fig. 3.4. Closure

Source: Suggested Readings
WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

Situation 1
You're considering working for a company with extensive operations in India and
Japan. Understanding that having a strong command of Japanese will benefit you.
You are currently enrolled in Japanese-language course that will improve your
fundamental communication abilities. You are thinking whether to list this as one
of your abilities because you anticipate being somewhat adept by the time you
land the job. Would you include it in your resume?
WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

Situation 2
You are proficient in data science and analysis. One of your new colleagues, who
really wants to learn this skill, has shown an interest of finessing this skill from
you. You think that the new joinee is not a quick learner and unable to grasp
technical things. Considering this as one your perceptions about him/her, what
would you do?
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THINK ABOUT HOW CLOSURE COULD IMPACT A

MANAGER'S PERCEPTION OF A WORKER!
A boss who oversees 25 employees seldom interacts with any of them. The manager,
however, personally witnessed a contentious conversation between the employee and from
a separate management department during the preceding six months after one client
complained about a certain employee. However, during the previous six months, one client
has voiced a complaint on a certain employee, and the manager has personally overheard a
heated exchange between that employee and a management from a different department.
Based on these two instances and the limited time available to gather further information, the
manager may use closure to round out the picture and infer that the employee has a short
attention span.
CASE STUDY
INDIA VERSUS AMERICA
Consider the situation of American citizen Ms. Thompson, who starts working for a
major corporation in India. She meets with Mr. Roy, her boss, on the first day. Mr. Roy
greets everyone and then begins to collect information about Ms. Thompson's mother's
relatives, siblings, father, and grandfather's jobs. He devotes a lot of his time to family
discussions that Ms. Thompson deems inappropriate and unimportant.
Ms. Thompson is an expert at conducting interviews and avoiding personal questions,
so she carefully avoids all these intrusive questions. During the hour-long meeting, she
doesn't learn much about her duties or Mr. Roy’s expectations. She is quite perplexed. Mr.
Roy is unhappy and concerned that Ms. Thompson is vague about her background and
won't talk about her family from his perspective. How can she expect to connect with
others if they don't know anything about her or her family? Before knowing someone's
personal background, he cannot trust them.
In this scenario, both sides evaluate the situation from their own cultural vantage
points. The Spanish social structure and ties to family and friends hold the key.
Roy, on the other side, Ms. Thompson is used to working in an American
environment where private things are inappropriate and unimportant. Given her cultural
background, Ms. Thompson is appropriately avoiding these personal challenges, but Mr.
Roy is only striving to show that his new employee has the necessary and core family
background to be trustworthy.
The cultural misconceptions in this scenario appear to be based on a variety of cultural
conventions and assumptions.
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3.3.2 Perception: The Three Stages

The three stages of perception are presented in Figure 3.5
Perception is a multidimensional process, as seen in Figure 3.5. In this section, we examine
each of the three stages and consider the factors that affect them.
Fig. 3.5. The Three Stages of Perception

Source: (Robbins & Judge, 2013)
1. Attention Stage
Paying attention to the surroundings is a necessary initial step in the perception process.
Understanding environmental cues is a crucial stage in the process of perception. During
the attentional phase of perception, we select which stimuli, cues, and signals to focus on.
What do we notice? What grabs our attention? For instance, while your professor takes a
brief break from class to look over his notes, you could catch a glimpse of his keys jingling
in his pocket. You could then notice his unusually baggy pants because of the noise that came
out of his keys. In each of these cases, an uncommon event draws attention and may cause
individuals to divert their focus from what they are doing.
In the attention stage of perception, we may choose consciously or unconsciously what to
focus on. The perceptual filter is a technique for allowing certain information to pass while
excluding others. Selective attention, or the fact that we pay attention to some social and
physical cues but not others, is the core element of the perceptual filter. During the attention
stage, a multitude of factors determine what information passes through our perceptual filter.
In addition to culture, salience is another factor. Salient cues are those that stand out in some
way. Salient elements and signals have a greater part in our perception process than other
signals do since we use them. In the samples, the jingling keys, baggy clothing, Southern
accent, tattoos, and body piercings all stuck out.
The stimulus's intensity is another factor that affects salience. You're likely to pay greater
attention to someone who speaks loudly, wears a striking apparel, or applies a strong
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perfume. For instance, people who wear bright colours when they dress, are more likely to be
remembered after a meeting—though not always favourably. Aside from that, cultural
differences may play a role in why some events remain in our recollections. For instance,
standing close to someone while speaking is normal in Middle Eastern and Mediterranean
cultures. These acts are not observed in other cultures. In contrast, the same gesture is
typically unheard of in the United States, where people become uneasy if a co-worker speaks
to them too near or touches their arm or shoulder. That co-worker’s actions are obvious,
which increases the likelihood that you'll see them and recall them.
The people in each of these cases stand out, prompting us to remember them and form
opinions about them. They impede our perceptual filter due to their prominence. This is
not to argue that you must try to stand out to be better remembered. People could recall you
more vividly, but they can also hold your harsher behaviour against you. We must organize
the cues and the material that draws our attention into sets that make sense and that we may
use later.
CASE STUDY
AN INDO-AMERICAN WOMAN CEO IN INDIA
When Malti, a 1975 passed out from Harvard Business School, who spent her entire life in
the United States since her childhood, joined ABS in 1977, she questioned long-held views on
both sides of the Indian thinking (mostly bureaucratic and paternalistic society back then),
which was her ultimate glass ceiling-cracking moment. ABS, an enterprise that owns the several
educational institutions worldwide was being operated by Malti, who also served as its first
female CEO. Around 17,000 individuals were employed at ABS at the time. Malti's credentials
were out of the ordinary for a top executive of an Indian corporation. Having no prior
experience in control of a large, multi-billion-dollar global organization while being a Texas
native born in India, a former attorney, and a former journalist.
Following Malti's arrival, ABS's equity returns significantly lagged those of its competitors.
The successes of Malti's predecessor, who held the position for 15 years until retiring in 1977,
included increasing ABS's workforce, doubling its profitability, experiencing a more than 80%
increase in share prices, and converting a struggling company into a global powerhouse.
How did this implausible "outsider" from another continent work for a very conservative
company in India and become one of the most respected CEOs there?
Upon finishing business school in 1975, Malti relocated to West Virginia and started
working for the Associated Press. She then created a Pulitzer-winning newspaper in Georgia
with her husband. The two relocated to India in 1977 when the newspaper went out of business,
becoming CEO of ABS, where she grew sales by 130 percent in just four years. Malti admits
that she faced scepticism when working at ABC: "I had analysts in on the first day, and I could
hear them asking, 'Who is this person? Then I started to wonder, "Who is this person?"
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AN INDO-AMERICAN WOMAN CEO IN INDIA (CONTD.)

But she moved quickly to establish her reputation and grow the company.
During her first week on the job, she issued an introductory email to all 17,000
employees. I function best in a workplace that is upbeat, enthusiastic, and full of
comedy. "I do not want to be linked with a firm that is not reputable and fair," the
employee said after just seven months on the job.
When she stated that she wanted to double ABS’ market worth, the company's
shares surged. She promised that more changes will be made. However, for the time
being, our objective is to enhance overall corporate performance.
Malti usually wore khadi clothing to meetings and used Indian slangs. It was
clear that she had no reservations about grabbing attention. She was referred to the ABS
chairperson as "an enthusiast and exuberant" because of her egalitarian viewpoint,
which contrasted with the traditional Indian thinking.
In her words, "I don't even use that phrase because, first of all, that's what old
people do, and second of all, it's what you do after dinner." she expresses that she is not
ready to retire at age 66. Through her blunders, she discovered that "you may fail, but
you don't die."
Malti’s issues and career serve as an illustration of how perceptions affect

businesses. To carry out her responsibilities as the leader of a big company, she has had
to contend with gender, cultural, and social stereotypes as well as public perceptions.
Her success has been greatly influenced by her capacity to understand herself, other
people, and her environment. Malti had to observe people and events, gather
knowledge, assess that knowledge, and generate opinions based on a range of subjective
interpretations as well as factual facts. All leaders must act in this manner. To be
effective, she needed to manage how other people perceived her. That is significant.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Perception is a _________
a. Scientific process c. Mental process
b. Both A and C d. None
2. Which process’ fundamental components are stimulus selection,
interpretation, and use?
a. Perception c. Organizational development
b. Locus of Control d. Ethics
3. _______ permits us to assess a fading circumstance by filling that partial
image based on our experiences.
a. Closure c. Creativity
b. Communication d. Connotation
2. Organization Stage
The second step of the perceptual process is organization. The data that our filters have
permitted through must now be organized. We group information into sets that make sense,
are practical, and are organized. We create new sets, build new links between the various
parts, classify newly found information into pre-existing, well-known categories, and
combine things into bundles we can remember.
Schemas
At this level, the primary activity is the use of schemas. Schemas, which are mental or
cognitive models or patterns, are used by people to understand and explain situations and
events. They act as structures that enable us to fill in the gaps in social contexts. For instance,
during the closure phase, people use schemas to help fill in gaps in incomplete visualizations.
Although some of our schemas may be conscious to us, they usually operate subconsciously.
Schemas at work
Schemas are beneficial since they hasten the information processing. They help us remember
details and close gaps in our perception. Schemas greatly facilitate the organization of
knowledge, which enhances our capacity to recall specifics about people and events. Because
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we use closure to fill in information we don't know and make snap decisions, schemas might
lead to mistakes.
Table 3.1
Advantages and Disadvantages of Schema
S.No. Advantages Disadvantages
1. Help us in recalling Hard to modify
2. Provides information Ignores information that does not fit
3. Structure information May lead to over-interpretation
Culture and Schemas

When interacting with people, we must be aware of the likelihood that our preconceived
notions will affect how we see them. Since certain information fits into pre-existing
schemas, it may be quickly sorted and saved. Additional information might not fit into a
given structure. This might lead to the creation of a new schema or cause things that should
not be remembered because they contradict our beliefs and may not fit into any pre-existing
categories. For instance, many women have experienced having their male co-workers either
forget their comments or blame them on their male co-workers when they made suggestions
or comments during meetings. These assumptions were something Malti (refer to the case
study presented on page 12) had to cope with.
3. Interpretation and Judgement Stage
In the interpretation and judgement stage of social perception, which is the third step, we
interpret and translate the ordered information to establish its meaning (see Figure 3.5).
Through interpretation, we create an opinion or judgement about the subject or circumstance
and ascertain the motivation behind the behaviour. In firms where a manager's
responsibilities include evaluating their team members, clients, vendors, and other business
partners, this method is crucial. For instance, you see that your new employee is pleasant
and courteous to everyone she meets and that she takes the time to get to know them. You
ponder whether she is simply behaving in a typical manner. Whether they begin a new job or
not, she is a very pleasant and sociable individual. To decide, you must determine a
justification for her actions, which is the process (Attribution) we'll explore next. Also,
look at Fig 3.6 for more specific information.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
4. What comes last in the process of perception?
a. Results c. Selection
b. Judgement and Interpretation d. Consistency
5. Which element enhance the process of processing information?
a. Filters c. Perception
b. Schema d. Prejudice
6. Choose the wrong option.
a. Distinctiveness c. Consistency
b. Consensus d. Selective Filters
3.4 THE ATTRIBUTION PROCESS
The act of assuming a cause for a behaviour and presenting that cause is known as the
attribution process. One of the initial steps in the attribution process is determining whether
an action's cause is internal or external (see Figure 3.6). An internal attribution is when you
suggest that the person's actions are the result of something "inside" the person. These are
either more or less stable factors (such as personality, morality, or intrinsic skill) (such as
effort or motivation). Internal attributions, which places a strong emphasis on the individual,
are occasionally referred to as personal attributions.
When we think that factors "outside" of the person are the cause of behaviour, such as
"Mary is late for work because she is lazy" or "Sergio did well on the test because he worked
hard," we establish external attributions. These factors might include the surrounding
natural environment, the difficulty of the job, the workplace culture, the presence, and
behaviour of other people, or even luck. Since they link behaviour to its environment,
external attributions are often referred to as situational attributions.
External attributions are mostly dependent on task difficulty and chance, but internal
attributions are based on ability and effort.
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INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTIONS AT WORK
Like us all, managers are prone to apply internal attributions excessively and
external attributions insufficiently. For instance, supervisors who are evaluating
employees are more prone to conclude that low performance is due to a lack of
skill, effort, or motivation. They are much less inclined to attribute poor
leadership to contextual factors, such as insufficient training, insufficient support
from co-workers, insufficient tools, or even their own subpar performance.
Fig. 3.6. The Interpretation and Judgement Stage: Attribution

Source: (Nahavandi, Denhardt, & Aristigueta, 2020)
3.4.1 Three Types of Information in Attribution

When determining internal or external attributions, we use three types of information:
uniqueness, consensus, and consistency.
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1. Distinctiveness
We initially consider if the behaviour is unique to a certain profession or situation.
Does the individual always behave in this way? If the answer is yes, we'll probably
hold that person accountable for their actions. If not, we can consider external
influences. Consider how a manager appraising his employees may consider how
distinct each employee's performance histories are to illustrate how this component
functions in an organizational setting. Or are computer-related jobs the only ones
where they perform well? Do they perform similarly across the board? If the
performance is particular to one or a few tasks and is therefore specific to a scenario,
an external attribution is more plausible.
2. Consensus
Is this a typical behaviour or is this person acting strangely? Is the employee in
question the sole member of the team that is having issues with the new method after
the bad performance was addressed? If other individuals behave in a similar way,
demonstrating that there is agreement, we are more likely to assign something to the
outside world.
3. Consistency
Depending on what is constant, we can ascribe anything to either the internal or
external reality. Without consistency, we find it difficult to make any kind of
judgment; assigning responsibility calls for extreme consistency. It would be
challenging for management to assign blame to a worker whose performance differs
significantly from month to month and from task to task.
3.4.2 Attribution Through Behaviours
Researchers have shown that even though we have more information about ourselves than
about others, we usually use the same approaches to identify the root causes of our
difficulties. We consider our actions and behaviours and extrapolate our thoughts and aims
from them to understand why we operate in the manner that we do. Self-perception theory
is the name given to this theory. According to self-perception theory, when asked to explain
their own behaviour, people tend to search both inside and outside of themselves for answers.
The self-perception theory of attribution has surprising findings. Consider how
we behave when we are recognized for our work and given a reward. For instance, how
would a professional basketball player justify his performance if he received a significant
bonus for playing well? Would he say he loved the game so much or would he say the big
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bonus was the reason he won? How would the worker who regularly lends a helping hand to
other workers without getting paid for it defend her actions? It's noteworthy that when we
receive large monetary compensation or positive public attention for our efforts, we are more
likely to blame our actions on the outside reward. Over-justification refers to the tendency to
blame our own behaviour on outside forces after getting an external benefit. Over-
justification has several negative effects on managers. It suggests that giving people
significant external incentives for finishing pleasant tasks may reduce their internal
motivation to complete the task. If the reward is strong and meaningful enough, people are
more likely to make an external attribution—that is, to place blame for their actions on
something other than their own motivations. Because of this, employees may become less
motivated to achieve internally and may perform less successfully unless they continue to get
significant incentives. This practice may provide one explanation for why some professional
athletes perform badly despite being paid well. Managers should emphasize internal features
and make them obvious whenever possible to maintain employees' internal Motivation and
interests. High amounts of praise and reward from the public may have an immediate effect,
but they can have the opposite effect in the long run.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
7. Assuming an explanation for a behavior and advancing that reason is known
as:
a. Attribution Process c. Distinctiveness
b. Consistency d. Consensus
8. Personal attributions are related to?
a. External attributions c. Internal attribution
b. Societal attributions d. Physical attributions
9. Situational attributions are
a. External attributions c. Internal attribution
b. Societal attributions d. Physical attributions
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
10. To understand why we behave in the way that we do, we consider our
actions and behaviours and extrapolate our attitudes and aims from them.
This concept is known as
a. Self-evaluation c. Self-organized
b. Self-role d. Self-parameters
11. After earning an external incentive, we tend to blame outside forces for
our own conduct.
a. Under-simplification c. Under-analysis
b. Over-analysis d. Over-justification
12. ___________ is the final element of the attribution process.
a. Conscience c. Concordance
b. Concept d. None of the above
13. “We are inclined to attribute something externally if other people act
similarly, indicating that there is agreement”. This is related to:
a. Distinctiveness c. Consistency
b. Consensus d. All of the above
3.5 PERCEPTUAL BIASES (COMMON SHORTCUTS IN

JUDGING OTHERS)
We discussed how people often attribute other people's behaviour by exaggerating their own
personal traits and underestimating external factors. This tendency is known as the
Fundamental Attribution Error. For instance, if your boss is unresponsive, you are more
likely to blame his lack of people skills or propensity for being cold and distant than you are
to blame the expectations placed on him or the amount of work he must do. In this way, you
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are more likely to attribute a co-worker’s obstructionist behaviour to her personality than to a
lack of communication. These accusations make us less likely to see others favorably.
Table 3.2
Perceptual Biases
S.No. Perceptual Biases Description
1. Fundamental Undervaluing situational factors and overvaluing

Attribution Error personal factors while making attributions about
others’ actions
2. Actor-Observer An inclination to rely more on third-party

Differences explanations for our own behaviour
3. Stereotypes "A generalization made about a person based on the

group they belong to"
4. Halo or Horn Effect In multi attribute stimuli, use of a single attribute to

influence the overall assessment -positive or negative
of the stimuli
5. Similar-to-Me Effect A tendency to like someone who we think is like us

and to dislike (or not like) someone who is different
6. Primacy and A propensity to place an excessive emphasis on either

Recency the most recent information—in the case of recency—
or the most recent information—in the case of
primacy.
7. Self-Serving Biases The propensity to give success credit and deny failure
blame
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CASE STUDY: TRAYVON MARTIN
"The Trayvon Martin case featured a significant amount of perception and prejudices
in the Florida, United States. Martin was wearing a hoodie the night he was shot,
demonstrating how even something so basic may affect how we perceive people.”
There might be negative consequences from the Fundamental Attribution Error. Because of
this propensity, we frequently internalize victims mistakenly and blame them for their
suffering. For instance, in the well-publicized case of the Florida teenager who was shot by a
self-appointed neighborhood watchman, the fact that Trayvon Martin was wearing a hoodie
became the focus point, obscuring many of the crucial issues. When assessing people, we
typically focus on internal factors.
The Fundamental Attribution Error, however, works in the other direction when we
try to justify our own behaviour. We rely more on external justifications to support our own
actions. This process is known as the actor-observer difference. In addition to making
internal attributions about other people's behaviour, which is a common fundamental
attribution error, we also commonly make external attributions about our own behaviour.
This differentiation is brought about by the numerous perspectives that come from having
access to different kinds of information. Contrary to how others may see us, we are aware of
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our own history and how we respond in different situations. As a result, we often have
different perspectives than observers on how distinctive and consistent our own behaviour is.
Because actors and observers have different perspectives, actors are more likely to ascribe
external causes because environmental impacts are more apparent to actors than to
observers.
Fig. 3.7. Women taking part in Marathon in Pakistan

Source: Authors’ Research
“These young ladies (Figure 3.7) are participating in a recruitment process for a
police force in Peshawar, Pakistan. However, because the profession is widely seen as a
vocation that is exclusively for men, women in America and European, Eastern European,
Asian, and Latin American nations complain that gender stereotyping makes it difficult for
them to enter the field. The stereotyped perception of women wrongly generalizes them as
being unfitted to carry out police work, even in nations like the United States where the law
demands employing police officers without regard to gender. Women who wish to work in
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law enforcement, however, argue that they meet the physical standards and even offer unique
attributes to the position, such as compassion and effective communication skills.”
A stereotype is a generalization made about a person based on their membership in a

certain group. Race, gender, sexual orientation, functional area, and other categories may be
among these groupings. Because of their strength, stereotypes can make it difficult for us to
recognize individual distinctions and achievements. Consider the challenges that Malti, a
ABS employee, faced. Since her first day on the job, the British media has questioned her
credentials and aptitude for the role. How a mother of three could run a big British firm was a
concern for some. Her spouse was mocked by others, who called him the "househusband."
Even more than Malti's creativity and strategic foresight, the company's male leaders were
given credit for many of her excellent decisions. With her engaging humour and deft people
skills, Malti debunked the clichés.
The halo effect (also known as the horn effect) occurs when a general opinion or
assessment of one aspect of a person or circumstance results in either a halo, which is a
favourable impression, or horns, which is an unfavourable impression, and which then serves
as the focal point around which all additional information is selected, arranged, and
interpreted. For instance, a study done in the United Kingdom discovered that a person's first
name might have a big impact on how they are seen. Another example is when someone
identifies themselves as a "Apple" or "Google" employee. Because of the reputation of these
companies, we are likely to form an opinion of the person immediately away.
A strong element that might result in a halo or horn is the "similar-to-me" effect.
The similar-to-me effect occurs when we like someone we believe to be similar to
ourselves and dislike someone we believe to be distinct from us. In a multicultural
environment Lack of likeness may be extremely problematic when the other person is likely
to be different and as a result, perhaps unlikable.
Do you believe that first impressions are important? If you say that, you are correct!
The importance of initial impressions is referred to as the primacy effect. It speaks about a
tendency to exaggerate fresh knowledge. Early information is often recalled, and it frequently
affects subsequent perceptions. In contrast to the primacy effect, the recency effect leads us to
focus more on the latest information. The recency effect is most prevalent when there is a
temporal gap between the earlier and later information.
The tendency to accept credit for our successes but reject accountability for our errors
is known as the self-serving bias. On the one hand, when we do poorly on a test, fumble a
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presentation, lose a client, or fall short of our objectives, we frequently attribute external
blame rather than internal attribution on our own lack of effort or skill. We blame the unfair
professor, the disinterested audience, the finicky client, or the unachievable company goals.
The sum of all the prejudices makes the relationship between managers and their
employees fascinating. Stereotypes, halos-horns, and primacy-recency may bias the data that
managers gather. Additionally, managers usually blame employees' incompetence and lack of
effort for poor performance, whereas employees blame managers' poor managing skills.
However, since they are so confident in their own abilities and commitment to success, both
sides frequently fail to recognize the contributions made by the opposing party. Perceptual
biases allow us to perceive social situations quickly and accurately, but they can also
result in errors.
3.6 APPLICATIONS OF PERCEPTUAL BIASES (OR

SHORTCUTS) IN ORGANIZATIONS
People in companies are constantly evaluating one another. Managers are required to evaluate
the work of their staff. We assess the level of effort each of our co-workers is putting out in
their task. Members of the team assess a newcomer right away. Our decisions frequently have
substantial ramifications for the organisation. Let's examine the most straightforward
examples.
Employee Interview: Most hiring decisions involve an interview. However, interviewers
frequently form false perceptions and form hasty impressions that stick with them. According
to research, we establish opinions about people in less than a tenth of a second based on our
initial impressions. If these initial thoughts are unfavourable, they frequently carry more
weight in the interview than if they were revealed later. After the first 4 or 5 minutes of an
interview, many interviewers' decisions don't vary all that much. Because of this, information
gathered earlier in the interview is given more weight than information gathered later. A
"good candidate" is therefore likely defined more by the absence of bad traits than by the
existence of favourable ones.
Performance Expectations Even when their perceptions of reality are flawed, people
nonetheless try to justify them. The concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and the Pygmalion
effect are used to illustrate how a person's conduct is influenced by the expectations of others.
A manager won't likely be let down if she has high expectations for their staff. Like this, if
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she merely expects mediocre performance, they will probably live up to her low standards.
Expectations are fulfilled. It has been discovered that the self-fulfilling prophecy has an
impact on how well accountants, warriors, and even students perform.
Performance Evaluation Performance evaluations will be covered in more detail later, but
for now it is important to realise that they heavily rely on the perceptual process. Promotion,
wage increases, and continued employment are some of the most evident results that are
directly related to an employee's future and are determined by the evaluation. Many tasks are
evaluated subjectively, even though the assessment might be objective (for instance, a
salesperson is evaluated based on how much revenue he earns in his region). Even though
they are frequently important, subjective assessments are troublesome since they are affected
by all the flaws we've covered so far, including selective perception, contrast effects, halo
effects, and more. Ironically, performance reviews may reveal just as much about the assessor
as they do about the employee.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
14. Which sort of bias is the tendency to accept credit for our successes but
reject accountability for our failures?
a. Self-error c. Self-serving
b. Self-recency d. Self-primacy
15. A generalization about a person based on the group they are a part of is
a. Prejudice c. Assumption
b. Stereotype d. Observation
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3.7 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND ORGANIZATIONAL

CONSTRAINTS
Here, we focus on the variables that affect people's decision-making processes and their
susceptibility to biases and mistakes. We talk about organisational and personal limitations.
1. Individual Differences
The use of intuition, frequent biases and mistakes, and bounded rationality are characteristics
of decision-making in practice . Individual variations also lead to departures from the
rational paradigm. We examine gender and personality differences in this area.
Personality plays a critical role in defining perceptions. For instance, people with
high self-esteem tend to follow a self-serving bias. It means that they accept the credit
for success but blame others if they fail. Therefore, personality allows individuals to
perceive in some ways that are limited to their personal traits.
Gender is another individual characteristic that influences decision making. For
instance, women ruminate more than men.
You may anticipate that those with greater levels of mental capacity would be less
prone to frequent judgement mistakes given that we know they can process information more
rapidly, solve problems more precisely, and learn quicker. However, it seems that only some
of these may be avoided by persons with mental capacity.
Time orientation, the value placed on reason, the conviction that individuals can solve
issues, and the propensity for group decision-making are all cultural differences. We may
better understand why Indian managers make choices considerably more slowly and
deliberately than American managers by examining differences in time orientation. In India,
reason is respected, although this is not universally true.
2. Organizational Constraints
Employee Evaluation The standards by which employees are judged have a big impact
on managers. We shouldn't be shocked to discover that a division manager's plant managers
spend a significant portion of their time making sure that bad information doesn't reach him if
he feels that the manufacturing facilities under his supervision operate best when he hears
nothing unfavourable.
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All companies establish rules and regulations to guide choices and influence behaviour.
They naturally restrict the options for making decisions as a result.
Fig. 3.8: McDonald’s

Source: Authors’ Research
Employee decisions at McDonald's locations across the world are influenced by formal
restrictions. Employees at McDonald's restaurants, like the one in this photo who is making
Mc-Cafe Mocha, are expected to behave in a certain way. To maintain the company's high
standards for food quality and safety as well as dependable and welcoming service,
McDonald's expects staff to abide by rules and regulations for food preparation and service.
For instance, McDonald's mandates that every shop perform 72 safety-practices, as part of a
daily monitoring schedule for restaurant managers.
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3.8 ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING
TATA BRINGS BACK AIR INDIA
Tatas have recently taken over Air India. Air India was founded by Dadabhoy
Tata back in 1932. “In 1953, the Government of India passed the Air Corporations
Act to purchase a majority stake in the airline carrier from Tata Sons. Its founder
JRD Tata continued as the chairman till 1977”. However, from 2006 onwards, Air
India started to incur heavy losses even after merging with Indian Airlines. The combined
losses for Air India and Indian Airlines were rising exponentially every year. In January
2022, Tata bought back its one of the ventures that were started by its Stalwarts.
Questions:
1. Are the perception of this acquisition negative or positive? Explain why?

2. What type of individual and organizational constraints did Tata face?
Utilitarianism, which promotes making decisions only based on their outcomes in an effort
to maximize the good for the greatest number of people, is the first ethical standard. This
view dominates business decision-making. It is consistent with goals like great profitability,
productivity, and effectiveness. Another ethical need is to make decisions in conformity with
the basic freedoms and rights contained in documents like the Bill of Rights.
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The recognition and defence of essential liberties possessed by people, such as the
right to due process, free expression, and privacy, are required when placing a focus on rights
in decision-making. This standard protects whistle-blowers who make use of their freedom
of speech to alert the public or the media to an organization's unethical behaviour.
A third need for laws to be justly or equitably distributed in terms of costs and
benefits is that they be applied in a fair and unbiased manner (also known as Justice).
Typically, this viewpoint is shared by union members. It advocates paying everyone the same
wage for a given post regardless of differences in performance and relying heavily on
seniority in layoff decisions. Each criterion has advantages and disadvantages. A utilitarian
worldview may promote efficiency and production, but it also has the potential to diminish
some people's rights, particularly those of people of colour. Rights are used to safeguard
individuals from damage and are compatible with freedom and privacy, but they may also
encourage a legalistic environment that lowers productivity and efficiency. An emphasis on
justice protects the rights of the underrepresented and weaker, but it may also encourage a
sense of entitlement that hinders innovation, risk-taking, and productivity.
3.9 SUMMARY
In this lesson, you have learned:

1. The process of perception is inherently flawed and skewed.
2. Because culture adds complexity and usually provides an unexpected scenario,
cross-cultural interactions are particularly susceptible to perception errors.
3. Each person has predetermined ideas about a specific group. As a result, give your
stereotypes some thought.
4. Relying solely on recollection may cause us to make judgments that are
prejudiced in an organizational setting. To prevent biases and inaccuracies from
clouding your judgment and causing mistakes, make notes on significant events
and issues.
5. Role of perceptual biases are important to understand in managerial decision-
making and many other administrative situations.
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3.10 GLOSSARY
Egalitarianism is a belief in human equality especially with respect to social, political, and
economic affairs.
Perception filter is the process of letting some information in while keeping out the rest.
Selective attention is the “process of paying attention to some, but not all, physical and
social cues”.
Salient cues are those cues that are somehow so striking that they stand out.
Stereotypes vs Prejudice - Stereotypes are unfounded assumptions about a social group
that lack any basis in fact. Stereotypes are assumptions made about a social group that can be
either good or negative, conscious, or unconscious. Prejudice is a strong unreasonable
feeling of not liking or trusting somebody/something, especially when it is based on
his/her/its race, religion, or sex.
1. C 9. B
2. A 10. B
3. C 11. C
4. B 12. B
5. D 13. C
6. A 14. B
7. C 15. A
8. A
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3.12 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Discussion Question:
1. What are perceptions? Describe all seven biases in detail.
2. Describe the differences between primacy effect and recency effect with your real-life
examples?
3. In the Trayvon Martin case, which perceptual bias became more relevant (and
irrelevant) at the same time?
Individual and Group Activity:
For complete understanding, please read the following brief case and repeat it as many times
as you feel necessary. As directed by your instructor, you won't be allowed to consult it until
the end of the activity.
“A well-liked college instructor had just completed the final exam and had turned off
the lights in the office. Just then, a tall, dark, and broad figure appeared and demanded
the exam. The professor opened the drawer. Everything in the drawer was picked up
and the individual ran down the corridor. The dean was notified immediately”
The First Stage: Individual Scores
Answer the following questions about the case you have just read without referring to the
case. Circle T if the statement is true or correct, F if it is false, and? if you are not sure or
cannot tell.
1. The thief was tall, dark, and broad. T F ?
2. The professor turned off the light. T F ?
3. A tall figure demanded the examination. T F ?
4. The examination was picked up by someone. T F ?
5. The examination was picked up by the instructor. T F ?
6. A tall dark figure appeared after the professor T F ?

turned off the light.
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7. The man who opened the drawer was the T F ?

professor.
8. The professor ran down the corridor. T F ?
9. The drawer was never actually opened. T F ?
10. Three people are referred to in this case. T F ?
The Second Stage: Group Discussion (Next Page)
● Without turning back to the case or changing any of your answers, compare your
answers with those of your group members. Discuss any discrepancies. The goal is
not to come to an agreement and a common group answer, but to explore areas of
differences and their causes.
● Now that you have discussed the case in your group, how many questions do you
think you answered correctly?
The Last Stage: Scoring and Discussion
Your instructor will provide you with the scoring key for the questions. What explains your
score? What processes are operating? What are the implications?
3.13 REFERENCES
Nahavandi, A. M., Denhardt, R., & Aristigueta, M. P. (2020). Organizational Behavior.

USA: Sage Publication.
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2013). Organizational Behavior. New York: Pearson.
Casse, S., & S, T. (Vol. 8(1)). For Female Leadership: Who is the winner. Business
Leadership Review, pp. 1–7.
Fung, K. (2012, March 23). Geraldo Rivera: Trayvon Martin's 'Hoodie Is As Much
Responsible For [His] Death As George Zimmerman' (VIDEO). Retrieved from
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www.huffpost.com: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/geraldo-rivera-trayvon-martin-
hoodie_n_1375080
Nahavandi, A. M., Denhardt, R., & Aristigueta, M. P. (2020). Organizational Behavior.
USA: Sage Publication.
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2013). Organizational Behaviour. Newyork: Pearson.
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LESSON-4
LEARNING, ATTITUDES, VALUES AND EMOTIONS

Dr. Dimpy Handa
Assistant Professor
Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women
University of Delhi
dimpy.handa@rajguru.du.ac.in
STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Learning
4.3.1 Nature of Learning
4.3.2 Types of Learning
4.3.3 Principles of Learning
4.4 Theories of Learning
4.4.1 Classical Conditioning
4.4.2 Operant Conditioning
4.4.3 Social Learning
4.4.4 Cognitive Learning
4.4.5. Reinforcement
4.5 Learning Organization
4.6 Attitude
4.6.1 Measurement of Attitude
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4.6.2 Formation of Attitude

4.6.3 Job-related Attitudes
4.6.4 Cognitive Dissonance
4.7 Values
4.7.1 Types of Values
4.7.2 Formation of Values
4.8. Values, Attitude and Behaviour
4.9 Emotions
4.9.1 Types of Emotions
4.9.2 Sources of Emotions
4.9.3 James-Lange Theory
4.10 Emotional Intelligence
4.11 Summary
4.12 Glossary
4.15 References
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

• Understand the concept of learning;
• Understand the theories of learning;
• Understand the concept of attitude;
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• Understand the concept of values;

• Understand the concept of emotions.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Individual behaviour is very complex to understand and the application of tools of

organizational behaviour to modify individual behavior is far more complex. Therefore,
before students jump on to understand different tools and techniques of modifying individual
and group behaviour at workplace, a student must have a clear understanding of dynamics
impacting individual behaviour. This lesson illustrates different concepts that are related to
the factors affecting individual behaviour. The concept of learning, attitudes, values and
emotions establishes the foundation of human personality and thereby, impacting the
behaviour. Learning signifies a change in one's internal state, which may lead to new
permanent behaviours (for instance, learning a new skill like driving) or new comprehension
and knowledge (for example, a new subject area such as evolution of management in modern
era). When people learn specific behaviours, they may not always have a deeper
comprehension of the reasons behind them (for example, using a mobile phone without an
understanding the mechanics of technology used to build that mobile phone). By ascertaining
the benefits of learning, organisations have started to actively promote a learning culture and
reap on the benefits of advancement and change.
4.3 LEARNING
The concept of learning plays an important role for developing human nature. It helps an
individual understand complex situations and respond logically and rationally. It is a concept
that shapes an individual’s skills, lifestyle and thoughts. Learning can have lasting change in
individual’s behaviour caused by direct and indirect events. Learning as a concept is quite
often misunderstood as education and training. Whereas, education, training, practice and
experiences are rather tools of learning that cause permanent changes. Temporary change
does not truly reflect learning and eventually disappears. For instance, an employee out of the
fear of pay cut may become punctual at workplace but in personal life where there is no fear
of pay cut may not practice punctuality. This kind of temporary change requires practice and
experiences to intensify individual learning process.
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The Cambridge Dictionary defines learning as “the process of getting knowledge or a new
skill”.
According to E.R. Hilgard, “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of a prior experience”.
Henry P. Smith defined learning as “…the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening
or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience”.
4.3.1 Nature of Learning
Learning is basically the process of acquiring Knowledge, Skill, Ability (KSAs), etc. This
gives a refreshing understanding to the process of learning having distinctive features:
• It is a universal concept which is experienced by all living beings.

• It is acquired through personal or impersonal experiences.
• It is a continuous practice for modifying behaviour.
• It may imply improving behaviour in humans but behaviour may also degrade.
• It involves individuals to modify and adapt to distinct nature that can be adjusted
according to the situation.
• It brings relatively permanent change in individual behaviour.
• Change in behaviour is the result of experience, practice and/or training.
• Experience or practice must be reinforced for learning to occur.
• Learning may not be directly observable.
• It is a tool for growth and development.
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4.3.2 Types of Learning:
Motor Learning
Learning that require muscular coordination.
Walking, running, driving, eating, etc.
Verbal Learning
Individuals learn different languages.
Helps to communicate with others.
Sounds, images, pictures, etc.
Concept Learning
Builds and develops mental framework in
individuals.
Thinking, reasoning, finding logic, etc.
Discrimination Learning
Helps in distinguishing stimuli and identifying
suitable response to the stimuli.
Distinguishing among various animal sounds.
Learning of Principles
Helps in building value system of individuals.
Learning to be honest, helpful, etc.
Problem Solving
Application of concept learning in solving a
problem.
Finding shortest route to reach a destination.
Attitude Learning
Developing a predisposition for directing
individual behaviour.
It can be both positive or negative.
Fig 4.1: Types of Learning
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4.3.3 Principles of Learning:
The first three "Laws of learning" - readiness, exercise and effect were given by Edward
Thorndike. Later, came the psychologists who recognized several other principles/laws of
learning which are generally applicable to the learning process. These principles have been
discovered, tested, and used in practical situations. They provide insight into what makes
people learn most effectively. We discuss these principles in brief hereunder:
Readiness: An individual must be ready or capable of learning. Since learning is an active

process, individuals must be adequately rested, healthy, and physically able to learn. For
example, securing good grades in various subjects leads to mental and emotional readiness of
students to do more hard work in acquiring knowledge.
Exercise: Learning continues as individuals practice more. Practice involves recall, review
and summary, and manual drill and physical applications. All of these serve to create learning
habits. For instance, to be a good doctor or lawyer, individuals have to practice their
profession.
Effect: An individual’s chance of success is definitely increased if the learning experience is

a pleasant one. For instance, songs and movie stories are remembered for years by an
individual as watching a movie is entertainment for the individual.
Primacy: Learning must be facilitated in a logical order, step by step, making sure the
individuals have already learned the preceding step. For instance, an individual is first
oriented and then trained on the job.
Recency: The principle of recency states that things learned recently will be remembered
most at a particular time. Conversely, the far an individual is removed time-wise from a new
fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember things. For instance, an individual
will remember what he/she wore yesterday than what he/she wore a month or a year back.
Intensity: A sharp, dramatic, clear, vivid, or exciting learning experience creates an earning
more than a routine or boring experience. The principle of intensity implies that an individual
will learn more from the real-life experiences than from a substitute. For instance, a toddler
learns to walk after falling many times.
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Freedom: The principle of freedom implies that learning should be self-motivated and not
forced upon an individual. Individuals must have freedom of - choice, action, bear the results
of action—imbibing personal responsibility. If no freedom is granted, individuals might have
little interest in learning.
Requirements: The principle of requirement implies that “one must have something to obtain
or do something". It can be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help individuals
to learn or acquire knowledge. For instance, in order to learn piano, an individual must have
availability of piano.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is not a type of learning:

Attitude learning
Concept learning
Discrimination learning
Regular Learning
2. Experience or practice must be ___________ for learning to occur.
3. Learning requires pleasant experience. Which principle of learning suggests that?
4.4 THEORIES OF LEARNING
Over the years, academicians have been focusing on describing different patterns and/ or
process through which learning occurs in an individual. The four popular theories that offer
explanation of how individuals acquire patterns of behaviour are explained further.
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Theories of
Learning
Classical Operant Social Learning Cognitive

Conditioning Conditioning Learning
Fig 4.2: Theories of Learning

4.4.1 Classical Conditioning:
It is the process by which individuals learn reflex behaviour. A reflex is an
involuntary response that is not under an individual’s conscious control. Ivan Pavlov, is the
brain behind the concept of classical conditioning. His famous experiment with dogs lays the
foundation of how classical conditioning works to produce desired behaviour among the
individuals.
While studying the digestion in dogs, Pavlov noted an interesting observation, i.e., his
canine dogs were salivating whenever a lab assistant entered the room which dogs associated
with food being served to them. Here, the salivating response to the serving of food is an
unconditioned reflex while salivating to the expectation of food is a conditioned reflex. To
dig deeper, Pavlov opted to use food as the unconditioned stimulus, or the stimulus that
evokes a response naturally and involuntarily. The sound of a metronome was selected as the
neutral stimulus. The dogs were first made to hear the sound of the ticking metronome, and
then the food was immediately served. After several trials, dogs began to salivate after
hearing the sound of metronome. "A stimulus which was neutral in and of itself had been
superimposed upon the action of the inborn alimentary reflex," Pavlov wrote of the results,
"We observed that, after several repetitions of the combined stimulation, the sounds of the
metronome had acquired the property of stimulating salivary secretion." In other words, the
previously neutral stimulus (the metronome) had become what is known as a conditioned
stimulus that then provoked a conditioned response (salivation).
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Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) ------- Unconditioned Response (Salivation)

Neutral Stimulus (Metronome) ------- No Response
Before
Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (Metronome) + Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) --------

Unconditioned Response (Salivation)
During
Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (Metronome) ------- Conditioned Response (Salivation)
After
Conditioning
Fig 4.3: Process of Classical Conditioning

Thus, learning (conditioned response) can be induced under classical conditioning by
building an association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. This
happens quite often in real-life, for instance when a mock fire drill is organized at a school,
students are taught to respond to the sound of a particular fire alarm. Thereby, students
become ready for any fire emergency in future.
4.4.2 Operant Conditioning:
It refers to a process by which individuals learn voluntary behaviour. The theory argues that
behaviour is a function of its consequences. Individuals learn to behave to get something or to
avoid something. For instance, students reach to school on time to get attendance or to avoid
missing on subject knowledge. B.F. Skinner, Harvard Psychologist is the brain behind the
development of theory of operant conditioning. Skinner suggested the use of pleasant
consequences to increase the frequency of good behaviour. The individuals are more likely to
repeat their good behaviour if they are positively reinforced than not rewarded or worse,
punished. For instance, students with highest attendance are if awarded in school are likely to
impact students to be more regular than punishing them for their absence. In organizational
setting, giving more work to employees who finished their tasks before deadline seems like a
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punishment for good behaviour. Next time, the employees may delay the completion of
assigned tasks.
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus Response
Is stuck by a pin Flinches
Is tapped below the kneecap Flexes lower leg
Is shocked by an electric current Screams
Operant Conditioning
Response Stimulus
Works Is paid
Sit on a table in restaurant Menu is presented
Increases productivity Incentivize
Table 4.1: Examples of Classical and Operant Conditioning
4.4.3 Social Learning:

Albert Bandura and others have extended the works of Skinner by demonstrating that
individuals can learn new behaviour by observing others in social situations and then
adopting or modelling that behaviour after that of the others. This type of learning is coined
as ‘Social Learning’, i.e., learning from society. Individuals tend to behave the way they see
others behaving in their social circle. If the results of replicating someone’s behaviour is
positive, the behaviour is repeated; if the results are negative, the behaviour is not repeated.
For instance, people indulge in smoking by watching others and then quit as it links to cancer.
Our learning from parents, teachers, managers, celebrities, and similar such people influences
our behavior.
The impact of models is fundamental to social learning. The following processes
determine the intensity of models over others’ behaviour:
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Attentional Process: Individuals learn from only those models whom they find
attractive. For instance, celebrity’s outfits are often duplicated by common people.
Retention Process: Individuals learn from only those models whose actions are
remembered by the individuals. For instance, cricket lovers remember Sourav
Ganguly's waving his jersey in the Lord's stadium.
Motor Reproduction Process: Individuals learn from only those models when they
replicate models’ behaviour immediately. For instance, while watching a cooking show,
the recipe is learned if you immediately prepare it.
Reinforcement Process: Individuals exhibit model behaviour if they are presented with
positive consequences. For instance, higher pay for higher productivity.
Fig 4.4: Model of Social Learning

4.4.4 Cognitive Learning:
The word "cognitive" is derived from the word "cognition," which refers to the capacity for
thinking, perception, memory, and problem-solving. On the other side, cognitive learning
theory emphasizes on how human mind functions during the learning process. It focuses on
how the brain interprets information and investigates how learning takes place. “Cognitive
learning” is thinking about the perceived relationship between events and individual’s goals
and expectations”. It involves selective interpretation of perceived data organized into
patterns of thoughts and relationships. For instance, the leadership theories explain how a
manager is perceived as a leader. They become leaders by showing some traits for good role
models. Cognitive theory of learning suggests that an individual creates a cognitive structure
in memory which records and organizes information about various activities that occur in a
learning situation.
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Types of Cognitive Meaning Example

Learning
Intuition Learning Focus on bigger picture and Application of acquired

creativity knowledge
Introversion Learning Thought oriented, enjoys Book reading clubs, Group

deep and meaningful Discussions
conversations
Extraversion Learning Action oriented learning and Playing guitar, sports

enjoys socializing
Sensing Learning Relies on historical data to Keeping umbrella handy in

evaluate a situation and rainy season
develop solutions
Feeling Learning Decision making based on Creating your own lifestyle

personal values
Table 4.2: Types of Cognitive Learning
4.4.5 Reinforcement:
The operant conditioning is based on the law of effect as given by Edward Thorndike. The
law of effect states that the behaviour with rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated;
while behaviour with negative consequences is not likely to be repeated. This law serves as
the foundation of reinforcement theory. Reinforcement is the core of the learning process.
Reinforcement can be defined as anything that strengthens a response and/or tends to increase
its frequency. There are four types of reinforcement strategies.
Motive Reinforcement Meaning Example
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Strategy
Encourage desirable Positive Pleasant Incentive for higher

behaviour Reinforcement consequence for productivity
desired behaviour
Negative Removal of Supervisor stops

Reinforcement undesirable criticizing when
consequence employees meet
their standards.
Discourage Extinction Removal of Isolating a disruptive

undesirable desirable employee from the
behaviour consequence team
Punishment Placing undesirable Pay cut for being

consequence late at work
Table 4.3: Strategies of Reinforcement

Reinforcement does not guarantee a particular response as individuals are dynamic. For
instance, studying hard may not yield good grades. Many times, the presence or absence of
reinforcers may bring in random responses. Thereby, they need to be governed by rules.
These rules are known as schedules of reinforcement. These schedules how often a reinforcer
must be present or absent to bring in desired responses.
Schedule Nature Effect on Example

Behaviour
Continuous Reward after each Fast learning but Compliments
desired behaviour rapid extinction of
behaviour
Fixed-Interval Reward after fixed Irregular Weekly pay-out
time intervals performance with
rapid extinction
Variable- Interval Reward after Above average Pop quizzes
variable intervals performance with
slow extinction
Fixed Ratio Reward at fixed High performance Piece-rate pay
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amount of output with rapid extinction

Variable Ration Reward at variable Very high Commission based
amount of output performance with sales
slow extinction
Table 4.4: Schedules of Reinforcement (Source: Robbins Stephen P and Judge T.A., Vohra,
Organisational Behaviour, 16th Ed. Pearson.)
4.5 LEARNING ORGANIZATION
A learning organization is an organization that has developed the continuous capacity to

adapt and change. As individual learns and so do organizations. Continuous learning is a
fundamental requirement for ensuring sustainability of businesses. Chris Argyris and his
associates, developed two types of learning organizations:
a) Single-loop learning involving measures to improve the organization’s ability to
achieve desired goals. It requires routine behavioral learning.
b) Double-loop learning involves re-working on the organizational goals, policies and
strategies to adapt a new organizational culture.
The fundamentals of learning organization are –
• In a learning organization there is a shared vision that can emerge from many places
but the top management is responsible for ensuring that the vision exists and is
nurtured.
• Ideas are formulated and implemented at all levels of organizations.
• Employees understand their own jobs as well as the way in which their own work
inter-relates with and influences that of other employees.
• Conflicts are resolved using collaborative learning and the integration of diverse
opinions of employees throughout organization.
• The role of the leader is to empower employees, inspire commitment, and encourage
effective decision making throughout the enterprise through the use of empowerment
and charismatic leadership.
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An organization can be transformed into a learning organization by adopting to three-step

process – establishing a strategy for continuous improvement; redesigning organization
structure; and reshaping organizational culture.
Presence of Tension
Gap between vision and reality
Questioning
Challenging status quo
Critical reflection
Systems Thinking Culture Facilitating

Shared vision Learning
Holistic thinking Learning Suggestions
Openness Teamwork
Organization Empowerment
Empathy
Fig 4.5: Characteristics of Learning Organization (Source: Luthans, F. (2011). Organizational

Behavior: An Evidence – Based Approach, McGraw Hill Education)
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
4. According to Skinnerian Operant conditioning theory, a negative
reinforcement is:
(a) Nothing but punishment
(b) A biofeedback
(c) A withdrawing or removal of a positive reinforcer
(d) An instinctive drift
5. Which schedule of reinforcement is a ratio schedule stating a ratio of responses
to rein-forcements?
(a) Variable Ratio Schedule (b) Fixed Interval Schedule
(c) Variable Interval Schedule (d) Fixed Ratio Schedule
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Case Study of a Learning Organization – Ford
Ford used the accounts payable as illustrated in the figure below prior to
installation. The initial purchase order for raw materials is sent by Ford's
purchasing department. Additionally, a copy of the purchase order is forwarded to
the accounts payable division. The vendor raises an invoice for the accounts
payable division after delivering the raw supplies. The accounts payable division
totals the purchase order, the items that have been received, and the invoices
before paying the supplier. While Mazda, a Japanese automaker competitor,
managed the same procedure with 100 workers—a surprisingly low number of
employees even when the magnitude of the operation is taken into account—Ford
used roughly 500 individuals to handle the entire process.
Instead of tinkering with the company procedures just slightly. Ford made the
decision to employ IT to drastically alter its accounts payable procedure. A
mechanism without invoices has been put in place. The departments responsible
for purchasing will create the purchase order and update the database. The
payment will be made without waiting for the vendor to send an invoice as soon
as the materials have been received and a warehouse worker updates the materials
received.
4.6 ATTITUDE
Evaluative remarks regarding things, people, or events are called attitudes. It can be positive,
neutral or negative. They are a reflection of one’s feelings. If an individual says that “I like
my job” that describes how the individual feel about his/her job. Attitudes are intricate. In
order to comprehend, individuals must take into account the underlying components of
attitude. There are three important components of attitude as - cognition, affect, and behavior
which are closely related.
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Cognitive = Evaluation
My supervisor gave a promotion
to a coworker who deserved it
less than me. My supervisor is unfair.
Negative
attitude
toward
supervisor
Behavioral = Action
Affective = Feeling
I’m looking for other work; I’ve
I dislike my complained about my supervisor
supervisor! to anyone who would listen.
Fig 4.6: Components of Attitudes (Source: Robbins Stephen P and Judge T.A., Vohra,
Characteristics of attitude:
● Attitude may be fluctuating. An individual may dislike something at first then
like same thing later.
● Attitudes are intangible psychological phenomenon.
● Attitudes toward something are acquired over a period gradually.
● Attitudes are built in the process of socializing.
● Attitudes help in adjusting to a new environment. With positive attitude
individuals can welcome changes instead of resisting.
● Individuals build attitudes to create their self-image. Attitudes help in
expression of one’s value system.
● An ambitious person will have a positive attitude for the job instead of
complaining about it whole day.
● Knowledge can be substituted by the attitudes. For instance, people stereotype
about others due to lack of personal information about them.
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4.6.1 Measurement of Attitude

The attitudes of individuals though stable in a shorter duration, might be modified over a
period of time. Minor changes in individual’s attitude is inevitable and normal which makes
the behavior dynamic. For instance, an irregular student becomes regular and punctual
realizing the positive aspects of getting early up in the morning. There are many ways of
measuring such changes in individual’s attitude. Few of them are presented hereunder:
Fig 4.7: Tools for Measuring Attitude

4.6.2 Formation of Attitude:
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Individuals form positive, neutral and/or negative attitude towards something depending on
various factors:
Psychological factors: It includes ideas, beliefs, perception, values, information, etc.
For instance, an employee perceives hard work will yield rewards to him than the
employee will have a positive attitude towards job.
Family: An individual is well influenced by the family as he/she spends the major
time of childhood with the family instilling ready-made attitudes of the family
members. Family is involved in decision-making towards education, job, religion,
economic conditions, etc. For instance, an individual with low income family will
develop a saving attitude towards money.
Society: Society creates the circle of tradition and culture around the individual,
influencing the attitude. For instance, the attitude of Japanese people towards their job
is critically different from that of Americans. Japanese employees are better adjusted
to the notion of work as honourable.
Political factors: Ideologies of the political parties, and leaders greatly affect an
individual’s attitude. For instance, an individual from any communist party may
oppose liberal democracy.
Organisational factors: During the adulthood, individuals spend most of their time
in the organization they work for. They collectively, not just form the organizational
culture but influence each other’s attitude as well. For instance, a nurturing culture in
the organization may influence their employees towards personal development by
providing opportunities to learn new things and grow professionally. Such practices
develop good attitude towards organization and job.
Economic factors: Economic conditions of an individual affect the spending
capability of individuals that may develop negative attitude toward individual
spending lavishly on leisure.
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Psychological
Factors
Political Family
Factors
How people form

Attitudes?
Economic Society
Factors
Organization
Fig 4.8: Formation of Attitudes

4.6.3 Job Related Attitudes:
In the study of Organization Behaviour (OB) people focus more on job-related attitudes.
These are positive or negative evaluations that employees hold about aspects of their job
environments. Most of the research in OB has looked at three job related attitudes: job
satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. A few other important
attitudes are perceived organizational support and employee engagement.
a) Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its
characteristics.
b) Job Involvement: The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates
in it, and considers performance important to self-worth.
c) Psychological Empowerment: Employees’ belief in the degree to which they affect their
work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job, and their perceived
autonomy in their work.
d) Organizational Commitment: The degree to which an employee identifies with a
particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.
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e) Perceived Organizational Support: The degree to which employees believe an

organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being.
f) Employee Engagement: An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and
enthusiasm for the work he or she does.
There is some distinctiveness among attitudes, but they overlap greatly for various reasons,
including the employee’s personality. If a manager knows someone’s level of job satisfaction,
the manager knows most of what employees need to know about how that employee sees the
organization. Researches suggests that managers tend to identify their employees as
belonging to one of four distinct categories: enthusiastic stayers, reluctant stayers,
enthusiastic leavers (planning to leave), and reluctant leavers (not planning to leave but
should leave).
4.6.4 Cognitive Dissonance:
In the late 1960s, a review of the research challenged the assumed effect of attitudes on
behavior. One researcher—Leon Festinger—argued that attitudes follow behavior. He
observed that individuals change what they say so that it doesn’t contradict what they do. For
instance, individuals criticize a political party and then praises the political party if any policy
is released that is in favor of the individual. Festinger suggested that cases of attitude
following behavior prove the effects of cognitive dissonance. It is any incompatibility an
individual might perceive between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.
Festinger argued that any form of contradiction is uncomfortable and that individuals will
therefore attempt to reduce it. They will pursue a stable state, which is of minimum
dissonance. Research has suggested that individuals do seek consistency among their
attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. They either change the attitudes or
the behavior, or they develop a rationalization for the inconsistency. According to a study, for
instance, that the attitudes of employees who had experienced difficult, emotionally
challenging work events improved after they talked about their experiences with co-workers.
Social sharing helped these workers adjust their attitudes to behavioral expectations. No
individual, of course, can completely avoid dissonance. Individuals know evading income tax
is wrong, but they fudge the numbers a bit every year and hope they are not audited.
Festinger proposed that the desire to reduce dissonance depends on three factors, including
the importance of the elements creating it and the degree of influence individuals believe they
have over them. Individuals will be more motivated to reduce dissonance when the attitudes
are important or when they believe the dissonance is due to something they can control. The
third factor is the rewards of dissonance; high rewards accompanying high dissonance tend to
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reduce the tension inherent in the dissonance (the dissonance is less distressing if
accompanied by something good, such as a higher pay raise than expected).
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. The defining characteristic of________ is that they express an evaluation of some
object.
a. Beliefs
b. Attitudes
c. Interaction
d. Perception
7. Bob cooks for his girlfriend; it's his way of showing her he cares about her. His
cooking is an example of
a. dissonance
b. a terminal value
c. a relational currency
d. self-promotion
4.7 VALUES
Values represent the fundamental convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end-state of
existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence.” Values have a judgmental element because they carry people’s ideas
about right, good, or desirable. They have both content and intensity qualities. The content
characteristic says a code of conduct or end-state of existence is vital. The intensity
characteristic specifies the extent of importance of end-state of existence. When people rank
values in terms of intensity, they obtain that person’s value system. Everyone has a hierarchy
of values according to the relative significance they assign to values such as freedom,
honesty, obedience, pleasure, self-respect, and equality.
The basic characteristics of values are:
● They are relatively stable and enduring.
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● People starts establishing their value system in the early years—by parents,
teachers, friends, and others.
● They reflect standards of human behaviour.
Organizational Values – Example of Tata
Business, as I have seen it, places one great demand on you: it needs you to self-
impose a framework of ethics, values, fairness and objectivity on yourself at all
times.” - Ratan N Tata, 2006. Tata has always been a values-driven organisation.
These values continue to direct the growth and business of Tata companies.
The five core Tata values underpinning the way we do business are:
Integrity: We will be fair, honest, transparent and ethical in our conduct;

everything we do must stand the test of public scrutiny.
Responsibility: We will integrate environmental and social principles in our

businesses, ensuring that what comes from the people goes back to the people
many times over.
Excellence: We will be passionate about achieving the highest standards of

quality, always promoting meritocracy.
Pioneering: We will be bold and agile, courageously taking on challenges, using

deep customer insight to develop innovative solutions.
Unity: We will invest in our people and partners, enable continuous learning, and
build caring and collaborative relationships based on trust and mutual respect.
Source: Organizational Values – Example of Tata (https://www.tata.com/about-

us/tata-values-purpose)
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Cohort Entered the Dominant Work Values

Workforce
Boomers 1965–1985 Success, achievement, ambition, dislike of

authority; loyalty to career
Xers 1985–2000 Work/life balance, team-oriented, dislike of

rules; loyalty to relationships
Millennials 2000 to present Confident, financial success, self reliant

but team-oriented; loyalty
to both self and relationships
Table 4.7: Dominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce (Source: Robbins Stephen P and
Judge T.A., Vohra, Organisational Behaviour, 16th Ed. Pearson.)
4.7.1 Types of Values:
Broadly speaking, there are two types of values - Terminal and Instrumental Values.
Terminal Values Instrumental Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals a Preferable modes of behavior or means of

person would like to achieve during his or her
achieving one’s terminal values.
lifetime.
Comfortable life Ambition

Sense of accomplishment Courage
Self-respect Honesty
Wisdom Independence
Table 4.8: Types of Values (Source: Robbins Stephen P and Judge T.A., Vohra,
Allport and his associates have identified six types of values –
Theoretical: Interests that develop reasoning and systematic thinking.
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Economic: Interests in accumulation of wealth.

Aesthetic: Interests in beauty and artistic harmony.
Social: Interest in people and relationships.
Political: Interest in acquiring power and leading others.
Religious: Interest in understanding the cosmos of whole.
4.7.2 Formation of Values:
A person sources his/her value system from the diverse components of their environment
such as –
Family – Family is the prime and most important source of obtaining values. Children
learn some values from his/her family since the childhood and retains those values in
their mind throughout their life. The ways the parents nurture, educate and raise their
children shape their personality and inculcate values in them.
Society – Society plays a major role in developing value system of people. Children
learn basic manners and discipline from their teachers. Teachers play a pivotal role in
developing value system in individuals. Besides schools and colleges, other groups of
society such as religious groups, economic and political groups to which people
belongs also affect their value system.
Personal factors – Personal characteristics like intelligence, ability, appearance and
education level of a person determines his value system very strongly. For example,
an intelligent and educated person will understand and learn the social and work-
related values relatively faster than the uneducated person.
Culture – Cultural factors which influence value system of an individual include
norms, beliefs and other behaviour patterns which are preferred and acceptable by the
society. These values are often carried in rituals, customs or narratives that are often
repeated and highly resistant to change because they are seen as absolute.
Religion – Religion is comprised of set of values and traditions which guide routine
behaviour and decision making of an individual. Religious values help people
determine what is good or what is bad.
Life experiences –One learns most from own experiences and sometimes from
experiences of others too. The values which an individual learns from own
experiences of life are relatively long lasting and difficult to change.
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Role demands – Role demand refers to the behaviour which is associated with the
particular position or role profile in an organisation. Every individual play multiple
roles in life. The problem occurs when there is a role conflict. In such case,
individuals quickly learn the value system prevailing in the organisation so that they
may survive and progress in the same organisation.
Constitution – Almost, all the existing constitutions of various countries highlight the
values of democracy, equality and world peace. The values enshrined in the
Constitution of India are stated in its Preamble are Justice, Liberty, Equality of status
and opportunity and Fraternity. Herein, justice occupies the first place, followed by
liberty, equality.
4.8 VALUES, ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR
The difference between values and attitudes is firstly that while values are always positive
(i.e. expressing preferences), attitudes can be both positive and negative. Secondly, values are
general, but attitudes are specific and can vary from object to object. It is also believed that
attitudes are more apt to change than values. Behaviour depends on underlying attitudes, but
is also affected by many other things like opportunities to act, norms, expected consequences
etc. Therefore, the link between attitudes and behaviour is not direct. The characteristics and
relationships between individual values, attitudes and behaviour are presented hereunder:
Fig 4.9: The relationship among Values, Attitudes and Behaviour (Source: Jaakson, K.
(2022). Management by values: the analysis of influencing aspects and its theoretical and
practical implications.)
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Although Collins and Porras (1994) are of the opinion that mere articulation of values
increases the likelihood of values-based behaviour, there has to be support via organisational
systems as well. Basically, there are two paths for organisational support of values-based
behaviour. The first option is having the people with the “right” attitude who are naturally
inclined to behave in the desired way. Stackman et al., (2000) maintain that values are key
determinants of employee attitudes, which in turn affect work-related behaviour. This is to
say that values do not affect behaviour directly, but via attitudes, which are defined as
“dispositions to respond favourably or unfavourably to an object, person, institution or event”
(Ajzen, 2005: 3).
4.9 EMOTIONS
The root of the word emotion comes from a French term meaning “to stir up.” And that’s a
great place to begin our investigation of emotions at work. Emotions are intense feelings
directed at someone or something. They are reactions to a person (seeing a friend at work
may make you feel glad) or an event (dealing with a rude client may make you feel
frustrated). They are also useful for creative tasks, because positive people tend to be more
creative and open to new ideas. In addition to helping with employee creativity, companies
such as Microsoft Corporation often want to understand which features of their products
produce not just high ratings for usability but also high emotional ratings. Individuals with
strong positive emotional reactions are more likely to use their product and recommend it to
others (Weler, 2008). This is something Apple Inc. has been known for doing well, as their
products tend to evoke strong positive emotions and loyalty from their users.
Characteristics of Emotions:
● Emotions accompany Instincts: For instance fear is associated with the instinct of
escape, in a situation which is considered by an individual as dangerous.
● Emotions are primary or secondary: For instance resentment, indignation, sullenness,
rage and fury are the variations of anger (primary).
● Emotions are subjective: These are, in reality, personal experiences.
● External situations produce emotions: An external situation like thunder engenders
fear in the mind of the individual.
● Overt behaviour is the product of emotion as fear arouses crying.
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● Emotions are complex affective states: It includes cognition to the extent that the
individual experiences emotion only after he recognises a particular situation.
● There is a wide range and wide degree of emotions.
● Reasoning and emotion: Reasoning provides a check on emotional upsurge. The
emotional response is weakened by the application of intellect.
4.9.1 Types of Emotions:
There are few attributes more core and universal to the human experience than the emotions.
Of course, the broad spectrum of emotions humans are capable of experiencing can be
difficult to articulate.
Fig 4.9: Types of Emotions (Source: Adapted from H. M. Weiss and R. Cropanzano,
“Affective Events Theory,” in B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in
Organizational Behavior, Vol. 18, JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn., 1996, pp. 20–22 and Daniel
Goleman, Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, 1995, pp. 289–290.)
The workplace contains a wide variety of emotions. Furthermore, it is probably not
overstatement to say that many administrative and organisational decisions, as well as most
personal ones, are based more on emotions than on rational cognitive processes. For instance,
rather than what is logically best for one's profession, career decisions are frequently
dependent on feelings of satisfaction, affection, or even fear. In reality, rather than being
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influenced by factors like marginal costs, return on investment, or other considerations that
the classic rational economic/finance models would predict, management decisions are
frequently motivated by unpleasant emotions like fear or rage.
4.9.2 Sources of Emotions:
Emotions emerge from a wide range of sources:
a) Personality: Every person has a natural tendency to experience some moods and
feelings more frequently than others. We also differ in how strongly we feel the same
emotion; people who are affectively intense feel both positive and negative emotions
and moods more strongly.
b) Day of the week or time of the day: People are typically at their worst early in the
week and at their best late in the week. As people tend to avoid delivering unpleasant
news or request favours on a monday morning.
c) Stress: The emotions and moods can suffer from stress. The consequences
accumulate over time, and ongoing stress can make our moods and emotions worse.
d) Social activities: For the majority of people, social activities boost emotions and have
minimal impact on negative emotions. A positive emotion encourages social contact.
e) Lifestyle Factors: Sleep quality does affect emotions. People are more prone to
experience tiredness, rage, and aggression when they are exhausted, which can affect
decision-making and make it challenging to control emotions. Another factor be
exercise that enhances our positive emotions. This is especially good for depressed
people.
f) Demographic Factors: As people age, negative feelings tend to happen less
frequently. Highly happy emotions linger longer in elderly persons, but negative
emotions pass more swiftly in older people. With age, emotional experience gets
better. Moreover, Men are less demonstrative in their emotions than women are.
Compared to males, they feel them more strongly and hang onto them for longer.
Except for rage, they express both pleasant and negative emotions more frequently.
This is so because men are drilled to be courageous and tough. Women exhibit greater
good moods because they are social and nurturing.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
8. The link between attitudes and behaviour
a) direct b) not direct
c) neutral d) does not occur
9. Emotions are:
a) objective responses to experiences in our environment
b) subjective responses to experiences in our environment
c) physiological changes to experiences in our environment
d) behavioral changes to experiences in our environment
10. Which of these supports the James-Lange theory of emotion?
a) emotion is a visceral response producing a behavioural response
b) artificial induction of visceral changes does not necessarily produce emotion
c) the viscera are ‘insensitive structures’
d) visceral changes are the same in many emotions
4.9.3 James-Lange Theory:

The James-Lange hypothesis of emotion, put out independently by psychologist William
James and physiologist Carl Lange, postulated that feelings are the product of bodily
responses to experiences. To put it another way, this theory contends that people's
physiological reactions to environmental stimuli are interpreted by them to produce
emotional experiences. This idea holds that seeing an external stimulus causes a
physiological reaction. How people perceive those physical responses will determine your
emotional response. Imagine an individual is out for a walk in the woods when the individual
spots a grizzly bear. The individual’s heart starts to beat quickly, and the individual start to
quiver. According to the James-Lange theory, the individual will perceive his physical
responses as signs of fear ( "I am shaking. I'm afraid as a result ")
The conventional wisdom prior to the James-Lange theory held that people's initial response
to perception was cognitive. Then, in response to that idea, physical responses took place.
Instead, the James-Lange method proposed that these physiological reactions take place first
and are crucial to the sense of emotion. The hypothesis had a significant impact on
psychology and our understanding of emotions, even though it may appear like a minor
distinction in the course of events. Though widely accepted, not everyone concurred that
emotions were triggered by physical reactions.
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4.10 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
The capacity to recognize, use, and regulate your own emotions in order to reduce stress,
communicate clearly, sympathizes with others, overcome obstacles, and diffuse conflict is
known as Emotional Intelligence (EQ). You can develop stronger relationships, perform well
at work and school, and reach your professional and personal objectives with the aid of
emotional intelligence. Additionally, it can assist you in establishing a connection with your
emotions, putting your intentions into practice, and choosing what is most important to you.
Emotional intelligence is commonly defined by four attributes:
Self-management – Individuals control impulsive feelings and behaviors, manage your
emotions in healthy ways, take initiative, follow through on commitments, and adapt to
changing circumstances.
Fig 4.11: Attributes of Emotional Intelligence

Self-awareness – Individuals recognize their own emotions and how they affect your
thoughts and behavior. They know their strengths and weaknesses and have self-confidence.
Social awareness – Individuals have empathy. They can understand the emotions, needs, and
concerns of other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel comfortable socially, and recognize
the power dynamics in a group or organization.
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Relationship management – Individuals know how to develop and maintain good

relationships, communicate clearly, inspire and influence others, work well in a team, and
manage conflict.
The fact that so many people still think that interacting with co-workers personally hinders
efficiency means that the office is still the last refuge of IQ worship. Individuals don't have
the same emotional connections at work that encourage them to get along with others the way
they do at home. Individuals lack the advantage of a shared past to aid in their understanding
of what motivates individuals around them. Because of this, it is even more crucial that
individuals have a technique to recognize what their co-workers need right now. That ability
is already present in them; it is called active awareness, and it results in empathy. Putting
those aspects of their EQ to use will help them succeed and deal with issues at work
4.11 SUMMARY
Theory Appraisal Criticism
Classical Conditioning Identifying causes of Does not allow for

behaviour free will in
individual
Emphasizes learning
from the Underestimates
environment uniqueness of human
beings
Supports nurture
over nature May lack validity
Based on scientific, Limiting in
empirical evidence describing behavior
in terms of nature or
Improve or control
nurture
undesirable
behaviors
Operant Conditioning Effective for Does not address

temporary behaviour cognitive processes
modification
Behaviour ends with
Easy to implement reinforcement
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May hinder intrinsic

motivation
Cognitive Learning creative approach for Limit the quantity of

solving tasks learning
less time to solve Use of repetition and
tasks therefore,
encourages rote
division of tasks
learning
which makes it
possible for Ineffective for Bright
individuals to search Learners
for a quick solution
Social Learning Natural Way to False setting

Learn
Ignores the Role of
great for leverage in nature
organisations
Ignores Biological
Higher Learning Factors
Retention
Ignores life span
Bringing employees changes
together to share
subject matter
expertise costs less
Thurstone scale Allows as many Time-consuming.

statements as you
The scale is
want.
complex.
Assured of survey
There is no sure
reliability because
method of measuring
the judges that will
attitude; scale only
rate the scale are
try to measure the
highly
expressed opinion
knowledgeable.
and then draw
Provides the average inferences from it
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score of the survey about people’s actual

ranks. This assists feelings or attitudes.
the researcher when
Limited answer
analyzing the results
options.
from the respondents
because the
researcher already
knows what score to
compare the result
to.
The scale also gives
the researcher the
monopoly to choose
items that represent
the desired range.
Likert’s Scale Ease of On one side, two

Implementation- people can get the
Quantifiable Answer same value in the
Options Likert scale by
having chosen
Makes question
different options.
answering easier on
the respondent Is difficult to treat
neutral opinions as
Responses are very
“Neither agree nor
easy to code
disagree”.
Likert surveys are
Respondents tend to
also quick, efficient
agree to the
and inexpensive
statements showed.
methods for data
This phenomenon is
collection
called acquiescence
bias.
Opinion Survey To Get a Sense of Influence Could

the Majority Opinion Also Be Negative
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For Potential Chances of

Accuracy Inaccuracy
To Negate Thinking Altering Answers
Errors
Much more
affordable
Interviews Ability to find the Highly time-

right candidate consuming
Enables detailed Unpredictable
assessment outcome
Great source of Hard to verify the
information truth
Increase knowledge Can easily form
stereotypes
Understanding
stakeholders better Risk of personal bias
Extracting additional
information
4.12 GLOSSARY
Attitudes: Mental states of readiness for need arousal.

Classical conditioning: It is a behavioural procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus
is paired with a previously neutral stimulus.
Emotional intelligence: The ability to accurately perceive, evaluate, express, and regulate
emotions and feelings.
Extinction: In a learning situation, the decline in the response rate because of
nonreinforcement.
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Learning: The process by which a relatively enduring change in behavior occurs as a result
of practice.
Negative reinforcement: Reinforcement that strengthens a response because the response
removes some painful or unpleasant stimulus or enables the organism to avoid it.
Operant conditioning: Learning that occurs as a consequence of behavior.
Positive reinforcement: Action that increases the likelihood of a particular behavior.
Punishment: An uncomfortable consequence for a particular behaviour response or the
removal of a desirable reinforcer because of a particular behaviour response.
Values: The conscious, affective desires of wants of people that guide their behaviour. Basic
guidelines and beliefs that a decision maker uses when confronted with a situation requiring
choice.
1. d) Regular Learning 7. c) a relational currency

2. Reinforced 8. b) not direct
3. Principle of Effect
9. b) subjective responses to experiences in
4. (c) A withdrawing or removal of a our environment
positive reinforcer
10. a) emotion is a visceral response
5. (c) Variable Interval Schedule
producing a behavioural response
6. b) Attitudes
1. What is meant by learning in the organization? What are the different ways in which
employees may learn at work? Cite suitable examples.
2. How important is attitude in making people attached to a company and making
employees satisfied?
3. Values have become secondary for achieving success in the organization. Discuss.
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4. How do you apply concepts about emotions to specific Organizational Behaviour

issues?
4.15 REFERENCES
• Luthans, F. (2011). Organizational Behavior: An Evidence – Based Approach,

McGraw Hill Education
• Robbins Stephen P and Judge T.A., Vohra, Organisational Behaviour, 16th Ed.
Pearson.)
• Singh, B.P. & Chhabra, T.N. (2013). Organisation Theory and Behaviour, Dhanpat
Rai & Co.
• Kaul Vijay Kumar (2012). Business Organization & Management - Text and Cases,
• Kavita Singh: Organisational Behaviour 3rd Ed. Vikas Publication.
• Koontz & Heinz Weihrich, Essential of Management, McGraw Hill.
• Kumar, P. Sachdeva A. (2012). Fundamentals of Management. S. Chand. 1ed.
• Pearson.
• Robbins Stephen P and Judge T.A. (2017) Organisational Behaviour, 17th Ed.
Pearson.
• Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter (2017) Management. 13th Ed. Pearson.
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LESSON-5
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP
Dr. Reema Aggarwal
Assistant Professor
Campus of Open Learning, University of Delhi
reemaaggarwal@sol-du.ac.in
Ms. Manisha Yadav
Assistant Professor
Manishayadav@sol-du.ac.in
STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Transactional Analysis
5.4 Ego States
5.4.1 The Parent Ego State
5.4.2 The Adult Ego State
5.4.3 The Child Ego State
5.5 Types of Transactions
5.5.1 Complementary Transactions
5.5.2 Non-Complementary Transaction
5.5.3 Ulterior Transactions
5.5.4 Gallows Transaction
5.6 Need of Understanding Transactional Analysis
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5.7 Life Positions

5.8 Stroke Analysis
5.8.1 Types of Strokes
5.9 Psychological Games
5.10 Johari Window
5.10.1 Application of Johari Window in Business
5.11 Summary
5.12 Answers to In-Text Questions
5.14 References
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

● Explain the concept of transactional analysis and the need to maintain a healthy
interpersonal relationship in an organisation.
● Differentiate between complementary and non-complementary transactions.
● Understand the concept of life positions and their importance in the organisation.
● Understand the importance of stroke and the concept of psychological games.
● Understand the importance of the Johari window as a tool for improving interpersonal
relationships.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
Organisations accomplish their objectives through their employees. It takes collective efforts,
which requires smooth interpersonal interactions among employees. Globalization and
technology improvements have made it more critical for employees to interact with one
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another and ensure smooth interpersonal communication to enhance organizational

effectiveness.
As Aristotle said, “Man is a social animal” by extension, employees interact with one another
and work in close associations. Employees working together share a special bond that makes
them feel connected with one another and the organisation itself. A healthy interpersonal
relationship makes employees more productive and positive and renders the entire working
environment more salubrious. An interpersonal relationship is a dyadic relationship that is
interactive, now this interaction can be on a one-to-one basis, one-to-group basis, group-to-
one basis or group-to-group basis. Besides, these transactions can be cooperative or
conflicting. The cooperative transaction is a win-win scenario for both, the organization and
the members partaking in it.
Some skills that can help navigate an individual to these significant transactions without a
hitch are: - mutual trust, positive thinking, empathy and courtesy.
Accomplishing successful interpersonal relations in the context of organizational goals is a
challenging and slow process. It requires a deep psychological understanding of oneself as
well as of others. Every manager is responsible for managing interpersonal relations in his
department in such a way that everybody cooperates willingly in accomplishing the
organizational goals. Without good interpersonal relations, there will be an atmosphere of
misunderstanding and conflicts in the organization. After a long time of research, several
behavioural scientists recommended the use of various tools for analysing and managing
interpersonal behaviour in an organization for the betterment of the organization and its
people. The present lesson explores some of these tools, like ego states, life positions,
psychological games, strokes, and the Johari window.
5.3 TRANSACTINAL ANALYSIS
Transaction refers to communication and exchange of dialogue between two individuals.

Transactions consists of two components -"Transaction stimulus" (It is given by a person who
starts communication) and "Transaction response" (It is provided by a person who
receives transaction stimulus).
When two individuals interact, one responds to the other; this is called a social transaction.
The study of these transactions is known as transactional analysis (TA). Based on the ideas of
Sigmund Freud's Psychometric theory of childhood experiences in the late 1950s, Eric Berne
developed transactional analysis theory. It is a psychoanalytic theory and a therapy method
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that helps understand interpersonal behaviour and analyse social interaction between people.
Transactional Analysis is a theory to improve interpersonal communication. Transactional
analysis was initially thought to be a simple model and was criticized. But eventually, the
understanding of transactional analysis increased, and many acknowledged it. Transactional
Analysis has wide applications in clinical, therapeutic, organizational and personal
development, encompassing communications, management, personality, relationships and
behaviour.
Today TA is used in organizations as psychotherapy. Eric Berne said that verbal
communication, particularly face-to-face communication, is at the centre of human social
relationships and psychoanalysis. His starting point was that when two people encounter each
other, one of them will speak to the other, which he called the Transaction Stimulus. The
reaction from the other person he called the Transaction Response. The present lesson
includes the concept of ego states, life positions, psychological games, strokes, and the Johari
window that could help understand how interpersonal relationships could become smooth.
5.4 EGO STATES
Humans are teeming with whims and fancies. Accordingly, when employees interact, their
conduct varies as per the situation. An employee is cooperative at one time and grumpy at the
other. He is cordial to one colleague and gives a cold-shoulder to another. Such different
actions occur because of varying ego states.
At the core of transactional analysis are the Ego states. Paul Federn coined the term Ego
states. According to this, human personality comprises three "ego states". Ego states refer to a
“pattern of behaviour”. As one grows up, one develops a certain behaviour pattern known as
the Ego State. According to Dr Eric Berne, there are three ego states: parent ego, adult ego,
and child ego. Each ego state consists of some common behavioural pattern an individual
follows in various situations. Usually, their present-day reactions are based on their past
experiences and feelings. Following is a brief detail on each ego state-
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Ego Parent Adult Child

States (P) (A) (C)
Fig5.1: Ego States

5.4.1 The Parent Ego State: Parent Ego refers to the personality attributes of values,
attitudes, and behaviour of parents like people, inherited by a person when he was a child. An
individual assimilates such behaviour from parent figures like a teacher, father, mother,
brother, or any other person who is elderly and displays an advisory behaviour, which is
copied by a child and subsequently displayed in his life when such situations arise. Either
someone makes decisions for you, or they show protection and care. Both types of behaviour
represent the “Parent ego”. Parent ego can be of the following two types-
i. Nurturing Parent Ego: The nurturing parent ego state has attributes like empathy,
comfort, and protection towards others. In this state, an individual tries to understand others
and emanates empathy towards them. Actions taken from this state instil confidence and
encourage others to go on and are full of appreciation for people and their positive
behaviours. For instance, a person in this ego state will say, “What can I do to help you?
ii. Critical Parent Ego: The critical parent ego state is about blaming others and giving
unconstructive criticism. It includes actions like – attacking other people, being extremely
judgmental, not listening, and not being interested in an explanation. The critical parent will
write you off as a person rather than deal with your behaviour. However, they are always
ready to respond with a ‘should or ought to almost anything that people tell them. For
instance, an individual in his critical parent ego state will say, “You must submit your
assignment by evening.”
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Activity
Name that one friend in your friend circle-
a) Who normally suggests place, fix time, and decides do’s and don’ts for the whole
group.
b) Who says, “don’t worry, I am with you”, or “I’ll help you in best possible manner” or
shows care and concern.
5.4.2 The Adult Ego State: An adult’s ego state refers to a pattern of behaviour where an
individual behaves more logically. Past experiences do not influence such individuals and
they believe in seeking facts and tend to reflect problem-solving behaviour. Their behaviour
is inclined toward rational decision-making. They analyze the situation after going through
the available facts and behave rationally. Logical thinking, thoughtful conversation and
factual discussion are the cornerstones of an adult ego state. The adult ego state is stored by
facts, not feelings and emotions.
5.4.3 The Child Ego state: The child ego state refers to a pattern of behaviour that could
be characterized by spontaneous, impulsive, creative, and emotional components of
personality. A child’s Ego state could take two types, one is a happy child (no harm to
anyone), and the second is a destructive child (behaviour might harm others or themselves).
People operating in this state usually act as they did when they were a child. The Child Ego
State is primarily concerned with feelings though that does not mean that when in the 'here
and now’ experience, the person does not have access to attitudes and thinking, but it simply
means that when activated, feelings are usually the executive energy force. People operating
in this state act emotionally and make impulsive decisions. Immature behaviour characterizes
this state. Anxiety, dependence, fear, hate, and conformity are other characteristics of a Child
Ego State. Physical and verbal cues such as giggling, compliance, seeking attraction and
coyness indicate the Child Ego State.
PARENT EGO ADULT EGO CHILD EGO
Teaching Rationality Spontaneous
Demonstrating Objective Impulsive
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Rules & Laws Figuring out Fantasizing
Dos and Don’ts Estimating Creativity

Truths Evaluating Experiencing
joy/frustration
Conclusion: There is no general rule regarding the effectiveness of any ego state in any
given situation. Each type of ego state may lead to positive or negative behaviour. It is not
only about words but also tone, body postures, expressions, and gestures that reflect the ego
state during the communication exchange. From an organizational perspective, learning and
reflecting on the positive side of each ego state is essential.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Fill in the blanks-

a) There are three types of Ego states, namely, ________,
____________, and ___________.
b) The transactional analysis (TA) theory is coined by ________.
c) ________ coined the term Ego state.
2. MCQs
a) Child Ego state is the pattern of behaviour that could be characterized by-
i) Impulsive
ii) Creative
iii) Spontaneous
iv) All the Above
b) Adult Ego state is the pattern of behaviour that could be characterized by-
I) Logical
ii) Protective
iii) Spontaneous
iv) Controlling
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5.5 TYPES OF TRANSACTIONS
A transaction is a unit of social interaction consisting of an initiating message called the

stimulus(S), and a reply called the response(R). The stimulus and response might be verbal or
nonverbal, but they must be received and acted upon by both parties. In other words, a
transaction is a relationship between two people in which one says or does something, and the
other reacts. A transaction may involve any combination of ego states.
Transactions are forms of interactions that develop early in life, such as Parent-Child, Child-
Child, or Adult-adult. For instance, young children, when ordered, become frightened or
grumpy. Many years later, as grown-ups, they may get into a rut and reply to the same
transaction.
Following diagrammatic representations elucidate the exchange of transactions between two
people-
Fig.5.2: Transaction
An arrow passes from the ego state from which the stimulus(S) originates to the ego state
which receives the message. The arrow represented by “R” shows the corresponding
response(R).
Depending on the ego states of the persons involved in transactions, there may be four types
of transactions: Complementary, Non-Complementary, Ulterior and Gallows.
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5.5.1 Complementary Transactions

A stimulus invites a response; this response becomes a stimulus for further response,
and so on. Appropriate and Expected Transactions indicate healthy human relationships.
Successful communication takes place when transactions are complementary.
Complementary Transaction = effective + complete communication
A transaction is complementary when a stimulus from one person gets the predicted response
from the other. The transaction is complementary because both the interacting individuals act
in the perceived and expected ego state. In such a transaction, both persons are satisfied, and
communication is complete. A complementary transaction occurs when the lines between the
sender's and receiver's ego states are parallel. Complementary transactions are of the
following types:
i. Adult-to-Adult transactions: this is the most satisfactory transaction and leads to
healthy communication. The individuals involved are rational, logical, and objective.
Therefore, it is an ideal transaction within an organisation. It is the best type of
communication, as it is respectful and reduces conflicts. The key to recognizing the
Adult-to-Adult transaction is an unemotional exchange between the individuals.
Fig.5.3: Adult-Adult Transaction

Supervisor: Have you finished your job? (A-A)
Employee: Yes. Sir, I finished it long back, and it has already been delivered to the
assembly section. (A-A).
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The supervisor wanted to take stock of the work assigned to the employee. The employee
responded from his adult ego state. As a result, both individuals had effective and
complete communication.
ii. Adult-to-Parent Transaction: In this transaction, an individual sends a transactional
stimulus as an adult to another individual. If the other individual responds from
the nurturing parent's ego state, the communication will be smooth. On the other
hand, if the response comes from a critical parent ego state, it could give rise to a
conflict.
Fig.5.4: Adult-Parent Transaction

Employee X: Have you seen my file? (A-P)
Employee Y: No, but I can help you find it. (P-A)
An employee X enquired about his missing file. Employee Y responded from his
nurturing parent ego state. As a result, both individuals had effective and complete
communication.
iii. Adult-to-Child Transaction: In this transaction, an individual may send a
transactional stimulus as an adult to another individual and gets a response from a
child's ego state. Such a transaction is generally not seen on work premises.
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Fig.5.5: Adult-Child Transaction

Employee X: how are you? (A-C)
Employee Y: Aww, thanks for asking. I am doing great. (C-A)
Employee X wanted a normal howdy do with employee Y. Employee Y overwhelmed with
emotions and responded from his Child ego state. Since employee X expected such a
response from employee Y, the communication was successful.
iv. Parent-to-Parent Transaction: In this transaction, the manager uses rewards,
criticism, rules, and admonitions. The transaction can be beneficial if the
employee supports him. Otherwise, the two may be needless competition as the
employees will try to push their ideas.
Fig.5.6: Parent-Parent Transaction

Superior: You must not unnecessarily experiment with things. (P-P)
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Subordinate: Great things don't happen without experiments. (P-P)

v. Parent-to-Adult Transaction: In this transaction, an individual sends a transactional
stimulus as a parent to another individual and gets a response from an adult ego
state. The stimulus uses dogmatic and overbearing language but gets countered
with a logical reply. Therefore, conflicts over trivial matters are staved off.
Fig.5.7: Parent-Adult Transaction

Employee X: you should sit straight. (P-A)
Employee Y: I have a backache. (P-A)
Employee X called employee Y on his sitting posture. Instead of snapping at him, Employee
Y chose to reason with him and precluded a conflict.
vi. Child-to-Child transactions: In this transaction, an individual sends a transactional
stimulus as a child to another individual and gets a response from a Child ego
state only. Such a type of transaction is not suitable for a workplace. Both
individuals act on whims, fancies, and emotions in this transaction. Therefore, the
organization suffers badly, and the situation cannot last long.
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Fig.5.8: Child-Child Transaction

Employee X: Management should always think in favour of their employees. (C-C)
Employee Y: If management does not think in our favour, we will do the same towards
them. (C-C)
Both employees are verklempt with emotion . In the short run, such a transaction is
smooth for the individuals involved, but in the long run, it is not good for the
organization.
vii. Child-to-Parent transaction:
Employee: To whom should I submit the file after completing it? (C-P)
Manager: You must always follow the chain of command for any official work. (P-C)
Fig.5.9: Child-Parent Transaction
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viii. Parent-to-Child transaction: when the manager interacts from the Parent Ego
and the employee responds with the Child ego; this can be satisfying for both in
the short run. Conflict and pressure are eliminated. But in the long run, the
personality of the employee may remain underdeveloped, which may create a
feeling of frustration.
Fig.5.10: Parent-Child Transaction

Employee X: I am feeling under the weather today. I must go and see the doctor. (P-C)
Employee Y: Aww, I’ll take care of you! (C-P)
Employee X acted from a parent ego state and received a response from Employee Y through
a child ego state. The resultant transaction is complete communication. Nevertheless, such
transactions are not preferred in a workplace since they may lead to the underdevelopment of
employee Y.
5.5.2 Non-complementary transaction
A Non-complementary or cross-transaction occurs when the person who initiates the
transaction does not get the response from the expected ego state. In such transactions the
stimulus-response lines are not parallel.
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Fig.5.11: Cross Transaction

Supervisor: How many units have you made till now? (A-A)
Operator: Do not enquire frequently. I will inform you after completing it. (P-C)
The supervisor expected a rational response; instead, the operator got worked up and replied
from a parent ego state. As a result, the communication was not successful.
Such a transaction will ultimately result in a dispute. Once the transaction is crossed, it results
in unrest and dissatisfaction, leading to arguments and conflicts between the interacting
parties.
5.5.3 Ulterior Transactions
We all have been in a conversation where it is all about the 'unsaid'. The real message is
hiding behind the veil of social interaction. There is an overt and a covert message in such
conversations. In transaction analysis, we call these interactions ulterior transactions.
In ulterior transactions, two messages are conveyed simultaneously — a social message on
top and a psychological one at the bottom. So, it appears like the person is saying one thing,
but there is something else he is trying to convey (left to the intelligence of the receiver).
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Fig.5.12: Ulterior Transaction

Now, these can be both enthralling and excruciating. Flirtatious games are a classic example
of an exhilarating and enjoyable ulterior transaction. Whereas, on other occasions, the
existence of a sub-text is downright unpleasant. Salespersons are usually adept at deploying
ulterior transactions. Following is an example of an ulterior transaction at play in an
organisation:
Supervisor: What time is it, Kunal? (Kunal reached late to the office, to which the manager
asked him this question. On the surface, he is confirming the time, but he intends to highlight
that Kunal is late to the office.)
Ulterior transactions occur when three or more ego-states interact at the same time. The
interaction is at two levels — what the person says (the social message) and what he means
(the psychological message).
Example:
Social Message (overtly spoken words): Psychological Message (covert message):

Salesperson (S): This is the top-of-the-range Salesperson (S): I don’t think you can afford
model. (A-A) this. (A-C)
Customer (R): I’ll take a look at it, please. Customer (R): How dare you! I can buy this.
(C-A)
(A-A)
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5.5.4 Gallows Transaction

Gallows transactions include laughs or smiles on the heels of a statement which is painful to
the individual. The distinguishing mark of humour in the gallows transaction is that it isn’t
funny. Instead, the laugh serves as tightening the noose, and the destructive behaviour gets
reinforced. Example: a teacher getting amused at the stupid behaviour of her student.
Conclusion: The adult-to-adult transaction is most effective in the organization because it is
problem-solving, treats people as equals and improves understanding. Though the A-A
transactions are the most desirable yet, other complementary or parallel transactions are also
workable depending upon situations and the willingness of both superiors and subordinates to
develop a workable relationship.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS –
MCQs
3. In _______two messages are conveyed at the same time — a social
message on top and the psychological message at the bottom.
i) Ulterior transactions
ii) Cross Transaction
iii) Complimentary Transaction
iv)Gallows Transaction
4.) When manager speaks to a subordinate as Parent to Child and Subordinate
respond as Child to parent; then it is an example of –
5.) When stimulus and response lines are not parallel it is known as –
6.) “A mother smiling at a stupid behavior of her son” - Following is an
example of:
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5.6 NEED OF UNDERSTANDING TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
Transaction Analysis is a prominent tool for positive change and growth. It is the study of
how individuals introject certain behaviours, either by accident or from their early caretakers
or authority figures and then continue to acquit themselves in that same behaviour pattern.
TA is a model for people to work towards 'autonomy', where they can choose to live the way
they want to and not act as if they are controlled by past events or messages. Determination
of one's ego state through TA helps them to be in the driver's seat of their way of life. An
understanding of the TA can help the person change their life's script and choose to rewrite it
without being hooked on to the inappropriate behaviours of the past.
Before moving ahead, let us understand some commonly used jargon in transactional
analysis.
a. Script: A story we have learned and internalized about ourselves. Negative stories
about us or others tend to result in dysfunctional social outcomes. The script itself
tends to be out of our conscious awareness.
b. Games: We all have our scripts and engage in various “games” that generally involve
winners and losers. Games in Transactional Analysis have been defined as: “a series
of duplex transactions which leads to a ‘switch’ and a well-defined, predictable
‘payoff’ that justifies a not-OK, or discounted (less-than) position.” In a transactional
game, we act out our internalized script and things go well for a while. Then, we
receive the “strokes” we expect to get from acting out our script instead of being
vulnerable and authentic until things inevitably go south – the “switch” – and then we
get the “payoff.”
c. Strokes: The pleasant or familiar thoughts and feelings we receive from playing
social games with our internalized scripts.
d. Switch: The moment when our internalized script’s utility breaks down. This is
usually when the script prevents us from expressing our authentic identity at that
moment. We begin to feel sad, confused, and angry.
e. Payoff: The usual, expected result of our game, wherein we end up feeling a loser or
less-than.
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5.7 LIFE POSITIONS
A child is like a clean slate. However, in the process of growing up, he wades through a lot of
experiences and emotions. These experiences lay the groundwork for making assumptions
about their self-worth and the worth of significant people in the environment.
Thomas Harris has called these assumptions life positions, which tend to be firmer than the
ego states. During our formative years, we make decisions about ourselves, our world, and
the people around us. These decisions get built upon the pattern of strokes we receive from
our parents and primary caregivers. These decisions lead us to accept one of our four basic
psychological life positions. Once a life position gets decided, it drives our patterns of
thought, emotion, and behaviour. The positions are acquired very early, i.e., in childhood, and
stay throughout our life. Life positions develop an individual's perception, which may be
positive or negative. In this way, four “Life Positions” may be generated as shown in the
following figure-
● I am OK-You are OK: This is the ideal life position. People with this life position
have healthy relationships and a positive outlook. They are cordial, forthcoming and
accepting of themselves and others. Managers working from this life position feel
comfortable delegating authority as they have confidence in themselves and their
subordinates. This life position is based upon the adult ego state.
● I am OK-You are not OK: is occupied by those who project their difficulties onto
others. They are blaming and critical. Transactional games that reinforce this position
involve a self-styled superior (the “I am OK”) who projects anger, disgust, or disdain
onto a designated inferior or scapegoat (the “You are not OK”). This position requires
someone to be ‘worse than’ to maintain the sense of self as OK. Managers in this life
position consider delegation of authority a threat because they do not trust others.
These are the individual who possesses the rebellious child ego.
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Fig.12: Life Positions
● I am not OK-You are OK: People with this life position feel powerless and keep
grumbling. They think others are more competent and have fewer problems.
Managers working in this life position are unpredictable and erratic in behaviour.
They use their bad feelings as an excuse to act out against others.
● I am not OK-You are not OK: is a position of hopelessness, futility, and frustration.
From this position, life seems uninteresting and hopeless. It may result in self-
destructive or violent behaviour. Managers in this life position neither take decisions
on time nor properly delegate authority.
Out of these positions mentioned above, the ideal one is “I am OK – You are Ok”, This is
because:
● It indicates healthy acceptance of self
● It demonstrates respect for others.
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● It is likely to result in better communication.

● It is expected to result in better performance behaviours.
The other three life positions are less mature and less effective. Thus, the life positions talk
about the individual developing his identity, sense of worth and perception of others during
childhood. Once a person has decided on a life position, that will often remain fixed unless
considerable effort is made to change the underlying beliefs and decisions about life.
Transactional analysis psychotherapy aims to bring awareness, explore, challenge, and
change an ineffective life script. It is based on the belief that because we were the original
creators of our script, we have the power to change it.
MCQs
7. _____ are more permanent than ______
i) Life Positions; Ego States
ii) Ego States; Life Positions
iii) Ego States; Psychological Games
iv) Psychological Games; Life Positions
8) _______ is an ideal life position-
i) I am Ok; you’re not OK
ii) I am Ok; you’re OK
iii) I am not Ok; you’re not OK
iv) I am not Ok; you’re OK
9) _______ -people tend to feel that whole world is miserable
i) I am Ok; you’re not OK
ii) I am Ok; you’re OK
iii) I am not Ok; you’re not OK
iv) I am not Ok; you’re OK
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5.8 STROKE ANALYSIS
From our earliest beginnings, in utero, we depend on another person. We are born needing
and seeking contact, with an innate sense that we can’t survive without it. Throughout our
lives, we receive this contact through various types of verbal and nonverbal communication:
● a smile
● a hug
● praise for something we do or who we are
● a challenge to something we do or who we are.
In transactional analysis, these modes of contact are called strokes. Eric Berne
described strokes as a unit of recognition, one person acknowledging another by way of act or
speech.
5.8.1 Types of strokes:
● positive and negative
● verbal and nonverbal
● conditional and unconditional.
Telling someone that we love them is an unconditional positive stroke (the ultimate one)
whereas telling someone that we love their cooking is a conditional positive stroke. The
former strokes the person’s entire being, whilst the latter strokes one aspect of their being.
Conversely, telling someone, you don’t like their cooking is a conditional negative stroke and
telling someone you hate them is the ultimate unconditional negative stroke.
Throughout life, this communication develops our personality, informs our sense of self-
worth, and defines our beliefs in ourselves, the world, and others. Depending on the type
of strokes we receive before adulthood, we end up in one of four life positions, as defined in
TA.
If the strokes we receive through childhood are appropriate to our age and stage of
development and are a balanced mix of positive and negative, as needed, then we are likely to
grow up with a sense of “I am OK-You are OK”. In TA, this life position describes a
balanced emotional and cognitive outlook on life.
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However, if the balance of strokes has veered far to the positive, contained too many
negatives or been an inappropriate mix, then we are likely to struggle with a fair sense of self
and the world.
Those brought up with too many positive strokes might hold the life position of I am OK-You
are not OK and struggle to see the others' point of view, having developed an over-inflated
sense of self-worth.
On the other hand, children who receive too many negative strokes (or not enough positive
ones) can grow into adulthood believing others to be more important than themselves;
this life position is called I am not OK- You are OK. Alternatively, they might hold the life
position of “I am not OK. You are not OK” with little hope for themselves and seeing little
good in the world.
5.9 PSYCHOLOGICAL GAMES
Games in Transactional Analysis are "a series of duplex transactions which leads to a switch
and a well-defined, predictable payoff which justifies a not-OK, or discounted, position”.
Let us have a look at what that means. Firstly, what is a duplex transaction? A duplex
transaction is where we say one thing and mean another. Only about 8% of our
communication is through words; the rest is through tone, body language and facial
expressions. Berne observed that whenever we say one thing (the social message) and mean
another (the psychological massage), it is always the psychological message that gets heard.
We tend to open games with duplex transactions, not saying what we really mean. Then, the
game will deliver positive strokes until the “switch” clicks in. The switch is the point at
which things suddenly feel like they are going wrong. It is the point at which we may feel
confused, scared, angry, or whatever our racket feeling usually is. This leads quickly to us
taking a “payoff”. It confirms that whatever negative (untrue) thoughts we have held onto
about life are true.
Let us give an example of a game and take it apart using the language introduced above. Let
us take the game “Yes, But”. In this, one person has a problem, and another is invited to solve
it. Everything the other person suggests is rejected with a “Yes, I could do that, but... (insert
reason for not doing that)”. We all know people who play this. We may even play it
ourselves.
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Whilst it may appear the player is asking for help on the social level, what they are really
doing on the psychological level is proving that they can't help and no one else can control
them. The switch comes when the other person gives up trying. The payoff for the player is
proof that no one can help them even though they remain passive. Feelings of sadness or
anger may accompany this.
The other player in this game may feel helpless and frustrated that they have been unable to
help the starter of the game – these feelings are likely to be very familiar too and reinforce a
belief that they are not a very good friend, problem solver, therapist, etc. It takes two to play a
game.
Why do we play games?
Games are a way in which we can get strokes without risking intimacy and confirm our
beliefs (mostly wrongly held ones) about life.
How do we stop Playing games?
The first thing we need to do is identify what games we are playing. Ask yourself what
patterns keep emerging in your life? What predictable events occur? What feelings do you
often end up having? Spot the games and bring them into the light, where you can chew them
over and decide whether you want to keep on playing or do things differently, avoiding the
negative payoff.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
MCQs
10) . _______________ proposed the concept of life positions.
i. Thomas Harris
ii. Eric Berne
iii. Paul Federn
iv None of the above
11. ___________ is basic unit of motivation.
i. Stroke
ii. Life Positions
iii. Ego States
iv. Script Analysis
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5.10 JOHARI WINDOW
Johari window is a framework developed by two psychologists, Joseph Luft and Harrington
Ingham, who combined their first names to name the model. It is a widely used model to
understand and train self-awareness and biases for personal development and to improve
communications, group dynamics, team development, interpersonal relationships, and inter-
group relationships.
People using the framework engage in two primary ideas, acquiring trust by revealing
information about oneself to others and receiving feedback to learn more about themselves.
The Johari Window model captures such information (feelings, attitudes, opinions, intentions,
etc.) from four perspectives, as shown in the four quadrants.
Fig.5.14: Johari Window
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● Open Area (Anything about yourself that you're willing to share with others): This is the
region where actions, behaviours, and information are known to the individual and those
around him. This type of interaction is marked by openness and compatibility and has a
very little possibility for defensive feelings and behaviour. An “Open Area” is desirable
as a team because when we work in this area with others, we are at our most effective and
productive. This is the space where good communications and cooperation occur, free
from distractions, mistrust, confusion, conflict, and misunderstanding. Soliciting feedback
can help increase this area horizontally to reduce the blind spot while sharing one’s
feelings, and can extend the area vertically, reducing the hidden area.
● Blind Area: (Anything about oneself that you are unaware of but that others have
become aware of): It reflects behaviour, feelings and motivation known to other parties
but not to self. A person’s observable habits, manners, feelings, etc., may be unknown to
the self but known by others. Others may interpret these actions differently than what one
expects them to. In fact, an individual may even annoy others unintentionally. This area
could also be referred to as ignorance about oneself or issues in which one is deluded.
Seeking feedback can help reduce this blind spot.
● Hidden Area: (Anything about yourself that you are reluctant to reveal to others is in the
hidden area): It reflects behaviour, feelings and motivation known to self but not known
to others. In other words, the individual understands themselves but does not know about
others. The individual tends to be hidden from others for fear of their reactions. The true
feelings or attitude of the individual may remain a secret from others. It also includes
sensitivities, fear, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions, and secrets- anything that
person knows but does not reveal. Individuals are reluctant to share such information as it
may affect their relationships. Disclosing information to others can help decrease the
hidden area.
● Unknown Area: Any region that neither you nor anyone else is familiar with is the
unknown area. The information in this quadrant is mysterious and has unknown potential.
This includes subconscious information such as early childhood memories, undiscovered
talents, etc. These feelings and motivations remain unclear till people allow these to
surface. Uncovering ‘hidden talents’ that is unknown aptitudes and skills should not be
confused with developing the Johari ‘hidden area’. It is another aspect of developing the
unknown area and is not as sensitive as unknown feelings. The unknown area could also
include repressed or subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and past traumatic
experiences, which can stay unknown for a lifetime.
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There are two interpersonal processes of ‘disclosure’ and ‘feedback’, which cause the
redistribution of awareness and changes in the size and form of the four quadrants. The model
assumes that an ‘open self’ becomes larger, and the relationship tends to be more rewarding
and productive. Thus, the model is dynamic and sensitive, especially to the interpersonal
application of ‘disclosure’ and ‘feedback’. The ‘hidden self’ can be reduced, and the ‘open
self’ can be increased through disclosure.
The ‘blind area’ can be reduced by seeking feedback from others, thereby increasing the open
area i.e., to increase self-awareness. Therefore, managers must promote a climate of non-
judgmental feedback and group response to individual disclosure and reduce fear.
In the ‘hidden area’, relevant hidden information and feelings, etc., should be moved into the
open area through the process of ‘self-disclosure’ and ‘exposure’ process. The extent to
which an individual discloses personal feelings and information must always be at the
individual’s discretion. Organizational culture and working atmosphere significantly
influence team members’ preparedness to disclose their hidden selves.
The use of self-disclosure forms a mechanism for sharing awareness with others. However,
self-disclosure involves risk for the individual, and the outcome must be worth the cost.
Likewise, the ‘feedback’ process can decrease ‘the blind self ‘and simultaneously increase the
‘open self. In other words, others must give, and the individual must use the ‘feedback’ in
social encounters. It forms the means whereby the individual encourages, supports, and
presents himself as open to the disclosure of others. In this context, the active solicitation of
feedback data in social interactions is essential.
a) ________ developed the model of Johari Window
13. State True/False
a) There are five quadrants in the model of Johari Window
b) Undiscovered/ or unknown self is also termed as mysterious
14. MCQs
Which process can cause change in the size & form of the four Johari
Window quadrants:
a) Suppression b) Feedback
c) Disclosure d) Both B&C
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5.10.1 Application of Johari Window in Business

The Johari window serves as an essential tool to analyse the employees’ potential, work on
organizational relations, and improve team performance.
The other people associated with the business also contribute to organizational improvement
and development. These are the financial institutions, shareholders, customers, suppliers, etc.
Taking into consideration the known and unknown facts by the company and the customers,
the Johari window provides us with four quadrants.
Let us see the various ways of modifying business relations using this model:
Feedback to Reduce Blind Area
Taking constant feedback from the customers and knowing about the competitive products
the consumers may prefer; makes the company aware of customer satisfaction level, product
performance, consumer loyalty, level of competition, etc.
Being updated with the market trend and response diminishes the blind spot of the
organization.
Move Out of your Comfort Zone to Decrease Unknown Area
Innovation leads to learning, and learning contributes to growth and development.
Therefore, the organization must explore new possibilities or diversify into new products or
means of production through proper research and development, to increase market share and
profitability.
Exploring the untapped opportunities and developing new ideas can maximize the open area
by diminishing the unknown region and shrinking the blind spot and the hidden area.
Disclosure to Reduce Hidden Area
At times, some strengths or positive traits of the product or the organization are not
promoted. As a result, these may not be known to the customers creating a hidden area for the
organization.
Therefore, the organization must reveal its strengths, like the premium quality of raw
materials used, the better shelf life of products, etc., to develop customers’ trust and loyalty.
Conclusion
As we know that all four quadrants are unique but to maintain transparency and cordial
relations within a team, it is essential to maximize the open area.
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Thus, the Johari window aims to improve interpersonal relationships, behaviour, attitude, and
skills within an organization by continually assessing the scope of growth.
5.11 SUMMARY
Transactional Analysis is one of the most accessible theories of modern psychology. In the
1950s, Eric Berne began developing his Transactional Analysis theories. He said that verbal
communication, particularly face-to-face, is at the centre of human social relationships and
psychoanalysis. Transaction refers to the communication between two persons. The
transaction could be both Complementary and Cross in nature. Healthy communication
occurs when individuals follow Complementary Transactions, whereas Crossed Transaction
causes most difficulties in social situations. The concept of ego states, life positions,
psychological games, strokes, and the Johari window could help us understand how
interpersonal relationships could become smooth. This life position influences our behaviour
when we interact with others. The Life Position refers to the specific behaviour towards
others that an individual learns based on certain assumptions made very early in life. Life
positions develop an individual's perception, which may be positive or negative. Johari
Window Model is dynamic to the interactive processes of disclosure and feedback. It assumes
that interpersonal relationships tend to be more productive and rewarding as one's “open self'
expands.
1.a) Adult, Child, and Parent 7. Life Positions; Ego States

b) Eric Berne 8. I am Ok; you’re OK
c)Paul Federn 9. I am not Ok; you’re not OK
2.a) ALL the above; b) Logical 10. Thomas Harris
3. Ulterior transactions 11. stroke
4. Complementary Transaction 12. a) Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham
5. Crossed Transaction 13. a) False; b) True
6. Gallows Transaction 14) Both b and C
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5.13 SELF-ASSESMENT QUESTIONS
1. “Transactional analysis tends to improve interpersonal communication”. Comment.

Also, explain the utility of transactional analysis.
2. Explain three ego states with suitable examples.
3. Discuss the concept of Life Positions. Name the “ideal life position”. Also, explain
the utility of understanding life positions to a manager.
4. Explain the concept of the Johari Window. How can it help in improving
interpersonal relations?
5. State the implication of Johari Awareness Model.
5.14 REFERENCES
Eric Berne, (1961). Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy, Grove Press, New

York.
Thomas A, Harris, (1967). I’m O.K., Yor’re O.K., Harper & Row, New York.
Chhabra, T.N., (2017). Management Process & Organizational Behaviour, Sun India
Publication. Delhi.
Eric Berne, (1961). Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy, Grove Press, New

York.
Publication. Delhi.
Gupta, C.B., (2018). Management Process and Organizational Behaviour, S. Chand
& Company Limited, New Delhi.
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LESSON-6
MOTIVATION AT WORK
Dr. Reema Aggarwal
Assistant Professor
Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
University of Delhi
Reemaaggarwal92@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

6.2. Introduction
6.3. Process of Motivation
6.4. Approaches to Motivation
6.4.1. Cognitive Models
6.4.2. Content Theories
6.4.3. Process Theories
6.4.4. Non-Cognitive or Reinforcement Model
6.5. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
6.5.1 Appraisal of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
6.6. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
6.6.1. Implication Of McClelland’s Theory of Needs
6.7. Alderfer's ERG Theory
6.8. Herzberg Two Factor Theory
6.8.1. Contribution of Herzberg’s two Factor Theory
6.8.2 Relationship Between Herzberg’s Theory and McClelland’s Theory of
Motivation
6.8.3. Appraisal of Herzberg Two Factor Theory
6.9. Comparison Between Maslow’s & Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation
6.10. Theory X and Theory Y
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6.11. Vroom's Expectancy Theory

6.12. Equity Theory
6.13. Goal Setting Theory
6.14. Reinforcement Theory
6.14.1. Schedules of Reinforcement
6.14.2. Behaviour Modification and Reinforcement
6.15. Types of Motivation: Cognitive Evaluation Theory
6.15.1. Intrinsic Motivation
6.15.2. Extrinsic Motivation
6.16. Application of Motivation Concepts
6.16.1. Job Design and Motivation: The Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
6.16.2. Redesigning of Jobs to Motivate Employees
6.17. Alternative Work Arrangements
6.18. Management by Objectives (MBO)
6.19. Employee Involvement Program
6.20. Summary
6.21. Answers to In-Text Questions
6.22. Self-Assessment Questions
6.23. References
6.24. Suggested Readings
6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to-

● Define Motivation
● Explain the need for and process of motivation in an organisation.
● Develop an understanding of the importance of motivation in an organisation.
● Explain various theories of motivation.
● Differentiate between content and process theories of motivation.
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Opening Case Study

Amrita and Shweta together has recently joined “Edu Drive”. Edu drive is an
innovative learning organisation that collaborates with various schools and
promotes the concept of experiential learning. The office is near to Amrita’s house,
Amrita finds the job suitable to her in terms payment and location. Whereas it takes
30 minutes to Shweta to reach office. At the Edu Drive, Amrita works under the
supervision of Mr Das, and Shweta works under the supervision of Mr Jain. As
managers, Mr Jain and Mr Das are quite different.
Mr Jain supports job rotation, employee participation, equal treatment to all
subordinates, etc. He assigns different tasks each week to reduce boredom; this also
allows employees to understand how the tasks are operated Edu drive, as they are
allowed to do a variety of tasks. For instance, Shweta has worked at the content/
PowerPoint presentation development, video development, and addressing queries
through online portal. In addition to this, Mr Jain also motivates Shweta to address
concerns of teachers in case of urgency.
Mr Das, on the other hand, feels it is essential to specialize in a particular task, due
to which he prefers repeating the same task repeatedly. For instance, Amrita has
only worked on Organizing and formatting the content and PowerPoint
presentations.
Mr Das supports specialization and is very particular about time. According to him,
monetary and non-monetary benefits could vary from person to person. Two
employees in the same position could receive different benefits based on their
performance.
On a fine day, Amrita met Shweta at lunch. Since morning Amrita has been
formatting documents. During lunch hour, Amrita shared her awful experience with
Shweta.
Amrita - I am tired of this monotonous job. Every day I do the same thing
Shweta - Why don't you tell Mr Das you want something else? I have heard he
allows Daisy to work in other areas, even though I have heard daisy is paid $2 more
an hour. Is that true?
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Opening Case Study…. Continue

Amrita - Yeah, though I do exactly what she does. What I don't do is tell Mr
Das how cool his dressing sense is. If you ask me, his dressing sense is pathetic.
Shweta - That's bad. You put in equal effort.
Amrita - Efforts? In what? Formatting ppts. This job is so meaningless. Even if I

format more documents what will I get, another badge that says a good job.
Anyhow, what about you? How's your job going?
Shweta - Pretty good. Today Mr Jain and I discussed targets that I have to achieve
in the next week. It is to counsel 40 teachers at TGT level. Through my contacts, If
I succeed in doing so, then I'll get a bonus of $75. It is difficult, but I want to give
it a shot.
Amrita - Good to know. I would have left this job if I didn’t have monetary
constraints.
Shweta - Look at the brighter side; you are paid more than Rahul. Rahul joined
before you joined.
Amrita-True. Rahul gives way too much effort, and to me, it doesn't even make
sense. If daisy is getting more pay, then I think daisy should also take all
responsibilities as well.
Shweta - I understand. Mr Jain is the best supervisor.
Amrita - (while looking at the watch) yeah, I am getting late; Mr Das is very
particular about time. He expects his subordinates to reach 5 minutes before time. I
think it's time to format documents.
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6.2. INTRODUCTION
A manager's responsibility is to inspire staff to perform their tasks effectively. So how do

managers accomplish this? The solution is "Motivation", the process through which managers
make employees more productive and effective. It is the process in which basic need leads to
creating drives aimed at a goal. Highly driven people put in much effort at their jobs, whereas
those who lack motivation do not. Employees who are "happy" are sometimes mistaken for
those who are "motivated." These may be connected, but motivation reflects the degree of
drive workers have to work hard regardless of their level of enjoyment. It is a force that
directs employees to act in a certain way. Motivated employees are more productive and
engaged and feel more immersed in their work.
The phenomenon of motivation is complex, with multiple definitions. The common frame of
reference contains one of the following words in the definition: drives, goals, incentives,
desires, wants, and needs. The motivation process accounts for an individual's intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward achieving a goal. The concept of motivation is
situational, and its level varies between different individuals and at different times. If you
understand what motivates people, you have the most powerful tool for dealing with them at
your command. Motivating employees is one of the most crucial roles of management. It
includes the skills of communicating, leading by example, challenging, encouraging,
obtaining feedback, involving, informing, briefing, and rewarding. Motivation is a catalyst
since it impacts the intensity of willingness and the level of work a person puts forth to attain
organisational goals.
6.3. PROCESS OF MOTIVATION
The motivational process begins with identifying an employee's needs and drives. Needs are
the deficiencies a person experiences at a particular point in time that makes specific
outcomes appear attractive. These deficiencies cause psychological (e.g., need for
recognition) or physiological (e.g. need for water, shelter, or food) imbalances within the
individuals. The deprived person, in turn, examines the environment (surroundings) to find
the sources to gratify these imbalances. An unsatisfied need often acts as an energizer as they
create tension within the individuals. Therefore, employees explore ways to satisfy them.
Next comes the effort given by employees within a context of opportunity (resources at
disposal) to bridge the gap. Actions should be goal-oriented, as motivation is primarily goal-
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directed. Goal-directed efforts lead to performance towards which skill and technology (i.e.,
ability) undoubtedly contribute significantly. In the next phase, if performance is suitably
rewarded, it results in need satisfaction. Finally, once the employees have received rewards,
they reassess their needs.
Figure 1 Process of Motivation

The managers today have a challenge to cater to diverse employees and their needs to help
employees get attuned to working in different cultures. Training and retaining the exemplary
employees and supporting their growth is another reason managers need to utilize the insights
and implications suggested by motivational theories. Several theories attempt to explain how
motivation works. The foundation of these motivation theories took place during the 1950s.
In management circles, probably the most popular explanations of motivation are based on
the needs of the individual. However, there has been a shift in the business environment with
regard to globalization in terms of the blending of work cultures and social cultures,
increasing participation of women, raising awareness of the issue, and increased competition.
All this has made motivation an even more prominent subject.
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6.4. APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION
Several theories attempt to explain how motivation works. The theories could be broadly
categorized into Cognitive and non-cognitive models.
6.4.1. Cognitive Models: The cognitive model of motivation consists of theories that focus
on the human mind's internal state. The focus is on mental processes that emerge from human
needs, desires, expectations, and drives. Theories under the cognitive model could be further
subdivided into Content and Process theories.
6.4.1.1. Content Theories- Content (or need) theories of motivation focus on factors internal
to the individual that energize and direct behaviour. These theories suggest that people have
certain needs and/or desires which are internalized. In general, such theories regard
motivation as the product of internal drives that compel an individual to act or move (hence,
"motivate") toward satisfying individual needs. It answers the following question-
"WHAT MOTIVATES EMPLOYEES?"
The motivation process starts with specific unsatisfied needs (as mentioned above). These
psychological and physiological needs create tension in the mind of employees. The
employees explore ways and act in a particular manner to satisfy these unsatisfied needs.
Content theories explain different types of needs within employees. Following are some
popular content theories-
⮚ Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
⮚ Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory
⮚ Alderfer's ERG Theory
⮚ McClelland's Needs Theory
6.4.1.2. Process Theories: Process theories are concerned with determining how individual
behaviour is directed and maintained in the specifically self-directed human cognitive
processes. Process theories of motivation are based on early cognitive ideas which posit that
behaviour results from conscious decision-making processes. It looks at what people are
thinking about when deciding whether to put effort into a particular activity. It answers the
following question-
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➢ HOW MOTIVATION OCCURS?
Figure 2 Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Models of Motivation

Process theories explain process within the human mind that leads to motivation. Following
are some popular process theories-
⮚ Vroom's Expectancy Theory
⮚ Adam's Equity theory
⮚ Goal Setting Theory
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6.4.2. Non-Cognitive or Reinforcement Model: Unlike the cognitive model, which focuses
on the internal state, the non-cognitive model focuses on external forces. If an action is
rewarded, the employee is motivated to repeat the action. Similarly, if action is punished,
employees will be motivated not to repeat it. A manager could use various external forces,
like rewarding, punishing, ignoring, etc., to motivate employees to behave in a particular
manner. Both cognitive and non-cognitive models are complementary to each other. It is not
mutually exclusive. It means both models work together to motivate employees.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

2. The motivational process begins with identifying an employee’s ____ and
_____.
3. These theories of motivation could be broadly categorized into ______ and
______ models.
4. Cognitive model of motivation consist of theories that focus on ______.
5. Theories of motivation under cognitive model could be further sub-divided
into_________ and ________.
4. MCQs
c) Content theories does not include:
v) Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
vi) Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory
vii) McClelland's Needs Theory
viii) Adam's Equity theory
d) Process theories does not include:
i) Alderfer's ERG Theory
ii) Goal Setting Theory By Edwin Locke
iii) Vroom's Expectancy Theory
iv) Adam's Equity theory
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6.5. MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
It is one of the popular motivation theories given by A.H. Maslow. Maslow suggested that
employees' needs are arranged in a particular hierarchy (as shown in figure 3). As lower-
order needs are satisfied, the hierarchy's next need becomes dominant. From the standpoint of
the theory, we could say that no need is ever gratified. A substantially satisfied need no
longer motivates. Maslow separated the needs into higher and lower-order needs.
Physiological and safety needs are lower-order needs, while higher needs are social esteem
and self-actualization. The differentiation is that the higher-order needs are satisfied only
within a person, and the lower-order needs are satisfied by material things. Following is a
brief on various categories of need as mentioned by Maslow-
⮚ Physiological Needs: Physiological needs are basic needs that are important for
human survival, like water, food and shelter. Unless these basic needs are fulfilled,
other needs won't be able to motivate employees.
⮚ Safety and security Needs: Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to
safety and security needs. Such needs might be fulfilled by living in a safe area,
medical insurance, job security and financial reserves.
⮚ Social Needs: Employees are social beings. The need for social circle and
belongingness remains important. Social needs are the first higher-level wants that
become essential after a person has satisfied their lower-level physiological and safety
requirements.
⮚ Ego or Esteem Needs: Esteem needs may be classified as internal or external. Internal
esteem needs are related to self-esteem, such as self-respect, independence, and
achievement. External esteem needs are such as social status and recognition. Some
esteem needs are self-respect, attention, recognition, and reputation.
⮚ Self-Actualization: It is the quest of reaching one's full potential as an individual.
Unlike lower-level needs, this need is never fully satisfied as one matures. There are
always new opportunities to continue to grow. Self-actualized people tend to have
needs such as truth, justice, wisdom, and meaning. Self-actualized persons have
frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are energized moments of profound
happiness and harmony.
Note: However, not all people are driven by the same needs - at any time, different people
may be made by entirely different factors. To motivate employees, managers must recognize
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the needs level at which the employee is operating and use those needs to motivate
employees.
6.5.1 Appraisal of Maslow’s' Need Hierarchy Theory
The theory suggests that needs follow a definite sequence. However, due to cultural
differences, this may not hold. Some cultures appear to place social needs before others (for
example, Spain and Belgium workers felt this way). Similarly, some assumptions might not
work in all cases; for example, employees won't move to the next level need unless a lower
need is fulfilled. Also, satisfied needs won't motivate employees further. Finally, there is little
evidence to suggest that people are motivated to satisfy only one need level at a time, except
when there is a conflict between needs. A "multiplicity of motives often guides employees".
Even though Maslow's hierarchy lacks scientific support, it is pretty well-known and is the
first theory of motivation to which many people are exposed.
Figure 3 Maslow Needs Hierarchy Theory
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6.6 MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
Three need model is formulated by `David McClelland’. David McClelland proposed that an
individual's specific needs are acquired over time, shaping one's life experiences. The needs
can be classified under three categories: Achievement, Affiliation, and Power. Also termed as
the need for affiliation (n Aff), the need for power (n Pow), and the need for achievement (n
Ach).
Need for
Achievement
Three Need for

Need Power
Theory
Need for
Affiliation
Figure 4 Three Need Theory

Need for achievement ( n Ach) refers to the drive to excel, grow, strive, and succeed to a
set of standards. People who need achievement differentiate themselves from others by their
desire to do things better. They try to seek situations where they can achieve rapid feedback
on their performance. Such individuals set moderately challenging goals. They are not
gamblers, but they take up situations where the probability of winning is 50 -50. Such
individuals also prefer to work hard and take personal responsibility for failures.
Need for power (n Pow): The need to make others behave in a particular manner in which
they wouldn't have acted otherwise. The need for power is the desire to have an impact on
others or to be able to influence or control others. Individuals with high 'Power Need' enjoy
being in charge and prefer to be placed in competitive and status-oriented positions.
McClelland categorized power into two categories, namely, institutionalized and personalized
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power. Here institutionalized power refers to the power used for social benefit, and
personalized power refers to the power exercised for individual gain.
Need for affiliation (n Aff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. It
refers to the need for affiliation, i.e. the desire to be liked and accepted by others. Individuals
with this need strive to maintain friendships and prefer cooperative situations.
6.6.1. Implication of the McClelland's theory of needs
David McClelland's Human Motivation Theory gives a manager a way of identifying people's
motivating drivers. It can help get praise and feedback effectively, assign suitable tasks, and
keep oneself highly motivated.
Certain problems have also been identified in theory: The degree to which we have each of
the three needs is difficult to measure, and therefore the theory is difficult to put into practice.
It is more common to find situations where managers aware of these motivational drivers
label employees based on observations made over time. Therefore, the concepts are helpful
but not often used objectively.
6.7. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
The ERG theory is an extension of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The theory was developed to
reduce the overlap between the five needs described by Maslow. Maslow's need theory was
condensed into three types of needs, namely, existence, relatedness, and growth by Alderfer.
It also assumes that no rigid structure of needs hierarchy is followed.
⮚ Existence Needs: The existence needs comprise all those needs that relate to the
physiological and safety aspects of human beings and are a prerequisite for survival.
Thus, Maslow's physiological and safety needs are grouped into one category because
of their same nature and similar impact on an individual's behaviour.
⮚ Relatedness Needs: The relatedness needs refer to the social needs, that an individual
seeks to establish relationships with those he cares for. The relatedness needs refer to
our desire to maintain essential relationships interpersonally. These align with
Maslow's social needs and the external component of Maslow's esteem needs
⮚ Growth Needs: Growth needs refers to the intrinsic desire for personal development
and the characteristics included under self-actualization. The ERG theory
demonstrates that more than one need may be operative simultaneously, and if the
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gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need

increases. Thus, growth needs are those needs that influence an individual to explore
the maximum potential in the existing environment.
Growth
Relatednes
s
Existence
Figure 5 Alderfer's ERG Theory
6.8. HERZBERG TWO FACTOR THEORY
Frederick Herzberg proposed the two-factor theory of motivation. An empirical study was
conducted using a sample of 200 engineers and accountants, and based on the study's
findings, the various needs were categorized into two factors, namely, hygiene factors and
motivators.
Hygiene factors, which were previously thought to be the motivators, do not result in
motivation but are necessary to bring the level of motivation to a start level or platform so
that the motivation of personnel from that platform becomes easier. It was reported in the
study that the presence of hygiene factors would not cause satisfaction, but their absence
would cause dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors must be present in the Job before motivators can
be used to stimulate that person.
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Hygiene Factors
(Job-
Dissatisfaction)
Motivating Factors
(Job- Satisfaction)
Figure 6 Herzberg's Theory

One cannot use motivators until all the hygiene factors are met. Herzberg's needs are
specifically job-related and reflect some of the distinct things people want from their
work as opposed to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs which reflects all the needs in a
person's life. The following table shows the difference between hygiene factors and
motivators-
Hygiene factors Motivators
Absence results in dissatisfaction; Absence results in no satisfaction;

presence results in no dissatisfaction presence results in satisfaction
Examples- company policy, Examples- Achievement, recognition,

administration, supervision, working work itself, responsibility, and growth
conditions, equitable salary
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Figure 7 Examples of hygiene and motivation factors

Herzberg also reported that both factors are uni-dimensional, i.e., the effect could only be
seen in one direction. In other words, hygiene factors are maintenance factors or dissatisfiers,
meaning if they are present, they act as a maintenance factor, and if they are not, they act as a
dissatisfier. Either way, they won't motivate employees. Similarly, motivators are satisfiers,
which means they tend to motivate the employees if they are present.
6.8.1. Contribution of Herzberg's Two-Factor theory- Herzberg's two-factor theory has
two essential Contributions.
First, improving work conditions and basic pay won't motivate employees to give higher
performance. On the contrary, it would only reduce dissatisfaction among employees. It gave
managers a different perspective, who believed this could motivate employees.
Secondly, Herzberg stressed that "work itself" is a motivator. It also gives a better
understanding of the term "Job enrichment".
Additionally, Herzberg mentioned that today's motivator is tomorrow's hygiene factor.
Because eventually, human needs shift to other needs.
Herzberg's Two Factor Theory continues to be essential for management in motivating their
employees. His idea that satisfaction and dissatisfaction do not form a continuum, that one
decreases with another increase, still holds. In fact, companies today are increasingly looking
for ways to enrich their team's work. They are building enrichment into the appraisal and
review process and investing in training and development opportunities. Job engagement has
also become a key focus.
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Example- TESCO today focuses on factors causing satisfaction as well as dissatisfaction.

Employees are motivated and empowered by timely and appropriate communication,
involving personnel in decision-making, and delegating wherever possible. Forums are held
every year in which staff can provide input on pay raises. Tesco personnel even get an
opportunity to give their input when restaurant menus are designed, helping to prevent
feelings of alienation and dissatisfaction.
6.8.2. Relationship between Herzberg’s' theory and McClellands' theory of motivation
People with high achievement (n Ach) are more inclined towards motivators, whereas those
who score low in achievement (n Ach) are more inclined towards maintenance factors.
For example, managerial people are expected to score high on achievement.
6.8.3. Appraisal of Herzberg Two factor Theory
Herzberg’s' theory argues that job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation. According
to Herzberg, the Job should have a sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the
employee. If the motivation-hygiene theory holds, management must not only provide
hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction but also provide factors intrinsic to the
work itself for employees to be satisfied with their jobs. Herzberg's theory is highly
appreciated but has also been criticized due to the following reasons-
1. Limited sample of Professions- the study's finding was based on the limited sample of
professionals, who might value challenging tasks, but it is difficult to generalize the findings
or say that financial benefits or payments are not a motivator.
2. Too much emphasis is given to the enrichment of jobs. For example-Employees do get
satisfaction through status and pay; but such components have not been given much focus.
3. Situational factors have been ignored. For example, pay may motivate a worker, but the
same is not true for an employee.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. MCQs
I. Physiological and safety needs are the _______ of motivation given by A.H.
Maslow.
a) lower order needs
b) Higher-order needs
c) Important needs
d) Required needs
II. Higher order needs are ______ and ______
a) social esteem
b) self-actualisation
c) Safety needs
d) Both (a) and (b)
III. ________proposed the two-factor theory of motivation.
a) Frederick Herzberg
b) A.H. Maslow.
c) Alderfer
d) Locke
IV. Absence of Hygiene factors results in dissatisfaction, presence results in
________
a) no dissatisfaction
b) Satisfaction
c) Achievement
d) Dissatisfaction
V. ______argued that job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation.
a) Herzberg’s’ Two-factor Theory
b) Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
c) Alderfer's ERG Theory
d) McClelland's Needs Theory
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6.9. COMPARISON BETWEEN MASLOWS’ & HERZBERGS’

THEORY OF MOTIVATION
There are some similarities and differences between Herzberg two factor theory and
Maslow’s' need hierarchy. Herzberg's maintenance factors include part of self-esteem needs.
Esteem needs consist of two portions; one is intrinsic in nature, like recognition. Recognition
comes through competencies and achievements. Hence it acts as a motivator. However,
esteem needs are extrinsic, like status gained through the position one occupies, which only
falls under the hygiene factor. As shown in figure 7, motivation factors are higher-order
needs.
Figure 8 Relationship between Maslow’s' and Herzberg’s' Model
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Following are some noticeable differences between both the theories:
Herzberg Maslow
The theory given by Herzberg is based on It is not based on an empirical study.

an empirical study.
The theory fails to explain the behaviour It is true for all employees in general.
of workers. It is more relevant for
professionals.
Only higher-order needs are treated as All unsatisfied needs could be a

motivators. motivator.
It is prescriptive in nature. It is Descriptive in nature
It doesn't follow any sequence. It follows a hierarchical arrangement of

needs.
6.10 THEORY X AND THEORY Y
Douglas McGregor formulates theory X and Y. After studying managers' dealing with
employees, McGregor identified two different viewpoints based on the assumptions a
manager follows while managing employees.
Theory X
Assumptions
▪ Employees in general does not like work and if possible, tries to avoid it.
▪ Unless manager closely supervise employees, it is difficult to ensure task completion.
Therefore, manager must push employees to work either through reward or
punishment.
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▪ Employees lacks aspiration and dislikes responsibility. They give more weightage to
job security.
▪ Manager needs to direct them at every step.
Under the first viewpoint, the manager believes that employees dislike working and therefore
it is important to direct them as managers. This viewpoint is based on the "Carrot and Stick
Approach". According to the "Carrot and Stick" approach, a manager could motivate such
employees through rewards or could make them work through punishments. In other words,
Theory X assumes that lower-order needs (as Maslow suggested) dominate the employees. It
represents a pessimistic viewpoint.
Theory Y
Assumptions
▪ Unlike Theory X, employee like their work.
▪ Employees possess self-direction and self-control. They are dedicated to achieve the
goals set by organisation.
▪ Employees are loyal and committed towards organisations.
▪ Employees are ready to take responsibility, and they possess capabilities to solve
problems and complete the task on their own.
Unlike theory X, Under Theory Y is an optimistic viewpoint. Here, managers assume that
employees are self-motivated and like to do the work. If we look at Maslow's need hierarchy,
then according to theory Y employees are motivated by higher-order needs, like esteem and
self-actualization needs motivates employees.
Implication of Theory X and Theory Y
Theory Y encourages employee participation in decision making process. It encourages
decentralization. According to this theory employee are problem solver and knows how to
discover new ways to complete a task. It is found to be more reasonable and valid as
compared to Theory X. Unfortunately, no evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is
valid. Theory X and Theory Y lack empirical support, which is vital for accepting the OB
theories.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
4. MCQs
I. Three need model is given `______
e) David McClelland
f) Frederick Herzberg
g) A.H. Maslow.
h) Alderfer
II. The need for _____ is the desire to have an impact on others or to be able to
influence or control others.
e) Affiliation
f) Power
g) Safety needs
h) Achievement
III. The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. It refers to the
need for _________
e) Affiliation
f) Power
g) Safety needs
h) Achievements
IV. People with high on _______are more inclined toward motivators
e) Achievement needs
f) Affiliation needs
g) Safety needs
h) Social needs
V. The _______ is an extension of Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
e) Herzberg’s’ Two factor Theory
f) Goal Setting Theory by Edwin Locke
g) Alderfer's ERG Theory
h) McClelland's Needs Theory
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6.11 VROOM'S EXPECTANCY THEORY
Expectancy theory is part of process theories. Unlike previous theories, where the focus was on
what motivates employees? Expectancy theories attempt to answer how motivation takes place
in employees' minds. Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence interact psychologically to
create a motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid
pain. In other words, individuals' perception of the outcomes of their actions and the value they
add to the outcomes will determine their motivation to do a particular action. The Vrooms'
theory of motivation consists of three components: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence.
Expectancy (Effort -performance probability) -Employees have different expectations and
levels of confidence about what they can do. Expectancy refers to an employee's perception
of his/her capabilities to perform the given task. It could range from 0 to 1. Example: If an
employee believes that s/he lacks the required knowledge and the chances to complete the
given task are zero, zero will be scored in expectancy. Similarly, if s/he believes that s/he will
be able to complete the task based on confidence level, higher score on expectancy would be
obtained.
Instrumentality refers to employees’ perception about receiving desired rewards if they
perform the given task. In other words, employees' beliefs about doing specific actions will
lead to promised rewards (strength of relationship). It could range from 0 to 1. Example: Let
us assume an employee X needs a promotion. Suppose Employee X believes that his/her
efforts will give him the promotion. Then, s/he will score high on Instrumentality. Similarly,
if s/he believes the efforts have nothing to do with promotion, s/he will score zero in
Instrumentality.
Valence– This represents employees' preference for the reward. In other words, it refers to
how highly the employees value the rewards. It could range from -1 to 1. If an employee is
indifferent about the reward, his valence will be zero.
All three components could be arranged in the form of an equation:
Motivation= Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
All components should score above zero. If either of them becomes zero, motivation among
employees will become zero. Conversely, motivation will be high if all three components will
score high.
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Expectancy
Motivation
Instrumentality
Valence
Figure 9 Vroom expectancy theory
6.12 EQUITY THEORY
J.S. Adams formulated the Equity Theory of motivation. The equity theory helps us
understand the importance of equal treatment of all employees in an organisation. The theory
explains the process through two components, namely inputs and outcomes. People use
subjective judgement to balance the outcomes and inputs for comparing other employees with
themselves. If people feel they are not equally rewarded, they either reduce the quantity or
quality of work. However, if people perceive that they are rewarded higher, then they are
motivated to work harder.
This theory believes that a manager's fair treatment and balanced decisions are crucial in an
organisation and states that an employee compares his/her job's input and outcomes with
others, whether within or outside the organisation and then responds to eliminate these
inequalities.
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Inputs [What I put

into my job: Efforts,
loyalty, time,
knowledge, etc.]
Outputs [What I get

from my job: Pay,
bonus, perks,
benefits, etc.]
Figure 10 Equity Theory

Here 'Input' refers to everything that an employee gives to the organisation (example-skills,
knowledge, efforts, time, idea, etc.); and 'Outcomes' refers to various rewards that he receives
from an organisation (for example- pay, recognition, promotion, benefits, friendly
relationships, etc.). The employee tends to compare the inputs he gives to an organisation
with the outcomes he receives. Additionally, s/he tends to compare his input- outcomes ratio
with others.
According to Equity theory, employees take measures to re-establish fair treatment in case of
inequity. Following are some examples through which employees could re-establish equity -
o Changing their inputs by giving less effort.
o Changing outcomes by asking for higher returns
o Plans to leave the organisation
o Changing the employee with whom they compare themselves.
Porter and Lawler's expectancy model is an improvement over the expectancy theory
formulated by Vroom. The model states that combining individual factors and the
environment determines behaviour.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. MCQs
I. Theory X and Y are formulated by `______
a) David McClelland; b) Frederick Herzberg; c) A.H. Maslow; d)
Douglas McGregor
II. Under this, manager believes that employees usually dislike working and
therefore as a manager it is important to direct them
a) Theory X; b) Theory Y; c) Theory Z; d) Three need theory
III. Expectancy theory is part of _______
a) Process theories
b) Content Theories
c) Non cognitive Theories
d) Reinforcement Theory
IV. ________ refers to how highly do the employees value the rewards.
a) Valence
b) Instrumentality
c) Expectancy
d) None of the above
V. “If people feel that they are not equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity
or quality of work to some other organization.”, the statement holds true as per-
a) J.S. Adams Equity theory
b) Equity theory by Edwin Locke
c) Alderfer's Equity theory
d) McClelland's Equity theory
6.13 GOAL SETTING THEORY
Edwin Locke and Gary Latham formulated the goal-setting theory. The theory states that
goals affect employees' motivation. The goal-setting theory emphasizes on the importance of
setting specific and challenging goals for achieving motivated behaviour. Challenging goals
are difficult but not impossible to attain.
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Instead of giving vague tasks to people, specific objectives are more helpful. It revolves
around the concept of "Self-efficacy," i.e., an individual's belief that he or she can perform a
given task. According to Locke and Latham, goals affect individual performance through four
mechanisms. First, goals, direct effort toward goal-related activities and away from unrelated
activities. Second, goals energise employees. Challenging goals lead to higher employee
effort than easy goals. Third, goals affect persistence. Employees exert more effort to achieve
high goals. Fourth, goals motivate employees to use their existing knowledge to attain a goal
or to acquire the knowledge needed to do so.
The goal-setting model indicates that individuals have needs and values that influence their
desires. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, all individuals possess some basic needs.
Individuals do, however, differ in their values. Therefore, if an employee finds that they are
not satisfied with the current situation, goal setting becomes a way of achieving what they
want.
6.14 REINFORCEMENT THEORY
B.F. Skinner formulated reinforcement theory. This theory proposes that behaviour is a
function of its consequences. In other words, unlike cognitive theories of motivation, other
than the inner state, motivation can be enhanced through external factors. People are
motivated or demotivated by the action of their consequences. Positive consequences lead to
people repeating their behavior, whereas negative consequences restrict employees from
repeating their actions.
Skinner argued that individuals' internal needs and drives could be ignored because people
learn to exhibit certain behaviours based on what happens to them as a result of their
behaviour. Skinner states that the work environment should be made suitable for the
individuals. He also mentioned that punishments lead to frustration and de-motivation.
Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep making positive changes in the organisation's
external environment. The focus is on operant
conditioning. There are two types of reinforcement, namely, positive and negative. Positive
reinforcement refers to the occurrence of a valued behavioural consequence that strengthens
the probability of the behaviour being repeated. The specific behavioural consequence is
called a reinforcer.
An example of positive reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet
a sales quota (behaviour) and is then rewarded with a bonus (positive reinforcer). The
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administration of the positive reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson will
continue to exert the necessary effort in the future.
Negative reinforcement refers to an undesirable behavioural consequence that is withheld,
with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behaviour being repeated. Negative
reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment
attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviours; negative reinforcement attempts
to increase desired behaviour. Thus, both positive and negative reinforcement increases the
likelihood that a particular behaviour will be learned and repeated.
An example of negative reinforcement might be a salesperson who exerts effort to increase
sales in his or her sales territory (behaviour), followed by a decision not to reassign the
salesperson to an undesirable sales route (negative reinforcer). The administration of the
negative reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the
necessary effort in the future.
As mentioned above, punishment attempts to decrease the probability of exhibiting specific
behaviours. Punishment is the administration of an undesirable behavioural consequence to
reduce the occurrence of unwanted behaviour. Punishment is one of the more commonly used
reinforcement-theory strategies, but many learning experts suggest that it should be used only
if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used in the given circumstances. For an
example of punishment might be demoting an employee who does not meet performance
goals or suspending an employee without pay for violating work rules.
The purpose of extinction is to reduce unwanted behaviour. In this manager tends to ignore
the behaviour completely. Due to the absence of desired response, the employee avoids the
behaviour.
For example, if an employee receives no praise for his/her contribution for months, his/her
desirable behaviours will diminish. Thus, managers may continue to offer posit behavioral
consequences to avoid unwanted Extinction.
6.14.1. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
The reinforcement schedule is timing the behavioural consequences following a given
behaviour. There are two broad types of reinforcement schedules: continuous and
intermittent. If a behaviour is reinforced each time it occurs, it is called continuous
reinforcement. Researchers suggest continuous reinforcement is the fastest way to establish
new behaviours or eliminate undesired ones. However, this type of reinforcement is generally
not practical in an organisational setting. Therefore, intermittent schedules are usually
employed. Intermittent reinforcement means rewards are given at irregular intervals. There
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are four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable
interval, and variable ratio.
Fixed interval schedules of reinforcement occur when desired behaviours are reinforced after
set periods. The simplest example of a fixed interval schedule is a monthly paycheck.
The fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement applies the reinforcer after a set number of
occurrences of the desired behaviours. For example, the sales commission is based on the
number of units sold. Like the fixed interval schedule, the fixed ratio schedule may not
produce consistent, long-lasting behavioural change
Variable interval reinforcement schedules are employed when desired behaviours are
reinforced after varying periods. Examples of variable interval schedules would be special
recognition for successful performance and promotions to higher-level positions. This
reinforcement schedule appears to elicit desired behavioural change resistant to Extinction.
Finally, the variable ratio reinforcement schedule is the reinforcer after a number of desired
behaviours have occurred, with the number changing from situation to situation. The most
common example of this reinforcement schedule is the slot machine in a casino, in which a
different and unknown number of desired behaviours (i.e., feeding a quarter into the machine)
is required before the reward (i.e., a jackpot) is realized. Organisational examples of variable
ratio schedules are bonuses or special awards that are applied after varying numbers of
desired behaviours occur.
6.14.2. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION AND REINFORCEMENT
Behaviour modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behaviour change techniques
to improve behaviour, such as altering an individual's behaviours and reactions to stimuli
through positive and negative reinforcement.
REINFORCEMENT THEORY APPLIED TO ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGS
The best-known application of reinforcement theory principles to organisational settings is
called behavioural modification or behavioural contingency management. Typically, a
behavioural modification program consists of four steps:
⮚ Specifying the desired behaviour as objectively as possible.
⮚ Measuring the current incidence of desired behaviour.
⮚ Providing behavioural consequences that reinforce desired behaviour
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⮚ Determining the effectiveness of the program by systematically assessing behavioural

change.
Reinforcement theory is an important explanation of how people learn behaviour. Behavior
modification focuses on the external environment by stating that manipulating consequences
can affect behaviours. The alternative consequences include positive and negative
reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Reinforcement can be applied according to either
continuous or partial schedules. The major benefit of behaviour modification is that it makes
managers conscious motivators. It encourages managers to analyse employee behaviour,
explore why it occurs and how often, and identify specific consequences that will help change
it when those consequences are applied systematically.
6.15 TYPES OF MOTIVATION: COGNITIVE EVALUATION

THEORY
Motivation activates human behaviour and gives it direction. Cognitive evaluation theory
suggests that there are two types of motivation; intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic (internal)
motivation is an internal state or condition that drives behaviour, such as a hobby. On the
other hand, extrinsic (external) motivation refers to direction from outside the person,
including the promise of rewards, the threat of punishments, intimidation, and coercion. Both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are essentially related to goals.
6.15.1. Intrinsic Motivation
Any of the following may determine intrinsic motivation:
1. Physiological States/Needs: Employees may seek sensory stimulation to
decrease hunger, thirst, or physical discomfort.
2. Emotional Needs: An employee may seek to calm over-aroused emotions,
increase good feelings, decrease negative emotions, maintain optimism and
enthusiasm, develop a sense of productivity, or increase self-esteem.
3. Cognitive Needs: Employees may seek to increase knowledge and
understanding, maintain attention to interesting and personally meaningful
events and activities, solve problems, or resolve uncertainty or confusion.
4. Social Needs: Employee(s) may seek to be like a role model, to be part of a
group, to help others, or to be accepted by peers and have friends.
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5. Volitional/Self-Determination Needs: Finally, an employee may seek to

achieve goals that he has set for herself, take control of her affairs, reduce others'
control over her (become self-determined), or pursue her dreams.
In summary, intrinsically motivated employees act as they do because of their own needs,
goals drive them, and wants versus external inducements, they like the outcomes, and the
outcomes make them feel good — give them a sense of satisfaction. The motivation agent is
inside the person; they have an internal locus of control. It is worth noting that the idea of
reward for achievement is absent from this model of intrinsic motivation since rewards are an
extrinsic factor.
6.15.2. Extrinsic Motivation
Management systems in many rehabilitation centers, schools, and homes are based on the
assumption that people are extrinsically motivated and will not engage in positive behaviour
without external inducements. The underlying belief is that most human resources engage in
activities because they are directed to do so, because they are required to do so, or because
they are provided with either promise of rewards or threats of punishment to sustain their
participation. Thus rewards (e.g., monetary or non-monetary) play an essential role. All
factors mentioned above (under reinforcement theory) represent external factors that motivate
or demotivate employees.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. MCQs
I. The motivational process & not the Motivators as such is associated with
a) Need hierarchy theory. b) Two factor theory
c) Berg theory d) Expectancy theory
II. Who has given the Reinforcement theory of motivation?
a) Abraham Maslow b) David McClelland
c) Victor Vroom d) Frederick Herzberg
III. How many levels are there in Needs Hierarchy theory of motivation?
a. 2 b. 3
c. 4 d. 5
IV. Name the motivation theory that is based on Satisfaction-progression?
a. Alderfer – ERG theory
b. Maslow – hierarchy of needs theory
c. Herzberg – Two factor theory
d. Skinner’s reinforcement theory
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6.16 APPLICATION OF MOTIVATION CONCEPTS
It is essential to apply various motivational concepts to organisations. Some of the

applications of motivation and their linking with motivational theories have been discussed
below.
6.16.1. Job Design and Motivation: The Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
Job Design refers to how elements of a job are organised. The model states that any job could
be described in terms of the following five dimensions-
Skill Variety: The variety of activities an employee is expected to do while performing a
particular job. For example, an employee who invests 7 hrs in spraying paint scores low on
this dimension, and a garage owner-operator who is involved in various tasks like repair,
customer interaction, rebuilding engines, bodywork, etc., will score high on this dimension.
Task Identity: The degree of completion of work which makes the Job an identifiable piece.
Task Significance: The degree of impact a job has on the Job of others.
Autonomy: The degree of freedom the job provides to an employee in determining
procedures, methods and scheduling of work to be carried out. For example: If an employee
at the customer care office is given a set of procedures or questions for taking up queries,
then such an employee scores low on this dimension.
Feedback.: Feedback is the degree to which an employee about the performance receives
direct and clear information. For example An iPad assembler, assembling and testing if it
works properly is an example of high feedback.
From a motivational standpoint, if employees score high on these dimensions, they will be
more motivated to perform than the situation otherwise. In addition, employees with higher-
order needs (like growth or achievement) will prefer more autonomy. The dimensions could
be further used to compute a consolidated motivational potential score (MPS).
6.16.2. Redesigning of jobs to motivate employees
The nature of the Job itself impacts the level of motivation. The same is suggested in the JCM
model and Herzberg's motivational theory. Through the following ways, jobs could be
redesigned to motivate the employees-
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Job Rotation:
The periodic shifting of employees from one Job to another is known as Job rotation. Job
rotation could be helpful if the Job lacks skill variety and the employee suffers from over-
routinization. In addition, job rotation helps reduce boredom and helps employees understand
how their work contributes to the organisation. Example: Ticket agents may be involved in
baggage handling. The Singapore Airlines is well known for its extensive job rotation.
Job Enrichment:
Job enrichment refers to a vertical movement. The skill variety dimension is increased by
adding more tasks to the current Job. It makes existing jobs comparatively more challenging.
Job enrichment adds more meaning to a job and gives more freedom to the employees.
Recent studies suggest that job enrichment works best when equivalent rewards accompany
it.
6.17 ALTERNATIVE WORK ARRANGEMENTS
Organisations could also motivate employees through various work arrangements like
Flexitime, job sharing and telecommunication. These arrangements are beneficial in the
current scenario because of diversity in the workforce, like a single parent and dual-earner
couple.
Job Sharing:
Job sharing refers two a system in which two or more employees split a 40-hour-a-week job.
For example, Ford engineers Julie Levine and Julie Rocco engaged in a job-sharing
program. One worked in a morning slot, while the other worked in an evening slot. It helped
them in managing their work-life balance while working on the Job of redesigning the
Explorer Crossover.
Job sharing combines the talent of two or more employees and gives flexibility to employees,
which could motivate them to perform better. Japanese organisation follows Job sharing for
different reasons, like avoiding layoffs due to overstaffing.
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Case Study
Sunaina works at “Insta International”. She is a coordinator responsible for handling
applications received from agency partners. She is also responsible for reviewing and
ensuring all fields are filled properly. She is also responsible for following up with
agency partners and building a relationship with agency partners. As per the job
description, it is a full-time job requiring a minimum of 8 hours of commitment.
Presently, her office timing is from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m.
Sunaina is a good performer who meets her deadlines. Last year her performance
rating was above average. She also received “applause” from her immediate
manager. Keeping her professional life aside, In her personal life, Sunaina is a single
mother. She wakes up at 5 a.m. and prefers to sleep before 9 a.m. Recently her
daughter has started going to school, due to which from next month she needs to pick
her daughter up from school at 3 p.m.
Now Sunaina has no choice other than to leave her present job. Sunaina goes to meet
her manager, Mr Amit, in person with a resignation letter-
Amit: Hi Sunaina, How are you?
Sunaina: I am good. Due to some personal engagements, I am afraid I won’t be able
to continue with this job.
Amit: Why? What happened?
Sunaina explained her situation and left the resignation letter on his desk. After two
days, Amit calls Sunaina in his office.
Amit: I was going through your resignation letter. I can recall that we lost
hardworking employees in the past for similar reasons. After talking with the HR
department, we have come across an alternative. The office opens at 6 a.m. and
closes at 8 p.m., and you are supposed to devote 8 hours to the office. We could give
you an option to pick up suitable hours, provided the hours should fall within the
opening and closing time of the office.
QUESTIONS:
Question 1: Identify the alternative work arrangement that Mr Amit provides to Ms
Sunaina
Question 2: State the benefits and limitations of such alternative work arrangements.
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Flexi time:
Flexi time refers to flexible work hours. Under this, organisations give an option to
employees to choose working hours. In most cases, core hours remain the same. However,
the flexibility of two to four hours is given beyond the fixed hours. Flexi hours provides
various benefits to organisations; for example, it reduces absenteeism, reduces work
productivity, reduces hostility towards manager, eliminates tardiness, increases autonomy,
etc. However, other than the advantages, Flexi hours have certain limitations, like it is not
suitable for all types of jobs. For example, if Sunaina is involved in direct customer dealing
and customers are usually unavailable before 10 a.m., it won't be possible to give any
alternative.
Telecommuting:
Work from home facility. For at least two days a week, employees could work from home.
Post covid, many organisations across the globe allow telecommuting. It not only gives
flexibility to employees but also is a cost-saving way for an organisation.
6.18 MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)
In his book "The Practice of Management", Peter Drucker formulated management by

Objectives (MBO) in 1954. Management by objectives (MBO) is a systematic and organised
approach that allows management to focus on achievable goals and attain the best results
from available resources. It aims to increase organisational performance by aligning goals
and subordinate objectives. Ideally, employees get strong input to identify their objectives,
timelines for completion, etc. In addition, MBO includes ongoing tracking and feedback in
reaching objectives. The principle behind MBO is to ensure that everybody within the
organisation has a clear understanding of the aims, or objectives, of that organisation, as well
as awareness of their roles and responsibilities in achieving those aims.
Principles of Management by objective:
● Cascading of organisational goals and objectives
● Specific objectives for each member
GOAL SETTING AND ITS EFFECTS ON PERFORMANCE
Motivation is goal-directed. A goal is the object or aim of an action, for example, to attain a
specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit. An employee's goals
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often are driving forces, and accomplishing those goals affects performance. Goals affect
performance through four mechanisms.
First, goals serve a directive function; they direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant
activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities. Second, goals have an energising function.
High goals lead to greater effort than low goals. Third, goals affect persistence. When
participants are allowed to control the time they spend on a task, challenging goals prolong
effort. Fourth, goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of
task-relevant knowledge and strategies.
6.19 EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT PROGRAM
Employee involvement programs use inputs for employees in the decision-making process.
Employee involvement creates an environment in which people impact decisions and actions
that affect their jobs. Employee involvement is not the goal or tool practised in many
organisations. Instead, employee involvement is a management and leadership philosophy
about how people are most enabled to contribute. It is a participative process that uses the
total capacity of employees and is designed to encourage increased commitment to'' the
organisation's success.
Following are a few Employee involvement programs-
Participative management refers to a process where subordinates share decision-making
power with the superior. The degree of power is significant, but the subordinate should have
the required knowledge and competencies to participate. It helps in motivating employees.
Quality Circles - A group of employees meeting regularly to discuss their quality problems,
investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions.
Employee Stock Ownership Plans - Company established benefit plans in which employees
acquire stock as part of their benefits.
Linking Employee Involvement Programs and Motivation Theories
Many motivational theories can be linked with employee involvement programs. For
example, theory Y of motivation shows consistency with participative management, while in
the case of hygiene theory, employee involvement programs could provide employees with
intrinsic motivation by increasing opportunities for growth, responsibility, and involvement in
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the work itself. Employee involvement is attuned with ERG theory and efforts to stimulate
the achievement need.
Answer the following questions based on Opening Case Study-
1. Name the various motivation theories that have been highlighted in the above case
2. Identify the motivation theory that explains Amrita’s behaviour towards the end.
3. Using expectancy theory explains the difference in motivation between Amrita and
Shweta.
6.20 SUMMARY
Motivation is the process in which basic need leads to creating drives aimed at a goal. Highly
driven people put in much effort at their jobs, whereas those who lack motivation do not.
The cognitive model of motivation consists of theories that focus on the human
mind's internal state. Theories under the cognitive model could be further
subdivided into Content and Process theories.
Content (or need) theories of motivation focus on factors internal to the
individual that energise and direct behaviour. In contrast, Process theories are
concerned with determining how individual behaviour is directed and
maintained in the specifically self-directed human cognitive processes.
Content theory includes Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory; Herzberg’s
Motivational Hygiene Theory; Alderfer’s ERG Theory; and McClelland’s
Needs theory; while Vroom's Expectancy Theory, Adam's Equity theory; and
Goal Setting Theory fall under Process Theories.
B.F. Skinner formulated reinforcement theory. This theory proposes that
behaviour is a function of its consequences. In other words, unlike cognitive
theories of motivation, other than the inner state, motivation can be enhanced
through external factors.
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Cognitive evaluation theory suggests that there are two types of motivation;
intrinsic and extrinsic.
It is essential to apply various motivational concepts to organisations. Some of
the applications of motivation and their linking with motivational theories
includes redesigning of job, providing alternative work arrangements to
employees; management by objective, initiating employee involvement
programs and employee participation programs.
1. a) needs and drives; b) Cognitive and non-cognitive models; c) internal

state of human mind; d) content and process theories.
2. a) Adam's Equity theory; b) Alderfer's ERG Theory

3. I) Lower order needs; II) Both (a) and (b); III) Fredrick Herzberg; IV) No
dissatisfaction; V) Herzberg’s' Two factor Theory
4. I) David McClelland ; II) Power; III) affiliation; IV) Achievement needs;

V) Alderfer's ERG Theory
5. I) Douglas McGregor; II) Theory X; III) Process theories ; IV)

Valance; V) J.S. Adams Equity theory
6. I) Expectancy theory; II) B.F. Skinner; III) 5; IV) Maslow – hierarchy of

needs theory
1. Define motivation & Explain the process of motivation.

2. Explain Cognitive evaluation theory. State the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic
rewards on the behavior of the employees.
3. Explain Maslow's need theory and its implications for management.
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4. Do you believe that motivational theories are affected by the Culture? Justify your
answer with suitable examples.
5. “Millionaires keep working even in the later years of their lives” What motivates
them to work.
6.23 REFERENCES
Luthans, F. (2011). Organizational Behavior: An Evidence – Based Approach, McGraw Hill

Education.
Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Vohra, N. (2019). Organisational behavior by Pearson 18e.
Pearson Education India.
Publication. Delhi.
Kaul, V. (2011). Business Organization and Management: Text and Cases. Pearson
Education India.
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LESSON-7
LEADERSHIP
Dr. Reema Aggarwal
Assistant Professor
reemaaggarwal@sol-du.ac.in
Ms. Manisha Yadav
Assistant Professor
Manishayadav@sol-du.ac.in
STRUCTURE

7.2 Introduction
7.3 What Is Leadership?
7.3.1 Characteristics of a leader
7.3.2 Leader vs Manager
7.4 University of Iowa Studies
7.4.1 What is the University of Iowa Studies?
7.4.2 Observations of the study
7.4.3 Conclusion
7.5 Likert’s Management Systems by Rensis Likert
7.5.1 What is Likert’s Management System?
7.5.2 Key concepts
7.5.3 Conclusion
7.6 Theories of Leadership
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7.7 Great Man Theory

7.7.1 What is the great man theory?
7.7.2 Criticism
7.7.3 Conclusion
7.8 Trait Theory
7.8.1 What is the trait theory?
7.8.2 Assumptions
7.8.3 Results
7.8.4 Criticism
7.9 Behavioural Approach
7.9.1 Ohio State Studies
7.9.2 University of Michigan
7.9.3 Leadership Grid
7.10 Contingency Theories
7.10.1 Fiedler Contingency Model:
7.10.2 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
7.10.3 Path-Goal Theory
7.10.4 Continuum of Leadership Behaviour by Tannenbaum and Schmidt
7.11 Contemporary Theories
7.11.1 Transactional and Transformational Leadership Style
7.11.2 Charismatic Leadership
7.11.3 Authentic Leadership
7.12 Summary
7.13 Answers To In-Text Questions
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After reading this lesson, students will be able to:

1. Understand the meaning and traits of a leader.
2. Distinguish between a leader and a manager.
3. Understand different leadership styles and their importance.
4. Understand the evolution of leadership theories.
5. Relate to the contemporary theories of leadership.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
“If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you
are a leader!” - John Quincy Adams.
Leadership is one of the most complex and multidimensional phenomena. It has been studied
extensively over the years and has taken on greater importance than ever before in today’s
fast-paced and increasingly globalised world. Nonetheless, leadership continues to generate
captivating and confusing debate due to the complexity of the subject.
The present lesson traces the historical evolution of leadership theories and reviews the
progress over the years. It explores four main eras in leadership theory: trait, behavioral,
contingency, and contemporary leadership theories.
7.3 WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
Simply speaking, “leadership” is defined as “the ability to lead.” Leadership in business is the
capacity of a company's management to set and achieve challenging goals, take fast and
decisive action when needed, outperform the competition, and inspire others to perform at the
highest level they can.
Researchers have proposed many different definitions and theories of leadership. Some of the
definitions of leadership given by eminent researchers are:
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Stogdill (1974) says that:

"Leadership is the initiation and maintenance of structure in expectation and
interaction."
James MacGregor Burns (1978) concedes that:
"Leadership is leaders inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the
values and the motivations - 'the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations - of
both leaders and followers. And the genius of leadership lies in the manner in which
leaders see and act on their own and their followers' values and motivations."
According to Katz and Kahn (1978):
"Leadership is the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with
the routine directives of the organization."
According to John Gardner (1990):
"Leadership is the process of persuasion and example by which an individual (or
leadership team) induces a group to take action that is in accord with the leader's
purpose or for the shared purposes of all."
Buchannan and Huczynski (1997) explain leadership as:
"A social process in which one individual influences the behaviour of others without the
use of threat or violence."
7.3.1 Characteristics of a leader:
There is no clear cut formula for becoming a successful leader. Nonetheless, a few must-have
traits are enumerated as follows:
1. Integrity: a leader must embody impeccable standards of integrity and honesty.
Her/His decisions should be objective and unbiased.
2. Initiative: a good leader has an enterprise trait. S/He is resourceful and thinks on
her/his feet and grabs the lucrative opportunities given half a chance.
3. Communication skills: a leader should be eloquent and should be able to articulate
his/her vision and goals with brevity.
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4. Motivation skills: a leader must be able to influence followers to work towards shared
goals and concurrently achieve their individual goals.
5. Adaptive: in this ever-changing world, a leader must be receptive to new ideas and
ways of doing things.
7.3.2 Leader vs Manager:
A leader leads by example, whereas a manager dictates terms. A leader is someone whom
people follow or someone who guides others. On the other hand, is someone responsible for
directing and controlling the work and staff in an organisation. The following table states a
few subtle differences between the two:
Leader Manager
Innovator Administrator
People Focused Work focused
Have followers Have subordinates
Do the right thing Do things rightly
Creating value Counting value
Change seeker Prefer stability
Influence and inspire Power and control
7. 4 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES
The University of Iowa Studies was the first to examine different leadership styles using
scientific methodology. Kurt Lewin, in collaboration with Lippit and White, wanted to
dissect different leadership styles and their effectiveness which resulted in concluding that
there are three leadership styles - authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. These are
widely studied leadership styles around the globe.
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7.4.1 What is the University of Iowa Studies?

In 1939, the great depression was about to dissipate, and industries were back on their feet.
Yet, no one tried to fathom out which leadership style tics the subordinates the most.
Psychologist Kurt Lewin was the first to do so. The Iowa Studies of leadership set out to
identify different styles of leadership. This early study was very influential and established
three major leadership styles.
In the first part of the study, they trained adults to act as authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-
faire leaders. Later, they assigned schoolchildren of the same IQ to one of the three groups.
They gave each group the same task. The performance was evaluated on the amount of
quality of work accomplished. The three group leaders assumed different styles as they
shifted every six weeks from group to group. The objective was to gauge the bearing of
different leadership styles on the level of satisfaction/frustration of an individual.
The Three Styles of Leadership:
1. Authoritarian Leadership:
Under this style, a leader makes all the decisions. He passes a dictum telling all the
subordinates what to do, how to do it and when to do it. No leeway for creativity or
innovation gets bestowed upon an employee.
Under the authoritarian leadership style, a leader is believed to be a know-it-all brass and will
do what is best for the organization. Employees are presumed to be ignorant, work-shy, lack
ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led. They are not trusted to do what is
beneficial for the organization. Unlimited authority is thus rightly vested in the leader.
Against its conspicuous flaws, authoritarian leadership is befitting to situations where there is
little time for group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member
of the group.
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Figure 7.1: Authoritarian Leadership

2. Democratic Style
This style is characterized by a structured but cooperative approach to decision-making. It
focuses on group relationships and sensitivity to the people in the organization. This type of
leadership style fosters professional competence. Subordinates are encouraged to express
their ideas and make suggestions. However, shared decisions are not likely to occur in all
aspects of organizational operations. Democratic leaders sell a vision. They tend to be warm,
confident, and friendly. The democratic leadership style encourages employee participation
and professional growth.
Figure 7.2: Democratic Style

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It is well suited in environments where people have a very high level of expertise, like
software engineers, lawyers, doctors, mature teachers, etc. The democratic leadership style
promotes greater job satisfaction and improved morale.
3. Laissez-faire
Laissez-faire is a hands-off approach. A leader trusts his employees and gives them carte
blanche to use their skills and accomplish the organization’s goals. But this is not a one-size
fits its approach. Only individuals with high internal motivation and requisite skill sets can
work under this minimalistic leadership style. On the other hand, if employees are not skilled
or lack motivation, in that case, this style will drive the productivity of the organization into
the ground.
Figure 7.3: Laissez-faire

7.4.2 Observations of the study:
Nineteen out of twenty boys liked the democratic leadership style. The only boy who liked
the authoritarian style happened to be the son of an army officer. Seven out of ten boys
preferred the laissez-faire leader to the autocratic one as they preferred confusion and
disorder to strictness and rigidity present in the autocratic style. The boys under the latter
style exhibited more aggressive, hostile, and indifferent behaviour than their counterparts
under other leadership styles. They either showed hostility or cracked jokes about hostility
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towards others. Others belonging to the democratic style showed less aggressive and more
indifferent behaviour when brought under the autocratic style of a leader. Even under the
laissez-faire style of the leader, boys committed more aggressive acts than the ones under the
democratic style.
The studies found the democratic style to be less productive than the autocratic style. On the
flip side, quality was a rung higher with a democratic leader atop than the group with an
autocratic leader. Besides, decision-making was less creative under authoritarian leadership
than under democratic leadership. The researchers concluded that democratic leadership was
the most effective form.
7.4.3 Conclusion:
Undoubtedly a study on ten-year-old boys cannot be juxtaposed with the leadership
behaviour of adults with much more intricate jobs. Nonetheless, the study in its own right
was a trailblazer for the understanding of leadership styles from the point of scientific
methodology. It depicts how the same group can deliver different results based on the
leadership style deployed by the superiors.
7. 5 LIKERT’S MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS BY RENSIS LIKERT
In the 1960s, social psychologist Rensis Likert and his colleagues at the University of
Michigan in the United States administered questionnaires to managers from 200
organizations. He wanted to gauge management performance by determining which
leadership style could extract maximum productivity from the subordinates.
7.5.1 What is Likert’s Management System?
Likert's management systems are management styles developed by Rensis Likert in the
1960s. He studied the patterns and styles of managers for three decades and established a
four-fold model of management systems. His four systems are designed to highlight various
organisational dynamics and characteristics built around interactions between
individuals. Notably, the systems explore several soft management skills, such as trust-
building and their effects on the broader dynamic of the organisation itself.
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The four management systems by Likert:

1. System 1 - Exploitative Authoritative: under this system, decision-making and
responsibility lie in the hands of the people at the upper echelons of the hierarchy. The
top management makes the policies and rules. The employees at the lower level are
bound to follow the instructions. The superior has no trust and confidence in
subordinates. Dictums get imposed on employees. They cannot freely converse about
their jobs with the managers. The managers play on fear - punishment and threats get
used as motivation tools. Teamwork and communication are minimal.
2. System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative: The responsibility lies at the managerial levels
but not at the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy. The superior has
condescending confidence and trust in subordinates (master-servant relationship).
Here again, the subordinates do not feel free to discuss things about the job with their
superiors. Teamwork or communication is very little, and motivation is based on a
system of rewards.
3. System 3 - Consultative: Under this system, managers have greater trust in their
subordinates and demonstrate it by implementing ideas or beliefs that they share with
their team members. There is an open level of communication throughout the
organization, and team members are often consulted during the decision-making
process, particularly when any changes will affect them substantially. However, the
ultimate power of decisions remains with those at the highest levels within the
organization. Employee motivation gets roused by incentives, including rewards and
the responsibility for specific tasks. In this style, employees are given greater freedom
and involvement in meaningful tasks is used to boost intrinsic motivation.
4. System 4 - Participative: Responsibility for achieving the organizational goals is
widespread throughout the organizational hierarchy. The superior has a high level of
confidence in his subordinates. The level of communication is high, both horizontally
and vertically, and teamwork is regular.
7.5.2 Key concepts:
Under Likert's Management Systems, several dynamics determine which management system
is at play. These are:
o Motivation
o Communication
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o Influence
o Decision-making
1. Motivation: Motivation is a driving force that stimulates the employees to
accomplish the organization’s objectives. Now, it can be used both positively
(through rewards and incentives) and negatively (through punishment and threats).
Exploitative Authoritative and Benevolent Authoritative primarily focus on
punishment, whilst Consultative and Participative are angled more towards a system
of reward, though none is committed to any one approach. Rewards can come in the
form of monetary bonuses, extra responsibility, opportunities for development, or the
improvement of employee relationships with superiors.
2. Communication: In Exploitative Authoritative Systems, communication is virtually
one-way, with decisions being dictated directly from higher management to
subordinates, on the other hand, in Participative Systems, communications are
horizontal, with employees participating in the day-to-day decision-making process.
3. Influence: The levels of influence employees hold are a conspicuous indicator of the
management system at play. In Benevolent and Exploitative Authoritative Systems,
subordinates are generally not consulted about decisions that relate to their role. On
the other hand, in Participative Systems, employees are encouraged to add their
pennyworth to the discussions.
4. Decision-making: When employees are asked their opinions and ideas regarding the
running of the business, they may indirectly influence the decision-making of their
superiors, with their thoughts, ideas and values being included in any strategic
planning. However, in either of the Authoritative Systems, the final decision is made
by individuals at the upper levels of the organizational hierarchy. Alternatively, in
Consultative Systems, the employees are given a role in the decision-making process
through consultation and in a Participative System, subordinates may have as much
influence in decision-making and goal setting as their manager.
7.5.3 Conclusion:
Likert's studies confirmed that the departments or units employing management practices
within Systems 1 and 2 were the least productive, and the departments or units employing
management practices within Systems 3 and 4 were the most productive.
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With the help of the profile developed by Likert, it became possible to quantify the results of
the work done in the field of group dynamics.
The Likert theory also facilitated the measurement of the “soft” areas of management, such as
trust and communication.
According to Rensis Likert, the nearer the behavioural characteristics of an organization's
approach System 4 (Participative), the more likely this will lead to long-term improvement in
staff turnover and high productivity, low scrap, low costs, and high earnings.
7.6 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership theories seek to explain how and why certain people become leaders. Initially, the
focus was on ascertaining the characteristics of leaders, but some attempted to identify the
behaviours that people can adopt to improve their leadership abilities in different situations.
Early debates on leadership often suggested that such skills were innate abilities. In other
words, these theories proposed that certain people were "born leaders." More recent theories
propose that possessing certain traits may help make people nature leaders, but that
experience and situational variables also play a critical role.
What exactly makes a great leader? Do certain personality traits make people better suited to
leadership roles, or do characteristics of the situation make it more likely that certain people
will take charge? When we look at the leaders around us—be it our employer or the
President—we might find ourselves wondering exactly why these individuals excel in such
positions.
People have long been interested in leadership throughout human history, but it has only been
relatively recently that several formal leadership theories have emerged. Interest in leadership
increased during the early part of the twentieth century.
Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and
followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and
skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be categorized
into one of the five broad types: Great man theory, trait theory, behavioural theories,
contingency theories, and contemporary theories.
7.7 GREAT MAN THEORY
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Are some people born to lead? A cursory glance at the history provides numerous anecdotal
evidence. Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Napoleon, Mahatma Gandhi, and Abraham
Lincoln were the nonpareil leaders of their times. They had a strong moral fiber, great
resolute to achieve their objective and a clear vision. Even today, the belief that truly great
leaders are born is common.
7.7.1 What is the great man theory?
In the 19th century, a historian named Thomas Carlyle said, "The history of the world is the
biography of great men". According to him, a leader is one gifted with unique qualities that
captures the imagination of the masses.
The Great Man Theory of leadership espouses that great leaders are born, not made. It states
that some people are born with traits that are the mainstay of a successful leader. Under the
Great Man Theory, prominent leaders throughout history were born to lead and deserved to
do so on the back of their natural abilities and talents. The theory gives the semblance of
heroism.
7.7.2 Criticism:
One of the central problems with the Great Man theory of leadership is that not all people
who possess the so-called natural leadership qualities become great leaders. If leadership is
simply an inborn quality, then every individual endowed with the said traits must have
eventually found themselves in leadership roles.
The Great Man Theory gives the semblance of heroism. Accordingly, a leader is a hero who
accomplishes goals against all odds for his followers. Such assumptions are unrealistic.
Many of the traits cited as being vital to being an effective leader are typical masculine traits.
In contemporary research, there is a significant shift in such a mentality.
7.7.3 Conclusion:
The Great Man Theory was a catalyst for arousing the interest of the researchers in
understanding what leadership is - Who is a leader? What are the distinguishing traits of a
great leader? From this emerged the trait theory of leadership.
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7.8 TRAIT THEORY
The Great Man Theory is the earliest theory of leadership. It suggested that great leaders were
born and not made. They had some inborn qualities, and this made them great. However,
there was no agreement on the traits these leaders shared or how to identify such people. In
trait theory, the researchers attempted to identify these traits of a leader.
7.8.1 What is the trait theory?
The Trait Theory is an extension of the Great Man Theory. The objective of the Trait Theory
was to discern the innate traits embodied by an individual that transmogrify them into
successful leaders. Different researchers worked on this theory, like Francis Galton. Galton
stated that leadership quality is for those who have specific traits that are rigid by birth.
Cowley also said in 1931 that traits should be part of research in leadership study. In 1948,
Ralph Melvin Stogdill also supported Trait theory and did value addition to it. He added
further that leadership is based not only on inherent traits but also on the way a leader
interacts with the situation.
The theory sought personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits that differentiated leaders
from non-leaders. Underlying this approach was the assumption that some people are natural
leaders endowed with certain traits not possessed by others. It attributed managerial success
to extraordinary abilities such as tireless energy, intuition, uncanny foresight, and irresistible
persuasive powers. Some of the traits identified were as follows:
i. Personality traits: self-confident, adaptable, assertive, emotionally stable etc.
ii. Task-related characteristics: driven to excel, accepting of responsibility, having
initiative, results-oriented etc.
iii. Physical traits: young to middle-aged, energetic, tall, handsome etc.
iv. Social characteristics: charismatic, charming, tactful, popular, cooperative, diplomatic
etc.
7.8.2 Assumptions:
The kernel of this theory is its three assumptions, which are as follows:
• Individuals have innate leadership traits.
• A specific set of traits induces a particular behavior pattern.
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• This behaviour pattern is irrespective of the situation, i.e., doesn’t change according to
the situation.
7.8.3 Results:
There were many studies conducted during the l930s and 1940s to discover these elusive
qualities focusing on the trait of leaders. But the research effort failed to find any traits that
would guarantee leadership success. It could not identify a universal set of traits to recognize
a leader in all situations.
7.8.4 Criticism:
The trait theory of leadership lacks in providing better and clear results. It is not fit for all
situations, as different traits were set forth by different researchers ergo, there is no uniform
list. Consideration of other factors that affect leadership is also missing. Also, the
comparative analysis of traits and their importance is undetermined. It couldn’t justify why
some people with these traits were not influential leaders and why some others with streaks
of rigidness were successful. Tests to measure these traits are also not present.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Fill in the blanks- _________ holds a formal position in the organisation,
whereas _____ can influence the group even without a formal position in the
organisation (Leader/Manager)
2. Leaders who practice Laissez- faire style is very good at _____
a) Decision Making b) Delegating work
c)Communicating with employees d) None of the above
3. Under this leadership style followers feel they are participating in the decision
making, but they are not-
a) Benevolent Autocratic b) Dictator Leadership style
c) Manipulative Leadership Style d) Laissez- faire leadership style
4. ____ leadership theory assumes that leaders are born not made.
a) Trait Theory b) Authentic leadership
c) Great man theory of leadership d) Transactional theory of leadership
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7.9 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
The behavioural leadership theory focuses on how leaders behave. Sometimes called the style
theory, it suggests that leaders aren’t born successful but can be created based on learnable
behaviour. Behavioural theories focus heavily on the actions of a leader—this theory suggests
that the best predictor of leadership success is viewing how a leader acts. Action rather than
qualities are the focal points of behavioural learning theory.
The main difference between trait theory and behavioural theory is the process of becoming a
leader. In the trait theory of leadership, people can become leaders smoothly because they
were born with the requisite skills. In the behavioural theory of leadership, however, anyone
can become a leader after learning leadership skills.
7.9.1 Ohio State Studies:
The researchers at the Ohio State University ushered in the direction of studying leadership
extensively. The objective was the examine the impact of a leader's behaviour on job
performance and satisfaction of employees. For this purpose, they administered the Leader
Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) to scores of employees. The LBDQ consisted
of 150 statements concerning leadership behaviour. Each employee responded depending on
the degree of a leader's engagement in various behaviours.
After studying the results of the ratings, the researchers subsumed the leader's behaviour
under two categories. First, consideration, and second initiating structure.
i. Consideration: the extent to which the leader exhibits concern for the welfare of the
employees. A leader high in consideration respects employees' ideas, tries to solve their
problems, is approachable, treats them as equals and frequently appreciates their work. S/He
focuses on forging mutual trust and a conducive environment for his employees.
ii. Initiating structure: the extent to which the leader defines individual roles. A leader high
in initiating structure will set clear goals and emphasize meeting performance targets and
deadlines. S/He will set much store by systematic coordination of work. Will delineate job
descriptions of each employee along the pecking order.
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Ohio State Leadership Grid:

According to Ohio State Leadership Studies, a leader can elicit both behaviours concurrently,
which means consideration and initiating structure are not mutually exclusive.
Hence, leadership behaviour can be plotted on two separate axes rather than on a single
continuum, as shown in the following diagram:
Figure 7.4: Ohio State Leadership Quadrants

Each quadrant in the above diagram is a mixture of varying degrees of initiating structure and
consideration. A manager adopts any one style. The four quadrants are as follows:
1. Low structure and low consideration: the leader neither provides a rigid structure nor
demonstrates much consideration for his employees. He projects a laissez-faire leadership
style and is suitable for highly skilled employees with high intrinsic motivation.
2. High structure and low consideration: the leader is pedantic about structuring the work
and roles of employees. He projects an autocratic leadership style and does not care much
about his employees' needs and wants.
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3. Low structure and high consideration: a leader sets much store by the needs and wants
of his employees. His primary concern is the welfare of his employees. For instance, a leader
might define the problem and ask the group members to decide how they will work together
to accomplish the task.
4. High structure and high consideration: a leader is highly active and considerate of his
employees. He defines the structure but is open to alteration to squeeze in employees' ideas,
needs and wants.
Conclusion:
The Ohio State Leadership study found that a leader who is high in initiating structure and
consideration (a high-high leader) is predominantly effective. He achieves high employee
performance and satisfaction. However, in a significant number of cases, there were
exceptions found. These exceptions indicated a need to take situational factors into
cognizance.
7.9.2 University of Michigan:
a study commenced at the University of Michigan intending to identify the leadership styles
that achieved maximum performance and job satisfaction among employees. It draws much
semblance to Ohio State studies. The study identifies two broad leadership styles: employee-
oriented and production-oriented leadership style.
i. Production-oriented leader: This is quite similar to a leader under the Ohio State study
who is high on initiating structure focusing on task-oriented activities. The leader considers
employees as stakeholders.
ii. Employee-oriented leader: This is similar to a leader under the Ohio State study who is
high on the consideration emphasizing on human relations. The leader considers employees
as a means to achieve production targets.
Conclusion:
According to the University of Michigan, employee-oriented leadership coupled with general
direction and not overbearing supervision would yield maximum performance and job
satisfaction.
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Criticism:
The overarching assertion that an employee-oriented style leads to better productivity is
contentious. It does not account for the employees and the circumstances that may warrant
the use of a production-oriented leadership as more effective.
For instance, some intricate jobs might require a more hands-on approach from the leader.
Also, the same leadership style may not yield the same results for two different organisations
due to different dynamics.
7.9.3 Leadership Grid:
The leadership studies at the University of Michigan and the Ohio State University hinged on
task-oriented and employee-oriented leadership styles. In the 1960s, Robert Blake and Jane
Mouton also built their work on these dimensions. They proposed a grid known as the
managerial grid (also known as the leadership grid). The x-axis of the grid indicates concern
for production (keeping tight schedules) by the leader, and the y-axis portrays concern for
people (accommodating people’s needs and giving them priority). Each dimension ranges
from low (1) to high (9) and thus rendering 81 different positions in which the leadership
style may fall.
Figure 7.5: Leadership Grid

The five resulting leadership styles are as follows:
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i. The impoverished style (1, 1): The managers have low concern for; people and
production. Managers use this style to avoid getting into trouble. The main concern for the
manager is not to be held responsible for any mistakes, which results in less innovative
decisions.
The leader uses a "delegate and disappears" management style. They are not committed to
either task accomplishment or employee satisfaction, which leads to chaos, disharmony
within the organisation and high employee turnover.
ii. The country club style (1, 9): This style has a high concern for people and a low concern
for production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of
the employees in the hope that this will increase their performance. The resulting atmosphere
is buoyant but not necessarily productive.
iii. The task management style (9, 1): With a high concern for production and a low
concern for people, this style finds employee needs unimportant. Managers using this style
manage their employees through rules and punishments. This dictatorial style is based on
Theory X and perceives employees as a mere means to an end.
iv. The middle-of-the-road style (5, 5): the manager tries to balance the company's goals
and workers' needs. This is a halfway between employees' needs and the company's needs,
which are viewed as disparate by the manager. He believes it to be the best way possible as
he assumes that employees' needs and the company's goals can not be reconciled and hence,
tries to achieve acceptable performance.
v. The team style (9, 9): In this style a manager pays high concern to both people and
production. The manager premises his leadership style on Theory Y, where s/he fosters
teamwork. This method relies heavily on making employees feel like a quintessential part of
the company.
The manager leads by positive example and endeavors to harness a team environment in
which all team members can reach their highest potential, both as a team and as an individual.
He or She encourages the team to accomplish team goals effectively and work as a team to
strengthen the bonds among the various members.
Conclusion:
The Managerial Grid is used to help managers analyze their leadership styles through a
technique known as grid training. Under this training, questionnaires get administered to the
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employees that help managers identify how they stand in their concern for production and
people. The training aims to help leaders reach the ideal state (9, 9).
Nevertheless, the model ignores the importance of internal and external limits, matter, and
scenarios.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. Hersey and Blanchard Model is part of ______ theories
a) Trait Theories
b) Behavioural Theories
c) Contingency theories
d) Contemporary theories
6. Leadership Grid is part of ______ theories
a) Trait Theories
7. Ohio state studies is part of ______ theories
a) Trait Theories
8. If a leader shows more concern for employees over the task, such a
leader falls under quadrant which is popularly also known as ____ as per
the Leadership grid.
a) Impoverished
b) Teamwork
c) Task oriented
d) Country club
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
9. If a leader shows more concern for task over the employees, such a leader
falls under quadrant which is popularly also known as ____ as per the
Managerial grid.
a) Impoverished
b) Teamwork
c) Task oriented
d) Country club
10. If a leader shows more concern for both task and employees, such a leader
falls under quadrant which is popularly also known as ____ as per the
Managerial grid.
a) Impoverished
b) Teamwork
c) Task oriented
d) Country club
11. ______ quadrant is best position for a leader as per behavioural theory of
Managerial grid.
a) Impoverished
b) Teamwork
c) Task oriented
d) Mid Way
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7.10 CONTINGENCY THEORIES
The contingency leadership theory, sometimes called situational theory, focuses on the
context of a leader. A leader’s effectiveness is directly determined by the situational context
in addition to his behaviour. This theory takes the specific leadership styles and suggests that
good leaders can adjust their leadership style situationally. It also advocates that it will be
best to find the right leader for a specific situation. Types of contingency theories include
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory, Evans and House's Path-Goal Theory, and Hershey and
Blanchard’s Situational Theory.
7.10.1 Fiedler Contingency Model:
Till the late 1960s, the building blocks of leadership theories were; the innate skill set to be a
leader, and there were predominantly two leadership styles (task-oriented leadership and
relationship-oriented leadership style). None of the theories factored in the clout of external
factors on the effectiveness of a particular leadership style.
In 1967, an Austrian psychologist, Professor Fred Fiedler, concurred with the idea of natural
leadership style dyed-in-the-wool, which is hard to change. Nevertheless, as per him,
situational factors have an equal sway on the efficacy of a leadership style. Fiedler contended
that there is no infallible leadership style for every situation. For this reason, there must be a
match between the leadership style and the situation at hand. So, the two vital tenets of his
theory were:
i. Natural leadership style, and
ii. Situation favorableness
Assumptions:
The model contended that an individual premises his leadership style on his past experiences
and psychology. It is impossible to change one's natural leadership style. There are only two
ways to improve the outcome of an organisation:
i. Change the situation, or
ii. Change the leader
Steps for application of the Model:
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Step 1: Identify the leadership style

To riddle out one's leadership style, Fiedler curated the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)
questionnaire. The questionnaire asks respondents to describe the one co-worker they least
enjoyed working with by rating that person on a scale of 1 to 8 for each of 16 sets of
contrasting adjectives (such as pleasant–unpleasant, efficient–inefficient, open–guarded,
supportive–hostile). If the respondent even held this co-worker in high regard and scored him
high, Fiedler categorized him/her as a relationship-oriented leader. By contrast, if the
respondent gave a low score to this co-worker, it is deduced that his natural leadership style is
task oriented. About 16 per cent of respondents scored in the middle range and consequently
weeded out of the study.
Step 2: Defining the situation
Every situation calling for leadership requires a specific leadership style geared towards it.
For this reason, one must assess the favorableness of the situation. This hinges on three
variables:
i. Leader-member relationship: This is a measure of trust, confidence, and respect members
have for their leader. The higher the confidence, the more favourable the situation is.
ii. Task structure: It is highly streamlined structure leading to a favourable situation. The
more precise the tasks are – the higher the task structure.
iii. Power position: It gauges the authority of a leader over power variables like hiring, firing,
promotions, and salary increase. Stronger the power position, the more favourable the
situation.
Essentially,
Favourable situation = Good leader-member relationship + high task structure + strong
power position.
An unfavourable situation is on the other end of the continuum.
Step 3: Matching leaders and situations
Combining the three contingency dimensions yields eight possible situations in which leaders
can find themselves. The Fiedler model proposes matching a respondent's LPC score and
these eight situations to achieve maximum leadership effectiveness. Fiedler concluded that
task-oriented leaders perform better in very favourable and very unfavourable situations.
Relationship-oriented leaders, however, perform better in moderately favourable situations.
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Figure 7.6: Fiedler Contingency Model
Situation Favourable Moderate Unfavourable
Leader- High High High High Low Low Low Low

member
relations
Task High High Low Low High High Low Low

structure
Position High Low High Low High Low High Low

Power
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Conclusion:
Fiedler's theory is far too rigid. It states that you can not change your leadership style, so
when a scenario arises where your leadership style and the situation at hand are at odds, you
should bow out. Also, if your score falls in the middle range of the LPC test, the theory does
not categorize you into any leadership style.
7.10.2 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory:
Until this time, leadership theories focused on the leaders and their traits. However, Paul
Hersey and Ken Blanchard premised their leadership model on the subordinate's maturity.
Under this model, leadership style is not static and should be geared based on employees'
maturity levels. The maturity level has two components:
• Psychological maturity: reflects their self-confidence, willingness, and readiness to
accept responsibility.
• Task maturity: reflects their relevant skills and technical knowledge. High job
maturity means the employee has the ability to execute the task at hand with efficacy.
Four leadership styles:
Figure 7.8: Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Theory
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1. Delegating style: a low-task, low-relationship style wherein the leader gives carte
blanche to the employees to accomplish the goal. This style is befitting for employees
with high psychological and task maturity.
2. Participating style: a low-task, high-relationship style wherein the leader kindles the
employees to partake in decision-making. This style is suitable for employees with
high task maturity but a flagging willingness to execute the task.
3. Selling style: a high-task, high-relationship style wherein the leader helps employees
to gain confidence. He tries to sell his ideas and vision to the employees. This style is
befitting for employees with high task maturity but, with time, have lost enthusiasm.
4. Telling style: a high-task, low-relationship style wherein the leader gives explicit
directions and supervises work closes. This style is geared towards low-maturity
employees.
Conclusion:
The upside of the model is that it provides leeway for the leaders to gear their leadership style
based on their employees' maturity, understanding and context of the organisation. It
advocates that leadership is flexible and not static, like Fiedler's Contingency Model, which
believes that an individual's leadership style is fixed.
The downside is it places too much responsibility on the leader's ability to decide and change
his leadership style as per the situation. However, these decisions may be flawed.
7.10.3 Path-Goal Theory:
The path-goal theory was the brainchild of Robert House. It has the expectancy theory of
motivation at its core. The path-goal theory expounds on the impact of a leader's behaviour
on an employee’s perception of expectancies between his effort and performance. It is
incumbent on the leader to define goals, clarify the path to achieve goals, and heave any
obstacles from that path.
The path-goal theory endorses servant leadership. Servant leadership theory advocates that a
leader is a facilitator. He should provide the information, support, and all other resources
required by employees to complete the task. According to the path-goal theory, the choice of
leadership style is contingent on several employee and environmental factors. Compendious
details of each component are as follows:
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Leadership styles:
There are four leadership styles:
1. Directive: in this, the leader envisions the present and future goals of the organisation.
Then, he breaks it down into smaller manageable goals with checkpoints at each step.
Employees have explicit information about their work and how to do it. The leader uses the
carrot-and-stick approach. He makes judicious use of rewards and punishments. This is the
same as the task-oriented leadership style.
2. Supportive: the leader is cordial and empathetic. He demonstrates thoughtfulness and
concern for his employees' welfare. This is the same as the people-oriented leadership style.
3. Participative: a leader doesn't consider his employee as a cog in the machine but as a
stakeholder. He consults his employees on important decisions related to goal setting and the
path to achieving those goals.
4. Achievement-oriented: The leader sets challenging goals and encourages employees to
reach their peak performance. The leader believes that employees are responsible enough to
accomplish challenging goals. This is the same as the goal-setting theory.
Contingencies:
The relationship between a leader’s style and effectiveness is dependent on the following
variables:
i. Employee factors: these include factors such as employees’ needs, locus of control,
experience, perceived ability, satisfaction, willingness to leave the organization, and anxiety.
For instance, if there is an employee with low motivation, then a participative leadership style
will be preferable.
ii. Environment factors: these include factors such as task structure and team dynamics that
are outside the employees' control. For example, for employees performing simple and
routine tasks, a supportive style is much more effective than a directive one.
Conclusion:
The theory has been subjected to empirical testing in several studies and has received
considerable research support. This theory consistently reminds leaders that their primary role
as a leader is to assist their subordinates in defining their goals and then to assist them in
accomplishing those goals most efficiently and effectively. This theory gives a guide map to
the leaders about how to increase subordinates' satisfaction and performance levels.
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Figure 7.9: Path-Goal Theory

7.10.4 Continuum of Leadership Behaviour by Tannenbaum and Schmidt:
The "contingency" approach argues that leadership style should be based on a particular
situation and not on the leader's personal preferences.
Contingency theorists Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt identified seven leadership
styles. They run in a continuum, from rigid authority at one end to full freedom for your team
at the other. The below diagram displays all the styles:
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Figure 7.10: Range of Leadership Behaviour

The seven leadership styles broadly correspond to a team's level of development. As trust and
competency grow, so does the amount of freedom that the team members want and that
leaders feel comfortable providing.
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7.11 CONTEMPORARY THEORIES
7.11.1 Transactional and Transformational Leadership Style:

Burns suggested the initial idea of transactional and transformational Leadership, and Bass
formally introduced the theory. Transactional leaders mainly focus on ongoing work. They
work with employees to fulfil organizational goals and simultaneously plan for the next
actions. Based on the results and performance manager also rewards and punishes employees.
Under transactional Leadership, employees are appreciated for their contribution, but the
manager usually neglects employees who lack required capabilities and skills. Transactional
leaders are more concerned about completing goals as suggested in path-goal theory, Fiedlers'
model, etc.
The transactional leadership style compliments the transformational leadership style. The last
decades of the 20th century recognized the need for leaders who could develop their
followers' behaviour and transform them into new leaders. Various researchers extensively
explored the theory. It is a leadership style where leaders like Richard Branson (Virgin),
Andrea Jung (Avon) etc., tend to inspire their followers. Transformational Leaders change or
transform followers' perceptions and help them solve old problems in new ways. They
motivate employees to put extra effort into achieving the set goals. Bass suggested four
factors that form transformational Leadership: idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. Transformational leaders help
employees improve and grow to do their jobs independently. They ensure that employees
change and improve for the betterment of an organization.
Transformational Leadership goes beyond transaction or task completion and helps followers
transform themselves to adopt new ways of doing the task. They pursue employees to be
more creative and innovative. The transformational leader does have qualities of transactional
Leadership. But the same is not true in the wise-versa case. The transactional leader follows
the Laissez-Faire style, he hands over the responsibility to followers, and mostly they tend to
intervene when set standards are not met. In addition, to following roles, transformational
leaders also provide vision to the followers. They communicate challenging goals and
motivate employees to perform above expectations using a problem-solving approach.
Unfortunately, sometimes employees and Leaders get enthusiastic and become over-engaged
with loyal employees and piling up too many tasks and responsibilities.
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Figure 7.11: Transactional and transformational leadership

Source: Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Vohra, N. (2019). Organizational behavior by
Pearson 18e. Pearson Education India.
Transformational leaders are more creative and ready to take more risks. Such leaders are
able to boost the confidence among followers to pursue ambitious goals. They make
followers believe that goals are personally essential for them. They have a charisma that
motivates employees to give extra effort. But vision dominates charisma, unlike charismatic
Leadership. Leaders are found to be committed to the organization and can win the followers'
trust.
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CASE STUDY
Leadership styles played a critical role in the inability of Xerox to capitalize on its
invention of the first user-friendly personal computer. The researchers in the Xerox Palo
Alto Research Centre (PARC) developed the first graphical user interface, mouse and
menu driven computer-technological advances that made computing accessible to the
novice user (Bennis & Biederman, 1997). The lab's charismatic leader, Bob Taylor,
recruited only the very brightest scientists, gave them the freedom to innovate and
inspired them to work together to solve tremendously complex problems. Researchers at
PARC invented new products, obtained multiple patents, and pioneered many of the
computer technologies we now take for granted. However, because Xerox PARC was not
well integrated into the rest of the company, Xerox's top management was skeptical of the
inventions the lab developed and didn't see how they fit in with their current copying
equipment (Poe, 2000). Xerox lacked a transactional leadership style in the top
management team to provide the structure and systems that could capture the knowledge
generated in the PARC labs. Where Xerox failed, Apple succeeded. Steve Jobs visited the
PARC facility in 1979 and immediately saw the future of computing in the mouse-driven
graphical user interface (Bennis & Biederman, 1997). Jobs left the PARC labs without
any hardware or software but with a vision for how computers should operate. Jobs and
his Apple employees were able to convert the innovative PARC ideas into the Macintosh
computer, which debuted in 1984, changing the face of computing. Because of Jobs'
Leadership, Apple created the systems and structures that were able to convert their
knowledge into a valuable product. Jobs exhibited both transformational and transactional
leadership styles. He used a transformational leadership style to create a vision for the
Macintosh and challenge his employees to reach nearly impossible goals. He used a
transactional leadership style to create the systems and structures in Apple that allowed
the knowledge created at all levels of the organization to be converted into a valuable
product-the Macintosh personal computer.
a. Using the instances from the case study, differentiate between transformational,
transactional, and charismatic Leadership.
b. What led to the success of Apple under the Leadership of Steve Jobs.
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7.11.2 Charismatic Leadership:

The followers' positive perception of their leader (like Martin Luther King Jr., Steve Jobs,
Indira Gandhi, and Narendra Modi etc.) makes such leaders powerful and influential.
However, followers sometimes don't even have rational reasons behind such beliefs. This
term was initially suggested by sociologist Max Weber. The word "Charisma" is derived
from a Greek word which means gifts.
Charismatic Leadership refers to a "Certain qualities of an individual personality, by which
they are set apart from ordinary people and are treated as endowed with exceptional powers
or qualities. Such qualities are not accessible to the normal person and are regarded as the
divine origin or exemplary, and based on them, the individual is treated as a leader."
Later in 1977, Robert J. House studied it in organizational settings. According to Robert
House, followers' positive perception of certain observed behaviours in an individual makes
them leaders. Charismatic leaders usually have a vision and are ready to take risks at a
personal level to achieve their vision. They are susceptible to the follower's needs and
generally show behaviour that is perceived as a novel.
It has been observed that charismatic leaders influence followers with an appealing vision
followed by a long-term strategy that could result in a better future. The followers can
visualize a challenging yet achievable vision from a charismatic leader. The vision usually
fits the ongoing circumstances and gives uniqueness to the organization. They can increase
confidence in followers that the vision could be attained through a given strategy and high
performance. Employees can identify with the leader personally. Such leaders also
communicate a certain set of values to achieve the goal. Overall, employees are able to
connect with such leaders at an emotional level. The combination of certain personality traits
and situational factors mainly leads to the rise of charismatic leaders. Charismatic leaders
possess high confidence and are generally achievement-oriented, for example, Barack
Obama. Similarly, followers become more receptive to charismatic leaders when they face
stress and crises. For instance, In the 1930s, Franklin D. Roosevelt's vision was to get people
out of the Great Depression.
7.11.3 Authentic Leadership:
The dawn of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century saw some infamous
large-scale scams (like the fall of top companies like Enron and WorldCom) and periods of
recession due to the deteriorating rate of leaders' moral and ethical conduct among
employees. This led to the emergence of new theories of Leadership that were more value-
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laden and ethical such as "Authentic Leadership." Practitioners like Bill George,
academicians like Avolio, leadership consultants like Kevin Cashman, etc, initially
recognized the concept of Authentic Leadership. Authentic leaders are more effective at
optimizing their effectiveness to achieve superior long-term results.
Authentic leaders are the one who maintains consistency in their words, actions, and internal
value system. In addition, such leaders foster a long-term relationship with an organization in
a self-disciplined manner; such leaders are not only passionate about their work but are
deeply grounded in the roots of their value system and moral conduct. Balanced processing
internalized moral perspective, relational transparency, and self-awareness are the four
significant constructs of authentic leadership that are widely accepted.
Authentic leadership is an approach to leadership that emphasizes building the leader's
legitimacy through honest relationships with followers who value their input and are built on
an ethical foundation. Generally, authentic leaders are positive people with truthful self-
concepts who promote openness. Building on the simple but essential idea that leaders may
construct their sense of self-based on who they are as distinct individuals and based on who
they are.
7.12 SUMMARY
Leadership largely depends upon the followers’ perception and their acceptance. There are
various leadership styles and theories in literature that helps us in understanding what makes
an effective leader. The 19th century witnessed the rule of dictators, and Power - influence
behavior among the leaders. The leadership at that time was mostly all about the one-man
show, the Great man theory, and the Trait theories are grounded in this and were an attempt
to search common traits that make a common man a powerful leader. Even today a leader
equipped with such traits adds to the leadership effectiveness. With time union conflicts,
uneducated workers, adaptation of new technology, etc., emerged and it became difficult to
generalize trait theory. The focus of leadership researchers turned towards the behavior of
leaders. The leader’s behavior plays a crucial role especially in controlling today’s
information era’s highly qualified employees. Due to the accelerated rate of technological
advancements and associated unpredictability in the work environment, the need for
contingency and situational leadership arises. The last decades of the 20th century recognized
the need for leaders who could develop their followers' behaviour and transform them into
new leaders. This led to the development of transactional and transformational theories of
leadership. Till today many organizations are following the transformational style of
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leadership that was introduced in the 20th century. It involves five dimensions namely
attributable and behavioral influence, inspirational motivation, the focus of intellectual
growth, and individual consideration. The dawn of the 20th century and the beginning of the
21st century saw some infamous large-scale scams and periods of recession due to the
deteriorating rate of leaders’ moral and ethical conduct among the employees. The overall
societal loss at the macro level and maintenance of investors’ trust at the organizational level
led to the emergence of new theories of leadership that were more value-laden and ethical
such as Authentic Leadership. Looking at the various theories it can be stated that it is
difficult to define leadership in few words. The current leader should follow a style/approach
that fits the needs of all the stakeholders.
1. Manager, Leader. 6. Behavioural Theories

2. Delegating work 7. Behavioural Theories
3. Manipulative Leadership Style 8. Country club
4. Great man theory of leadership 9. Task oriented
5. Contingency theories; 10. Teamwork
11. Teamwork
1. Define Authentic Leadership. Do Ethics and trust relevant concepts to becoming an

effective leader?
2. State the limitations of behavioural theories of Leadership.
3. Differentiate between a manager and a leader. Why does a manager need to become a
leader?
4. Write a short note on the following- (any 5)
1. Three Need Theory
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2. Adams theory
3. Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum
4. Managerial Grid
5. Situational Leadership Theory
6. Minzberg Managerial roles
5. Presently work environment has become very challenging in terms of competition.
Additionally, Post Covid-19, many organizations are working in Hybrid mode
(Physically and Work from home). Which leadership style or combination of leadership
styles is more suitable for the present-day leader?
Koontz, H, Essentials of Management, McGraw Hill Education, 2020

Stoner, J. et. Al. Management, New Delhi, Prentice Hall of India, 2018
Robbins, S. P. Fundamentals of Management: Essentials of Concepts and Applications,
Pearson Education, 2014
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LESSON-8
WORK TEAMS AND GROUPS

Dr. Nidhi Kesari
Assistant Professor
Shaheed Sukhdev College of Business Studies
University of Delhi
nidhikesari@sscbsdu.ac.in
STRUCTURE

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Work Groups
8.3.1 Group Properties
8.3.2 Reasons for joining group and Types of Groups
8.3.3 Group Development Process
8.4 Work Teams
8.4.1 Types of Teams
8.4.2 Difference between group and teams
8.4.3 Creating Effective Teams
8.5 Group Cohesiveness
8.5.1 GroupThink
8.5.2 GroupShift
8.6 Summary
8.7 Glossary
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8.10 References
1) Analyse the growing popularity of using team in organizations.

2) Differentiate between work team and group.
3) Compare and contrast types of teams.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters, you have well understood the concepts of individuals and their
behaviors. It is worth mentioning that individual’ behavior changes when they join a group.
Once an individual is a part of a group, group behavior as a whole becomes crucial for
performance. Let’s understand the same with cricket match example. You must have watched
cricket match; either a one day, 20-20 or test match format. The success and failure
completely depend on the team spirit and team performance. Individual player may be good
bowler or good batsman or good goalkeeper etc. Even though all the players are physically
and mentally fit but for winning a match team performance is essential. If only few players
are performing well but others are not then even a best of the team will fail to win the match.
It is important to understand that if one can play as a team member and build a good team
with essential skill set, nothing can stop the team to achieve its objectives. The beauty of
teamwork can be explained as problem gets divided and strengths get multiplied when a team
stands together. In other words, work team is a backbone of an organization. Big ventures are
not possible without a good team.
Being a student of organizational behavior, one wants to know how people working in an
organization behave or interact with one another as an individual, as a team member and/or as
a group member inside of a business organization for the success of the business.
Individuals may be efficient but may not be effective when it comes to their performance
when they work individually in the organization. As part of a group and team, individuals are
responsible, accountable and have sufficient authority for proper execution of allocated work
which creates a synergy by performing collectively.
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8.3 WORK GROUPS
Work groups share information, interact mainly to make decisions and help every group
member in performing and fulfilling responsibility within their area of operation.
a) Goal- share information
b) Synergy- neutral (somethings negative)
c) Accountability- individual
d) Skills- random and varied
8.3.1 Group Properties:
a) Roles: Everybody in a team has to play a role in a well-coordinated expected manner.
For which one has to identify their role as per given position. Identification of role
depends upon how others believe us to act in a given situation. This calls for our own
understanding of others' beliefs. If the compliance of role is as per divergent role
expectation, it results in role conflict that can be minimized if monitored closely.
b) Norms: Norms are acceptable standards of behaviour (do’s and don’ts) which are
shared among the group members. It means groups create strong pressure on
individual members for conformity in respect to changing their attitudes and
behaviour to the group's standard.
c) Status: Is a rank or a position assigned to members of a group or to some group by
others in terms of permeates. The determinants of status are (i) the power exercised by
a person over the others, (ii) ability of a person to contribute to the goals which are set
by the group, and (iii) an individual’s personal traits.
d) Size: The size of the group, which depends on goal, also affects the group’s
behaviour.
e) Cohesiveness: It is the degree to which group members are willing or motivated to
stay in the group as they have spent a great deal of time together. The degree of
cohesiveness depends upon the relationship between group cohesiveness and
performance norms that affects group productivity.
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f) Diversity: It refers to the extent to which group members are different or similar to
one another. It identifies both costs in terms of group conflict resulting in dropout
rates and benefits in terms of increased productivity.
8.3.2 Reasons for Joining Groups:
People cannot live and survive in isolation for a long period. For a variety of reasons, people
join group. Some of them are as below:
a) Security: people join a particular group to get the sense of security from adverse
environments created by management and reduce insecurity from threats.
b) Self-Esteem: joining a group increases self-esteem through group membership.
c) Affiliation: to show association or relationship with a group.
d) Power: it gives a sense of power to members of the group who join the group. Group
power lies in being united as a group. People like to control others and make an impact on
others. Membership of group offers power to people and enables them to use it over the
others.
e) Status: People join groups to gain a status in the society. It provides recognition to the
members of the group.
f) Goal achievement: The group is able to achieve organizational goals which cannot be
achieved when working individually.
Types of Groups:
It is generally seen that an organization has different types of groups which work for the
achievement of common organizational goals. A group is a collection of individuals who
have a relation to one another that make them interdependent to some significant degree.
Group can be classified as formal and informal.
a) Formal Group: Formal group is designated work group defined by an organization’s
structure. Crew members in the ship are the example of a formal group.
A formal group can be divided into the command group and task group.
(i) Command Group or Functional Group: A command group is reflected through the
organizational chart and determines who the reporting officer is. Various functions of
the organization like finance, marketing, human resource, research and development
have functional groups.
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(ii) Task Group or Project Group: This group is created in the organization to identify
and provide solutions for a specific problem. For a particular project a deadline is
fixed and the efforts are made to meet the deadline. Budget for these projects are fixed
in advance to facilitate the time bound resolving of the problem. The group is
dissolved when the project gets completed.
(iii) Task Force or Ad hoc Committee: It is very similar to a task group. As the name
suggests it is temporarily created to address a specific issue. Task force gets dissolved
after making a recommendation on the specific issue. Issue can be redesigning of the
reward system in the organization.
(iv) Quality Circle: Organizations are very much concerned for quality and want to
ensure that each employee is committed to maintaining quality and will upgrade
themselves. A small employee group is created to deal with productivity, and quality
related issues. This group ensures that issues related to quality are resolved so that
organization’s commitment to quality can be ensured in all times to come.
b) Informal Groups: Informal groups are more social in nature. These groups are not
defined by role relationships. The behavior that team members should engage in are
stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. Employees from different
departments playing chess together is an example of an informal group.
Informal groups are also classified into two groups.
(i) Interest Group: Interest group is a group where people come together to attain a
specific objective with which each one is concerned. A common interest binds the
group members. Members may not belong to the same organization or department.
Joining and leaving the group is at the will of the members and nothing is formal. For
example, the Indian Commerce Association.
(ii) Friendship Group: People have social needs and want to be part of some social
group. Social activities, religious beliefs, other common basis may be create
friendship group. Yoga group, potpourri group, and birthday groups are very
commonly found in the organizations.
Difference between formal and informal groups:
Basis for difference Formal Group Informal Group
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1. Meaning Groups created by organization Groups created by the

are to accomplish a specific task employees to satisfy their
social needs
2. Formation Deliberately Voluntarily
3. Size Large Comparatively small
4. Life It depends on the type of group It depends on the members
5. Structure Well defined Not well defined
6. Importance Given to position Given to person
7. Relationship Professional Personal
8. Communication Moves in a defined direction Stretches in all the directions
8.3.3 Group Development Process:

All groups go through various stages which are as follows:
a. Forming: The first stage of group development is forming, which brings together a group
of individuals who look upto the leader for guidance and direction regarding the goals,
tasks and skills required to achieve the goals.
b. Storming: This stage is one of intergroup conflict which is concerned with who will
control the group. Members accept the existence of the group but resist the constraints it
imposes on individuals. Members may feel agreeable or frustrated with the task or with
other members of the group.
c. Norming: In the third stage members begin to take greater responsibility for tasks and
come forward to resolve issues, setting up of group processes, formulation of group
policies, procedures and values resulting in developing confidence in the group and its
members and also start expressing their satisfaction to be part of the group.
d. Performing: The fourth stage is performing. Now the group is functional with active
members who take initiatives and involve themselves to complete a task. Group members
adhere to the group norms and collective efforts are made to ensure the group
effectiveness.
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e. Adjourning: It is the final stage in group development which involves the termination of
task and disagreement from relationships. The group may have mixed feelings. Some may
be thrilled over their past achievements and performances, some may be unhappy to
depart. This stage may happen for some groups quite early and some may experience it in
a very long run.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Q1. Which of the following statement is TRUE or FALSE?
Group refers to a collection of individuals who may interact.
The accountability of work group is individual.
The goal of group is to share information.
Groups create strong pressure on individual members for conformity in respect
to change their attitudes and behaviour to group’s standard.
One of the reasons to join group is security.
Diversity refers to the extent to which group members are different or similar to
one another
The stages of group development process are five.
In forming, Work output is low, focused on defining the goals and tasks.
Performing relates to highly productive.
Adjourning is related to termination of task.
Leadership is shared in norming stage of group process.
Q2. Match list I with List II:
List I List II
1. Group (a) Two or more interacting and interdependent
individuals who come together to achieve specific
goals
2. Work group (b) Interacts primarily to share information and to make
decision.
3. Formal group (c) Designated work group defined by an organization’s
structure.
4. Informal group (d) It is social in nature.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS contd.
Q3. Fill in the blanks:

a)The first stage of group development process is ………
b)The last stage of group development process is ………
c)Work group has…………… accountability.
d)Work group goals are ……………………
e)…………….has face to face interaction.
f)The formations of informal groups are …………….
g)Friendship group is an example of ………….
h)Quality Circle is an example of …………….
Q4. Arrange the following in right sequence:
i. Adjourning
ii. Performing
iii. Forming
iv. Storming
v. Norming
8.4 WORK TEAMS
A work team generates positive synergy through coordinated efforts. Team performance
increases due to coordinated individual efforts. Individuals contribute to achieving goals and
are accountable for the same. Individual inputs such as goal (collective performance),
synergy (positive), accountability (individual and mutual), and skills (complementary) are
crucial.
In business terms, teamwork means when a group of people use their skills to overcome each
other’s weakness by collaborating to achieve a mutual goal and creating a synergy effect. In
other words, setting aside any personal conflict and coming to a mutual conclusion that
benefits the group and the organization is teamwork in business. It involves constructive
feedback and improving each other’s ability without any personal grudges and feuds.
Teamwork has tremendous power. A team with good tuning can multiply the efficiency of a
person by many times, and the total output can be unimaginable.
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8.4.1 Types of Teams

Teams have the potential to out stand products, provide services, coordinate different projects
and negotiate the deals and make decisions. This section describes the four most common
types of teams in an organization. These teams are capable of delivering the results and
achieving the goals in a focused manner.
a) Problem Solving Teams:
A team of 5 to 12 employees of the same department meet on a weekly basis to discuss
issues related to efficiency, work environment and quality concerns. They discuss the
matter and make a recommendation to the manager. They can only recommend the
solutions and have no authority to implement the recommendations.
b) Self-Managed Work Teams:
Self-managed work teams are ahead of problem solving teams. They not only make
recommendations but also have authority to implement the solutions and take ownership
of the results. These teams have 10 to 15 employees who are engaged in interdependent
or highly related jobs and are fully responsible for the jobs which they have been assigned
with.
c) Cross-Functional Teams:
Cross functional teams are formed with the employees who come from different work
areas but more or less from the same hierarchical level. This team is formed to
accomplish a task. Cross functional teams have become very popular because of their
capacity to handle complex projects.
d) Virtual Teams:
Teams which meet virtually are commonly termed as virtual teams. All above teams meet
face to face and perform their tasks. Virtual teams use computers, internet, software and
other aids to let team members meet at a virtual platform even though members are
physically dispersed. During Covid 19 pandemic, many of us have used virtual platforms
to conduct meetings and connect colleagues with specific goals. We have experienced
how it feels to be virtually present. Video conferencing has become very common.
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8.4.2 Difference between Group and Team is given below:

Terms ‘groups’ and ‘teams’ are used interchangeably. Cane suggests that organizations are
sometimes unsure whether they have teams or simply groups of people working together.
There is some difference between team and group which is discussed as below:
Basis Team Group
Definition A team is a cooperative small When two or more persons interact

group in regular contact that is and are interdependent on each other
engaged in coordinated action. for achieving an objective it is called
Team is a specific type of group, a group. In other words, a group
hold interdependent roles and refers to a collection of individuals
goals who may interact.
Common superior Team may not have a common Group has a common superior
superior.
Interaction: Team may not have face to face Group has face to face interaction.
interaction.
Commitment: Team members are supposed to Group members are not much
be highly committed to work. committed to work.
Interdependency Team has the higher degree of Group has a small degree of
interdependence interdependence.
Accountability Team members themselves are Group members are not themselves so
mutually accountable. accountable.
Size Limited Medium or large
Selection Crucial Immaterial
Leadership Shared or rotating Solo
Synergy Positive Neutral (sometime negative)
Skills Complementary Random and varied
Goals Collective performance Share information
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8.4.3 Creating Effective Teams

Nothing becomes effective without putting in some effort. So to make a team effective it calls
for efforts from the management. Our discussion is based on Team effectiveness model has
four components- context, composition, work design and process. Let’s discuss.
Team Effectiveness Model
Context Composition Work Design Process
Adequate resources Ability of members Autonomy Common purpose
Leadership and Personality Skill variety Specific goals

structures
Climate of trust Allocating roles Task identity Team efficacy
Performance Diversity Task significance Conflict levels

evaluation and
reward systems
Size of teams Social loafing
Member flexibility
Member preferences
I. Context: factors which significantly contribute towards effectiveness are adequate

resources, leadership and structures, climate of trust and performance evaluation and reward
system.
Adequate Resources: Scarcity of resources is the limitation which almost all the teams face.
This reduces the ability to give their best and perform effectively to achieve its goal. Teams
are dependent on the organization to provide adequate resources to the teams. Organisational
support is crucial. Resources are critical for teams. Timely information, optimum staff,
adequate equipment and administrative assistance are critical for the teams.
Leadership and Structures: All the members in the team have to perform certain tasks. This
has to be decided by the team leader. Leader not only leads the team but play an important
role in the team. Leader has to empower the team members and play the role of a facilitator.
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Teams that establish shared leadership by effectively delegating it are more effective than
teams with a traditional single-leader structure.
Climate of Trust: Trust is the base of every successful team. Trust among the members and
on the leaders facilitates cooperation, creates bond, capacity to bear risk increases and
reduces vulnerabilities. A climate of trust makes a strong foundation for a team.
Performance Evaluation and Reward system: Rather than having individual performance
evaluation system, organisations should recognize team players and reward individuals for
their team performance. Organisations must adopt group based appraisals, gainsharing, profit
sharing, and small-group incentives can motivate teams to commit for attainment of goals by
team efforts.
II. Team Composition: Each member in the team is selected on the basis of their skills sets
and abilities. Selection is very focused and limited. Under team composition the ability,
member’s personality, role allocation, team size, diversity, and members’ flexibility and
preference for teamwork is discussed below:
Abilities of Members: Each member of the team is important. Selection depends on skills,
knowledge and abilities. Members must complement each other. Selecting the best of the
employees is not the key. Sometimes a mediocre employee turns out to be excellent and
determined team builder and has precision for work. Managers need to understand the
requirements of the team. For complex problems and high ability teams with intelligent
members must be selected.
Personality of Members: Individual behavior is significantly influenced by personality.
Different dimensions of personality are crucial for team effectiveness. Big five personality
model provides a good base about the relationship between personality and effectiveness.
Teams which reflect high conscientiousness and are open to experiences are better
performers. Studies suggest that specific behavioral tendencies such as personal organization,
cognitive structuring, achievement orientation, and endurance boost higher levels of team
performance.
Allocation of Roles: Identification of potential roles and selecting the members keeping the
roles can be very effective. Team should have a proper blend of experienced and skilled
members. Managers must understand each individual strengths and weaknesses and allocate
assignments that most suit them.
Diversity of Members: Diversity, like race and gender diversity, among the team can show
different results. One, it may not at all impact the team performance. Two, it may impact
team performance in a very positive manner and third, may produce negative impact on team
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performance. Diversity in function, education, and expertise are positively related to group
performance, but these effects are quite small and depend on the situation. Leaders can play
an important role in managing diversity effectively.
Size of Teams: Effectiveness lies in keeping the team small in size. Most effective teams
have five to nine members. Managers must focus on roles / tasks and accordingly select most
responsible and accountable members. Small is beautiful is the mantra.
Member Flexibility & Preferences: Every employee is not a team player. Many employees
prefer to work alone than in teams. High-performing teams are composed of members who
prefer working as part of a team. Managers must identify the work preference and
accordingly select the members.
III. Work Design: Work designs are motivating by nature because it increases the sense of
ownership of work and makes employees responsible for the tasks done. Variables which are
concerned with work design such as autonomy, skill variety, task identity, and task
significance are discussed below:
Autonomy: Is the freedom to do the task as per my choice which doesn’t violate the
generally accepted rules. It answers the question ‘how much does the task let employees
exercise its freedom?’
Skill variety: Opportunity to use different skills and talents to complete the tasks.
Task identity: Task identity is related to the ability to complete a task in a given time. A task
needs to be understood well and identified completely to execute it well.
Task significance: Task significance means a task should create substantial impact on others.
Team members should be more than willing to work on such tasks or projects which create
impact on others.
IV. Team Processes: Common purpose, specific team goals, team efficacy, level of conflict,
and are some of the variables which contribute to the team effectiveness. The idea behind the
team process is to enhance process gains by reducing process losses to create positive
synergy.
Common Purpose: Organizations mission has to translate at all levels of the organization.
Teams follow the mission and develop their goals. Strategies are developed to achieve the
goals. Clarity over the purpose is vital for the success of the teams. Directionless team will
lead to nowhere. It is worth spending time to thoroughly draft the mission, vision of the
organization and then for a specific team.
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Specific Goals: Goals must be measurable, specific and realistic. Best of the specific goals
fail if they are not properly communicated. Goal should be challenging. Team performance
increases with attainable but difficult goals.
Team Efficacy: Teams work harder to achieve success and success further motivates the
teams to work harder. Managers can provide training to the employees and also help the team
achieve small targets to boost their confidence. High level of confidence will increase the
capability to deliver and make a team effective.
Conflict Levels: Conflict is not always bad. Conflict has a complex relationship with team
performance. Functional conflicts are positive and dysfunctional conflicts create frustrations.
Task related conflicts are functional in nature and relationship conflicts are dysfunctional in
nature. Moderate level of task conflict like disagreements among members on certain issues
may ignite creative thinking and team may lead to better decisions. Dysfunctional conflicts
like incompatibilities and tensions among the members may become complex and lead to
negative outcomes.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
a) A work team generates positive synergy.
b) Team performance increases due to coordinated efforts.
c) A team with good tuning multiply the productivity of the person.
d) Virtual teams connected through the use of internet.
e) Video conferencing is an example of virtual team.
a) Team members themselves are ………..accountable.
b) The goal of team is …………….performance.
c) The leadership of team is…………..
d) There are ……….components of effective team.
e) Strategies are developed to ………….the goals.
f) Autonomy is the variables of ……………
Social Loafing: It is the tendency when individuals put less effort to complete a task when
working collectively than working alone. There is a general belief that productivity of the
group working together will be higher than the total performance of the individual members
working independently in the group. Members can engage in social loafing so making
members individually and jointly accountable is logical.
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8.5 GROUP COHESIVENESS
Group cohesiveness is important for the smooth functioning of a group. Group differs in their
cohesiveness. Cohesiveness is the tendency of a group to remain together while working
towards a goal for the emotional need satisfaction of its members. It develops over time.
Factors that influences group cohesiveness:
a. Time spent together,
b. Size of the group,
c. Structure of the group,
d. Agreed upon group goals,
e. Inter-group competition,
f. Task commitment,
g. Group pride,
h. Favorable evaluation.
Advantages:
a. Worker satisfaction
b. Low turn-over
c. Less absenteeism
d. Higher productivity
To encourage cohesiveness suggestions are given below:
● Make a small size group to create bonds among the members.
● Encourage members to have conformity with group goals.
● Time spent together by members should be increased.
● Membership in the group should be perceived as difficult to attain and status of the group
should be increased.
● Offer a reward to the group rather than to individual members.
● Encourage inter group competitions.
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● Physically isolate the group.

8.5.1 GroupThink
Groupthink refers to the group pressure which is created on any member of the group which
influences a member's ability and thought process to make a decision in a particular way. It
denotes a situation where the members put aside their opinions and beliefs and try to conform
to the group decision. In a highly cohesive group, any member’s ideas or opinions or
solutions are influenced by other group members.
Symptoms of Groupthink:
1. There is an illusion of unanimity that creates a belief that everyone is in full accord if they
don’t speak and abstention becomes in favor.
2. Group members present logical reasons and assumptions to rationalize any resistance
from a group member. When a decision is agreed upon, that course of action is followed.
It stops the member from reconsidering his opinion.
3. Members apply direct pressure on those who do not agree to conform by being pressured
into an agreement.
4. Member avoids deviating from the group consensus by keeping silent about their doubts
and difference of viewpoints.
What causes Groupthink?
a. Dictatorial leadership
b. Group cohesion
c. Dislike of confrontation
d. Time constraints
e. Decisional Stress
How to Minimise Groupthink?

a. Managers can monitor group size as size increases, people grow more intimidated and
hesitant. There is no magic number that eliminates groupthink as individual feel less
personal responsibility when group size is large
b. Group leaders should be encouraged to be impartial by organisational leaders.
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c. Deliberations of all kinds should be open and all divergent of views should be welcomed
from \the members. Leaders should play an active role to make this process free and
devoid of pressure tactics.
d. Stimulate an environment of healthy debate to avoid groupthink by which better ideas
may arise.
e. Have people from different backgrounds who will have different experiences, beliefs, and
views which prove to be beneficial in avoiding groupthink and can lead a productive
debate.
f. Include members of other departments to get different perspectives.
g. Take time enough over decisions that enable you to properly analyze the situation and
come to a more rational response.
h. Consult an outside expert to get knowledge and information that you don’t have
8.5.2 GroupShift
Group shift refers to the tendency of group members to exaggerate their initial positions that
they hold in the beginning of group discussion. While taking decisions in groups, the
discussion leads to a significant shift from the initial positions of members in which they
were before the discussion.
It is seen that group decisions are more conservative and riskier than individual decisions.
Group decisions set individual members free from accountability for the group’s final choice.
No single individual can be held fully responsible even if the decision fails. Group can
undertake greater risk in this case.
The main reasons for groupshift are diffusion of responsibility throughout the group by
members. It is said that smaller groups have higher groupshift than larger groups.
Difference between Groupthink and Group Shift:
1. Groupthink refers to the group pressure which is created on any member of the group
which influences member’s ability and thought process to take decisions in a particular
way, whereas, groupshift is the tendency of group members to exaggerate their initial
positions that they hold in the beginning of group discussion.
2. In groupthink, the group creates pressure on the individual member, whereas, in
groupshift, the individual member creates pressure on the group.
3. In groupthink, popular view is favored and personal view is put aside whereas, in
groupshift, due to group influence personal view becomes much stronger.
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Techniques to Eliminate Groupthink & Groupshift

There are the following four techniques used to eliminate groupshift and groupthink from a
group.
A. Brainstorming: it is a process of generating ideas in which the group leaders state
the problem in a clear manner so all participants understand and are encouraged to
interact, think the unusual while withholding any criticism of those alternatives.
All ideas are recorded for later discussion and analysis with pros and cons.
Brainstorming develops group cohesiveness. The following are the two
brainstorming techniques that help groups arrive at a preferred solution:
a. Nominal Group Thinking
It is more structured than brainstorming but also very similar. Group coordinator
describes the problem and members independently write solutions without discussing
among themselves. This eliminates the tendency of groupthink. Then all the responses
are collected, discussed and answered by the member who has written them. After
discussion based on evaluations a rank is assigned by members and the solution which
gets the highest ranking by most of the members is the final decision.
The nominal group technique is an inexpensive means for generating a large number
of ideas. In this technique, the following steps are taken:
(i) Alternatives or the solutions are independently written by each member.
(ii) All ideas are then recorded and no discussion is initiated till the time all ideas
are presented by the members.
(iii) Ideas are then discussed and the group evaluates them.
(iv) Ideas are then ranked by each member independently.
(v) Final decision is based on the members rank assigned to the ideas.
(vi) Idea which gets the highest rank by most of the members is the final decision.
b. Electronic meeting:
Decisions when made electronically with the use of computers are termed as
electronic meetings. This is similar to nominal group technique but is conducted
through electronic mode. Computer programmes are used for secrecy which
encourages group members to take independent decisions without the effects of
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groupthink. An interacting group is good for achieving commitment to a solution. It

minimizes social pressures and conflicts.
B. Delphi Technique
It is a technique in which questionnaires are sent to the members located at different
places. The results of the questionnaires are compiled and a copy of results is sent to
all members with the view to review the results and respond to the second
questionnaire which may generate new solutions. This process is repeated until a
consensus is reached.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
a) Group cohesiveness develops over time.
b) One of the advantages of group cohesiveness is less absenteeism.
c) Brainstorming is a process of generating ideas.
d) The nominal group technique is an inexpensive means for generating a large
number of ideas.
e) Delphi technique in used to develop consensus.
a) Group …………….in their cohesiveness
b) Group cohesiveness is important for the ………..functioning of a group.
c) Groupthink refers to a ……………..phenomenon.
d) Groupthink denotes a situation where the members …………...their
opinions and beliefs.
e) Group shift refers to the …………..of group members to exaggerate their
initial positions that they hold in the beginning of group discussion.
f) The main reasons from groupshift are ……………..of responsibility.
g) Smaller groups have ……………..groupshift than larger groups.
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CASE STUDY
Mumbai’s Dabba Walas
Mumbai’s Dabba wala is not a new name for any Indian. They have gained lot of
popularity not because of glossy business but because of their efficiency and commitment
to work. Dabba Wala’s case study is discussed in the most renowned business schools in
the world. The high level of effectiveness has earned them a six sigma certification for
which other businesses strive and dream of.
The flawless quality service since 1890 has ensured complete customer satisfaction with
regards to the reliability of the system from twelve decades in India.
Dabba Walas run a tiffin service in Mumbai whose objective is supply of packed lunch
food in tiffin from the customer’s home to the customers’ work place every working day.
They arrange the collection of packed lunch in traditional tiffin boxes, load them on local
trains (a compartment is reserved for the bulk tiffins) and deliver to all the areas in Mumbai
including suburbs of Mumbai. These meals are cooked and packed by wives or mothers (or
sometimes local restaurants) for individual office workers in central Mumbai. The
noticeable feature of this delivery is that every office workers gets home tiffin every
working day on time without any fault or delay. Obviously, the contents (in terms of variety
and taste) of each tiffin box are unique, which is the central appeal of the service. When the
lunch time is over in the day, the dabba walas again collect the empty tiffins from the
working place and return them to the workers’ homes.
The supply system adopted by dabba walas is extremely unique and full of risks. At each of
the central stations, where train stops for about 20 seconds, other members of dabba wala
teams unload the tiffin boxes for destinations near the station and sort them for hand
delivery to the offices and workshops where the individual recipient work. Sharp round
12:45 pm tiffins are delivered and then the process is reversed to return the empties boxes
to the homes. The service cost per box is about Rs. 300 per month and each dabba wala
earn about Rs. 4,500 a month. Customers pay one month’s bonus to the organization for the
Diwali festival.
This seems to be simple process but it’s a highly complicated, precisely well-coordinated
operation. Mumbai city is known for its traffic chaos and local train rush. Traffic delays
and occasional chaos are very common. Some of the dabba walas negotiate the traffic on
foot and by bicycle at a cracking pace irrespective of weather conditions; the tiffin must get
through.
The error rate is said to be vanishingly very small; one box may go astray every two
months; about one in six million deliveries.
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CASE STUDY
Mumbai’s Dabba Walas Contd.
One of the eye-catching point is that there is no government or IT support except special
reserved train coach, no track and trace, no computers, no bar codes is leveled, just a
handwritten code on each box that allows the dabba walas to identify or recognize which
station the box has to be sent to and unloaded, its ultimate destination and its return address.
Many of the dabba walas have low level of literacy, but their ability to decode and correctly
route the boxes that they each carry through the crowded streets is the key to the whole
system. This kind of supply chain system requires very low levels of capital intensiveness. It
is the team work that makes the service happens. Dabba walas commitment has made them
special and the guiding force behind this commitment is Shivaji. In the name of Shivaji the
members find the motivation to do the hard work and serve people with their home cooked
food. They have a team of 5000 dabba walas who serve almost 2,00,000 Mumbaikar daily.
The future of the service
Of late, the migrations of workers in search of job in metro cities at large are very high. Due
to covid-19 pandemic, people are hesitant to have meals from the nearby local road side
restaurants or dhabas. The people with all sphere of life irrespective of different regional
styles and traditional loves to eat home cooked hygiene food. This diverse range of home-
prepared meals reliably to the individual in the workplace is in high in demand. The growth
of fast food centre is a global phenomenon who also delivers fast food at destination as they
claim as hygienic. They do have a website and are now able to accept orders via the site or
by SMS. It requires frequent ordering every day which is quite monotonous for the office
going workers. It is also seen that some of meal delivery centre claim that they supply home
cooked hygiene meal on order at destination but it is good only for few days or emergency
time not for all days in terms of variety, quality and taste.
The reasons for using dabba walas services are the following appeals:
1. Homemade food is cheaper and hygienic.
2. Homemade food is best for health as against junk foods which make you sick.
3. If you love to eat food made by your wife or mother, dabba walas is the solution.
4. They assures that they deliver yours home cooked meal on time at right destination.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS contd.
Q9. Match list I with list II:
List I List II
1. Brainstorming (a) develops group cohesiveness
2. Delphi technique (b) Develops consensus.
3. GroupShift (c) No single individual can be
held fully responsible even if
the decision fails.
4. Groupthink (d) an illusion of unanimity that
creates a belief that everyone is
in full accord.
Your tasks are:

a) If a team is defined as a group of dedicated people working towards a common goal,
discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the dabbawalas practice of making team
members as shareholders, rather than employees.
b) Analyze the cohesiveness and performance of the dabbawalas team.
c) To what extent does the dabbawalas service display the features of an effective work
group?
d) Why has technology played a very meager role in the development of the dabbawalas
service so far? Is this likely to change in future.
e) Identify ways in which this might affect the team spirit of the organization.
8.6 SUMMARY
Most of the work in organization is done in teams. People often join groups to satisfy their
needs of security, status, self-esteem, affiliation, power and goal achievement. In any
organization, many different types of groups coexist. Whatever be the kind of group, every
group goes through five stages of development, namely forming, storming, norming,
performing and adjourning. Group cohesiveness is very important for the smooth functioning
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of a group. Several factors influence the group cohesiveness. Various decision-making

techniques are used in groups for the development of consensus decisions. Groupthink and
groupshift are two very important concepts in group decision-making.
8.7 GLOSSARY
● Adjourning: the final stage of group development that involves termination of the
group.
● Brainstorming: generating ideas without any criticism.
● Delphi technique: a decision-making method which does not require the physical
presence of group members.
● Forming stage: the first stage of group development in which people join the group
and then define the group's purpose, structure and leadership.
● Formal group: the organization’s structure, with designed work assignments
establishing tasks.
● Group cohesiveness: the tendency of a group to remain together.
● Group: a collection of individuals working in face-to-face relationships to share
information and resources for a task to be achieved.
● Groupthink: when a group exerts extensive pressure on an individual to align his or
her opinion with others opinions.
● Group-shift: changing the decision as per the group.
● Informal group: group that appear in response to the need for social contact
● Norming stage: the third stage of group development where resolving of differences
takes place.
● Performing stage: the fourth stage of the group development when the group is fully
functional and works on group tasks.
● Storming stage: the second stage of group development in which conflicts start
arising.
● Team: a group of individuals working in face-to-face relationship for a common goal,
having collective accountability for the outcome of its efforts.
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Q1 All true
Q2 1 (a) 2(b) 3(c) 4(d)
Q3 (a) forming (b) Adjourning (c) individual (d) share

information
(a) group (a) voluntarily (b) informal groups (c) formal groups
Q4 iii; ii; v; ii and i
Q5 All true
Q6 (a) Mutually (b) Collectively (c) Rotating
(d) four (e) achieve (f) work design
Q7 All true
Q8. (a) Differ (b) Smooth (c) Psychological (d) Put aside
(e) Tendency (f) Diffusion (g) higher
Q9. 1.(a) ; 2 (b) ; 3 (c); 4 (d)
1. What do you mean by work team?

2. What do you mean by Work group?
3. What is the difference between a group and a team?
4. What are the different types of teams that can exist in an organisation? Why do people
join groups? Discuss.
5. What are the main characteristics of a group?
6. What are the various types of formal groups? Discuss with examples.
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7. Explain the characteristics/features of an informal group. Describe the various types

of informal groups.
8. Describe the five stage of model of group developments.
9. Explain the term group cohesiveness.
10. Discuss the various group decision-making techniques.
11. What is the difference between groupthink and groupshift.
8.10 REFERENCES
Robbins S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2017). Organisational Behaviour. 17th Ed. Pearson.
Pareek, U., & Khanna, S. (2016). Understanding Organizational Behaviour. 4th Ed. Oxford.
Mullins, L. J. (2010). Management & Organisational Behaviour. 9th Ed. Printice Hall.
Singh., K. (2015). Organisational Behaviour Text and Cases. 3rd Ed. Vikas Publication.
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LESSON-9
DECISION MAKING
Dr. Nidhi Kesari
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

9.2 Introduction
9.3 Meaning and Definitions of Decision making
9.3.1 Types of Decisions
9.3.2 Techniques of Group Decision making
9.4 Process of Decision Making
9.5 Decision-making Models
9.6 Decision-making and Ethics
9.7 Summary
9.8 Glossary
9.11 References
After learning this chapter student will be able to:
● Explain the process of decision-making.
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● Describe the individual and group decision-making.
● Explain the concept of rational decision making and contrast it with bounded
rationality.
● Understand the role of ethics in decision making
9.2 INTRODUCTION
Decisions are an essential part of one’s life both personally or professionally. Decision-
making is an integral part of a managerial job. Decisions are required at all the levels of
management, but it’s particularly imperative to managers. It plays an important role and is a
key to success in management. An organisation’s success is largely driven by its superb
decisions and its execution. Decision making is the essence of management because various
functions of management cannot be performed since it all requires decisions.
9.3 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF DECISION MAKING

MAKINHAIN B
A decision is a choice. It is at the core of planning in which managers have to take decision to
select a most suitable or appropriate course of action from several alternative courses to be
adopted to achieve objectives. Decision making process takes place only when managers
have two or more options or alternatives.
Decision-making is a tough and conscious process of making objective decision which is
acceptable by those who would execute it and is beneficial for the organisation.
A manager may make following decisions:
1. Planning: (a) what are the organisation’s long-term objectives? (b) what strategies will
best achieve those objectives? (c) what should be the organisation’s short-term objectives;
(d) how difficult should individual goals be?
2. Organising: (a) how many employees should report directly to the supervisor? (b) how
much centralisation should be there be in the organisation (c) how should jobs be
planned? (d) when should the organisation put into operation a different structure?
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3. Leading: (a) how to handle employees who appear to be low in motivation? (b) what is
the most effective leadership style in a given situation? (c) how will a specific change
affect worker productivity? (d) when is the right time to intervene in a conflict?
4. Controlling: (a) what activities in the organisation need to be controlled? (b) how should
those activities be controlled? (c) when is a performance deviation significant? (d) what
type of management information system should the organisation have?
Definitions:
Decision making has been defined by several management scholars. Some of the definitions
are given hereunder:
According to Stoner, Freeman & Gilbert, “Decision making is the process of identifying to
deal with a specific problem or take advantage of an opportunity.”
R. Terry defines decision making as the “Selection of one behaviour alternative from two or
more possible alternatives.”, “Decision making involves the selection of a course of action
from among two or more possible alternatives in order to arrive at a solution for a given
problem.”
Weihrich & Koontz state that - All management work is accomplished by decision-making.
According to Allen – management decision making is the work a manager performs to
arrive at conclusion and judgement.
According to Shull, Delberg and Cummings - “A conscious and human process involving
both individual and social phenomena based on factual and value premises which concludes
with a choice of one behavioural activity from among one or more alternatives with the
intention of moving towards a desired state of affairs.”
Kreitner defines it as “Decision making is a process of identifying and choosing an
alternative course of action in a manner appropriate to the demand of the situation.”
In other words, at every stage of managing, the manager faces the challenge of making
correct, qualitative and effective decision to get the best out of a situation. Managerial
decisions are formally directed towards making the organisation a functional entity
preserving its identity and maintaining continuity in its working life.
Managers at all levels make decisions such as top level executives take decisions on major
issues and matters that are directly concerned with the survival, profitability and growth of
the organisation. For handling the matters arising day-to-day operations, lower level
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managers are granted authority to decide upon them. Managers at all areas of organisations
make decisions regarding production, distribution, finance, purchase, personnel, research and
development etc.
Characteristics:
⮚ Decision making is an integral part of planning.
⮚ It aims at choosing an appropriate course of action by weighing and weeding out
several available alternatives.
⮚ It involves the judgement and discretion of the decision maker.
⮚ It is an activity with a purpose.
⮚ Decisions are made to solve problems, resolve crises and conflicts.
⮚ It is all pervasive.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Q1. Which of the following statement is True or False:
a) Managers at all levels make decisions.
b) Decision making takes place only when managers have two or more than
two options.
c) Decisions are an integral part of organisations’ life.
d) Decision-making involves the discretion of the decision maker.
a) Decisions are made to ..............problems, resolves............. and ....................
b) Top level executives take decisions only on matters that are directly
...........with survival.
c) Lower-level managers are granted.............. to make decisions on day-to-day
operations.
d) Decision is a ............
e) Decision making is the conscious ........................of making decision.
f) Decision’s managers may makes are...........................................
g) Whatever a manager does he does ....................decision-making.
h) All management work is ...........................by decision-making.
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9.3.1 Types of Decisions:

Each day involves a series of decisions ranging from minor to significant. Managers in
different organisations encounter unique situations and problems. Depending upon nature of
the problem, decision can of following types:
(a) Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are made with regard to routine and
recurring problems and require the application of a pre-determined set of procedures,
techniques and decision rules. As the problem arises, the prescribed procedure is applied
and a decision is made. Decision rules permit busy managers to make routine decisions
quickly without going through a comprehensive problem-solving procedure. It
encourages lower-level managers to share responsibility, in terms of guiding and
instructing workers for day-to-day activities; help to solve the grievances of the workers,
for programmed decisions. It allows higher level managers to concentrate more on
important non-programmed decisions. So, the structured problems have to be first
defined. The programme decision may be of the following three types:
(i) Procedure: A procedure is a series of sequential steps used to respond to a structured
problem. For example selection procedure of an employee.
(ii) Rule: A rule is an explicit statement that tells what can or cannot be done. For
example, the rules of the roads, rules observed at petrol pump, rules about lateness
and absenteeism permit supervisors to make disciplinary decisions rapidly and
fairly.
(iii)Policy: It is a guiding principle for making a decision. It establishes general
parameters for the decision maker. It may be general policy and specific policy.
Policies typically contain an ambiguous term that leaves interpretation on the
decision maker. Some of the example of policy statements may be:
● Nobody would accept any gift from the outsiders except token gift.
● The customer always comes first and should always be satisfied.
● Promotion from within, wherever possible.

(b) Non-programmed decisions: As managers move up the organisational hierarchy (upper
level), the problems they confront become more unstructured that are new or unusual for
which information is ambiguous or incomplete. Non-programmed decisions are unique
and non-recurring that require a custom-made solution. That is why upper-level managers
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delegate routine decisions to their subordinates so that they can deal with more difficult
issues. Example of non-programmed problems are:
● Top management lays down the objectives.
● Top management prepares strategic plans and policies for the enterprise.
● Issues necessary instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures,

schedules etc.
● Controls and coordinates the activities of all the departments.
Difference between Programmed and Non-programmed Decisions
Characteristics Programmed Decisions Non-programmed Decisions
1. Type of problem Structured Unstructured
2. Management level Lower levels Upper levels
3. Frequency Repetitive, routine New, unusual
4. Information Readily available Ambiguous or incomplete
5. Goals Clear, specific Vague
6. Time frame for Short Relatively long

solution
7. Solution relies on Procedure, rules and policies Judgement and creativity
(c) Strategic Decisions: Strategy is a deliberate search for a plan of action that will develop
a business’s competitive advantage and compound it. The search is an iterative process
that begins with recognition of where you are and what you have now. The difference
between you and your competitors are the basis of your advantage.
Strategic decisions are usually made by top-level management which are important and
critical for the survival, success and profitability of the organisation.
Every organization has to make decisions throughout the day that will impact the
outcome of the organization. Decisions can be simple, like deciding on what to wear to
work or whether to organize a meeting or not. However, strategic decisions that impact
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the direction of the organization are harder to make and are often the most important. The
examples of strategic decisions are the selection of a product and processes, making
capacity planning, selecting location of plant, switching to new technology, taking over
other organization, and strategic alliance etc. are taken by higher level of management.
The main characteristics of strategic decisions are that once they are taken, it is neither
desirable nor feasible to withdraw them and is based on risk.
(d) Operational Decisions: Mere formulation of strategic decisions are not the guarantee of
success of any organisation unless until such decisions are implemented by making many
other operational or tactical decisions such as production planning, quality control, cost
control, inventory control etc. These decisions are concerned with routine and repetitive
matters to implementation of strategic decisions. That’s why the authority for making
tactical or operational decisions is vested in lower level management.
The differences between strategic and Operational decisions are as below:
Strategic Decisions Operational Decisions
These are long-term decisions These are not frequently taken
These are considered where the future planning These are medium period based decisions
is concerned.
It is taken in accordance with organisational These are taken in accordance with strategic
mission and vision and administrative decision.
These deal with organisational growth These are related to production and factory
growth
(e) Individual Decision & Group Decision:

Individual Decision: In a practical situation, a person is different from others in respect of
the way of thinking. Some people are logical and rational and they process information
serially while other people are intuitive and creative and perceive things as a whole. That’s
why different people use different decision-making styles in the organisation such as:
(i) The analytical style: This style has a much higher tolerance for ambiguity and best
characterised as careful decision-makers with the ability to adapt to or cope with
novel and unexpected situations.
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(ii) The conceptual style: This style has a low tolerance for ambiguity and seeks
rationality. They are efficient and logical requires minimal information.
(iii) The directive style: It makes decisions fast and they focus on the short-run.
(iv) The behavioural style: This style has a strong concern with well-being of the
subordinates and usually in this style suggestions from others are sought.
Individuals have a tendency to think and question before performing, which is fruitful in
analysis and forecasting of an individual’s behaviour.
Advantages of individual decision-making:
i. Individual generally makes prompt decisions.
ii. Individual decision-making saves time, money and energy. In other words, it is cost
effective.
iii. Individuals are responsible and accountable for their own decision. They have no
excuse for their bad acts and performance.
Disadvantages:
i. An individual uses own intuition and may be biased.
ii. Individual decision-making is proved more fruitful and productive in very small
business organisation like sole-proprietorship or in family matter.
iii. Lack of consensus decision-making.
Group Decision Making:
It is generally believed that two heads are better than one. In group decision, the final
authority to take decisions is vested in the group itself rather than in an individual.
A group decision is one in which more than two people are participating, deliberating and
developing an amicable solution to the problem. If group is diverse, better decisions may be
made because different group members may have diverse ideas based on their background
and experience.
To deal with the problems, the manager is delegated with enough authority and within the
extent and scope of it decisions are made, both on important as well as less important matters.
Whatever the power and authority they have, they can exercise it only through meetings in
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which they make decisions unanimously or by majority votes. Such decision is generally
taken in executive body (Board of Directors) or in various committees formed for the purpose
of deciding on various matters at the lower level of the organisation.
Sometimes, the superior involves subordinates to get their cooperation and involvement in
decision making in which subordinates may be of more concern with the objective of their
acceptance. Group decisions may also be in the following form:
(i) Group participation in decision-making: Where the superior shares authority of
decision making by involving subordinates.
(ii) Group decision-making: where the members or subordinates may share the
authority of decision making with the chief executive.
(iii) Workers participation in management: Where the superior and subordinates may
share the authority of decision making with the workers.
Advantages of group decisions:
(i) Creates Synergy: It is found when output is more than the inputs, which means
whole is greater than the sum of its parts. As group also creates synergy effects in
the quality and productive decisions because two or more members are involved in
deliberation and amicable solution of the problems that may increase or improve
the results.
(ii) Sharing of information: In group decisions, the members of the group not only sit
together around the table for making decisions but also they contribute fruitful
information and expertise which increases understanding, clarity and facilitates
movement towards a collective decision.
(iii) Team spirit: Members involved in group decision-making represent cooperation,
trust, respect and develop a team spirit to get maximum contribution from them.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Q3. Which of the following statement is True or False?

a) Decision rules permit busy managers to make routine decisions quickly.
b) It establishes general parameters for the decision maker.
c) Non-programmed decisions are unique and non-recurring.
d) Programmed decisions are structured.
e) Strategic decisions are important and crucial for the survival of the
organisation.
f) Conceptual style of decision making has a low tolerance for ambiguity and
seeks rationality.
g) Analytical style of decision making has a much higher tolerance for
ambiguity.
a) A ......................decision is made with regard to routine and recurring
problems.
b) Each and every day is a series of decisions from ............. to ...................
c) Programmed decision requires the .................of a pre-determined set of
procedures, techniques and decision rules.
d) A rule is an explicit ........................
e) Operational decisions are concerned with ..................and....................matters.
f) Directive style of decision making focus on the ...........
g) Behavioural style of decision making concerned with the well-being of
their.................
Disadvantages of group decisions: The flip side of the group decision making are as follows:
(i) Diffusion of Responsibility: Group members are not themselves so much
responsible and accountable which affects the quality of decision making
adversely. Everyone is responsible for a decision which might mean no one is
responsible. They do not exhibit a sense of responsibility.
(ii) Reduce efficiency: Ordinate delay in decision-making is also marked in a group
decisions because of long discussions, diverse opinions of members and
procedural technicalities. It sometimes reduces the effectiveness of the decision
making process.
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(iii) Encourage indecisiveness: If the least competent member dominates the group
decision it impedes the efforts of the most competent ones.
(iv) Groups suffer from social loafing.
(v) Groups may also suffer from groupthink.
9.3.2 Techniques of Individual and Group Decision Making:
The use of techniques improves the efficiency of decision-making as well as the quality of
the decisions made by the manager. These techniques are as under:
Individual Decision Making Techniques:
There are six decision making styles of an individual. Every individual is not only different in
nature but also their approach of decision-making differs and depends on different situations.
5. Deep Deliberation: In this style, the person spends excessive time and attention on
weighing all possibilities before deciding on any one possibility. This style is
appropriate when an issue is of great importance such as family problem, career
choice, or serious relationship issue.
6. Impulsive Decision: An impulsive behaviour is when one act quickly with no thought
to the consequences. An impulsive person is commonly described as hot-headed, rash,
unpredictable and unstable. It is simply a person’s reaction to situation in front of
others. Such decision is often intuitive one. It is inappropriate in the cases related to
academic choice, career choice, and relationship etc.
7. Escape: in this style, decision-making is avoided, by giving temporary solution and
escaping from the situation. Escape would be an appropriate style if one has to face
reality and is attempting to avoid it.
8. Compliance: Compliance refers to the act of obeying an order, rule, or request. It is an
integral part of decision-making. In this style, the decision is made by someone else
and the individuals has to obey the decision because of they are not comfortable to
take decision due to lack of sufficient information.
9. Safe playing: Safe playing refers as taking least risky decision. In this style, the
person chooses the option that has the least amount of risk. It is best option
particularly when high risk is involved in decision-making.
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10. Procrastination: It means voluntarily delaying or postponing actions. Despite

understanding the negative consequences of unnecessary delay, people defer the
actions. In this style, the decision is simply delayed which means refusing to make a
decision so long that the options that were once available to them no more remain
available. It is not an effective decision-making style particularly when there is
urgency or a timeline. Often, delaying decision makes the ultimate decision more
difficult. It can be seen as irrational behaviour.
Individual Decision-Style Model
High Analytical Conceptual
Directive Behavioural
Low Rational Intuitive

Tolerance Way of thinking
for
ambiguity
The above matrix shows that individual decision behaviour depends upon a combination of
tolerance for ambiguity and way of thinking. On the X axis we have way of thinking and on
the Y axis we have tolerance for ambiguity. If the tolerance level is high and way of thinking
is rational then individual decision style will be analytical. Likewise, if the tolerance level is
low and way of thinking is rational, individual decision style will be directive. If the tolerance
level is high and way of thinking is intuitive, the decision style will be conceptual and if the
tolerance level is low and way of thinking is intuitive, the decision style will be behavioural.
Group Decision Making Techniques:
(a) Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a process in which creative thinking is encouraged for
developing creative solution to problems by small groups of managers. Generally one of
them is given the role of leader of the group who throws light on the various aspects of
the problems and explains its nature to the other members. This technique does not offer a
readymade solution to the problem. Rather, aims to generate possible alternative solutions
and leads to evaluation for selecting the best one.
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Rules of Brainstorming:
(i) All the members sit together and start discussing the problems with generation
of creative ideas with tentative solution as a member of free association one by
one without any interruption by others.
(ii) Once, each one point of view on the problems is recorded in black and white
to make every member familiar with the ideas generated.
(iii) Again, they are given an opportunity to make improvements upon them.
(iv) Later on each member, one by one is allowed to give suggestion on the
various ideas so generated with the purpose to improve upon these ideas.
(v) In the subsequent session, ideas so generated are reviewed and alternatives
evaluated for selecting a suitable one.
(b) Delphi Technique: This is the technique in which a small group of specialised experts are
formed to express their opinion on the problem and its solution. The opinion expressed by
each expert independently is not made known to the others because anonymity is desired.
The expert does not know on whose response what new question has been framed.
In this technique the organisation after collecting the responses of experts to solve the
problems, the opinions of experts are consolidated and summarised by the group leader
and sent back to the experts for further analysis unless until a unanimous decision come
out to solve the problems.
The Delphi technique involves the following steps:
(i) Under this technique, the organisation prepares questionnaires in two or more sets on
the various aspects of the problems after analysing the sets of responded
questionnaire.
(ii) The first questionnaire is sent to experts to seek their responses independently and
after getting the responses of the experts, the group leader compiles and analyse
the responses.
(iii)Again the second new set of questionnaire is sent to the experts and they are asked to
respond. After receiving the response, it is analysed.
(iv) If any area remains untouched or untouched adequately, a third questionnaire may be
designed and sent, and the responses are again compiled and analysed.
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(v) The said process repeated unless until a unanimity develop on each aspect of the
problem.
(c) Nominal Group Technique: Under this technique, a group of individuals is formed to
address a particular problem. It resembles the brainstorming technique but is considered
to improve the effective of group decision-making because all the members of group are
physically present in the meeting but discussion among the group member is not allowed.
In this technique, a problem is presented before the group members to experience the
problem and then following steps take place:
(i) Each one is asked to write independently all the possible ideas to solve the
presented problem that come to their mind about it.
(ii) Thereafter, each member has to present their idea to the group.
(iii) Further, the members are asked to add new ideas to the list on the basis of the ideas
presented by others.
(iv) Once all possible ideas have surfaced and been recorded, the members may be
allowed to suggest a possible solution and comment on the ideas with their relative
merits and demerits.
(v) After this, the members privately vote on an idea and assign a particular rank to it
on the basis of priority of the alternative solution.
(vi) The ideas getting the highest aggregate ranking are selected as a solution to the
problem.
(d) Fish Bowl Technique: It a technique of role rotation in which a group of experts is
formed who sit around the table and the members of the group have opportunities to
express their viewpoints as a member as well as leaders in each round of discussion
which is more structured and direct in nature.
(i) The central place is occupied by a leader who expresses his opinion on the problem
with some solution for it. The members are allowed to ask questions and
clarification of the problem. Member present in the meeting put their point of view
one by one on leader’s opinion. Once his viewpoint is discussed fully and
understood, the leader gives up his chair to another member who now becomes the
leader.
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(ii) Again new second leader gives his viewpoint in the light of the views expressed by
the first leader. The members can ask questions based on the new leader’s ideas
which must stem from the first round of discussion.
(iii) This cycle of discussion continue till all the members have done their turn as a
group leader.
(iv) At the end, all the viewpoints and ideas are taken stock of and further discussed
collectively to arrive at a suitable solution.
Difference between individual decision and group decision
Individual Decision Making Group Decision Making
Pros Cons Pros Cons
Typically faster than Fewer ideas Diversity of ideas Takes longer

group decision making and can piggyback
on others’ ideas
Best individual in a Identifying the best Greater commitment Group dynamics such
group usually individual can be to ideas as groupthink can
outperforms the group challenging occur
Accountability is Possible to put off Interaction can be Social loafing-harder

easier to determine making decisions if fun and serves as a to identify
left alone to do it. team building task responsibility for
decisions.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
a) The use of techniques improves the efficiency of decision-making.
b) Brainstorming technique does not offer a readymade solution to the
problem.
c) In the Delphi technique, the opinions of experts are collected in multiple sets
of questionnaire.
d) Nominal Group technique resembles the brainstorming technique.
a) Brainstorming aims to generate possible ............... solutions and leads to
........... for selecting the best one.
b) In Delphi technique the opinion expressed by experts is ...............to the
others.
c) Fish bowl technique in a technique of ................
d) Under the nominal group technique, the ideas getting the
...................aggregate ranking are selected as a solution to the problem.
9.4 PROCESS OF DECISION MAKING
Decision making process is concerned with the developing a consensus that suits to solving a
problem. The steps in decision making have been identified by various authors has been
summarised as follows:
The rational choice paradigm assumes that decision makers follow the systematic process
which is discussed below:
Step-1: Identify the problem: The first step of decision-making begins with the identification
of the problem which is a challenging task. A problem may define as the discrepancy
between the current and the desired situation i.e., the gap between “what is” and “what ought
to be.” The efficiency of decision-making depends upon definition of the problem. Suppose,
the management identified the problem that sales data is not readily available for evaluating
whether sales target is achieved or not. It is found that sales representative who works in the
field do not have digital mode of recording data. Further, it is noticed that sales
representatives send a requisition for laptops which was not entertained by the department.
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Step-2: Identify Decision Criteria: Criteria that define what’s relevant to resolving an
identified problem. The relevant decision criteria, in regards to the purchase of a laptop may
be such as price, display quality, and memory that will help guide the final decision that can
be depicted as:
● Memory and Storage
● Battery life
● Warranty
● Display quality
● Price
● Carrying weight
Step-3: Allocating weight to the criteria: A simple way to assign weight is to give the most
important criteria a weight of 10 and then assign weights to the rest using that standard, Such
as:
Features Desktop Weight
Memory and storage 10
CPU 8
Battery life 6
Warranty 2
Display quality 3
Carrying weight 0
Price 1
Step-4: Develop Alternatives: At this stage, the decision maker requires to list viable
alternatives using creative thinking and innovativeness that could resolve the problem.
Developing alternatives need to exercise cognitive flexibility.
Step-5: Analyse the alternatives: Once alternatives have been identified, a decision maker
must evaluate each alternative with pros and cons in the light of the solution of the problems
by giving due consideration to risk involved, time consumed, efficiency of the alternatives
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and resource position along with ethical and moral value. For this the management can take
the help of some experts in regards to viable, scalable and worthy of investment.
Step-6: Selecting the best alternative: This step is concerned with choosing the best
alternative or the one that generates the highest scores in solving the problem which is cost
effectiveness and produce synergy effect. Selecting the best alternative does not mean that
rest of the alternatives are worthless. Other alternatives are ranked as plan B, C and so on.
Step-7: Implementation of Decision: Decisions are implemented to achieve the desired
outcome. It involves a series of actions and utilisation of resources. It must be noted that the
lower level managers who have to implement a decision must participate in the process
because they will help to re-evaluate. Before implementing a decision, necessary structural,
administrative and logical arrangements are made.
Step-8: Reviewing Decisions: The last step in the decision making process involves
reviewing the outcomes with regards to the resolved problems. We should access to what
extent objectives are achieved. If the review shows that the problem still exists, then the
manager needs to assess what went wrong.
9.5 DECISION MAKING MODELS
There are following popular models of decision-making:

(1) Rational Decision-Making Models:
This model is also known as Normative Model. This model assumes that a man is a rational
human being who will apply quantitative techniques for decision-making to make precise and
accurate decisions. While making decision, manager tries to become as much rational as
possible. This is idealistic, rational and prescriptive in nature.
This approach implies the use of scientific and logical methods. The feature of this model is
as follows:
(a) Being a rational man model, this approach is scientific, logical and full of reasoning.
(b) It calls for a scientific attitude on the part of managers backed by empirical verification.
(c) Under this model, managers should not allow his emotions, biases to interfere with
decision-making.
(d) The managers must have clarity of action by which defined goals can be achieved.
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(e) This model also assumes that the manager have the ability to apply the criteria to analyse
the collected information, develop alternatives and evaluate alternatives in the context of
the defined goal.
(f) Every information is fully known and has no time or cost constraints.
(g) The manager must have a desire to optimise/ maximise benefits by selecting the best
course of action.
2. Bounded Rationality Model:
This model is also known as Behavioural model or Administrative Man model.
In real-life situation, man cannot be always fully rational in his approach to make decision to
solve all types of problems. This is the basis of developing behavioural approach of decision-
making. This model is more pragmatic as it considers several factors that affect real-life
decision-making in practice.
Herbert A. Simon propounded the theory ‘bounded rationality’ which states that the norm of
rationality is bounded by information limitations or inadequacy of information which
deviates from the rationality to solve the problems.
The major limitations that bound the managers are as follows:
(a) Uncertainties of environment: The future environment is full of complexities and
uncertainties that cannot be predicted with a high degree of accuracy. Therefore,
managers have to accommodate their choice accordingly.
(b) Conflicting Objectives: Generally organisations set multiple objectives such as primary
objective and secondary objectives to serve the interest of organisation as well as to meet
out social responsibility that may be conflicting to each other.
(c) Time Constraints: The concept of rationality is also bounded by time constraints because
it is time consuming to process the whole steps involved in decision-making and the
nature of complexity of problems.
(d) Organisational Constraints: The philosophy of the organisation, power structure,
multiplicity of goals, existence of informal groups and set of organisational plans for
which managers may be bounded to make decisions which are more practicable and
feasible even by defying the norms of rationality.
3. Intuitive Decision Model:
When managers reach at a decision without conscious reasoning it is called intuitive decision.
This is one of the most commonly used models for decision making. As per the Burke &
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Miller, 1999 survey, 89% of the managers sometimes used intuitive decisions and 59% used
often. Intuitive decisions are not based on gut feelings. These are backed by experience and
so not completely baseless.
9.6 DECISION MAKING AND ETHICS
Ethics generally refer as the set of moral ideology, shaped by social norms, cultural practices
and religious influences that guide a human’s behaviour about do’s and don’ts. In decision-
making only economic implication is not involved but their value and ethical dimensions are
found to be equally important. The ethical behaviour of a decision maker plays an important
role in those managerial decisions that directly involve the interests and objectives of society
such as policies regarding recruitment, selection, dismissal, wages and salary etc.
For example, a decision to switch over to a new technology should be made by taking into
account not only by economic implication but also ethical ones which require a high degree
of honesty and integrity and depends on individual personality and organisational
environment.
An individual or group can use the following three criteria to make such decision:
1. Utilitarian criterion: Under this criterion, managers evaluate the decisions and actions
on the basis of their consequences. While taking a decision, they ensure that it will
produce the greatest good for the large number of people.
2. Criterion of right: This criterion holds that all people have fundamental rights
provided in the constitution of India particularly the right to property, freedom of
expression, knowledge, privacy etc. It protects individuals from injury but hinders
productivity and efficiency. So decision maker should respect and protect these rights.
3. Criterion of justice: It is said that justice delayed is justice denied. It urges upon
decision maker to be fair, impartial and equitable with all class of people especially
less powerful and unrepresented group of people while making decisions which
ensure equitable distribution of cost and benefits among parties involved in it.
James Weber suggested the following guidelines to add an ethical dimension to decision
making:
1. By formulating and implementing an appropriate policy and code of ethics.
2. By using a formal committee to ensure that a code of ethics is observed by the
employees.
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3. By including techniques of ethical and moral value in training and development

programmes.
Whereas Saul Gelleman suggested the following guidelines to encourage the use of ethical
value in decision-making:
1. Provide clear guidelines for ethical behaviour.
2. Teach ethical guidelines and their importance.
3. In grey areas, where there are questions about the ethics of an action, refrain from it.
4. Set up auditing agency that checks on illegal and unethical deeds.
5. Conduct frequent and unpredictable audits.
6. Punish trespassers in a meaningful way and make it public so that it may deter others.
7. Emphasise regularly that loyalty to the organisation does not exercise improper
behaviour or actions.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
a) Decisions are always made to get them implemented.
b) Developing alternatives course of action requires to list viable alternative.
c) Rational decision-making model is also known as Normative Model.
d) Ethics requires a high degree of honesty and integrity and depends on
individual personality and organisational environment.
a. Decision making process is concerned with the developing a .................that
suits to ..........problem.
b. The first step of decision making begins with the........................
c. Bounded Rationality model is also known as....................................
d. In decision-making only ..............implication is not involve but
their...........and ...............dimension is equally important.
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9.7 SUMMARY
Decision-making is an important managerial activity. Every manager has to make decision to

solve problems and handle situations so that tasks could be performed effectively by others.
Decision-making is not only a part of planning but is an integral part of management process.
Decisions are also made either by manager at individual level or by using the authority
delegated to him. Such decisions are known as individual decisions. As against this, some
decisions are made by two or more managers or group of individuals who may be working in
similar positions or may be in the relationship of superior and subordinate. These decisions
are known as group decisions that are considered to be more qualitative and effective. The
process of decision making involves many stages related to non- programmed decisions but
for programmed decisions certain prescribed procedure, rules are to be used backed by
managerial experience and creativity. Strategic decisions are made by upper level managers
whereas operational decisions are made by lower level managers. In order to understand the
decision-making behaviour of the manager, two important models such as rational model and
behaviour mode can be used. Of late, in most modern organisation, the techniques of group
decision making model such brainstorming, Delphi technique, nominal group technique, and
fish bowl techniques are used. Modern organisation gives due consider to ethical value in
decision making for which a code of conduct is framed and followed by managers.
CASE STUDY 1
Mr. Vikas is a customer in an India public sector bank. Mr. Vikas enjoys internet
banking facility with the bank. One day he visited the bank branch and requested with
the concerned clerk to make a fixed deposit by debiting his saving bank account. Instead
of honoring the request made by the Mr. Vikas, the clerk refused to do so and said to
Mr. Vikas; since you have internet banking that why I could not help you. Please make
online fixed deposit. Again, Mr. Vikas requested by saying that internet is not property
working due to weak signal, but the clerk did not consider the problem and again
repeated the same. Mr. Vikas made a complaint with the branch manager but in spite of
helping him, the branch manager said do whatever the concerned clerk has said.
Q1. What should Mr. Vikas do? Who is at fault? Suggest a solution.
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CASE STUDY 2
The Managing Director's driver had been with the company for 25 years. He was very
good at his job. One day he took the car home after dropping the Managing Director late
at night. While driving back to his home, he met with an accident and kills a girl
crossing the road. Although it was not his mistake, the court punishes him. The
personnel officer in the company recommends dismissal of his appointment.
Q1. What should the company do? Retain him or fire him?
9.8 GLOSSARY
Brainstorming: A freewheel, face-to-face meeting where group members are not allowed to
criticised but are encouraged to express freely, generate as many as possible, and build on the
ideas of others.
Bounded rationality: The view that people are bounded in their decision-making
capabilities, including access to limited information, limited information processing, and
tendency toward satisfying rather than maximising when making choices.
Conflict: A process in which one party perceives that his or her interests are being opposed
or negatively affected by another party.
Decision-making: The consensus process of making choices among alternatives with the
intention of moving towards some desired state of affairs.
Ethics: The study of moral principles or values that determine whether actions are right or
wrong and outcomes are good or bad.
Group decision-making: where the members or subordinates may share the authority of
decision making with the chief executive.
Norms: The informal rules and shared expectations that groups establish to regulate the
behaviour of their members.
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Nominal group techniques: A variation of brainstorming consisting of three stages in which

Participants (1) silently and independently documents their ideas, (2) collectively describe
these ideas to the other group members without critique, and then (3) silently and
independently evaluate the ideas presented.
Strategy: Strategy is a deliberate search for a plan of action that will develop a business’s
competitive advantage and compound it.
Q1. All True
Q2. a- Solve, b- Concerned c- authority d- choice

crisis,
conflict
e- process f- planning, organising , g- through h- accomplished

leading and
controlling
Q3. All True
Q4. a-Programmed b-minor to c-application d- statement

significant
e- routine, f- short-term g-Subordinates

repetitive
Q5. All True
Q6. a-alternative; b- not known c-role rotation d-highest

evaluating
Q7. All True
Q8. a-consensus; b-identification of c-behavioural model d-economic; value ;

solving problem. ethical
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1. What is a decision? What is meant by decision-making?

2. Decision-making involves choosing from among alternative solutions. Comment.
3. Discuss the various steps involves in decision-making process.
4. What are the main features of rationality models of decision making? What are their
limitations?
5. What are the various individual decision-making styles?
6. Managers cannot be rational decision-maker in real life situations. Discuss
7. What are programmed decisions?
8. Define the term ‘bounded rationality’.
9. Do you prefer to make decisions in a group or alone? What are the main reasons for your
preference?
10. Differential between individual decision and group decision.
11. Differential between strategic decision and operational decision.
Classroom Exercise:
● How did you take the decision of joining your present education
institution/organisation? Which model of decision-making suits your case?
● Discuss, in groups of four, two decisions recently taken in your institution. Critique
the process.
9.11 REFERENCES
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LESSON-10
STRESS AND WELL BEING AT WORK
Dr. Jyotika Bahl
Assistant Professor
Gargi College
University of Delhi
submittojyotika@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

10.2 Introduction
10.3 Understanding Stress
10.3.1 Understanding Stress and its Features
10.3.2 Implication of Stress on Performance and Satisfaction
10.4 Sources of Stress
10.4.1 Organisational Stressors
10.4.2 Individual Stressors
10.4.3 Environmental Stressors
10.5 Consequences of Stress
10.5.1 Consequences for an individual
10.5.2 Consequences for the organisation
10.6 Management of Stress
10.6.1 Strategies to deal with stress at organisational level
10.6.2 Strategies to deal with stress for individuals
10.7 Well-Being
10.7.1 Understanding Well-Being
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10.8 Summary
10.9 Glossary
10.12 References
The objective of this chapter is to understand
⮚ The concept of stress and its features
⮚ Different sources of stress – organisational, individual, environmental
⮚ The need for devising strategies to deal with stress both at organisation and individual
level
⮚ The concept and importance of well-being and PERMA model
10.2 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is designed to provide an understanding of the terms- stress and well-being
which assume importance due to challenges and opportunities being faced by employees due
to multiple role playing, work life imbalance, demanding nature of jobs, high competition,
workforce diversity and flexible work schedules.
Humans in the organisation can stay committed, loyal and engaged if they experience
optimum level of stress and are able to maintain a good standard of well-being. Often
management of stress and maintenance of well-being are ignored by employees and the
organisations. But the need for handling stress is increasing because of complexity of work,
role conflict, task demand, life trauma and so on. Most of the time employees are unable to
identify stress and get addicted to smoking or even drugs to provide the much needed relief
from stress. Thus timely identification and management of stress is the need of the hour.
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Well-being is increasingly deliberated on various platforms to promote the idea of not only
physical well-being but also emotional and mental well-being. The concern for holistic
human health has gained importance as employees are burdened with tasks and forget to
prioritise their well-being over other unimportant tasks. The understanding and importance of
the concept of well-being is relevant to the organisations also as it helps increase
productivity, reduce absenteeism and turnover. Organisations need to promote the idea of
well-being among the employees.
10.3 UNDERSTANDING STRESS
10.3.1 Understanding Stress and its Features

Stress is the pressure or tension people experience in life. Pressure can be the result of
constant demand exerted on the individual. For example, an employee may have to face work
deadlines, a working mother may be required to maintain work life balance and a sales
representative may be under constant pressure to get new clients to retain in their job. Stress
is thus the natural and unavoidable feature of human life. But stress beyond a particular limit
may cause psychological and physiological concerns which may affect the performance of
employees at work. Thus stress is an experience of physiological and psychological
imbalance within a person. It is the body’s reaction to any change or demands made by
internal or external environment. Today in a fast paced and highly competitive environment
stress is a natural consequence.
According to Selye, “Stress is the non-specific response of the body to any demand made
upon it.”
R S Schuler described “Stress as a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted
with an opportunity, constraint and demand related to what he desires and for which the
output is perceived to be both uncertain and important.”
Stress is associated with opportunity, constraints and demand. Constraints prevent us from
achieving what we desire whereas demand is something that we desire. For example, while
confronting the annual performance evaluation at work we encounter opportunities,
constraints and demand. Good performance will entail an opportunity for promotion and
higher salary, while poor performance may result in loss of job. Clearly a rational human will
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demand and even aspire for a promotion. But performance at work is constrained by
resources, time, politics and other conditions.
Stress is not necessarily bad in itself. It no doubt has a negative connotation attached but
stress may also have a positive value. For example, the front line workers during covid were
exposed to risk of virus transmission, uneven and long working hours and uncertainty due to
non-availability of medical treatment. They were undergoing huge stress. But an optimum
amount of stress is necessary to motivate them to undertake breakthrough research in medical
treatment. Thus stress is not always negative but has positive value as well.
Stress is additive. New stressors may be added to previous stressors to create a high level of
stress. A single incident of stress does not have the potential to create a feeling of stress or
tension in an individual. In order to appreciate the stress level in a person, one needs to sum
up his opportunity stress, constraint stress and demand stress.
From the discussion and understanding of stress, the following characteristics of stress are
evident.
1. Stress is an experience of physiological and psychological imbalance within a person.
Stress can have both positive and negative connotations. Stress is positive if
experienced within limits, for example the pressure of deadline for completion of an
assignment is important for employees to motivate them to meet the finish line. Stress
experienced by a deserving employee who has lost an opportunity of promotion due to a
biased performance appraisal is negative. Potential Stress can become actual stress if
there is uncertainty associated with an important outcome.
2. Stress is additive and it accumulates in the mind of a person.
3. It is a dynamic condition which is associated with opportunity, constraints and demand.
4. It is natural and unavoidable. Everybody experiences stress irrespective of the hierarchy
in the organisation, status or even personal conditions.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Stress can cause both ____ and ____imbalance in a person.

2. Stress is the specific response of the body to any demand. (a) true (b) false
3. Stress is the summation of (a) constraints, demand and opportunity (b)
anthropologic and physiological imbalance (c) ill-feelings
4. In case of over-stress, a person may experience (a) anxiety (b) dull health (c)
high performance
10.3.2. Implication of Stress on Performance and Satisfaction

Since stress has the potential to adversely affect performance, there have been studies
investigating the relation between stress and performance. The most widely studied pattern of
relationship is suggested by Selye. According to him optimum stress may be achieved at
work and is reflected in performance when job provides adequate challenge, but not too little
or much pressure. It is important to understand that optimum stress is different for different
individuals and they can identify or even sense it and determine how much stress is
functional to operate in a productive manner. In case of optimum stress there is high
motivation and high energy. In case of under-stress, boredom creeps in.
10.4 SOURCES OF STRESS
The sources of stress can be categorised into two factors- organisational stressors and
individual stressors.
10.4.1 Organisational Stressors: The organisational stressors are discussed below:
1. Task demands - They are the stressors associated with the job a person performs. Some
jobs by nature are more stressful than others. For example, jobs of professionals like
lawyers may need long hours of research to prepare case arguments. In some unusual
cases they may be required to refer to judgments of foreign courts or writings of
renowned jurists. Doctors and surgeons may be required to be available 24X7 for
emergency cases and thus might need to make extra effort to maintain work life balance
as their jobs are demanding. Similar holds true for defence personnel, airline staff,
football/ cricket coaches. Even factory workers or non-managerial employees working
in hazardous industries such as coal mines are exposed to health hazards causing them
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stress. The contractual nature of skilled jobs may make the workers vulnerable for want
of job security.
2. Role demands - The source of stress in organisational role includes role ambiguity, role
conflict, responsibility towards people and things and other stressors. Role ambiguity
includes lack of clarity about work expectations, objectives, colleagues related to
responsibilities of the job. For example, a new recruit at work might not fully
understand the responsibilities due to a poor orientation program or due to lack of
training. Role conflict arises when workers are exposed to conflicting job demands or
required to do things which they do not want to do. For example, an employee performs
multiple roles at the same time, a lady lawyer may be arguing cases in court, required to
prepare for cases, may need to fulfil responsibilities as mother, wife, daughter and so
on. Responsibility towards things may also cause stress, for example, a cashier in the
bank might be entrusted with safe keeping and dealing in cash. The mismatch of cash
balance may be a cause of stress for him. Similarly, a factory supervisor entrusted with
keeping boilers at correct temperature, to avoid hazardous substances escaping the
factory premises. Ensuring safety standards is stressful during natural calamities.
3. Interpersonal relations at work - Maintaining interpersonal relations with superiors,
colleagues and subordinates is the prerequisite to avoiding stress. But sometimes
superiors, colleagues or even subordinates are not cooperative, thereby increasing the
chances of stress. Bad interpersonal relations may be due to different orientations,
philosophy, personality, interest and so on. Stressful interpersonal relations among
superior-subordinate may be due to task-oriented approach, autocratic leadership style
or misunderstanding of motivational needs of subordinates. Whatever may be the
reason, it has the effect of lowering the morale of the subordinate, increasing the
absenteeism from work and even job hopping. Colleagues may be unable to maintain
cordial relations because of difference of interest, opinion, unhealthy competition
between them, desire for achieving higher goals in less time.
4. Organisation structure and climate - Stress can be generated because of employee
organisation mismatch. For example, if the employee does not relate to the philosophy
of the organisation or objectives of the organisation, the employee may find it difficult
to adjust with the organisation. Lack of belongingness, poor communication, scarce
opportunity in decision making, practice of politics by organisation members are other
reasons for stress in employees.
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5. Organisation leadership - The leadership style can also be a cause of stress in some
cases. For example, an employee needing support and guidance may not receive it as
his leader shows no concern or even compassion for him. The employee would
naturally feel demotivated and experience stress. Another employee, for instance, may
want active participation in decision making but if disallowed an opportunity to
participate in decision making process may experience stress. The mismatch of
leadership style with the requirements of the employee may be cause of concern for the
management.
6. Group pressures - Employees may feel stressed when there is group pressure to
conform to the decided output or norms. For example, an employee may be willing to
produce more than the output decided by the group for getting promotion or a raise in
pay but may be restricted by the group. This may cause stress as his personal goals
conflict with the group pressure. Acceptance and observance of group norms may also
cause stress as an employee may not personally agree to the same. For example, during
a strike the labourers may be expected to abandon work but a labourer may feel the
need to work for his daily wage. Thus group norms can be a source of tension and stress
among workers.
10.4.2 Individual stressors: Some individual factors in relation to personal or professional
life may be a cause of stress among individuals. They are discussed as follows.
1. Career development - There are numerous stressors in relation to career development
including job security and status incongruity. Individuals are keen on career
development and would prefer job security. Situations like contractual nature of job or
loss of job due to fear of obsolescence of skills, redundancy or even early retirement
may cause potential tension for employees. Situations of status incongruity which
include under or over promotion or even frustration from attainment of career ceiling
may also cause stress.
2. Personality profiles - Individuals possess different personalities – type A and type B.
While type A experience a chronic sense of urgency and a competitive drive and they
aspire to achieve more and more in life in less and less time. Type B personality is
totally opposite. Both personalities require a different environment to flourish and grow.
Non-availability of such opportunity may be a cause of stress and tension in the
individual.
3. Life change - Changes in life of an employee both professional and personal may be a
source of stress. Different situations may have varying impacts. For example, divorce
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may be considered more traumatic for one whereas loss of livelihood may be more
traumatic for others. Different situations represent different intensity of life change
units (LCU) in a person’s life. Negative events like trouble with the boss, turnover or
biased evaluation of performance and positive events like marriage or change of house
have a unique value or LCU. Major negative changes may cause stress, depression and
even health issues. Thus it is essential that individuals handle only that threshold of
LCU which doesn’t set in and cause tension.
4. Life trauma - It is an upheaval in an individual’s life that alters his or her attitude,
emotions or even behaviour. For example, if an individual is experiencing a life change
because of divorce, there is certainly stress and potential ground for health issues to
surface. The individual also experiences emotional turmoil during the actual divorce
process and the court proceedings. This turmoil may be in the form of life trauma and
will cause stress which may creep in the work space.
Life trauma is similar to life change but a narrow term which has shorter term focus. Major
life traumas which may cause stress include marital problems (like domestic violence,
divorce, custody of children), family difficulties and health problems. For example, an
individual having knee injury may have to restrict his physical activities, may even require
giving up his hobbies of playing sports and may feel stressed. Similarly, an individual being a
victim of domestic violence or dowry demand may be going through tough times which may
affect their concentration at work and ultimately affect their performance at work.
10.4.3 Environmental Stressors: Environmental factors also influence the level of stress
among the employees in an organisation. Some environmental factors causing stress are
discussed below.
1. Economic uncertainty - Changes in business cycle create economic uncertainty. When
economy experiences a contracting trend, people experience anxiety in relation to job
security. Slowdown of business may reduce the profitability and have a spillover effect
on the employment of employees, salary and other benefits.
2. Political uncertainty - A stable political environment would relatively be less stressful
in comparison to an unstable political environment.
3. Technological uncertainty - Obsolescence of technology is another reason for tension
and stress as it requires the employee to upgrade himself with the latest skills. New
innovations in technology may render the present skill and experience redundant. The
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evolution of technology, robotics and automation are a threat to employee and can be a
cause for stress.
4. Terrorism - Terrorism witnessed at the global level is another major source of stress.
For example, employees in Israel have faced this threat for long and have learnt to deal
with it. The instances such as 9/11, cyber threats and cyber-crime pose a challenge and
risk to the health and well-being of the employees.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. Role ambiguity and role conflict are examples of (a) organizational

stressors or (b) individual stressors.
6. Life change and life trauma are same thing (a) true (b) false
7. Employees demanding guidance and support from leaders should get
leaders having (a) concern for them or (b) concern for results.
8. Which one of the following is not an individual stressor (a) breakdown
of marriage (b) domestic violence (c) role demands (d) cultural difference
because of inter-caste marriage?
10.5 CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS
Stress is indispensable in life. Everyone experiences stress for some or the other reason. With
growing competition, complexity of life and commercialisation of activities, stress free life is
a myth. Stress has an impact on the health of an individual and the life of an organisation.
10.5.1 Consequences for an Individual
1. Physical Consequences – Stress has the ability to cause unnecessary toxin in the body
and harm the health and well-being of an individual. Minor ailments like headache,
backache, stomach or intestinal issues, skin disorders like acne or hives are common.
Major health issues like heart disease or stroke can be the harmful impacts of stress.
Depending on the perception of stress, an individual may experience either minor or
major health disorders.
2. Behaviour Consequences – An individual may experience a behavioural change
because of stress. Stressed people may become aggressive easily or may even be violent
at times. In stressful situations they seek support of drugs or alcohol. They might even
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be addicted to smoking. Studies show that people smoke in stressful circumstances and
get so addicted to smoking that they smoke even in the absence of the stressful
environment. Stress has the potential of making a stressor prone to accidents and can
even cause appetite disorder.
3. Psychological Consequences – Extreme stress may impact the mental health and well-
being of individuals. Stressed people may experience depression, lack of sleep, over
eating, loss of appetite, etc. They may become restless in many situations and may even
experience panic attacks.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
9. Which of the following is the change in behavior due to stress (a) addiction to
drugs (b) aggressive nature (c) smoking (d) all of the above
10. The adverse effects of stress on the organization include (a) reduced productivity
(b) heart disease (c) loss of popularity
11. Which of the following is a organizational consequence of stress (a) loss of

commitment (b) depressive sleeping or eating.
12. Stress of an individual effects mind, body and behavior (a) true (b) false
10.5.2 Consequences for the Organisation

The degree of stress experienced by an employee in the organisation will have both direct and
indirect effect on the organisation. Stress for whatever reason caused, organisational,
individual or environmental, has a spill over effect on the organisation. Following are some
such consequences that an organisation will encounter due to stress.
1. The performance of the employee will be affected due to stress. The employee might
not be able to maintain the standard level of output and quality. This has the potential
to affect the profitability of the organisation.
2. There may be withdrawal symptoms in an individual who is witnessing stress. In such
cases there is a high level of absenteeism and labour turnover. Employee may also
withdraw psychologically thereby ceasing to care about the organisation.
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3. The motivation, morale, commitment, attitude and job satisfaction might suffer. The
employee may be unwilling to put his best at work and might look for options for job
change. Stressed people may be prone to complain about unimportant matters.
4. Decision making may suffer as stressed individuals may lack the calm and patience to
take the correct decision. Stressed individual may be inclined to make poor decisions.
5. Stress adversely affects the communication and human relations at work.
10.6 MANAGEMENT OF STRESS
Since each one of us experiences stress in different aspects of life. It becomes increasingly
important to devise strategies to deal with stress both at organisational and individual level.
Some strategies to deal with stress are discussed below.
10.6.1 Strategies to deal with stress at organisation level
1. Organisation Role Clarity – Employees experience stress when they are unaware of
their role in the organisation. This could be due to role conflict or role ambiguity. For
example, if a project manager is required to report to two bosses and if the instructions
of the bosses contradict each other, the manager will feel the need for clarity. Thus the
organisation needs to focus on clarifying the roles expected from employees. Role
analysis is a technique that can be used to analyse what the job entails and what are the
expectations. Breaking the job into various components will help clarify the job of the
job holder for the entire system. This can help reduce stress because of unrealistic
expectations.
2. Job Redesign – Job can be a source of tension among the employees. Designing the job
properly by inserting appropriate tasks and preparing work schedules can help ease the
stress and streamline the work.
3. Stress Reduction and Stress Management Programmes – Stress reduction programmes
aim to identify the organisational stressors and reduce their effects by redesigning,
reallocation, workloads, job variety or improving supervisory skills. Stress management
programmes aim to train employees or their work groups to manage their stress
symptoms effectively.
4. Collateral Programmes (Personal Wellness) – These are those programmes which are
created for the well-being of the employees. Organisations adopt stress management
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programmes, health promotion programmes, career development programmes for this

purpose.
5. Supportive Organisational Climate – Much of the organisational stress is due to faulty
policies and practices. Stress can be controlled by creating a supportive organisational
climate. Building a supportive organisational climate is dependent on organisational
leadership rather than power and resources. Supportive organisational climate requires
participation of employees in decision making to provide them the sense of
belongingness and attachment which helps to reduce stress.
6. Counselling – Counselling involves discussion of the problem or issue with a
counsellor. It helps to release emotional burden and stress. Talking to an expert about
the pressures and tension helps not only in dealing with the stressful situation but also in
obtaining expert advice. Counselling does assist in identifying stress, handling stress
and recovering.
10.6.2 Strategies to deal with stress for Individuals
1. Relaxation – Dealing with stress requires adaptation and relaxation is an effective way
to adapt. People can relax in a variety of ways. They can take regular breaks from work
and go on vacation. Vacation may bring a change in attitude and behaviour towards
different aspects of life. Employees can also relax and take breaks while on the job. For
example, lunch break, tea breaks can enhance their energy and reduce stress.
2. Time Management– One way to reduce stress is to manage time well. Individuals can
prepare a list of tasks/ activities to be done on a particular day in order of importance
and concentrate on important tasks. Some not so important tasks can be delegated to
others. Prioritising helps in concentrating on important and relevant tasks and avoids the
unnecessary pressure and burden to complete all tasks.
3. Role Management – Individuals do perform multiple roles on a daily basis. Thus they
should work towards avoiding situations of role overload, role ambiguity and role
conflict. For example, an individual should not accept extra work when they are
overburdened as it will adversely affect their health and well-being. Individuals should
also seek clarification in situations where there is confusion or ignorance with respect to
work expectations. Also individuals perform different roles at one time. For example, a
doctor may be a father, son, dean in his department, colleague for other doctors, there is
a possibility of role conflict. Managing different roles will help reduce the risk of stress
and tension.
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4. Meditation – Meditation can help reduce stress and restore inner balance. It requires
quiet, concentrated inner thought in order to rest the body physically and emotionally. It
helps to calm in stressful situations temporarily.
5. Support Group – Any individual has primary and secondary groups. Primary groups are
those with which a person relates very closely like family and close friends. Primary
group can provide support during stress. Individuals can share their worries, stress and
feelings with them. Support groups have the potential to boost the morale of the person
and keep them going.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
13. Which of the following is a collateral programme undertaken to deal stress

(a) career development programme (b) health promotion programme (c) stress
management (d) all of the above
14. Which of the following needs to be managed to reduce stressful situations (a)
role ambiguity (b) role conflict (c) role overload (d) all of the above?
15. Taking power naps or breaks in between work can help reduce stress (a) true
(b) false
16. ____ helps in reducing stress by talking to expert thereby releasing tension
and stress
10.7 WELL-BEING
10.7.1 Understanding Well-Being

According to Martin Seligman, Well Being is more than just feeling good and happy, it
reflects the amount of flourishing and optimal psychosocial functioning. He suggested the
PERMA model of well-being which consists of five pillars - positive emotion, engagement,
relationship, meaning and accomplishment.
PERMA Model
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Positive emotion It implies the ability to connect to happiness, stay optimistic and view
past, present and future from a constructive perspective.
Engaged An individual is engaged when he is fully absorbed and participates

actively in activities which results in experiencing mastery, focus and
joy.
Relationships Relationships and connections are crucial to life. Relationships and

bonds based on love, intimacy, emotional, physical bonds are important
elements for well-being.
Meaning It is the sense of purpose and direction in one’s life.
Accomplishment It is the sense of satisfaction and fulfilment as a result of achieving

one’s goal.
An employee possessing a good standard of well-being at work is likely to be more creative,

more loyal and provide better customer satisfaction as compared to an employee having a low
standard of well-being. Also a good standard of well-being would ensure high productivity,
long term organisational success and employee engagement. Employee well-being is directly
linked to organisational performance. Thus organisations should make a constructive effort so
that employees achieve a good standard of well-being.
Well-being is not restricted to individual level factors but also extends to organisational and
societal factors as individual well-being does not exist on its own or in the workplace but in
the societal context. In addition to occupational hazards, the absence of work (whether
unemployment or under-employment) is a major stressor and cause of ill-health. In some
cases, such as the current economic slowdown post pandemic, unemployment is involuntary.
Waddell and Burton define well-being as “the subjective state of being happy, healthy,
contented, comfortable and satisfied in one’s life.”
It includes physical, material, social, emotional (happiness) and development dimensions.

Well-being at work is also influenced by mental and physical health, job security, work
organisation, engagement at work, work life benefits and wages. Different authors have
recognised different determinants of well-being. Some determinants are work related factors,
life style and personality.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
17. Which of the following is not one of the five pillars in the PERMA model (a)
positive feeling (b) engagement (c) relationship (d) meaning (e) accomplishment.
18. Relationships include (a) connections (b) quality relations based on love,
intimacy, emotional bonds (c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of the above.
19. The study of well-being requires study of (a) individual factors (b)
organizational factors (c) societal factors (d) all of them
10.8 SUMMARY
This chapter focuses on employee health, well-being and managing stress. Understanding the
importance of well-being, health and stress can help in organisational success, increasing
productivity and performance of employees. At the same time it reduces chances of
absenteeism, turnover and accidents at workplace. It also helps employee enhance their
loyalty, commitment and satisfaction. Healthy and stress free employee can be an asset for
organisations. Thus maintaining optimum level of stress and good standard of well-being
should be one of the goals of an organisation.
10.9 GLOSSARY
Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity,

constraint and demand related to what they desire and for which the output is perceived to be
both uncertain and important.
Life change is changes in the life of an employee both professional and personal.
Life trauma is an upheaval in an individual’s life that alters his or her attitude, emotions or
even behaviour.
Collateral Programmes are those programmes which are created for the well-being of the
employees.
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Job redesign involves designing the job by inserting appropriate tasks and preparing work
schedules.
Well Being is more than just feeling good and happy, it reflects the amount of flourishing
and optimal psychosocial functioning.
1. Psychological and physiological 11. Loss of Commitment

2. False 12. True
3. Constraint, demand and opportunity 13. All of the above
4. Anxiety 14. All of the above
5. Organisational stressor 15. True
6. False 16. Counselling
7. Concern for them 17. Positive feeling
8. Role demand 18. Both (a) and (b)
9. All of the above 19. All of them
10. Reduced Productivity
1. Sam has been facing the issue of role ambiguity and is reporting to two bosses.
Sometimes he gets contradictory instructions and orders to execute. In this situation he
is unable to decide what to do, he feels pressured and is even thinking of quitting the
job. Help him identify the source of stress and suggest ways in which he can deal with
stress and workplace pressure.
2. Some stress is indispensable and necessary to make the job challenging and keep the
motivation high. Comment on the statement.
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3. Discuss the organisational sources of stress. Can the organisation reduce the possibility
of stress among the employees? Discuss.
4. The study of Well-Being is gaining significance today. Discuss the concept of well-
being and its scope.
10.12 REFERENCES
Marko Divjak (2021), How to enhance the Employee Well-Being at work, International
Journal of Management, 10, 109-114.
Robbins, S.P, Organisation Behaviour, Pearson Education.
Schulte, P & Vainio H (2010), Well-being at work- overview and perspective, Scand Journal
of Work Environ Health, 36(5), 422-429.
Singh and Chhabra, Organisation Theory and Behaviour, Dhanpat Rai &Co.
Robbins, S.P, Organisation Behaviour, Pearson Education

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LESSON-11
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE AND DESIGN

Dr. Nidhi Kesari
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

11.2 Introduction
11.3 Organization Structure
11.3.1 Purpose, Role and Nature of Organizational Structure
11.3.2 Determinants of Organization Structure
11.4 Organisational Designs
11.4.1 Simple, Bureaucracy, and Matrix Designs
11.4.2 Models of Organizational Structure: Mechanistic and Organic
11.4.3 Emerging Design Options
11.4.4 Strategy-Structural Relationship
11.5 Organisational Structure and Employee Behaviour
11.5.1 Consequences of Structural Deficiencies
11.5.2 Global Implications
11.6 Summary
11.7 Glossary
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11.10 References
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

c) define organisational structure and its aims.
d) understand key elements of organisational designs.
e) demonstrate understanding of types of organisational structure.
f) evaluate different organisational structure.
11.2 INTRODUCTION
This is the last chapter in which we are going to learn about the organizational structure.
Though this is the last chapter, but its importance cannot be undermined. It is difficult to
imagine a business that has no organizational structure. The need of organizational structure
arises as it helps in bringing role clarity and reporting structure, helping in making effective
decisions. It also helps in ascertaining the accountability status of employees falling at
different levels in the organizational structure. Organizational Structure is necessary for
running a successful business because it improves workflow and efficiency, promotes
communication, identifies company needs, and aligns employees with company goals. It
provides leverage and can help enhance operating performance.
The structure supports the organizational objectives and implementation of the organizational
strategy. Different organizational structures have their own advantages, disadvantages,
characteristics and suitability.
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11.3 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
In an organisation jobs and tasks are formally designed, coordinated, divided and grouped.
The organisational structure narrates information flows from top to bottom and vice versa
according to the roles, responsibilities and levels of authority within the enterprise. Most
importantly, it identifies who supervises to whom and who reports to whom. It also provides
for the appropriate position of superior and subordinate. It describes the organizational
hierarchy in terms of different functions, roles, responsibilities, supervision, etc.
A good organizational structure and design is usually illustrated through an organisation chart
which develops an environment where employees can work effectively with improved
communication, increased productivity, and inspired innovation. Thus, an organizational
structure has these elements – (1) task assigned in the organization to individuals; (2) line of
authority, responsibility for the task, reporting requirements, span of control and hierarchical
levels in the organization; and (3) develop systems across departments for efficient
coordination among the employees.
11.3.1 Purpose, Role and Nature of Organizational Structure:
Purpose of organizational Structure:
The purpose of an organization structure is:
a) To help the organization to achieve its objectives,
b) To help the employees to complete their work effectively and efficiently.
c) To allocate employees designated work roles and responsibilities,
d) To help management to coordinate and control activities, and
e) To show how information flows throughout the organization.
Role of Structure: The role of structure is essentially to:
i. Clarify roles and responsibilities, and
ii. Determine who had power and authority to make certain decisions.
Nature of organizational structure:
The nature of organizational structure is to understand whether it is centralized or
decentralized.
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(a) Centralized Structure: In this type of structure, decision-making is centralised and the
decisions are taken by the top management. Under this structure, the top level
management makes most of the decisions and has tight control over the different
departments and divisions. It has a top-down approach which tells that employees and
managers are responsible for the successful execution of decisions but the employees
falling lower in the chain of command play a minimal role in the process of decision-
making.
This structure could be useful when the environment is stable, the company is large, and
the decisions are relatively minor.
This structure has following advantages:
(iii) Clear communication and chain of command
(iv) Cost reduction, i.e., administrative cost
(v) Fast implementation of decisions
(vi) Improved work quality and reduction in task replication
Centralised structure has following disadvantages:
Dictatorship in terms of leadership
(a) Work delays due to dependency on management.
(b) Employees feel disconnected in result reduce work efficiency.
(c) Lack of authority in managers.
(b) Decentralized Structure: In this structure, decision-making power regarding day-to-day
tasks is distributed and various departments and divisions provide autonomy in varying
degree to the supervisors at the middle level and/or lower level. It increases the
responsibility and accountability of middle and lower level supervisors.
This structure has following advantages:
Better customer service
(a) Better staff motivation
(b) Quick decisions
(c) Effective communication
(d) Improved supervision and control
Decentralised structure has following advantages:
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Difficult to coordinate
(a) Expensive process
(b) Unnecessary cost increase due to benefits by external factors.
11.3.2 Determinants of Organizational Structure:
The primary determinants are:
g) Strategy: A strategy is defined as a long-term plan of action designed to achieve a
particular goal which gives an edge over the competitors. The objectives are derived from
the organization’s strategy, hence, strategy and structure should be closely linked. The
strategy focuses on innovation, cost minimization, and the structural design that best work
with each other.
h) Technology: It refers to how an organization transfers its inputs (financial, human and
physical resources) into outputs (products or services). Organizations with continuous
technology have an organic structure at the top and mechanistic structure at lower levels.
The relationship between technology and structure depends upon the degree of
routineness of the activities. Routine technology leads to centralized control if there are
minimum rules and regulations. If formalization is high, routine technology can be
accompanied by decentralization. In general, the more routine the technology, the more
mechanistic the structure can be, and organization with more non-routine technology are
more likely to have organic structures.
i) Size: It refers to the capacity, the number of personnel, outputs (customers and sales) and
resources in an organization. If the size of the employees is large, it tends to have more
specialization, departmentalization, centralization and rules and regulations than do small
organization. Once an organization grows up to a certain size, size as such starts having
less influence on structure.
j) Environment: Every organization has to work and survive in an uncertain and dynamic
environment which includes suppliers, customers, competitors, government regulatory
agencies, public pressure groups etc. So, the structure is affected by its environment.
Static environments create significantly less uncertainty for managers than do dynamic
ones. Since, uncertainty is a threat to an organization’s effectiveness; management tries to
minimize it through adjustments in the organization’s structure. It is advisable to use
mechanistic structure in stable environment and organic structure in dynamic
environment.
k) Differentiation-integration: Organizations should be structured differently suited in
different environments to achieve the best ‘fit’ to their environment. It is the degree to
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which the various departments or sub-units within the organization specialize to perform
different activities.
l) Power and Control: It is related to decision-making and allocation of resources. A more
skilful manager can control a greater number of staff.
m) Chain and Span: It also determines organizational designs. The chain of command is the
line along with orders and decisions are passed down from the top to the bottom of the
hierarchy. In a hierarchy, span of control is the number of people who report to one
manager. The more people under the control of one manager, it indicates the wider span
of control and less people means a narrow span of control. A tall organization has a larger
number of managers with a narrow span of control and vice-versa.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
a) An organisational structure is usually illustrated through an organization
chart.
b) Organizational structure describes the organizational hierarchy in terms of
different functions, roles, responsibilities, supervision, etc.
c) Organizational structure show how information flows throughout the
organization.
d) Centralize structure has a top-down approach.
e) Decentralize structure increases the responsibility and accountability of
middle and lower level supervisors.
a) Organizational structure defines how…………..are directed towards the
achievement of organizational aims.
b) Organizational Structure ………………. what employee’s do, whom they
report to, and how decisions are made across the business.
c) There are following ……… key elements that management need to address
while designing their organization’s structure.
d) ………………refers to how an organization transfers its inputs into outputs.
e) Environment may be …………..and external.
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11.4 ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS
Organizational Design provides the structure for business processes and the framework for an
organization to deliver its core qualities. Choice of the organisation’s structure is dependent
on six elements as mentioned below:
a) Departmentalization: basis of grouping of the jobs together is described by the
departmentalization.
b) Work Specialization: it describes the degree of subdivision of activities into jobs.
c) Span of Control: defines the number of subordinates which a manager can effectively
and efficiently supervise.
d) Chain of Command: it describes to whom the subordinates will report either
individually or in group.
e) Formalisation: the degree of rules and regulations at different levels of management
which guides the employees.
f) Centralization and decentralization: it describes the degree of the authority to take a
decision.
11.4.1 Simple, Bureaucratic, and Matrix Designs
The three organizational designs are mentioned below:
1. The Simple Structure: it is characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, little
formalization, wide spans of control, and centralization of authority in a single person.
2. The Bureaucratic: This structure comes with highly routine operating tasks achieved
through specialization, much formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped
into functional departments, centralized authority, narrow spans of control, and
decision making that follows the chain of command.
3. The Matrix Structure: it creates dual lines of authority and combines functional and
product departmentalization.
11.4.2 Models of Organizational Structure
It revolves around two organizational forms which are as follows:
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Mechanistic organizational structure (Bureaucratic Structure):

An organization design that’s rigid and tightly controlled is called a Bureaucratic structure.
This type of structure is the result of combining the following six elements of structure:
a) High degree of work specialisation created jobs that are simple, routine and
standardised.
b) Rigid departmentalisation
c) Existence of a clear of chain of command ensures a formal hierarchy of authority.
This principle ensures that each subordinate receives orders from one superior.
d) Narrow span of control at increasingly higher levels created tall, impersonal structure.
e) Decision-making power is highly centralise and ensure standard practices because the
lower level activities can’t be control by the top level.
f) Due to high formalisation, top management imposes rules and regulations if distance
increases between the top and bottom level of management.
Organic Structure (Modern Organization Structures)
It is a highly adaptive form that is as loose and flexible structure as it allows changes
operating in volatile and technology driven environments as compared to the mechanistic
structure which is hierarchal, rigid and stable. The key elements of this structure are cross-
functional teams, cross-hierarchical teams, free flow of information, and wide span of
control, decentralization and low formalization.
11.4.3 Emerging Design Options
1. Team Structures: A team structure is one in which work teams are central to the entire
organization and each team do the works towards a common goal. In this type of
structure, no line of managerial authority flows from top to bottom. But, they design and
do work in the way they think is best. The teams are held responsible for all work
performance results in their respective areas. What type of team you have depends on its
purpose, location, and organizational structure. A team is said to be the best if they
possess the traits of psychological safety, dependability, structure and clarity, meaningful
membership and purpose. An effective team would demonstrate:
i. The willingness to teach one another,
ii. Clear communication,
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iii. High morale to maintain inspiration,

iv. Fill in gaps for one another (skill, time, circumstance),
v. Strong as an individual, unstoppable as a group."
Advantages:
● Easy employment of experts
● A team can use the existing management structure
● No need for client training
● Disadvantages:
● Difficult assessment of project progress for the client
● Difficult to resolve political and organizational issues
● The client is the only judge of success

2. Matrix Structure:
The matrix structure utilizes functional as well as divisional chains of command
simultaneously in the organization, commonly for one-of-a-kind projects. A key purpose of
the matrix structure is to enhance horizontal coordination and the sharing of information.
Thus, matrix structure is a type of management system in which workers report to more than
one person which means having two or more supervisors at the same time. Employees in the
matrix have two bosses-their functional department managers and their product managers.
Therefore, has a dual chain of command.
The project teams are created from the functional departments and are placed under the
project manager for the duration of the project. The project manager has authority over the
functional members who are part of his project team in areas related to the project’s goals.
However, any decision about promotions, annual reviews typically remains the functional
manager’s responsibility.
Advantages:
a. It achieves the economies of scale by providing the best resources and an effective
way of ensuring their efficient deployment.
b. Working with the specialists in project enhances employees’ knowledge and skills.
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c. Most suited and skilled employees can be picked by the supervisors for the projects.
d. The employees are sent back to their functional department once the project is
completed.
e. Coordination and control is the key to success of project.
Disadvantages:
(d) Every employee has two bosses which violates the principle of unity of commands.
(e) Profitability and productivity are compromised if employees are indiscipline.
(f) Organizational relationships become very complex.
3. Network Structures:
A networking structure includes the linking of numerous, separate organizations to optimize
their interaction in order to accomplish a common goal. Company with multiple locations
with different functions uses this structure to share resources with another company to
collaborate with each other. Networking requires synergy and a high level of collaboration.
Advantages:
a. The outsourcing nature of network structure provides companies with the advantages
of lower costs, more focus, and increased flexibility.
b. Outsourcing allows saving money as they don’t have to bear the expense of setting up
a department for the same purpose.
c. It gives the flexibility to change their processes and the ability to focus on their core
functions.
Disadvantages:
a. Creates lot of confusion when similar things are done by many offices or freelancers.
4. Spaghetti Structure:
It refers to a flat, flexible or lack of organisational structure characterised by ambiguous job
boundaries and extensive delegation of task and project responsibilities to autonomous
teams.
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Features:
i. Lack of structure of organisation
ii. No employee had a desk or office of their own, or a role except one they chose for
themselves from a list of projects on a bulletin board.
iii. Project based organisation (staff initiate projects and assemble teams)
iv. Multiple roles
v. Transparency (knowledge is shared throughout the organisation)
The key characteristics of a spaghetti organization are choice (staff initiate projects and
assemble teams; individuals invited to join a project can decline); multiple roles (the project
approach creates multi-disciplined individuals); and transparency (knowledge is shared
throughout the organization).
5. Fishnet Structure:
The fishnet organization is a new organizational form. It is a temporary flexible organization.
It is dynamic and adaptable to situations, opportunities and influences from its environment.
Features:
9. Flexible
10. Form and reform varied patterns
11. Middle manager may be at one being at the apex, at another time in the middle.
12. Rearrange it quickly while retaining its inherent strength.
13. Allows any structure to be woven together electrically and altered as needed.
6. Virtual Organisation:
The members of the virtual organisation may never meet each other face to face and
communicate through telecommunications. With the business going global, emergence of
virtual organisations facilitate quick decision making. The organization may form virtual
groups, who work together to achieve a common goal using video conferencing supported
computer technology, to communicate and achieve results.
7. Learning Organisation:
Learning organisation has the ability to continually change structure. Accordingly, based
on the feedback internals processes are also modified to suit the present need of the
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organisation. Success mantra of the organization depends on fast changing the structures
to suit the specific need of the organization as per the changing environment.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

a) Bureaucratic structure is also known as mechanistic organizational structure.
b) Organic organizational structure is also known as modern organizational
structure.
c) The functional structure allows for a high degree of specialization for
employees.
d) Product-based divisional structure is dedicated to a particular product line.
e) Market-based divisional structure is based around markets.
f) Geographical divisional structure is best suited to organizations that need to
be near sources of supply and /or customers.
a) Functional structure is ……………in nature.
b) Product-based divisional structure can help shorten ……….. development
cycles.
c) Geographical divisional structure is based on the differences in …………..,
culture and customs one would find across the world.
d) Process –based structure ……….. intradepartmental and interdepartmental
teamwork.
e) In a team structure, no line of managerial authority …….from top to bottom.
f) Matrix structure has a ………..chain of command.
g) The key characteristics of a …………organization are choice; multiple roles
and transparency.
h) In ………………….. structure, middle manager may be at one being at the
apex, at another time in the middle.
11.4.4 The Strategy-Structure Relationship

Organizational strategy and organizational structure has close relationship between them.
Combination of certain strategy and structure is more suited. For different strategies different
structures are well-matched. Relationship can be observed as follows:
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Strategy Structural Option
Innovation Organic structure: a loose structure, low specialization, low formalization,

decentralization.
Cost Mechanistic structure: extensive work specialization, tight control, high

minimization formalization and high centralization
Imitation Blend of organic and mechanistic structure.
11.5 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND EMPLOYEE

BEHAVIOUR
Organisational structures play a vital role in determining the behaviour of employees

specially when linked to performance and satisfaction as every individual is different with
respect to personality, experience and the work tasks. Today, we are living in the world of
uncertainty, competition, globalisation and dominance of technology. Technology permits
organisation to stay close to the customer and to settle jobs where costs are lower. It helps in
making decisions quickly and staying in decentralised structured organisation where
decisions can also be taken at lower level of management.
(a) Mechanistic Structure vs. Organic Structure and Employees behaviour: People who
want autonomy would want to serve in an organic structured organisation as they are
more productive and satisfied and those who prefer predictability structure and
standardisation would seek out and take employment in mechanist structured
organisation as they are more productive and satisfied because it clearly defines roles
and responsibility.
(b) Centralised vs. Decentralised structure and employees behaviour: In centralisation, vital
decision-making authority is at one place which greatly influences employees’
performance and satisfaction. On the other hand, centralisation leads to frustration and
lower job satisfaction. But when the degree of centralisation is low, higher is the
participative decision-making which leads to positive job satisfaction as decision is
taken by those who actually are responsible for the results.
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(c) Functional organisational structure and employees’ behaviour: It is characterised by a

top-down hierarchy in which practically possible decision-making authority rests at the
top-level management to keep things running according to a predicable order.
Employees are confined to a particular function with proficiency at their job.
(d) Team structure and employees’ behaviour: This structure is very popular in terms of
their effectiveness as authority is decentralised and distributed among employees and
employees get the opportunity to take initiative and use creativity and enthusiasm
resulting in improved job satisfaction level as teams generate positive synergy. Due to
standardised work, it may affect the moral of the employees.
(e) Matrix structure and employees’ behaviour: It is combination of both functional and
divisional structures in which workers reports to more than one person which means
avoiding the principle of unity of command resulting conflict between product and
functional interests.
11.5.1 Consequences of Structural Deficiencies
Structural deficiencies can be miserable for any organization. It can hinder the growth and
can become most prominent deficiency to obstruct the functioning of the organization. It may
waste the resources, efforts and can lead to inefficient use of managerial abilities.
Urwick has very well said “Lack of design is illogical, cruel, wasteful and inefficient”.
According to Child, the consequences of structural deficiencies are:
1. Low motivation and morale
2. Late and inappropriate decisions
3. Conflict and lack of co-ordination
4. Conflict and lack of co-ordination
5. Rising costs
11.5.2 Global implications:
In fact, the organisational structure gets affected due to the influence of the national culture.
a) Culture and Organisational structure:
Culture and organizational structure are interdependent to the success of a business.
Organizational structure defines the rules and policies which ultimately creates the
work/organizational culture. The organizational structure and culture has a vast impact
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on the performance level of the employees. So, the structure and culture must be open,
innovative and creative in which the employees can easily adjust and gain satisfaction
from the work environment. If the structure and culture is rigid or centralized, the
performance will be average and normal because the rigid structures do not allow
freedom. On the other hand, the decentralized structure allows the employees to
participate in the business and decision-making process which motivates them to perform
better and stay loyal to the organization.
b) Culture and Employees Structure Preference:
The national culture greatly influences the preference for structure. Organizations that
operate with people of diverse culture, find employees much more accepting of
mechanistic structures than where employees come from low power distance countries.
So, organizations need to consider cultural differences along with individual differences.
c) Culture and Boundaryless Organization:
In Boundaryless organisation there is very little face to face communication between
employees. Employees mainly communicate using technology, such as text, email, social
media, and various other virtual methods of communication. The key features of this
organization are participative decision-making, cross-hierarchical teams and 360 degree
performance appraisals with minimal practice of ranks and status.
Boundaryless organizations play a significant role in eliminating cultural barriers, as
people from different cultures and backgrounds can work at the same organization under
a harmonious work environment.
Employees do not have to come to the office all the time, there are usually flexible
working schedules which allow employees to work at the time that is most convenient for
them, especially when they’re working from a different country in an entirely different
time zone. This makes it easier for the employees to achieve work-life balance. It also
develops a very strong work ethic in them.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

a) Organisational structure play a .............in determining the behaviour of
employees.
b) People who want autonomy prefer an....................
c) People who preferring predictable and standardisation would take
employment in ............
d) When decision-making authority is at one place, it ..............influences
employees’ performance and satisfaction.
e) In team structure, ...............are more initiative, creativity and enthusiasm
which display a high level of job satisfaction.
a) Culture and organizational structure are interdependent to the success of
a business.
b) If the structure and culture is rigid or centralized, the performance of the
employees will be average and normal.
c) Decentralize structure motivates the employees to perform better and
stay loyal to the organization.
d) Organizations that operate with people of diverse culture, find employees
much more accepting of mechanistic structures.
e) Status and rank are minimized in boundary less organization.
f) Boundary less organisation develops a very strong work ethic in them.
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CASE STUDY
Nucor pioneered the mini-mill concept, built new plants from scratch, promoted from
within, and remained a domestic company. Management practices of Nucor have been
successful and effective for more than five decades in spite of Nucor doesn’t appear to
have mastered—how to structure itself.
The organizational structure at Nucor is flat to an extreme. There are three layers of
decentralized management separating the CEO from factory workers. With Nucor’s
structure, headquarters receives weekly performance reports from each operating division
which is then circulated to other divisions. As Nucor continue to grow through, CEO is
finding difficult to maintain this simple structure.
The operating principles of Nucor allow pushing decision-making authority down into the
organization, thereby reducing the need for staff organizations and middle management
levels, with only four management layers, with key decisions for the daily operations made
by the line managers. The management hierarchy is composed of four layers as follows:
In 2006, Nucor added another layer of management creating a new layer of five executive
vice- presidents; Nucor is surprisingly lean and simple.
Nucor employs 22 employees at its corporate headquarters. The main channel is its direct
sales team. The company promotes its offering through its website, social media pages.
Nucor’s customer relationship is primarily of a self-service nature. These indicate that
management still answers their phone calls and e-mails and the company has no corporate
jet.
Toyota Company, even comparatively, looks lean but appear fat as compared to Nucor.
“You are going to get at least 10 layers at Toyota before you get to the president, “says a
former Toyota engineer.
Questions:
1. How does the Nucor case illustrate the limitations of the simple organizational
structure?
2. Do you think other organizations should attempt to replicate Nucor’s structure?
3. Why do you think other organizations have developed much more complex structure
than Nucor?
4. Generally organization structures tend to reflect the view of the CEO. As more “new
blood” comes into Nucor, do you think the structure will begin to look like that of
other organization?
5. What are the pros and cons of Nucor’s structure?
6. What are the most important elements of Nucor’s organizational structure?
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11.6 SUMMARY
Organizational Structure is necessary for running a successful business because it improves

workflow and efficiency, promotes communication, identifies company needs, and aligns
employees with company goals. Organizational structure provides leverage and can help
enhance your operating performance. The organization structure is the system which
describes the organizational hierarchy in terms of different functions, roles, responsibilities,
supervision, etc. It demonstrates different concerns including different roles of the
employees, job descriptions, job functions, decision-making authorities, reporting structure,
allocation of tasks in the department, individuals, project team, branch, etc.
Organizational Design’ encompasses restructuring and restructuring roles, hierarchy level,
terms, and conditions as per business or organizational needs. The six key elements of
organizational structure are job design, departmentalization, and delegation, span of control,
chain of command and centralization. Organizational structure positively affects the
employees’ behaviour as to job satisfaction and productivity. In fact, organizational designs
also have global affect in terms of culture.
11.7 GLOSSARY
Boundaryless organization: is a newly found concept of creating an organization free from

structural and cultural barriers.
Divisional structure: an organisational structure made up of separate, semiautonomous units
or divisions.
Functional Structure: An organisational design that groups together similar or related
occupational specialists.
Mechanistic structure: it is based on the arrangement of activities and rigid and tightly
controlled.
Matrix structure: A structure in which specialists from different functional departments are
assigned to work on projects led by a project manager.
Network structure: linking of numerous, separate organisations to optimise their interaction
in order to accomplish a common, overall goals.
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Organic structure: is a highly adaptive form that is as loose and flexible structure as it
allows changing rapidly operating in volatile and technology driven environments.
Organisational structure: the way in which the inter-related groups of an organisation are
constructed.
Power distance: describes how different countries handle the fact that people are unequal.
Spaghetti Structure: Lack of structure of organisation in which no employee had a desk or
office of their own.
Team structure: in which the entire organisation is made up of work teams.
Q1. All true
Q2. (a) Activities. (b) describe (c) six (d) technology (e)
internal
Q3. All true
Q4. (a) mechanistic (b) products (c) Language (d) Promotes (e) flows
(f) dual (g) spaghetti (h) fishnet
Q5. (a)Vital role (b) Organic (c) Mechanist (d) greatly (e)
structure employees
Q6. All True
1. What do you mean by organizational structure and design?

2. What is purpose of designing organizational structure?
3. What is importance of organizational structure in business?
4. What are the six key elements that define an organizational structure?
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5. What is a matrix organization? What are the main characteristics of a matrix

organization?
6. How does globalization affect organizational structure?
7. XYZ Limited is manufacturing chemicals and textiles. What type of organisational
structure would suit the requirements of such an organization?
8. What is meant by the functional structure of organization?
9. What is the key difference between a tall hierarchy structure and a flat structure?
10. What are the different types of Matrix structures?
11. Draw the organizational structure of your educational institution and list the internal
and external factors that could affect the structure.
12. Assume that your educational institution is in a location that has experienced a
significant growth in families with children who are eligible to attend your institution.
Note the factors that the director may need to consider in order to ensure that they
have the most appropriate structure in place.
13. Explain the relationship between organizational structure and employees’ behaviour.
14. Discuss is the global implication of organizational design?
11.10 REFERENCES
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University of Delhi

Semester - I
Course Credit - 4.5
Editorial Board
Prof. Sameer Anand
Dr. Rishi Rajan Sahay
Dr. Gurjeet Kaur
Content Writers
Prof. Pushpender Kumar, Dr. Mona Verma,
Dr. Abhishek Kumar Singh, Dr. Sandeep Mishra,
Dr. Rituraj Saroha, Dr. Ashishh Garg,
Dr. Satish Kumar, Dr. Dhirendra Singh.
Dr. Anupreet Kaur Mokha Mr. Jigmet Wangdus

ISBN: .............................
1st edition: 2022
Published by:
Printed by:
Data Analysis and Decision Tools
INDEX
LESSONS Page No.

Lesson-1: Introduction to Statistics ..................................................................................... 1
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Introduction to Statistics
1.4 Importance of Statistics for Managers
1.5 Measures of Central Tendency
1.6 Median
1.7 Mode
1.8 Relation Between Mean, Median and Mode
Lesson-2: Theory of Probability ..........................................................................................29
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Probability and Probability Distribution
1.4 Probability Rules
1.5 Joint and Conditional Probability
1.6 Summary
Lesson-3: Probability Distribution ......................................................................................56
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Random Variables
3.4 Discrete probability distribution
3.5 Normal Distribution
3.6 Exponential Distribution
3.7 Lognormal Distribution
3.8 The Weibull Distribution
3.9 Summary
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MBA
Lesson-4: Inference from Samples ......................................................................................92

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Sampling from a Population
4.4 Sampling Distribution of the Mean
4.5 Estimation
4.6 Summary
Lesson-5: Hypothesis Designing and Testing ...................................................................129
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Population and sample
5.4 Hypothesis
5.5 Analysis of Variance
5.6 Error – I and II
5.7 Summary
Lesson-6: Non-Parametric Test .........................................................................................154
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Chi-square test
6.4 Sign test
6.5 Mann-Whitney U test
6.6 Wilcoxon signed-rank test
6.7 Kruskal Wallis test
6.8 Summary
Lesson-7: Correlation, Regression And Its Applications ................................................194
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Concepts of Covariance and Correlation
7.4 Regression Analysis
7.5 Summary
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Lesson-8: Linear and Dual Programming .........................................................................218

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Linear Programming Problem
8.4 Dual Programming Problem
8.6 Summary
Lesson-9: Sensitivity Analysis .............................................................................................240
9.2 Introduction
9.2.1 Changes in Cj’s
9.2.2 Change in b_i^' s
9.2.3 Change in the Coefficients aij’s
9.2.4 Addition of New Activity (Variable)
9.2.5 Addition of New Constraint
9.2.6 Summary
Lesson-10: Applications of LP in Marketing, Finance, Operations Management ........271
10.2 Linear programming
10.3 Application of LP in Marketing
10.4 Application of LP in Finance
10.5 Application of LP in Operations Management
10.6 Summary
Lesson-11: Transportation Problem, Transshipment Problem and Assignment
problems ...................................................................................................................295
11.3 Transportation Problem
11.4 Transhipment Problem
11.5 Assignment Problem
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MBA
Lesson-13: Integer Programming ......................................................................................350

12.2 Introduction
12.3 Mathematical Model of Integer Programming Problem
12.4 Techniques for Solving Integer Programming Problem
12.5 Summary
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LESSON-1
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
Dr. Abhishek Kumar Singh
Assistant Professor
Ramanujan College, University of Delhi
abhishekbhu008@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Introduction to Statistics
1.3.1 Characteristics of Statistics:
1.3.2 Advantages of Statistics
1.3.3 Limitations of Statistics
1.4 Importance of Statistics for Managers
1.4.1 Applications of Statistics for Managers
1.5 Measures of Central Tendency
1.5.1 Mean , Median and Mode
1.5.2 Advantage of Mean
1.5.3 Disadvantage of Mean
1.6 Median
1.6.1 Advantage of Median
1.6.2 Disadvantage of Median
1.7 Mode
1.7.1 Advantage of Mode
1.7.2 Disadvantage of Mode
1.8 Relation Between Mean, Median and Mode
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1.9 Summary
1.10 Glossary
1.12 References

• Explain the purpose of this lesson is to teach students about the various statistical
approaches and how to effectively apply them to statistical problems.
• Understand how to think statistically and will summaries or describe statistics and its
aspects.
• Gain a better understanding of a range of frequently used statistical and graphical
tools for data analysis.
• Describe the significance of statistics for managers and how to apply these techniques
in a range of management-related situations.
• Identify the center of the data set and measures of central tendency (mean, median,
mode)
1.2 INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains the idea of grasping the various statistical methods and using them
effectively to address statistical problems. The various skewness classes and accompanying
coefficient changes will be able to be named. To understand the current trends and place an
emphasis on running ANOVA and other non-parametric tests, it is important to analyse the
data set using statistical measures of both central tendency and dispersion when utilising time
series analysis and trend analysis on your data. Additionally, you need to be aware of how
useful these tests are for addressing any potential issues. You can also learn more about how
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computers are utilised in statistics and learn about the various managerial applications of
statistics that are applied in a variety of industries. Understanding data tabulation and
classification will help you come up with useful solutions to issues. Multi-dimensional
diagrams can be used to illustrate the diagrammatical and graphical representation of data.
Discovering numerous numerical values that illustrate the fundamental properties of a
frequency distribution and how crucial they are for management are among statistics' key
goals.
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
The Latin term "Status" or the Italian word “Statista,” which either mean “Political State” or
“Government,” is the origins of the word statistics. Shakespeare's play Hamlet contains the
word "statist" (1602). Government officials used data in the past. Although statistics were
rarely used, monarchs and kings needed knowledge about their states' territories, agriculture,
commerce, and population in order to evaluate their military might, riches, taxation, and other
governmental functions.
In 1749, Gottfried Ache wall used the term "statistik" at a German university to refer to the
political science of various nations. Elements of Universal Erudition, published by Baron
B.F. Biddeford in 1771, was translated into English by Englishman W. Hooper. In his book,
statistics is defined as the science that tells us what the political structure of all modern
governments on the globe is. Although there is a significant difference between old and new
statistics, historical statistics are still used in the current statistics.
The term "statistics" was first employed by English writers in the 18th century, and since then
it has slowly evolved over the past few centuries. The latter part of the nineteenth century
saw a lot of progress. The techniques for generating decisions based on a small collection of
data were created by William S. Gosset at the start of the 20th century. Many statisticians
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were engaged in the development of novel statistical techniques, ideas, and applications
during the 20th century. The availability of electronics and computers today unquestionably
plays a significant role in the growth of statistics today.
Different authors have defined statistics differently, and each author has given the field new
boundaries that should be covered in its scope. At present, a few definitions of statistics from
various authors before drawing a conclusion regarding the subject's scope.
A.L. Bowley defines, "Statistics may be called the science of counting." In another place he
writes, "Statistics may be called the science of averages." Both these definitions are narrow
and throw light only on one aspect of statistics.
According to King, "The science of statistics is the method of judging collective, natural or
social, phenomena from the results obtained from the analysis or enumeration or collection of
estimates."
Fig:1.1 History of statistics

https://medicalexecutivepost.com/2019/08/24/the-history-of-statistics/
4|Page

1.3.1 Characteristics of Statistics:

• Facts are collected into statistics.
• Numbers are used to express statistics.
• Multiple factors have a significant impact on statistics.
• An acceptable accuracy criterion is used to enumerate or estimate statistics.
• Statistics are gathered with a specific goal in mind.
• Systematic methods are used to collect statistics.
1.3.2 Advantages of Statistics
• A natural event can be more clearly understood and described using statistics.
• Statistics aid in the correct and effective planning of any subject of study's statistical
research.
• Statistics aid in gathering relevant quantitative data.
• Statistics aids in the presentation of complex data in an appropriate tabular,
diagrammatic, and graphic format for a simple and unambiguous understanding of the
data.
• Through quantitative observations, statistics aid in comprehending a phenomenon's
nature and pattern of variability.
• Statistics facilitates the process of deriving reliable inferences about the
characteristics of the population from sample data.
1.3.3 Limitations of Statistics
• On average, statistical rules hold true. Facts are collected into statistics. Thus, a single
observation is not a statistic; rather, statistics only consider groups and aggregates.
• Quantitative data lend themselves to statistical methods the best.
• Data that are diverse cannot be statistically analysed.
• If adequate care is not taken in gathering, evaluating, and interpreting the data,
statistical findings may be deceptive.
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• Only someone with in-depth statistical understanding is capable of handling statistical

data effectively
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS FOR MANAGERS
Modern administration of businesses is more of a science than an art. Business managers

must use scientific approaches to resolve uncertainty and be objective decision-makers due to
the ever-increasing global competitiveness. Forecasting, planning, organizing, and decision-
making are some of a manager's major tasks that aim to improve the future of the company.
Future unpredictability is the only thing that is certain. Although uncertainty cannot be
completely eliminated, it is possible to assess uncertainty using statistics, which allows
managers to make well-informed decisions. This necessitates revealing statistics' managerial
power.
In general, having an understanding of statistics aids a manager in defining the issue,
identifying and assessing potential solutions, estimating errors, monitoring processes,
and implementing the right corrective measures to get the best results.
1.4.1 Applications of statistics for Managers
In business management, descriptive and inferential statistical tools are both crucial. To give
just a few examples of the numerous applications,
• An extensive amount of market dynamics and target consumer data must be gathered
and analysed by a marketing manager. Marketing strategy should ideally be based on
the findings of market research, which includes the use of sampling techniques,
statistical methods for data collection, and evaluation of the impact of various
marketing initiatives.
• To increase output and quality, a production manager should preferably employ
statistical process control methods. Better processes and products are ensured by
understanding and using Control Charts, sampling methods, and probability
distributions. Additionally, this results in lower production costs and increased
profitability.
• The ideal method for training personnel and measuring the results of training would
be of interest to an HR manager. Attrition must be measured in order to identify the
underlying causes.
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• Crunching financial data and applying financial strategies are essential tasks for a
finance manager. Knowing statistics improves a manager's capacity and expertise as a
researcher, giving them an advantage.
Fig :1.2 Applications of statistics for Managers

arcumllp.com
In order to succeed, one must cultivate "Creative and Statistical thinking." With the
help of quantitative analysis, events and actions can be supported objectively and
factually. Data and analysis work together to quantify the size of issues and potential
fixes in ways that other types of information rarely can. Simple tools like tables, graphs,
and measurements of central tendency, dispersion, and association for data analysis have
found their way into corporate boardrooms, as have more complicated methods like
multivariate techniques, big data analysis, structural equation modelling, and statistical
approaches. This demonstrates how crucial statistics are to managerial choices.
1.5 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
When we need to evaluate a dataset that contains a large number of records (such as airline
passengers, the weight and GPA of every student at an institution, and share prices). We start
by searching for a summary of the dataset, such as a list of all the features' qualities
(variables). The dataset's many records have a tendency to cluster around a single value.
These numbers are known as Measure of Central Tendency since they pinpoint where the
dataset's Central Value is located.
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A summary statistic known as a measure of central tendency makes an effort to summarise an

entire collection of data using a single number that corresponds to the middle or centre of its
distribution.
The following are the top three central tendency measures:
• Mean (Arithmetic Mean)
• Median
• Mode
A series' centrality can be determined by using central tendency measures like Mean, Median,
and Mode. They show the overall size of the data but don't fully disclose all the quirks and
traits of the series. In other words, they don't show how widely distributed or how variable
the distribution's individual elements are. Other measurements, also referred to as "Measures
of Dispersion" or "Measures of Variation," can explain this.
The study of statistics does not seem to be particularly interested in constants. A person who
is interested in research may not find the size of the planet to be particularly significant, but
the space occupied by various types of vegetation, woods, and buildings—both residential
and commercial—is significant since these areas are always shifting. The study of evolving
phenomena is a popular field of research.
Fig 1.3: Measures of Central Tendency
• The primary goal of computing averages and assessing central tendencies is to

provide a single number that can be used to symbolize a whole series of magnitudes
for the same variable.
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• The second point is that an average depicts the data from the empire and makes it
easier to compare data within a group or across groups. As a result, it is possible
to compare a group's performance to the average performance of other groups.
• The third point is that computing an average can help with other statistical measures
like dispersion, skewness, kurtosis, etc.
1.5.1 Mean , Median and Mode
Different methods of measuring “Central Tendency” provide us with different kinds of

averages.
The following are the main types of averages that are commonly used:
1. Mean
2. Median
3. Mode
Arithmetic Mean
The most widely used average or gauge of central tendency, solely applicable to quantitative
data, is the arithmetic mean, usually known as the "mean." "Arithmetic mean is a quotient of
sum of the supplied values and number of the given values," is how the term is defined.
Both ungrouped data (raw data: data that have not undergone any statistical processing) and
grouped data can have their arithmetic means calculated (data arranged in tabular form
containing different groups).
Mean is the average value.
Mean = (150+160+175+190+200)/5=875/5=175
Mean Height = 175 cm
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Fig:1.4 : Arithmetic Mean
The sum of the observations divided by the total number of observations is the
arithmetic mean.
firmly established
Considering all the evidence
If there are n observations, with x1, x2, x3,..., xn, then
Mean (x̄) = (X1 + X2 + X3+ X4…….+ Xn)
or
x̄ =
Illustration 1.1 For the frequency distribution of seed yield of plot given in table,
calculate the mean yield per plot.
Yields per plot 64.5-84.5 84.5-104.5 104.5-124.5 124.5-144.5

in (ing)
No of Plots 3 5 7 20
Solution:
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Yield (in g) No of Plots (f) Mid X d = x-A/c Fd
64.5-84.5 3 74.5 -1 -3
84.5-104.5 5 94.5 0 0
104.5-124.5 7 114.5 1 7
124.5-144.5 20 134.5 2 40
Total 35 44
A= 94.5
Types of Data
Data can be present in raw form or tabular form. Let's find the mean in both cases.
Raw Data
Let x1, x2, x3 , . . . , xn be n observations.
We can find the arithmetic mean using the mean formula.
Mean, x̄ = (x1 + x2 + ... + xn)/n
Illustration 1.2: If the heights of 5 people are 142 cm, 150 cm, 149 cm, 156 cm, and 153 cm.
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Find the mean height.

Mean height, x̄ = (142 + 150 + 149 + 156 + 153)/5
= 750/5
= 150
Mean, x̄ = 150 cm
Thus, the mean height is 150 cm.
Frequency Distribution (Tabular) Form
When the data is present in tabular form, we use the following formula:
Mean, x̄ = (x1f1 + x2f2 + ... + xnfn)/(f1 + f2 + ... + fn)
Consider the following example.
Illustration 1.3: Find the mean of the following distribution:
X 4 6 9 10 15
F 5 10 10 7 8
Solution:
Calculation table for arithmetic mean:
xi fi xifi
4 5 20
6 10 60
9 10 90
10 7 70
15 8 120
∑ fi = 40 ∑ xi fi = 360
xi fi xifi
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4 5 20
6 10 60
9 10 90
10 7 70
15 8 120
∑ fi = 40 ∑ xi fi = 360
Mean, x̄ = (∑xi fi)/(∑fi)

= 360/40
=9
Thus, Mean = 9
1.5.2 Advantage of Mean
• It is firmly established
• It is straightforward to compute and understand.
• It is founded on every observation.
• It is established for practically all types of data.
• It is limited and not endless.
• It is easily applied to algebraic treatment, and sample fluctuations have the least
impact on it.
1.5.3 Disadvantage of Mean
• Extreme values significantly alter the arithmetic mean.
• It is impossible to reliably compute if any item is missing.
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• the mean occasionally does not agree with any of the observed values.
• It is impossible to reliably compute if any item is missing, and the mean occasionally
does not agree with any of the observed values.
1.6 MEDIAN
The variable's median value is the point at which the group is divided into two equal sections.
The values larger than and less than the median is split into two parts, respectively. The value
of a variable that surpasses and is exceeded by the same number of observations is the
median of a distribution. It is the value at which there are exactly as many observations above
it as there are below it. So, although the median is a positional average, meaning it depends
on the location a value occupies in the frequency distribution, the arithmetic mean is based on
all elements of the distribution. In the case of an individual observation, the value of the
series' middle item is known as the median whether the items are organized in ascending or
descending order of magnitude.
Median is a symbol for the size of the n-th item.
If the number of elements is even, the series' middle value is not exactly known. The median
is arbitrary chosen in this case to be midway between the two centre elements.
Raw data, or ungrouped data
Sort the values provided in ascending order. The median is the middle value when the
number of values is odd. The median is the mean of the middle two values when the number
of values is even.
Median = size of { }th item. (when n is odd)
Median = [size of th item + size of { }th item]/2 (when n is even)
Illustration 1.4 If the weights of sorghum ear heads are 45, 60, 48,100,65 gms, calculate the
median
Solution: Here n = 5 First arrange it in ascending order 45, 48, 60, 65, 100,
Median =
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Illustration 1.5 If the morgum ear- heads are 5,48, 60, 65, 65, 100 gms, calculate the median.
Solution: Here n = 6
Grouped data
A clustered distribution has values and frequencies attached to them. A discrete frequency
distribution or a continuous frequency distribution might be used for grouping. Regardless of
the distribution style, cumulative frequencies must be calculated to get the overall number of
items.
Cumulative frequency (cf)
Cumulative frequency of each class is the sum of the frequency of the class and the
frequencies of the pervious classes, i.e., adding the frequencies successively, so that the last
cumulative frequency gives the total number of items.
Discrete Series
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.
Step2: Find (n/2+1)
Step3: See in the cumulative frequencies the value just greater than (n/2+1)
Step4: Then the corresponding value of x is median.
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Illustrations 1.6: The following data pertaining to the number of insects per plant. Find
median number of insects per plant. Number of insects per plant (x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
No. of plants(f) 1 3 5 6 10 13 9 5 3 2 2 1 Solution Form the cumulative frequency table.
Solution Form the cumulative frequency table
X f Cf
1 1 1
2 3 4
3 5 9
4 6 15
5 10 25
6 13 38
7 9 47
8 5 52
9 3 55
10 2 57
11 2 59
12 1 60
60
Median = size of (n+1/2)th item

Here the number of observations is even. Therefore median = average of (n/2)th item and
(n/2+1)th item. = (30th item +31st item) / 2 = (6+6)/2 = 6
Hence the median size is 6 insects per plant.
Continuous Series
For the purpose of calculating the median in a continuous series,
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The steps listed below are used.

1. Arrange the data set in either descending or ascending order.
2. The confidence interval must be exclusive (if not then convert into exclusive)
3. Calculate the cumulative frequencies
4. Use Median = size of (N)/2 th item to ascertain median class
5. Apply formula of interpolation to ascertain the value of median
Median =
where l is the lower limit of the median class, m is the cumulative frequency before the
median class, c is the class width, and f is the frequency in the median class.
n = Total frequency
Illustration 1.7 For the frequency distribution of weights of sorghum ear-heads given in table
below. Calculate the median.
Weights of ear No of ear heads (f) Less than class Cumulative

heads (in g) frequency (m)
60-80 22 80 22
80-100 38 100 60
100-120 45 120 105
120-140 35 140 140
140-160 24 160 164
Total 164
Solution =
Median =
(n/2) =164/2 =82
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It ranges from 60 to 105. The lower class, which corresponds to 60, is 100, and the lower
class, which corresponds to 105, is 120. The median class is therefore 100–120. Its minimum
value is 100.
In this instance, 100, n=164, f=45, c=20, m=60, and n=Total frequency.
Median = 100 + 82-60/45 *20 = 109.78gms
1.6.1 Advantage of Median
1. It is quite straightforward to comprehend and compute. Sometimes it can be acquired
by simple inspection.
2. Because the median is in the middle of the range, extreme values have no impact on
it.
3. It is a unique average that is used to rank qualitative things like intelligence or beauty
that cannot be quantified. This enables us to identify the individual whose intelligence
or beauty is average.
4. By drawing provides, it is possible to locate it graphically in a grouped frequency
distribution.
5. It is especially helpful in open-ended distributions since the median considers item
location rather than item value.
1.6.2 Disadvantage of Median
(1) The item values in a simple series must be ordered. The technique gets tiresome if there
are many items in the sequence.
(2) Because it does not depend on every item in the series, it is a less representative
average.
(3) It cannot be subjected to additional algebraic analysis. For instance, if the medians of
various groups are provided, we cannot find the combined median of two or more
groups.
(4) Because it only considers one item, the centre item, it is more impacted by sample
changes than the mean.
(5) It is not a strict definition. The median cannot be calculated in simple series with even
numbers of entries precisely located additionally, the continuous series interpolation
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formula is based on the erroneous assumption that the frequency of the median class is
distributed evenly across the size of the median group's class interval.
1.7 MODE
The value in a distribution that occurs the most frequently is referred to as the mode. The
most goods are found in and around it, and it is an actual value. It displays the frequency's
primary focus at a particular value. Therefore, it is chosen when the goal is to identify the
location of greatest concentration. Consequently, it is a positional measure.
Finding the average height of a crop variety, the largest irrigation source in a region, and the
largest variety of paddy that is susceptible to disease are just a few examples of its usefulness
in agriculture. In the case of qualitative data, the mode is a crucial measurement.
Illustration 1.8. Find the mode for the following frequency table:
x f
1 5
20 9
25 8
30 1
40 10
50 7
By observing the given data set, the number 40 occurs more often. That is 10 times.
Hence the mode is 40.
Mean = 29.125
Mode = 25 and
Mode = 40.
Illustration 1.9: Find the mode of the given data:

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Marks Obtained 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100
Number of students 5 10 12 6 3
Solution:
The highest frequency = 12, so the modal class is 40-60.
l = lower limit of modal class = 40
fm = frequency of modal class = 12
f1 = frequency of class preceding modal class = 10
f2 = frequency of class succeeding modal class = 6
h = class width = 20
Using the mode formula,
Mode = l+[fm−f12fm−f1−f2] ×hl+[fm−f12fm−f1−f2] ×h
= 40 + [12−102×12−10−6] ×20[12−102×12−10−6] ×20
= 40 + (2/8) × 20
= 45
∴ Mode = 45
Determining the mode Individual or Raw Data

Mode is frequently determined by simple visual inspection for ungrouped data or a collection
of individual observations.
Graphic Location of Mode
Since mode is a positional average, the following procedure can be used to locate it
graphically:
1. A frequency distribution histogram is created.
2. The model class is represented by the highest rectangle in the histogram.
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3. The top left and top right corners of the topmost rectangle are connected to the top left
and top right corners of the preceding and following rectangles, respectively.
4. A perpendicular is drawn on the X-axis from the intersection of the two lines, and that
point is checked on the X-axis. This will be the mode's necessary value.
1.7.1 Advantage of Mode
• It is straightforward to compute and understand.
• It is unaffected by values that are incredibly high or low.
• It can be found simply by looking at the discrete frequency distribution and ungrouped
data.
• It is applicable to qualitative data.
• An open-end frequency table can be used to calculate it.
• It is shown graphically.
1.7.2 Disadvantage of Mode
• It lacks a clear definition.
• It isn't founded on all values.
• It is stable for large numbers, thus if the data only contains a few values, it won't be
properly defined.
• It cannot be subjected to more mathematical processing.
• The data can occasionally have one mode, multiple modes, or no modes at all.
1.8 RELATION BETWEEN MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE
The relationships between the mean, median, and mode, the three measures of centre values,
are as follows (called an empirical relationship).
3Median = 2Mean + Mode
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For instance, if we are requested to find the mean, median, and mode of continuously
grouped data, we can do so by first finding the mean and median using the formulas from the
preceding sections, and then the mode by utilizing the empirical relation.
As an illustration, we have data with a median of 61.6 and a mode of 65.
Using the aforementioned mean, median, and mode relation, we can then calculate the mean.
Median = 2Mean + Mode
2Mean = 3 × 61.6 - 65 ∴
Mean = 59.9 when divided by 2Mean = 119.8.

Mean = 59.9/2
Mean = 119.8
1.9 SUMMARY
Data Facts or figures, numerical or otherwise, collected for a definite purpose are called data.
The number of times a particular instance occurs is called the frequency in statistics. Raw
data needs to be sorted in order to carry out operations. -Sorting ascending order or
descending order. The size of the class into which a particular data set is divided. Divisions
on a histogram or bar graph. Upper class limit minus lower class limit equals class width.
When the class intervals vary in size, A frequency table or distribution shows the occurrence
of a particular variable in a tabular form. The average is the sum of the values of all the
observations divided by the total number of observations. If n (number of observations) is
odd, the median is the mean or average of the (n/2)th and [(n+1)/2]th observations. The class
interval with the highest frequency is the modal class, where the term modal is used to refer
to a period of time during which observation occurs at least once in a billionth of a millionth
of a trillionth of Hertzmann's time.
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1.10 GLOSSARY
Term Full Form/Formulae/Meaning

Descriptive Statistics Through graphs or tables, or numerical
calculations, descriptive statistics uses the
data to provide descriptions of the population.
Inferential Statistics Based on the data sample taken from the
population, inferential statistics makes the
predictions and inferences
Statista which both mean "Political State" or
"Government
Average a number that describes the central tendency

of the data;
Data facts and statistics collected together for
reference or analysis.
Central tendency the tendency for the values of a random
variable to cluster round its mean, mode, or
median
Mode a way or manner in which something occurs
or is experienced, expressed, or done
Survey look closely at or examine (someone or
something).
Observation the action or process of closely observing or
monitoring something or someone.
Raw Data is the collection of information as gathered by
the source before it has been further
processed, cleaned or analyzed.
Grouped Data Grouped data means the data (or information)
given in the form of class intervals such as 0-
20, 20-40 and so on.
Sampling the action or process of taking samples of
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something for analysis.

Ungrouped Data Ungrouped data is the data you first gather
from an experiment or study
(I) MCQ/ Objective

1. The mean of two samples of the sizes 250 and 320 were found to be 20,12
respectively. Their standard deviations were 2 & 5, respectively. Find the variance of
combined sample of size 650.
(a) 10.23
(b) 32.5
(c) 65
(d) 26.17
2. Which of the following is a branch of statistics?
a) Descriptive statistics
b) Inferential statistics
c) Industry statistics
d) Both A and B
3. To which of the following options do individual respondents, focus groups, and
panels of respondents belong?
(a) Primary data sources
(b) Secondary data sources
(c) Itemized data sources
(d) Pointed data sources
4. The positive square root of the mean of the squares of the deviations of observations
from their mean is called:
(a) Variance
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(b) Range
(c) Standard deviation
(d) Coefficient of variation
5. The sum of absolute deviations is minimum if these deviations are taken from the:
a) Mean
b) Mode
c) Median
d)Upper quartile
Answers: 1. 26.17, 2. Both A and B, 3. Primary data sources,

4.Standard deviation, 5. Median
(I) Short Answer Questions:
1. How is an insight's statistical significance determined?
2. What do qualitative and quantitative data mean?
3. How significant are the statistical concepts of mean, median, and mode?
4. How do managers benefit from statistics?
5. Which is more crucial, the mean, the median, or the mode?
6. Do managers use data while making decisions?
7. What kinds of statistics are there?
8. What makes the median crucial to business?
9. What are statistics' primary purposes?
10. What are the formulae for mean, median and mode?
(II) Long Answer Questions:

1. In what situations in actual life are statistics useful?
2. Why are statistics crucial for making decisions?
3. Describe statistical thinking and explain why it is a crucial managerial ability.
4. What exactly are mean, median, and mode? using instances
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5. A statistical survey is a methodical procedure for gathering and examining numerical

data. Describe the phases of a statistical study. Describe the many techniques used to
gather data for a statistical survey.
6. A normal distribution for the weekly earnings of 1000 workers has a mean of Rs. 70
and a standard deviation of Rs. 5. Calculate the approximate number of employees
whose weekly pay will be:
a. around 70 to 72
b. Between 69 and 72
c. Less than 75 More
d. Less than 63
7. a). Determine the I median value and (ii) arithmetic mean of the following set of
values: 40, 32, 24, 36, 42, 18, 10. 8.
b) What is the median of the next set of statistics?
32, 6, 21, 10, 8, 11, 12, 36, 17, 16, 15, 18, 40, 24, 21, 23, 24, 24, 29, 16, 32, 31, 10,
30, 35, 32, 18, 39, 12, 20
8. Consider the following frequency distribution. Calculate the mean weight of students.
Weight 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 66- 71-
(in kg) 70 75
9 6 15 3 1 2 2 1 1
9. Calculate the median marks of students from the following distribution.
Marks 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
Number 7 10 10 20 20 15 8
of
Students
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10. The given distribution shows the number of runs scored by some top batsmen of the
world in one-day international cricket matches.
Run Scored Number of Batsman
3000-4000 4
4000-5000 18
5000-6000 9
6000-7000 7
7000-8000 6
8000-9000 3
9000-10000 1
10000-11000 1
Find the mode of the above distribution.
1.12 REFERENCES
• Box, G. E. P. and Cox, D. R. (1964), An Analysis of Transformations, Journal of the

Royal Statistical Society, pp. 211-243, discussion pp. 244-252.
• Brown, M. B. and Forsythe, A. B. (1974), Journal of the American Statistical

Association, 69, pp. 364-367.
• Bury, Karl (1999). Statistical Distributions in Engineering, Cambridge University

Press.
• Chakravarti, Laha, and Roy, (1967). Handbook of Methods of Applied Statistics,

Volume I, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 392-394.
• Devaney, Judy (1997), Equation Discovery Through Global Self-Referenced

Geometric Intervals and Machine Learning, Ph.d thesis, George Mason University,
Fairfax, VA.
• Draper and Smith, (1981). Applied Regression Analysis, 2nd ed., John Wiley and
Sons.
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1. Aczel, Amir D., Sounderpandian, J.,& Saravanan P. (2012). Complete Business Statistics
(latest ed.). India: McGraw Hill Education India Private Limited.
2. Albright, S.C.,& Winston, W.L. (2015).Business Analytics: Data Analysis and Decision Making
(Latest ed.). Cengage Publications.
3. Anderson, D., Sweeney, D., Williams, T., Camm, J., & Cochran, J. (2014). Statistics for
Business &Economics (Latest ed.). India: Cengage Learning.
4. Anderson, D., Sweeney, D., Williams, T., Martin, R.K. (2012). An Introduction to Management
Science: Quantitative Approaches to Decision Making (13th ed.). India: Cengage Learning.
5. Balakrishnan, N., Render, B., Stair, R. M., & Munson, C. (2017). Managerial decision
modeling. Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education.
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LESSON-2
PROBABILITY and PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Dr. Sandeep Mishra
Assistant Professor
Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women
University of Delhi
sandeepstat24@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Probability and Probability Distribution
1.3.1 Terminologies
1.3.2 The Classical Definition of Probability
1.3.3 Statistical or Empirical Definition of Probability
1.3.4 Axiomatic Definition of Probability
1.3.5 Some Important Results on Probability
1.4 Probability Rules
1.5 Joint and Conditional Probability
1.5.1 Theorem of Multiplication
1.5.2 Independent Events and Baye’s Theorem
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
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1.10 References
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the difference between deterministic and random experiments.
• Define sample space, events and use of different algebraic operations for events.
• Define probability using classical, empirical and axiomatic approach.
• Understand the concept of joint and conditional probability and able to solve problem
based on it.
• Prove and apply Baye’s theorem
2.2 INTRODUCTION
The history of probability theory can be traced back to chance games and gambling. It owes a
lot to the inquisitiveness of gamblers who constantly barraged their mathematical buddies
with inquiries. Unfortunately, this link to gambling has caused probability theory's
development as a branch of mathematics to be extraordinarily sluggish and erratic. The first
attempt to give quantitative measure of probability was made by, an Italian mathematician
Galileo (1564-1642). This course is design to provide you with a basic, intuitive, and
practical introduction into Probability Theory. In this unit topic covered are Probability and
Probability distribution, different definition of probability, joint and conditional probability,
Baye’s theorem.
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HISTORY
The earliest game of chance that we can still play today originated in Mesopotamia.
Early in the 20th century, archaeologists working at Ur discovered a board game
that had been interred alongside its owner. The exquisitely made board game dates
back nearly 4,500 years. Ancient allusions to the game have also been discovered,
therefore we are certain that it is a board game and that we even know the rules.
The Game of 20 Squares is the name of this game. Each player relies on a
combination of luck and a little ingenuity to win this game of two players. Rolling
dice to determine how many squares each player can move his or her piece involves
the element of luck.
We value a game's development that is random since each player's ability to jump a
certain number of spaces is determined by the outcome of a dice roll. The Game of
20 Squares has been played for thousands of years throughout much of the world,
including Egypt, India, and Mesopotamia. Despite being one of the most popular
board games ever, it did not lead to the development of a probability theory. There
is no evidence that anyone sought to come up with a winning plan of action based
The Game of 20 Squares was played for 3,000 years—until the first millennium of the common era. This
particular board dates from about 2500 B.C.E. (© Copyright The British Museum)
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2.3 PROBABILITY AND PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
The use of statistical methodology is indispensable in modern era. It has a wide application in
every discipline, be it physical sciences, engineering and technology, economics, or social
sciences. For their advance research they are applying statistical tools. It is essential for the
students to get acquainted with the subject of probability and statistics at an early stage. The
probability can be defined as the “Mathematics of Chance”. We frequently encounter the
words probability or chance in our daily lives. We usually say that it is very probable that it
will rain today or it is expected that today is a sunny day. It is obvious that these expectations
are comes from our personal view.
2.3.1 Terminologies
We will define the various terms used in the definition of probability.
(i) Deterministic and Random Experiments:
Every experiment consists of three major steps:
• Input: It relates to the equipment, material, input data etc. which involves in any
experiment.
• Action: Any experiment is performed using the input.
• Output: The results or outcome of the action, called the output of the experiment.
Definition: A deterministic experiments are those experiments in which fixed input and
action yields fixed output. We can predict the output of the experiment. For example;
distance covered by a car travelling at a constant speed, ohm’s law, determining gravitational
constant at a place, etc.
In all the above-mentioned examples for a fixed input and action, we get a fixed output.
Definition: A random or non-deterministic experiments are those experiments in which
fixed input and action does not yield the fixed output. For example; tossing a coin or
throwing a dice, etc. In these examples we do not predict the exact outcome beforehand.
In probability theory we are mainly concerned with the random experiments.
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(ii) Sample Space:

It is the set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment. Usually it is denoted by the
and a point belonging to by . Some examples of sample space are:
• In tossing a coin the sample space is
• In throwing a dice the sample space is
• In a coin tossing experiment if we toss a coin three times then the sample space is
.
• In observing the queue size at a college fee counter, the sample space is given by
.
• The sample space for the time taken (in minutes) to download a website is observed
as .
(iii) Events: It is the set of possible outcomes of a random experiment or An event A is a set
of specific outcomes we are interested in. It is obvious that an event is a subset of sample
space . If we denote an event associated with a random experiment by A and is the
corresponding sample space then . For example:
• Toss a coin and we define event A that outcome is “H” then
• Throw a dice. Let A be the event that outcome is an odd number

A={1,3,5}
• Toss a coin until we obtain an "H". A be the event that number of tosses is more than
3
A={TTTH, TTTTH…}
• No customer in the queue at the college fee counter
A={0}
Firstly, we have to define about random experiment and sample space then only we
can talk about event. Otherwise, it makes no sense. In throwing a dice (random experiment),
(sample space), and define A be the event that outcome is an odd number
then, A={1,3,5}, and if outcome is 3, then A occurs whereas if outcome is 4 then A does not
occur.
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An event is said to be a sure event if it is occurred in a single trial. In other word

sample space is sure to occur. Further, the null or impossible event is denoted by .
(iv) Algebra of Events:
Since an event is a subset of the sample space, it is also a set and we can perform different
algebraic operations like union, intersection, complement etc. on events.
Let A and B be two events on the sample space . Then we have different algebraic
operations are as follows:
• Union: is an event which occurs when either A or B (or both) occur.
• Intersection: is an event which occurs when both A and B occur.
• Complement: An event which occurs whenever A does not occur is called the
complement of event A and is denoted by .
• Difference: be an event which occurs when A occurs and B does not
occur. It is obvious that .
(v) Exhaustive events: The total number of possible outcomes in a random experiment is
called exhaustive events. In tossing a coin experiment, there are two exhaustive cases, viz.,
head and tail and in throwing a dice experiment, there are six exhaustive cases, viz., 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6.
(vi) Mutually exclusive events: Two events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive if
i.e. If the occurrence of one does not precludes the occurrence of other. In throwing
a dice experiment “2 occurs” and “5 occurs” are mutually exclusive events.
(vii) Equally likely events: Two events A and B are said to be equally likely if P(A)=P(B). In
a pack of well-shuffled 52 cards, all the cards are equally likely to appear at the time of
experiment of drawing a card at random.
2.3.2 The Classical Definition of probability
Let us assume that, N is the total number of elementary events in the sample space and is
finite. We also assume that all the elementary events are equally likely to occur. Under this
assumption the classical (or mathematical or a priori) definition of probability is:
Definition: If a random experiment can result in N mutually exclusive, exhaustive and
equally likely outcomes, out of which n are favourable to occurrence of an event A, then the
probability ‘p’ of occurrence of A is given by:
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Illustration 2.1: An unbiased (all faces of the dice are equally likely) dice is thrown. Let A
be the event that we obtain an odd number. Then
so that, .
Illustration 2.2: Two unbiased coins are tossed. Let us define an event A that getting at least
one head. Then
so that, .
Illustration 3: Among the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 at first one is chosen and then a second selection
is made among the remaining four digits. If all twenty possible outcomes have equal
probabilities, then the probability of selecting an even digit both times is
There are two cases in which both the digits drawn are even, viz., .
the probability that both the digits drawn are even = .
Remark: The classical definition of probability, however suffers from some serious drawbacks.
i. When outcomes of the random experiments are not equally likely then this definition fails.
ii. It is a circular definition means the term equally likely is defined in terms of probability and
the term equally likely is used in defining probability.
iii. When the total number of elementary events in the sample space is infinite.
ACTIVITY
Take a coin and spin it 5000 times. Note down the value, n, the number of times
spins made and m, the number of heads in the spins. Now find out the proportion
between these two values and see their fluctuations and draw it on a graph.
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2.3.3 Empirical or Statistical Definition of Probability

Relative Frequency Ratio: Let an event A occurs n times in m repetitions of a random
experiment. Relative frequency ratio of event A is defined as
.
Obviously,
i.
ii. , if, A occurs every time in m repetitions of the experiments;
iii. , if, A never occurs in m repetitions;
iv. For two mutually exclusive events A and B
.
As , converges to P(A) in certain probabilistic sense. This property gives the
empirical or statistical definition of probability.
The only assumption for this definition is that the experiments must be conducted under
identical conditions and the number of trials must be large.
Remark: The disadvantage of this definition is that if an experiment is repeated a large number of
times, the experimental conditions may not remain identical and homogeneous.
2.3.4 Axiomatic Definition of Probability
Axiomatic definition of probability was formulated by Russian Mathematician A.N.
Kolmogorov. There are three simple axioms on which the whole field of probability theory
for finite sample space is based, is given below:
Definition: Probability Function, P(A) is the probability function defined on a B
of events if the following axioms hold.
1. Axiom of non-negativity: .
2. Axiom of certainty: .
3. Axiom of additivity: For pair wise mutually exclusive events
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Remark:
i. :A B is a non-empty class of sets that is closed under the formation of

‘countable unions and complementation’s, i.e.,
(i) . (ii)
ii. The above axiomatic definition of probability has an obvious advantage, that is, it does not
concern with assigning numerical values to the probabilities of events.
2.3.5 Some Important Results on Probability

Some important results as below:
(i)
Proof: We have
Thus A and are mutually exclusive. Further
Hence,
, (by axiom 2 and 3)
or,
(ii)
Proof: We observe that
So that are mutually exclusive. Further
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Hence
or, (using axiom 3)
(iii)Theorem of Addition
Statement: If A and B are any two events (subsets of sample space ) and are not disjoint,
then
.
Proof: We can write
Again , so that A and are mutually exclusive.
Hence
[By Axiom 3]
Further, using result (ii), we have
Hence we obtain
.
Illustration 2.3. A fair coin is flipped successively at random until heads is observed on two
successive flips. Write down the sample space .
Solution. Let x denote the number of flips of the coin that are required, then
.
Illustration 2.4 If a pair of dice is thrown, what is the event of

(i) getting a sum less than 6
(ii) getting a sum greater than 6
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(iii)getting a number multiple of 2 on the first die

(iv) getting a number multiple of 3 on the first die and a multiple of 2 on the second die
(v) getting a doublet
(vi) getting sum as 10
Solution. If a die is thrown twice or a pair of dice is thrown simultaneously, then sample
space is
= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 1),
(3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3),
(5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.
Hence, = 36.
(i) Let be the event of getting a sum less than 6.
= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1)}.
(ii) Let be the event of getting a sum greater than 6.
= {(1, 6), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 2),
(5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.
(iii) Let be the event of getting a number multiple of 2 on the first die.
= {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5),
(4, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.
(iv) Let be the event of getting a number multiple of 3 on the first die and a
multiple of 2 on the second die.
= {(3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 6), (6, 2), (6, 4), (6, 6)}.
(v) Let be the event of getting a doublet
= {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}.
(vi) Let be the event of getting a sum as 10
= {(4, 6), (5, 5), (6, 4)}.
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Illustration 2.5. A letter of the English alphabet is chosen at random, write the event that the
letter so chosen
(i) is a vowel
(ii) precedes S (in alphabetical order)
(iii)follows K and precedes T and is a vowel
Solution. A letter of the English alphabet is chosen then the sample space is is
= {A, B, C, …, X, Y, Z},
(i) Let be the event that letter chosen at random be a vowel
= {A, E, I, O, U}
(ii) Let be the event that letter chosen at random be precedes ‘s’
= {A, B, C, D, …, P, Q, R}
(iii) Let be the event that letter chosen follows K and precedes T and is a vowel
= {O}
Illustration 2.6 A card is selected at random from a pack of 52 cards. Let A = ‘the card is a
club’ and B = ‘the card is a queen’. Find P(A), P(B).
Solution. p= .
For event A, n = 13 (there are 13 club in a pack of card), and for event B, n = 4 (there are 4
queens in a pack of card). Therefore
Illustration 2.6 An urn contains 6 white, 4 red and 9 green balls. If 1 ball is drawn at
random, find the probability that:
(i) it is white
(ii) it is not green
(iii)it green or red
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Solution. Total number of balls in the urn is 6 + 4 + 9 = 19 (total number of exhaustive

cases). Since one ball is drawn at random then
(i) Let be the event that it is a white ball
(ii) Let be the event that it is not a green ball
(iii)Let be the event that it is a green or a red ball
Illustration 2.7. What is the probability of getting 53 Sundays in a randomly selected leap
year?
Solution. We know that there are 366 days (52 complete weeks and 2 days over) in a leap
year. The following are the possible outcomes for these 2 over days:
(i) Sunday and Monday (ii) Monday and Tuesday
(iii) Tuesday and Wednesday (iv) Wednesday and Thursday
(v) Thursday and Friday (vi) Friday and Saturday
(vii) Saturday and Sunday
Let A be the event of getting 53 Sundays. There will be 53 Sundays in a leap year, when one of the
two over days must be Sunday. Since out of 7 possibilities, only 2, viz., (i) and (vii) are favorable to
the event.
Therefore, .
Illustration 2.8. Two coins are tossed. Let A be the event ‘two heads are obtained’, and, B be
the event ‘one head and one tail are obtained’. Find P(A), P(B).
Solution. The sample space in this case is
For event A, number of favorable cases is 1 i.e., {HH}.
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For event B, number of favourable cases is 2 i.e., {HT, TH}.
Illustration 2.9 If the letters of the word MANAGEMENT are arranged randomly then find
the probability that all vowels come together.
Solution. Let A be the event that selected word contains all vowels together. There are 10
letters in ‘MANAGEMENT’ and in this word vowels are 4 i.e., 2 A, 2 E. If we consider these
vowels as a single letter then we have 7 letters i.e. AAEE, 2 M, 2 N, 1 G, 1 T.
Number of possible arrangements with 4 vowels coming together is =
Number of favourable cases for event A is =
Number of exhaustive cases = Total number of permutations of 10 letters in the word

MANAGEMENT is [out of 10 letters, 4 vowel, 2 M and 2 N]
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The probability of drawing any one club card from a pack of card is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then
(a) (b)
(c)
2.4 PROBABILITY RULES
For two events A and B,

(i)
(ii) .
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(iii) if and only if have same elements, i.e., if and .
(iv) disjoint (mutually exclusive) .
(v) can be denoted by if A and B are disjoint.
(vi) denotes those belonging to exactly one of A and B, i.e.,
.
(vii) At least one of the events A or B occurs = .
(viii) Both the events A and B occurs = .
(ix) Neither A nor B occurs = .
(x) Event A occurs and B does not occur = .

(xi) Exactly one of the events A or B occurs = .
(xii) Not more than one of the events A or B occurs = .

(xiii) If event A occurs, so does B =
(xiv) If , then
(i) , (ii)
2.5 JOINT AND CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
The possibility of two or more events occurs at once is known as joint probability. It is the
probability of intersection of two or more events. The probability of occurrence of any event
may be influenced by the information about the occurrence of an event which already
occurred, then this probability is termed as conditional probability.
Let's start with an example to better understand the idea of joint probability.
Illustration 1: Consider a hand of five cards in a game of poker. If the cards are selected at
random, there are possible hands of five cards each. Let A = {at least three cards are
hearts}, B = {all five cards are hearts}. Then, the joint probability of events A and B is
43 | P a g e

Definition: Let A and B are two events defined on the sample space . Then the joint
probability of event A and B is denoted by is
Now, we are going to discuss the concept of conditional probability. Let's begin with an
example:
Example 2: Consider a bag containing 100 balls out of which 60 are red balls. Two balls are
selected randomly (i) with replacement; (ii) without replacement. Let
A = {first ball is red}
B = {second ball is red}
In with replacement case P(A) = P(B) = 60/100 = 3/5.
In without replacement case P(A) = 3/5. If A has already occurred, probability of occurrence
of B is 59/99. If A has not occurred, probability of occurrence of event B is 60/99. Hence the
information about the occurrence of event A influence the probability of occurrence of event
B.
Definition: Let A and B are two events defined on the sample space . Then conditional
probability of B, given A (means A already occur) and is denoted by , is defined as
Further, let us suppose that in the sample space of a random experiment there are N
exhaustive, mutually exclusive and equally likely outcomes. Out of which outcomes are
favourable to event A and outcomes are favourable to event B and outcomes are
favourable to . Then
Remark:
i. For the conditional probability , A behaves like a new sample space.
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ii. The unconditional probability of an event A, P(A) may be viewed as a conditional probability
of event A given .
2.5.1 Theorem of Multiplication

Statement: From the definition of conditional probability, for two event A and B,
where, represents conditional probability of happening of B when the event A has

already occurred and represents conditional probability of occurrence of B when the
event A has already happened.
Proof: In the usual notation we have
(*)
For the event A|B, the sample space is B and out of sample points, pertain to be
happen of the event A. Hence
Rewriting (*), we get: (**)
Similarly, we get from (*) (***)
From (**) and (***), we get the result.

2.5.2 Independent Events and Baye’s Theorem
Independent Events:
Let us consider the concept of conditional probability with an example. Suppose from a well
shuffled pack of 52 card, a card is draw at random, then the probability of drawing a club is
. If the draw was done without replacement, then for the next draw, the probability of
drawing the second card ‘a card of club’ is and it is the conditional probability. Now,
if the first draw was done with replacement, then the conditional probability would have been
. This implies that if it is done with replacement, then the probability of second draw
45 | P a g e

and subsequent draws was remains unaltered. So, the happening or non-happening of any
draw does not affected by the preceding draws. This example helps you in better
understanding of the concept of independent event.
Let us now define independent event:
Definition: Two events are said to be independent whenever
If two events are independent then
Law of Total Probability
Statement: Let be the sample space and are n exhaustive and mutually
exclusive events with . Let A be any event which is a subset of
(means at least one of the events ) with , then
Proof: As a is a subset of . Therefore,
[Distributive property of set theory]
[Using multiplicative theorem for dependent events]
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Bayes’ Theorem:
• Bayes theorem was given by Thomas Bayes (1701-1761).
• Knowing the outcome of a particular situation, Bayes theorem enables us to find the
probability that the outcome occurred as a result of a particular previous event.
The British mathematician Thomas Bayes created a method to calculate conditional
probability in the 18th century to give people a way to re-evaluate their existing expectations.
The Bayes Theorem, Bayes' Rule, or Bayes' Law are common names for this mathematical
theorem. It serves as the basis for the entire statistical field known as Bayesian Statistics.
For example, In a certain assembly plant, three machines, B1, B2, and B3, make 30%, 45%,
and 25%, respectively, of the products. It is known from past experience that 2%, 3%, and
2% of the products made by each machine, respectively, are defective. Now, suppose that a
finished product is randomly selected and found to be defective, what is the probability that it
was made by machine B3?
• This theorem is also known as ‘Inverse probability theorem’, because here moving
from first stage to second stage, we again find the probabilities (revised) of the events
of first stage i.e. we move inversely.
Statement:
Let be the sample space and are n exhaustive and mutually exclusive events
with . Let A be any event which is a subset of (means at least
one of the events ) with , then
47 | P a g e

Proof: From the theorem of total probability, we have

[you have to prove it]
Also we have
Remarks:
’s are known as “a priori (or prior) probabilities”. They exist before we gain any
information about A (the result of an experiment).
’s are known as “likelihoods”. They indicate how likely event A to occur under the
information that occurs.
’s are known as ‘a posteriori (or posterior) probabilities”. They are determined after
the results of the experiment are known.
Illustration 2.10. A fair die is thrown, what is the probability of getting either a number
multiple of 3 or a prime number.
Solution. A fair die is thrown then sample space is
.
Let A be the event of getting a number multiple of 3 and B be the event of getting a prime
number.
A = {3, 6} and B = {2, 3, 5}, A B = {3} [a non empty set]
Hence required probability is
Illustration 2.11 A box contains three red cards and three green cards numbered as follows:
48 | P a g e

One card is picked out of the box at random. If A is the event ‘the card is green’ and B is the
event ‘the card is marked 2’, are A and B independent?
Solution. since 3 cards are green.
since 3 cards are marked 2.
since 2 cards satisfies this condition.
Now , so A and B are not independent.
Illustration 2.12 Three cards are drawn at random one by one without replacement from a
well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards. What is the probability that first card is ace, second is
queen and the third is again a j a c k .
Solution. Let be the event of drawing ace in the first draw, be the event of drawing
queen in the second draw and be the event of drawing jack in the third draw.
Therefore, required probability is
Illustration 2.13. Let A and B are independent events,

(i) If P(A) = 0.4 and P(A B) = 0.16 then find P(B).
(ii) If P(A) = 0.5 and P(B) = 0.4, then find P(A|B) and P(B|A).
(iii)If P(A) = 0.4 and P(B) = 0.2, then find P( .

Solution. (i) Given that, P(A) = 0.4 and P(A B) = 0.16,
We know that
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(ii) Given that, P(A) = 0.5 and P(B) = 0.4

Since A and B are independent, then
(iii) Given that, P(A) = 0.4 and P(B) = 0.2
We know that if two events A and B are independent then , and

are also independent.
P(
Illustration 2.14. A bag contains 4 white r and 5 black w balls. Another bag contains 2
white and 3 black balls. A ball is drawn from the first bag and is transferred to the second
bag. A ball is then drawn from the second bag and is found to be white, what is the
probability that white ball was transferred from first to second bag?
Solution. Let E1 be the event that a white ball is drawn from the first bag and E2 be the event
that the drawn ball from the first bag is black. Let A be the event of drawing a white ball
from the second bag after transferring the ball drawn from first bag into it.
Therefore,
by law of total probability,
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Thus, By Bayes’ theorem
Illustration 2.15. In a bolt manufacturing company, three machines manufacture 20%, 30%
and 50% of its total output and of these 6% and 3% and 2% are found defective respectively.
A bolt is drawn at random and is found defective. Find the probability that the defective bolt
is manufactured by machine 1.
Solution. Let be the event that the defective bolts are manufactured by
machine 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Therefore,
Let A denotes the event that the bolt drawn at random is defective. Then, using conditional
probability
by law of total probability,
By Bayes’ theorem,
The probability that the defective bolt is from machine 1is,
Illustration 2.16. The prior probabilities for events and are and
. It is also given that .
Find the following:
(i) Are and are mutually exclusive?
(ii) Compute .
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(iii)Use Bayes’ theorem to compute .
Solution. (i) it is given that , the events and are mutually exclusive.
(ii)
The event E can be defined in the following mutually disjoint ways:

i.e.,
(iii) using Bayes’ theorem
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. For any event A in , then A and are independent. (T/F)
4. If A and B are independent events, then are also independent.
(T/F)
5. There are two urns with parts of same type. The first contains ‘a’ goods
parts and ‘b’ defective parts and the second contains ‘c’ goods parts and
‘d’ defective parts. An urn is selected at random and one part is drawn
from it and is found to be good. Probability that urn I is selected is
(a) (b) (a) , where
2.6 SUMMARY
• Those experiments in which we cannot predict the outcome, even we have the
knowledge of all possible outcomes is called Random experiment.
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• The set of all possible outcome of a random experiment is known as sample space
and its subset is event.
• Different definitions of probability of occurrence of event are given.
• In classical definition of probability, the outcomes in the sample space must be

exhaustive, equally likely, and mutually exclusive and it’s defined as the ratio of total
number of favorable outcomes to the total number of outcomes.
• In axiomatic definition, it is defined as areal number lying between 0 and 1 provided

all the three axioms are satisfied i.e., (i) axiom of non-negativity, (ii) axiom of
certainty, (iii) axiom of additivity.
• The conditional probability is defined as when occurrence of one event gets affected
by certain condition and the numeric value of probability of occurrence of an event
varies as per this condition.
• Baye’s theorem revises the initial probabilities of occurrence of events.
2.7 GLOSSARY
Axiom: A statement accepted as true to serve as a basis for deductive reasoning. Today the
words axiom and postulate are synonyms.
Bayesian: of or relating to that part of the theory of probability concerned with estimating
probabilities using prior knowledge.
Bayes’ Theorem: the first theorem on conditional probabilities. If one knows the probability
of event A given that event B has already occurred and certain auxiliary information. Bayes’
theorem allows one to compute the probability of event B given that event A is known to
have occurred.
Inverse Probability: the concept of probability that arose out of Baye’s theorem.
1. d 4. True
2. b 5. a
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3. True
1. If a die and a coin are tossed simultaneously, write the event of getting
(i) tail and an odd number
(ii) head and a multiple of 2
(iii)tail and prime number
(iv) head and a multiple of 3
2. What is the probability of drawing a club or diamond from a pack of 52 cards when one
card is drawn at random?
3. Out of 52 well shuffled playing cards, two cards are drawn atrandom. Find the
probability of getting.
(i) One red and one black
(ii) Both cards of the same suit
(iii) One jack and other king
(iv) One red and the other of club
4. A single letter selected at random from the word ‘STATISTICS’. What is the
probability that it is a vowel?
5. A Card is drawn from a well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards, find the probability that
the drawn card is a jack or a black colour card.
6. If the probabilities are, respectively, 0.23,0.24 and 0.38 that a car stopped at a roadblock
will have faulty brakes, badly worn tires, faulty brakes and/or badly worn tires, what is
the probability that such a car will have both faulty brakes and badly worn tires.
54 | P a g e

7. A biology professor has two graduate assistants helping him with his research. The
probability that the older of the two assistants will be absent on any given day is 0.08,
the probability that the younger of the two will be absent on a given day is 0.05 and the
probability that both of them will be absent on a given day is 0.02. Find the
probabilities that
i) Either or both of the assistants will be absent on a given day;
ii) At least one of the assistants will not be absent on a given day;
iii) Only one of the assistants will be absent on a given day.
8. A box of fuses contains 20 fuses, of which 5 are defective. If three fuses are selected
randomly and removed from the box randomly (without replacement), what are the
probabilities that
i) All the three are defective?
ii) At most two are defective?
iii) At least two are defective?
2.10 REFERENCES
Gupta S. C. and Kapoor V. K. (2018). Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics, Sultan Chand

& sons., New Delhi.
Hogg R. V. and Craig A. T. (1978). Introduction to Mathematical Statistics, Macmillan.
Parzen E. (1960). Modern Probability Theory and its Applications, John Wiley.
Parzen E. (1972). Modern Probability Theory and its Applications, Wiley Eastern.
Rao C. R. (1973). Linear Statistical Inference and Its Applications, John Wiley
Rohatgi V. K. (1985). An Introduction to Probability Theory and Mathematical Statistics,
Wiley Eastern.
Vilks S. S. (1962). Mathematical Statistics, John Wiley.
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LESSON-3
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Dr. Mona Verma
Assistant Professor
SSCBS College
University of Delhi
Mr. Jigmet Wangdus
Assistant Professor
Campus of Open Learning
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Random Variables
3.3.1 Discrete Random Variables
3.3.2 Continuous Random Variable
3.4 Discrete probability distribution
3.4.1 Binomial Distribution
3.4.2 Poisson Distribution
3.4.3 Negative Binomial Distribution
3.4.4 Hypergeometric Distribution
3.5 Normal Distribution
3.5.1 Properties of Normal Distribution
3.5.2 Relationship between Standard Deviation, Mean Deviation, Quartile Deviation for
Normal Distribution
3.5.3 Standard Normal Distribution
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3.6 Exponential Distribution

3.7 Lognormal Distribution
3.8 The Weibull Distribution
3.9 Summary
3.12 References and Suggested Readings
This lesson extends the concepts of probability theory further to demonstrate random
variables and its distribution. After reading this lesson;
• The learner will be able to identify random variables and can construct the probability
distribution for them.
• Understand the concept of mean and standard deviation has been discussed to find the
solution of the real-life problems.
• Understand the characteristics and procedure of computing probabilities using

binomial and Poisson distribution
• Comprehend the difference between discrete and continuous probability distribution.
• Understand normal distribution, properties of a normal curve and computation of

probabilities using z-values.
• To understand other distribution such as exponential, lognormal, Weibull,

hypergeometric distribution.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
The statistical data are summarised and used for presentation by means of frequency
distribution. A frequency distribution table is prepared by listing possible values of the
variable individually or in small groups called class intervals and then the observed frequency
of each one. It is called observed frequency distribution. A probability distribution deals with
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probability, the expectation of an event based upon sample. Such distribution is useful in
situations where actual observations or experiments are not possible. The probability
distribution users (individual/businesses) provide different models which helps managers in
taking decisions based upon limited data and theoretical consideration during the period of
uncertainty.
Example of probability distributions:
1. Consider tossing a six-face fair die. Since the die is fair the outcome probability of all
six face will be equal.
Outcome (x): 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
Probability (p): 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1
If the same fair die is tossed 60 times, then the probability of appearing of each face
will be 60 = 10 times.
2. A coin has two sides; head and tail. If a fair coin is tossed then the probability of
getting head and tail is equal. Thus, the probability of getting head = 1/2 and tails
=1/2. Supposed the coin is tossed 10 times then the probability of getting head and tail
will be 5 times each.
The above two example illustrates that to get the probability distribution we have to find all
the possible outcomes (x) and then calculate the respective probability (p). The desired
expected frequencies can be calculated by multiplying each of the probability values by the
number of times the experiment is performed (N).
3.3 RANDOM VARIABLE
Let us perform an experiment of tossing two coins. The sample space for the experiment will
be
S= {HH, HT, TH, TT}
The number of heads (tails) in the experiment will be 0,1,2. We associate a variable X which
denotes the number of heads (tails) on the coin. This implies that X may take values 0,1,2.
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Thus, X is a random variable which is a real number associated with the outcome of a
random experiment. Similarly, we may say Y is a random variable denotes the number of tails
in the above experiment and so on.
Now if we are interested in the probability of getting at least one head, then we should find
P{X≤1}= P{ TT, HT, TH}=3/4
Think about P{X=1}, P{X≤2}.
The random variable will be denoted by capital letters and the real numbers associated with
random variable is denoted by lower case letters. Thus if we denote random variable by X, Y,
Z,…etc then the values of r.v can be denoted as x,y,z,…etc.
ACTIVITY
Consider another experiment of rolling two dice and define a r.v. X which
denotes number of even numbers on the dice. You may find the outcomes and
construct the probability as well.
A random variable is of two types: discrete random variable and continuous random variable.
3.3.1 Discrete random variable
A random variable is called discrete when it takes at most a countable number of values. This
implies that for every outcome of the experiment there corresponds a real number which can
be finitely counted.
Probability Mass function (pmf) of a discrete random variable.
Let X be a discrete random variable taking at most a countably infinite number of
values x1, x2, x3,…For each xi we associate a number pi which is the probability of
xi. Thus,
pi =p(xi)=P(X=xi)
If the number p(xi), i =1,2,3,…satisfy the following conditions,
(i) , (ii)
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then we say that pi is called the probability mass function of the random variable X. The set
{ xi, p(xi)} is known as the probability distribution of the random variable X.
Let us revisit our example of tossing two coins and getting number of heads. The probability
distribution of X will be given as [{0,1/4},{1,2/4},{2,1/4}]. You will agree that this a p.m.f as
all probabilities are greater than zero and the sum of all probabilities is equal to 1.
Distribution Function for random variable X.
For a discrete random variable X , the distribution function denoted as F(X) is defined as
For the above example of tossing of two coins the distribution function F(X) can
easily be defined.
Illustration 3.1: Consider whether the next customer buying a car at a certain show room
buys a SUV or Non-SUV model. The past data shows 20% of customer purchases SUVs
Solution:
Let x =1 (if the customer purchases a SUV model)
x = 0 (if the customer purchases a Non-SUV model)
p(0) = P(x=0) = P(next customer purchases a Non-SUV model) = 0.8
p(1) = P(x=1) = P(next customer purchases a SUV model) = 0.2
p(x) = P(x=1) = 0 for x ≠ 0 or 1
3.3.2 Continuous Random Variable
A random variable X is said to be continuous if it can take all possible values between
certain limits. In other words , we may say that for a continuous random variable ,
different values cannot be put in 1-1 correspondence with a set of positive integers.
Probability Density function (p.d.f) for a continuous random variable
Consider a small interval (x, x+dx). Let f(x) be a continuous function of x. Then
the probability that X lies in the interval (x, x+dx) is given as
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The function f(x) defined as above is known as probability density x function

(p.d.f) of random variable X .
The probability for a variate to lie in the finite interval [α,β] is:
The p.d.f. f(x) of a random variable X has the following properties:

(i)
(ii)
In Case of continuous random variable, theoretically probability at a fixed point is

always zero.
3.4 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
In the above section, we have discussed the discrete random variables and how we can
associate a probability distribution with it. In this section, we will discuss various discrete
distributions in which the random variables are defined according to a definite probability
law which can be expressed mathematically.
3.4.1 Binomial Distribution
Let us consider an experiment having only two outcomes viz. success or failure. We define a
random variable X associated with the outcomes of the experiment , which takes two values 0
and 1 with probability q and p. i.e., P(X=0)= q and P(X=1) =p .
Now let us assume that this random experiment will be repeated n times , n being finite, in
which the probability ‘p’ of success in any trial is constant for each trial . Also,
q=1-p is the probability of failure in any trial.
The probability of x successes and consequently (n-x) failures in n independent trials
can be written as . There are ways to get x successes in n trials. Hence the
probability of x successes in n trials in any order is given as
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The probability distribution of the number of successes, so obtained is called

Binomial probability distribution because the probabilities of 0,1,2,…n successes are
the successive terms of binomial expansion
Thus, a random variable X is said to follow binomial distribution if its probability

mass function is given by
The two independent constants n and p in the distribution are called parameters of the
distribution. For a binomial variate, we use the notation .
The entire probability distribution of x = 0, 1, 2,....n can also be written as follows
We should note that the variable x (number of successes) is discrete. It can take integer
values
0, 1, 2, ..., n. The probabilities specified in the above table are in fact successes terms of the
Binomial
Expansion of (p + q)n, which is
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The mean of the binomial distribution is np and the variance is npq.

Illustration 3.2: A Mr. X has tossed the coin eight times. What is probability of obtaining 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and all heads?
Solution
Let assume the occurrence of head as success by p.
So that p = ½
 q = 1 – p = ½ and n = 8 (given)
The various probabilities are calculated by expanding the binomial theorem.
(q + p)8 = 8C0 q8 p0 + 8C1q7p1 + 7C22q6p2 + 8C3q5p3 + 8C4q4p4+ 8C5q3p5+ 8C6q2p6+

8
C7 q1p7+ 8Cn q0p8
1. The probability of obtaining zero (0) head:
P(X=0) = 8C0 q8p0 = = 1/256
2. The probability of obtaining one (1) head:
P(X=1) = 8C1 q7p1 = = 8/256
3. The probability of obtaining two (2) head:
P(X=2) = 8C2 q6p2 = = 28/256
4. The probability of obtaining three (3) heads:
P(X=3) = 8C3 q5p3 = = 56/256
5. The probability of obtaining four (4) heads:
P(X=4) = 8C4 q4p4 = = 70/256
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6. The probability of obtaining five (5) heads:
P(X=5) = 8C5 q3p5 = = 8/256
7. The probability of obtaining Six (6) heads:
P(X=6) = 8C6 q2p6 = = 28/256
8. The probability of obtaining seven (7) heads:
P(X=7) = 8C7 q1p7 = = 8/256
9. The probability of obtaining eight (8) heads:
P(X=8) = 8C8 q0p8 = = 1/256
Similarly, we can calculate the probability of

1. 5 or more heads = 8C5q3p5+ 8C6q2p6+ 8C7 q1p7+ 8Cn q0p8
= 56/256 +28/256 +8/256 +1/256 = 93/256
2. 7 or more heads = 8C7 q1p7+ 8Cn q0p8
= 8/256 +1/256 = 9/256
Illustration 3.3: State bank of India is considering opening of teller window for only female
customer. Study in the past has shown that 40% of customer were female. Assuming that
conditions for binominal distribution are satisfied determine the probability distribution that
describes the next ten (10) customers. What is the expected number of female clients? What
is the standard deviation of this distribution?
Solution
n = 10
p = 0.4
q = 1- p = 1- 0.4 = 0.6
The probability distribution of next 8 customers is given in the table below:
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Probability distribution of Female Customer

Number of Female (x) Probability Probability (p)
10
0 C0 q10p0 = 0.006
10
1 C1 q9p1 = 0.0403
10
2 C2 q8p2 = 0.1209
10
3 C3 q7p3 = 0.215
10
4 C4 q6p4 = 0.2508
10
5 C5 q5p5 = 0.2007
10
6 C6 q4p6 = 0.1115
10
7 C7 q3p7 = 0.0425
10
8 C8 q2p8 = 0.0106
10
9 C9 q1p9 = 0.0016
10
10 C10 q0p10 = 0.0001
Total 1.0000
Expected number of female clients : np = 10 0.4 = 4
Standard deviation = = = 1.549
3.4.2 Poisson Distribution

Poisson distribution is a limiting case of the binomial distribution under the following
conditions:
(i) n, the number of trials are indefinitely large i.e., n
(ii) p, the constant probability of success for each trial is indefinitely small, i.e.
p
(iii) np=λ, (say), is finite. Thus p=λ/n, q= 1- λ/n where λ is a positive real number.
65 | P a g e

A random variable X is said to follow a Poisson Distribution, if it assumes only non-

negative values and its probability mass function is given by
= 0, otherwise
Where is known parameter of the distribution.
The mean and variance of Poisson Distribution are equal and is equal to
Illustration 3.4: If one shop in 1000 has a fire in a city every year. What is the
probability that out of 2000 shops exactly 5 shops will be on fire during the year.
Solution:
= np where n = 2000, p = 1/1000
= 2000 =2
P(x) =
P(x) = (e = 2.7183)
= Reciprocal (AL(2log. 2.7183))
= Reciprocal (7.389)
= 0.1352 = 0.036
Illustration 3.5: If 3% of the smartphone manufactured by ABC ltd are defective,

calculate the probability that a sample of 100 smartphones-will contain zero defective
and one defective smartphone using Poisson distribution.
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Solution : Given number of defective smartphones are 3% (3/100).

= np where n = 100, p = 3/100
= 100 =3
P(x) =
P(x=0) = = 2.7183-3 = 0.05 Ans
P(x=1) = = 2.7183-3 = 0.15 Ans
3.4.3 Negative Binomial Distribution

Consider an experiment of having n successive Bernoulli trials. Let us assume that the
trials are independent and probability of success ‘p’ in a trial remains constant from
trial to trial. Let f(x;r,p) denote the probability that there are x failures preceding the
rth success in x+r trials. Since the last trial must be a success with probability p so in
the remaining (x+r-1) trials we must have (r-1) successes whose probability is given
by
Therefore,
Thus, a random variable X is said to follow a negative binomial distribution if its

probability mass function is given by
Illustration 3.6: A survey is done by a TV channel at a polling booth by asking them if they
have voted Republican. The data shows the probability (p) that a person voted Republican is
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30% What is the probability that 20 people must be asked before you can find 10 people who
voted Republican?
Solution : Given p = 30% or (0.3), r = 10
The number of failures X is 20 -10 = 10
= 1.54%
The probability you will have to ask 20 people to get 10 votes for Republican is 1.54%
3.4.4 Hypergeometric Distribution
For a finite population when the sampling is done without replacement which means that the
events are stochastically dependent though random, we obtain the hypergeometric
distribution. A discrete random variable X is said to follow the hypergeometric distribution if
it assumes only nonnegative values and its probability mass function is given by
N, M and n are known as the three parameters of hypergeometric distribution.

or
P(x) = (n1Cx n2
Cn-x)/ NCn
Where N = n1+n2, n = (x+(n-x))

n1 = Success, n2 = Failure
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The assumption of Hypergeometric Distribution

1. The population or set to be sampled consist of N individuals, elements, objects (a
finite population )
2. Each individuals / objects are characterized as a success (S) or a failure (F), and
there are M successes in the population.
3. A sample of n individual is randomly selected without replacement such that each
subset of size n is equally likely to be selected.
Illustration 3.7: XYZ Ltd received 20 service orders in respect of issues related to computer.
Out of this 8 are related to PC and 12 are related to laptops. A sample of 5 of these service
orders was taken randomly. What is the probability that (a) all the 5 selected samples are
related to laptops, (b) 2 samples are related to laptop?
Solution
Population size (N) = 20
The sample size (n) = 5
N1 = 12
N2 = (N- N1) = (20-12) = 8
P(x) = (n1Cx n2
Cn-x)/ NCn
(a). P(5) = (12C5 8

C5-5)/ 20C5 = 0.05108
(b). P(3) = (12C2 8

C5-2)/ 20C5 = 0.23839
Illustration 3.8: X ltd manufactured 30 bulbs, out of this 10 are defectives. If a sample of 12
bulbs were taken randomly, calculate the probability that the sample consist of:
1. Six good bulbs
2. All are good bulbs.
Solution
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N1 = (30-10) = 20
N2 = 10
P(x) = (n1Cx n2
Cn-x)/ NCn
(a). P(6) = (20C6 10

C12-6)/ 30C12 = 0.0941
(b). P(12) = (20C12 10

C12-12)/ 30C12 = 0.00146
Illustration 3.9: In a shipment of 25 hard disks, six are defective. If five of the disks are
selected at random, what is the probability that:
a) Exactly one is defective?
b) At least one is defective?
c) Not less than two are defective?
What is the average number of defective hard disks that you would expect to find in the
sample of five hard disk drives? What is the standard deviation?
Solution:
N1 = 6
N2 = (N- N1) = 25 - 6 = 19
P(x) = (n1Cx n2
Cn-x)/ NCn
a) P(x=1) = (6C1 19
C4)/ 25C5 = = 0.4377
b) P(x>=1) = 1- P(0)
= 1- 19C5 / 25C5 = 1- = 0.7811
c) P(x>=2) = 1- [P(0)+ P(1)]

= 1- [0.2189 + 0.4377] = 0.3434
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Expected value = =1.2
Variance = n(
= 5( = 0.76
Standard deviation = = 0.872
3.5 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Normal distribution is one of the most important continuous distributions in statistical theory.
There are several phenomena which seems to follow normal distribution very closely or can
be approximated by it. The application of normal distribution allows calculating probabilities
in such cases. It is further used as an approximation to other probability distributions. An
important application of the normal distribution is in the theory of sampling.
The Normal Curve: A variable X has normal distribution if its curve is given by the
following equation:
y(x)=
where e = a mathematical constant equal to 2.7183 app.

= mathematical constant equal to 3. 1416 app.
= Expected value or mean
= Standard deviation
x = a particular value of the random variable and - <x<+
y(x) = the height of normal curve at x

The equation explain that if and are known then the height of the curve corresponding to
any value of x can be obtained.
3.5.1 Properties of Normal Distribution
A normal distribution has the following properties:
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i) It is a uni-model, bell-shaped and symmetrical curve. The mean, median, mode of

normal distribution is equal.
ii) For any value of x, the y(x) would always have a positive value. The value could be
close to zero in case of very large or very small value of x.
iii) A normal distribution is defined by two parameters :- mean ( ) and standard deviation
( ). For every combination of mean and standard deviation a unique normal curve
exists.
A change in standard deviation causes a change in relative position and a change in
mean displaces the normal curve
Figure 3.1: Normal Curves: Equal Means, Unequal Standard Deviations
iv) The height of the normal curve is maximum at x= . Hence the mode of the normal
curve is x = .
v) A normal curve has two points of inflection, where the curve changes its curvature.
They are situated at one-sigma (1 ) distance from mean on either side of it.
vi) If we assume x1,x2,x3……xn are independent variables and each is normally

distributed then their sum x1+ x2 + x3 + …… + xn = x is also normally distributed. The
of the x variable is equal to 1+ 2+ 3+………………. n. and the variance 2 1 are
equal to 21 + 22 + 23 +…………… 2n
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vii) Under normal curve, ± 1 covers 68.27 % of the area under the curve; ± 2
covers 95.45 % of the area under the curve; ± 3 covers 99.73 % of the area under
the curve.
viii) The mean deviation about mean s 4/5 standard deviation or MD = 0.7979 standard
deviation.
ix) The inter-quartile range is contained within an interval of the 2/3 of a standard
deviation below the mean to 2/3 of a standard deviation above the means.
x) Then normal distribution is formed with a continuous variable.
3.5.2 Relationship between Standard Deviation, Mean Deviation, Quartile Deviation for
Normal Distribution
Percentage of area included within a given range of mean

Size of
Measure of measure
Variation standard
± Two
± One ± Three deviation
deviation deviation deviations
Standard Deviation 68.3 95.5 99.7 1
Mean Deviation 57.5 88.9 98.3 0.7979
Quartile Deviation 50 82.3 95.7 0.6748
3.5.3 Standard Normal Distribution

The standard normal distribution has = 0 and = 1. Through z-transformation, a normal
random variable x can be converted into standardised normal variable z. The transformation
from x to z is done by the following formula:
z=
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Where x = variable
= Population mean
= population standard deviation
The z-transformation has the effect of expressing a value of x in terms of the number of
standard deviation units it is situated away from mean. For example, if = 50 = 5 and x =
60 , then z = = 2, we can conclude that x is situated 2 from .
-(z^2)/2
y(z) =
Figure 3.2: Normal distribution

Calculation of probabilities
By using the above formula we calculate the value of z, then with the help of normal table we
calculate the area covered under the normal distribution as the probability. In standard normal
distribution table (z table) the first column contains the values of z starting from 0.0 while the
top row of the table gives values starting from 0.00 up to 0.09. To find the area to a specific
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value of z, we check in the first column for z-value up to its first decimal place while its
second decimal place is read in respect with top row.
Standard Normal Distribution Table
Z 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.091 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.148 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.17 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.195 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.219 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.258 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2703 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.291 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.334 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3642 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.377 0.379 0.381 0.383
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.398 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.437 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.475 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
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2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.483 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.485 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.489
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.492 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.494 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.496 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4669 0.497 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4779 0.4979 0.498 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.499 0.499
For example if we want to find the area between mean and z = 1.33, then we look for 1.3 in
the first column and 0.03 in the column corresponding to the top row of standard normal
distribution table. The value in the table reads is 0.4082 (two tail z table).
Some other examples are:
Range Area
Between mean and z =1.00 0.3413
Between mean and z = 1.45 0.4265
Between z = 1.2 and z = 2.8 0.4974 – 0.3849 = 0.1125
Between z = -1.2 and z = 2.8 0.3849 + 0.4974 = 0.8823
Beyond z = 1.2 0.5-0.3849 = 0.1151
Since the normal curve is symmetry the area between mean and z = -1.2 is the same as the
area between mean and z = 1.2.
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Illustration 3.10:
A variable x is normally distributed with = 100 and =10. Find the (i) P (x > 125) and (ii)
P (90 < x < 120).
Solution
(i) To find P (x > 125), we have to find the area to the right of x = 125
For x = 125, z= = 2.5
From the normal area table, the area corresponding to z = 2.5 is 0.4938. Thus, the
area to the right of this value is 0.5 – 0.4938 = 0.0062.
Therefore P(x> 125) = 0.0062.
(ii) To find P (90 < x < 120), The relevant area is marked in part (b) of the figure
For x = 90, z= = -1
For x = 120, z= =2
From the normal area table, the area corresponding to z = -1 is 0.3413 while the
corresponding to z = 2 is 0.4772. Accordingly, the total area between x = 90 and x
= 120 is 0.3413 + 0.4772 = 0.8185.
Therefore, the P(90 < x < 120) = 0.8185.
Illustration: 3.11
The average income of doctors is Rs 1,85,000 and standard deviation is Rs 10,000. If the tax
authorities decided to impose tax on the highest 70 percent bracket and exempt the other
30%. What should be minimum taxable income? Assume incomes to be normally distributed.
Solution:
Here = 1,85,000 and = 10,000. To find the required income level is to find the value of
the variable x above which there is 70% or 0.70 of the area under the normal curve.
Z= ……………………………….equation 1
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To obtain the value of z, we can refer to normal area table for an area equal to 0.20. This is
because the table gives areas between mean and a particular value of z. Since the area to the
right of the desired value x is 0.7 and area between x and mean = 0.2 ( 0.7- 0.5 =0.2). As the
x- value is smaller than the mean, the corresponding z value must be negative.
From the z-table we get the area values closest to 0.20 are .1985 corresponding to z = 0.52
and 0.2019 corresponding to z = 0.53. So we can take the average of the two z-score i.e.
(0.52+0.53)/2 = 0.525. The value of z will be negative -0.525.
By using the z-score in equation 1 we get the value of x.
Z=
-0.525 =
x-1,85,000 = -5250
x = -5250 + 1,85,500 = 1,79,750
Thus the minimum taxable amount would be Rs 1,79,750.
Illustration 3.12: The performance (marks) of students of XYZ institute are known to
approximately normally distributed with mean = 118 and standard deviation = 12
a. If student securing minimum of 100 is declared successful, then what is the
probability that a student randomly chosen will be successful.
b. If the institute desire to pass the 70% of students what should be the minimum passing
marks?
c. Calculate the lowest score at the top 25% of the students.
Solution
a. µ = 118, = 12
x = 100
z=
z= = -1.50
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From the normal distribution table, we find that for z = 1.50 the area is 0.4332
Thus, the total area to the right of (x = 100) is 0.5 + 0.4332 = 0.9332
b. To ensure 70% of student passed the examination, we calculate the x value to the
right of which 0.70 area under the normal curve is included.
Let the passing mark = x
z=
z=
The area between x and µ is 0.20, we locate the z-value corresponding to this
area. We observe that area 0.1985 corresponds to z = 0.52 while area 0.2019
corresponds to z = 0.53.
Thus, we take either of these values of z, but a better estimate would be an
average of 0.52 and0.53 since the area value 0.20 lies between the two area values
observed, thus we take z = 0.525. Further, this z-value will be taken to be negative
since x lies to the left of µ.
Thus,
-0.525 =
Or x = 118-12*(0.525) =112 app.

c. Let assume the lowest marks of the top 25% of students is given by x, since the
area to the left of x up to µ is 0.5 – 0.25 = 0.25, we locate z value corresponding to
this.
From the normal distribution table, the z-value corresponding to the area 0.25 may
be taken be equal to 0.675 ((0.67+0.68)/2)
Thus,
-0.675 =
Or x = 118+12*(0.675) =126.1 app.

Thus, the minimum mark of the top 25% of students is 126.1
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3.6 EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION
Exponential Distribution is a continuous probability distribution which is effective in

explaining the completion time of a project or the number of times between occurrences of
random events. Example include the number of hours taken by a mechanic to repair a vehicle,
time taken by bank cashier per customer, the amount of time taken until volcano erupt, the
number of months a car battery lasts, the time between consecutive breakdown of a machine,
etc.
The exponential probability density function, where is the mean of the distribution is given
below:
f(x) =
where x 0
>0
For example, let’s assume that the time taken by car mechanic to repair a car follows an
exponential distribution with a mean of 5 hours, then the probability density function is
f(x) =
The graph of density function of exponential distribution is given below
Figure 3.3: Exponential Distribution
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Calculation of probabilities: The probability of the variable to take values in a certain range
is given by the area under the graph of the density function. To explain in the context of
above example, the probability that the car machinic will take 4 hours or less to repair a car
will be equal to the area between x = 0 and x = 4. Similar, the probability that it will take
between 4 and 6 hours for the car mechanic to repair a car will be given by the area between x
= 4 and x = 6. The following formula yields the probability that the time taken will be x or
less than it:
P(x ≤ x0) = 1- e-x/u
The Standard Deviation of an exponential distribution is equal to its mean.
Illustration 3.13: The average time a bank teller takes to serve a customer is 6 minutes. The
service time follows an exponential probability distribution. Calculate the probability that :
a) A bank teller will take less than 2 minutes to complete the service.
b) A bank teller will take between 4 and 5 minutes to get the service.
c) A bank teller will take more than 10 minutes for the service.
Solution:
The average time:
a) P(x ≤ x0) = 1- e-x/u

P(service time <2 minute) = 1- e-2/6 = 0.2835
b) P(x ≤ x0) = 1- e-x/u
P(4 minutes <service time < 5 minute)
= P(service time < 5 minute) – P (service time < 4 minute)
= (1- e-5/6) - (1- e-4/6)
= 0.5654 – 0.4866
= 0.0788
c) P(x ≤ x0) = 1- e-x/u
P(service time >10 minute) = e-10/6 = 0.1889
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Illustration 3.14: The length of particular telemarketing call x has an exponential

distribution with mean equal to 4.4 minutes.
a) Write the formula for exponential probability cure of x
b) Find the probability that the length of a randomly selected call be
a. More than 4 minutes
b. Between 2 and 4 minutes
c) What is the probability that the length of call will be within two standard
deviations of mean.
Solution:
a) P(x ≤ x0) = 1- e-x/u
b) (a) P(call time > 4 minutes) = e-4/4.4 = 0.40289
(b) P( 4 minutes >call time > 2 minutes)
= P(call time < 4 minute) – P (call time < 2 minute)
= (1- e-4/4.4) - (1- e-2/4.4)
= (0.5971) – (0.3653)
= 0.2318
c) Since , The 2 interval is given by 4.4 2 4.4 or 0 - 13.2. Thus,
the required probability may be obtained as
P (call time <= 13.2) = 1- e-x/u = 1- e-13.2/4.4 = 0.9502
3.7 LOGNORMAL DISTRIBUTION
The lognormal distribution plays an vital role in probabilistic design because negative values of
engineering phenomena are sometimes physically impossible. It is a continuous probability
distribution of a random variable in which logarithm is normally distributed. A non-negative random
variable X is said to have the lognormal distribution with parameters μ and σ > 0 if ln(X) has the
normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ. The lognormal distribution is used to
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model continuous random quantities when the distribution is believed to be skewed, such as certain
income and lifetime variables.
The probability density function of the log-normal distribution is defined by two parameters μ and σ
f ( x) = exp ,x>0
is the location parameter and is the scale parameter of the distribution. Note the parameters and
are not the mean and standard deviation of x but of ln(x). The name of the “log-normal” distribution
reveals that it relates to logarithms as well as the normal distribution. Let’s assume that the data fits a
log-normal distribution, then if we take the logarithm of all your data points then the newly
transformed points will now fit a normal distribution. In simple words when you take the log of you
log-normal data, it would result into a normal distribution.
The lognormal distribution is unimodal and skewed right. Specifically, let m = exp( μ − σ 2 ) and
show that
a. f x is increasing on 0( ), and decreasing on m m ∞( ), , so that the mode occurs at

x = m.
b. f ( x) → 0 as x → ∞.
c. f ( x) → 0 as x ↓0
Estimate μ & σ from data
By using maximum likelihood (MLE) estimation we can estimate our log-normal parameters μ and σ.
The maximum likelihood estimators for the normal distribution are:
The maximum likelihood estimators for the log normal distribution are:
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The maximum likelihood estimators for the normal distribution

are:
Figure 3.4: Log Normal Distribution

Applications of the lognormal distribution
1. Lognormal distribution help to analyse the time spent by individuals on social media
platform.
2. It also helps in the income analysis of a certain population
3. It also helps to understand the fluctuations in stock market.
4. The maximum value of annual rainfall is also calculated using a lognormal
distribution.
5. It also helps us to solve a Rubik’s Cube.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (True of False)
1. A variable is said to be a random variable if it takes different values as a

result of the outcomes of a random experiment.
2. A probability distribution can also be obtained using historical data
3. A discrete random variable can assume any value in a given range whereas
a continuous random variable can assume only isolated values (
4. The two parameters of a binomial distribution are n and p. (True / False)
5. A binomial distribution involves infinite number of trials
6. A binomial distribution can be completely identified by n and p.
7. A binomial distribution is positively skewed when p > q and negatively
skewed when p < q.
8. A Poisson distribution is positively skewed and the skewness decreases
when m increases.
9. The standard normal distribution has μ = 1 and σ = 0.
10. The curve of normal distribution is symmetrical and mesokurtic.
11. The Exponential distribution involves discrete variable like Poisson
distribution
12. A hypergeometric distribution can be usefully approximated by a normal
distribution when n(N1/N) and n(N2/N) are both at least equal to 5
13. Probability distribution are obtained primarily on theoretical consideration
14. A probability distribution may involve a ________and ________ random
variables
15. In the case of Poisson distribution P(0) =1-e-λ
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3.8 THE WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION
The Weibull distribution is a continuous probability distribution. The Weibull distributions

was introduced by the Swedish physicist and mathematician Waloddi Weibull in 1939. It is
commonly used to assess product reliability, analyse life data and model failure times.
The probability density function of a Weibull random variable is :
(γ−1)
f(x) = exp(−((xγ))
x ≥ 0; γ > 0
where γ is the shape parameter; is the location parameter and is the scale parameter. The
situation where = 0 and = 1 is called the standard Weibull distribution. The situation
where = 0 is called the 2-parameter Weibull distribution. The equation for the standard
Weibull distribution reduces to : f(x) = γx(γ-1) exp (-(xγ))
x ≥ 0; γ > 0
The Weibull probability density function is graphically shown in the below diagram
Figure 3.5 : Weibull probability density function
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The Formula for the cumulative distribution function of the Weibull distribution is:
F(x) =
x ≥ 0; γ > 0
The plot of cumulative distribution function is given below:
Figure 3.6 CDF Weibull

Illustration 3.15:
An understanding of the volumetric properties of asphalt is important in designing mixtures
which will result in high-durability pavement. The article “Is a normal Distribution the most
appropriate statistical distribution for volumetric properties in Asphalt Mixture?” (J. of
Testing and Evaluation, Sept. 2009; 1-11) used the analysis of some sample data to
recommend that for a particular mixture, X = air void volume (%) be modelled with a three-
parameter Weibull distribution. Suppose the values of the parameters are = 4,
= 1.3 and = .8
For x>4 the cumulative distribution function is
F(x) =
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F(x) =
The probability that the air void volume of a specimen is between 5% and 6% is
P(5 ≤ X ≤ 6) = F(6; 1.3, 0.8, 4 ) – F(5; 1.3, 0.8, 4)
= -
= .263 - 0.037 = 0.226
3.9 SUMMARY
• Probability distribution are calculated essentially on the theoretical consideration

and provide how outcomes of an experiment are expected to change.
• The probability distribution may involve a discrete or a continuous random variable
• The binomial, hypergeometric and Poisson distribution involve discrete random

variables while normal and exponential distributions involve continuous random
variable. Uniform distribution involving both of them.
• The mean and standard deviation of a binomial distribution are given by np and
npq, respectively. The distribution is symmetrical if p = q and skewed if p ≠ q. For
a given number of trials, the greater the difference between p and q, more the
skewness
• The normal distribution has two parameters – mean and standard deviation. For
every pair of values, there is a distinct normal distribution. The distribution with
mean μ = 0 and standard deviation = 1 is called standardized normal distribution.
• The proportion of area lying in a given interval to the total area under the normal
curve gives the probability that the variable in question will take a value within that
interval.
• The exponential distribution is a continuous probability distribution which is

usefully employed in describing the completion time of a task or the number of
times between occurrences of random events.
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• The Poisson and exponential distribution are related to each other: while the former
provides description of the number of occurrences per interval, the latter gives a
description of the length of interval between successive occurrences.
1. True 9. False
2. True 10. True
3. False 11. False
4. True 12. True
5. False 13. True
6. True 14. Discrete, Continuous
7. False 15. False
8. True
1. Explain the concept of probability distributions. Distinguish between discrete and

continuous probability distributions.
2. Calculate the probabilities of 0, 1. 2, 3, 4 and 5 heads on the toss of a set of five
balanced coins. Also, obtain the mean and standard deviation of the distribution
3. Write a short note on Binomial, Poisson and Normal distribution.
4. The probability that a candidate will pass the examination is 0.4. Determine the
probability that out of 8 students, each of which has the same chance of graduating, (i)
none, (ii) one, (iii) at least two, (iv) no more than four, and (v) all will pass.
5. XYZ ltd. produces a product and finds that 15 percent of its output is defective. A
small sample of 7 items is taken from the production line. Find the probability of
getting each of the following number of defective items in the sample: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5,6,7.
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6. A factory finds that, on an average, 20 percent bolts are defective from one machine.
If 10 bolts are selected at random, find the probability that (a) Exactly two bolts are
defective, (b) Less than two bolts are defective. (c) More than two bolts are defective.
(d) More than eight bolts are defective.
7. If the probability of a defective bolt is 0.2, find the mean and standard deviation of the
number of defective bolts in a total of 900 such bolts.
8. (a) In a binomial distribution involving 5 independent trials, probabilities of 1 and 2
successes are 0.4096 and 0.2048, respectively. Find the parameter p of the
distribution. (b) In a binomial distribution with 6 independent trials, the probabilities
of 3 and 4 successes are found to be 0.2457 and 0.0819, respectively. Find mean and
variance of this distribution.
9. A project yields an average case flow of Rs. 550 lakh and standard deviation of Rs.
110 lakhs. Compute the following probabilities :
(a) Cash flow will be more than Rs. 675 lakhs,
(b) Cash flow will be less than Rs. 450 lakh and
(c) Cash flow will be between Rs. 425 and Rs. 750 lakhs.
10. Bring out the fallacy, if any, in the following statements:
(a) The mean of a binomial distribution is 6 and its standard deviation is 3.
(b) The mean of a binomial distribution is 3 and its variance is 4.
11. For a binomial variable x, it is given that n = 8, and P(x – 2) = 16 P(x = 6). Determine
the values of p and q.
12. The administrative officer of a nursing home reports that the number of patients
admitted to the ICU on any day follows a Poisson probability law, with a mean of 7.
What is the probability that on a given day
(a) No patient will be admitted?
(b) Exactly seven patients will be admitted?
(c) No more than three patients will be admitted?
13. The incidence of occupational disease in an industry is such that the workmen have a
30 percent chance of suffering from it. What is the probability that out of 8 workmen,
6 or more will contact the disease?
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14. In an examination 20% of candidate passed with distinction, 50% passed and 30%
failed. If it is given that a candidate needs 50% marks to pass and 75% marks to pass
with distinction, determine mean and standard deviation of the distribution of marks
assuming the marks are distributed normally.
15. ABC project yields an average case flow of Rs. 600 lakh and standard deviation of
Rs. 100 lakhs.
Compute the following probabilities :
(a) Cash flow will be more than Rs. 700 lakhs,
(b) Cash flow will be less than Rs. 500 lakh and
(c) Cash flow will be between Rs. 400 and Rs. 800 lakhs.
3.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Aczel, Amir D., Sounderpandian, J.,& Saravanan P. (2012). Complete Business

Statistics (latest ed.). India: McGraw Hill Education India Private Limited.
2. Albright, S.C.,& Winston, W.L. (2015).Business Analytics: Data Analysis and
Decision Making (Latest ed.). Cengage Publications.
3. Anderson, D., Sweeney, D., Williams, T., Camm, J., & Cochran, J. (2014). Statistics
for Business &Economics (Latest ed.). India: Cengage Learning.
4. Anderson, D., Sweeney, D., Williams, T., Martin, R.K. (2012). An Introduction to
Management Science: Quantitative Approaches to Decision Making (13th ed.). India:
Cengage Learning.
5. Balakrishnan, N., Render, B., Stair, R. M., & Munson, C. (2017). Managerial
decision modeling. Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education.
6. Powell, S. G., & Baker, K. R. (2017). Business analytics: The art of modeling with
spreadsheets. Wiley.
7. Stine, R.E., & Foster, D. (2013). Statistics for Business: Decision Making and
Analysis (2nd ed.). India: Pearson Education
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LESSON-4
INFERENCE FROM SAMPLES

Dr. Anupreet Kaur Mokha
Assistant Professor
SGTB Khalsa College
University of Delhi
anupreetmokha.6@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Sampling from a Population
4.3.1 Describing Population, Sample and Sampling
4.3.2 Types of Sampling
4.3.3 Parameter and Statistic
4.4 Sampling Distribution of the Mean
4.4.1 Describing Sampling Distributions
4.4.2 Central Limit Theorem
4.4.3 Relationship between Sample Size and Standard Error
4.4.4 Sampling Distributions of Sample Proportion
4.5 Estimation
4.5.1 Describing Estimator and Estimate
4.5.2 Criteria of a Good Estimator
4.5.3 Point Estimates
4.5.4 Interval Estimates
4.5.5 Confidence Intervals
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4.5.6 Determining the Sample Size in Estimation

4.6 Summary
4.7 Glossary
4.10 References
1. To comprehend the concept of sampling and various sampling techniques.

2. To learn the concept of the sampling distribution of a sample mean and its properties.
3. To state the concept of the central limit theorem and sampling distributions of the
sample proportion.
4. To identify the various properties of a good estimator.
5. To explore the types of estimates: point and interval estimates.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Sampling is an important concept in research. It assists the researchers to gather enough data
so as to answer their research questions and will help them to generalize their results. Another
significant concept is the estimation which is done based on the observations taken from the
samples and used to measure the true value of a specified set of populations.
This lesson provides an overview of sampling distribution and estimation. It discusses the
concept of sampling and its various techniques. The next part of the lesson briefly explains
the sampling distribution of a sample mean and sample proportion and also discusses the
central limit theorem. The lesson also explores the four main properties of a good estimator.
Later on, this lesson also discusses the two types of estimates i.e. point and interval estimates.
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This lesson will help the learners to understand various properties related to sampling
distribution and estimation which will assist them in collecting the data and calculating the
mean and standard deviation of the sample mean and proportion.
4.3 SAMPLING FROM A POPULATION
4.3.1 Describing Population, Sample and Sampling

A population is a total group about whom the researcher wishes to make conclusions. It is
defined as the sum of all the members of a specified group that is being investigated. A
population in research does not usually relate to people. It can refer to any set of items that
you wish to investigate such as objects, organizations, events, species nations, organisms, etc.
Information about a population can be obtained from a sample. A sample is a particular
group from whom you will gather the data. The sample size is always smaller than the entire
population size. A sample is required when your population is large, geographically
distributed or difficult to contact. Statistical analysis allows you to utilize sample data to
produce estimates or test hypotheses about population data.
Sampling is a process of picking individuals in order to draw conclusions from them
statistically and estimate the entire population’s attributes. In market research, researchers
frequently employ diverse sampling techniques so that they do not have to analyse the whole
population in order to gain meaningful insights. For instance, if you want to study the growth
of banking activities (ATMs, debit/credit cards, etc.) across various countries since 2001,
then the population and sample will be:
Population: All countries of the world
Sample: Countries with published data available on banking activities since 2001.
4.3.2 Types of Sampling:
Sampling is broadly classified into two categories:
Probability Sampling
A type of sampling technique in which a researcher chooses specific criteria and picks
individuals randomly from a population is known as probability sampling. With this selection
criteria, all members have an equivalent probability to be a part of a sample. Probability
sampling is categorized into four types namely:
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• Simple Random Sampling: In this technique, every individual in a population is chosen

at random, and each individual has an “equal probability of being chosen in a sample”.
For instance, if a company wants to undertake motivational activities for 1000 employees.
So, in this case, the employees will be selected randomly say by picking chits out of a
bowl, hence, each one of them is having an equal probability of being in a sample.
• Systematic Sampling: In this, the members of the sample are selected at “periodic
intervals” from a population. Since this technique has a specific set range, hence, it is the
least time-consuming method of sampling. For instance, a research scholar wants to
gather data. So, he/she chooses a systematic sampling technique in which he wants a
sample of 100 individuals from a population of say 1000. As a result, to be a member
from 1-1000, he/she chooses every tenth individual (i.e., 1000/100= 10).
• Stratified Random Sampling: In this technique, the population is divided into smaller
groups (i.e., stratas) where these stratas reflect the entire population and there is no
overlapping. Then the sample is drawn from each group independently using any of the
sampling techniques discussed above. If simple random sampling is used to choose the
sample from each stratum, then it is termed a stratified simple random sampling
technique. The population can be categorized into strata on the basis of characteristics
such as age, income, sex, etc. For instance, if you want to analyze the attributes of
individuals based on their annual family income, then groups (i.e., stratas) will be like:
less than Rs 25,000, Rs 25,000 – Rs 35,000, Rs 36,000 – Rs 45,000, Rs 46,000 - Rs
55,000, and so on.
• Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a technique in which researchers divide a

population into subpopulations (known as clusters) that reflect the population. For each
selected cluster, the elements are included in the sample. Elements within a cluster should
be heterogenous as possible, but clusters themselves should be homogeneous as possible.
The clusters are determined and included in a sample based on demographic criteria such
as age, gender, geography, and so on. For instance, if the Indian government decides to
examine the foreign students studying in India in various universities, they can split it into
clusters depending on Indian universities such as the University of Delhi, IP University,
Amity University, University of Orissa, and so on. This kind of surveying will be more
successful since the findings will be categorized by state and will give informative
foreign students statistics.
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Non-Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling, the researcher selects study participants at random. This
sampling approach is not a predetermined or set selection procedure. As a result, it is difficult
for all parts of a population to have an equivalent probability to be a part of a sample. There
are four types of non-probability sampling namely:
• Purposive Sampling: In purposive sampling, the researcher selects the sample on the
basis of who they believe would be suitable for their study. This technique is also referred
to as judgment sampling as in this, the researcher often uses his own judgment to choose
the sample. Purposive sampling involves greater chances of a personal bias than
convenience sampling as the researcher might select a sample that yields favorable results
as per their point of view. For example, when the researcher wants to study customer
satisfaction regarding the SBI bank’s online channels, then the selection criteria would
be: Are you using the bank’s online channels offered by SBI? Only those who responded
Yes will be included in the sample, others will be excluded.
• Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling is a technique in which the samples are

selected simply because they were considered to be the most convenient sample to choose
from. This technique is based on ease of sample selection. In this, the respondents are
selected because they happen to be available at the right time in the right place. Hence,
such a technique is biased as the researchers might reflexively approach some
respondents while ignoring others. For instance, non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
and startups typically use convenience sampling in a mall to distribute flyers about future
events or to promote a cause.
• Quota Sampling: In quota sampling, the samples are selected from different strata in
quotas. Typically, restrictions are imposed on how each quota is to be filled. The sample
selection is based on the discretion of the researcher as long as the quota criteria are met.
This technique is considered to be a rapid technique for collecting samples. For instance,
if you want to study the technology managers across the companies, the quota can be
divided into 25% from small-scale industries, 35% from medium-scale industries and
40% from large-scale industries.
• Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling is a technique in which the existing sample

elements from their contacts recruit sample elements. In this, the sampling begins with a
small pool of elements that met the sampling criteria and by their referral, the sample size
grows. Hence, the sample group seems to expand like a rolling snowball. This technique
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is also known as chain-referral sampling, chain sampling and referral sampling. This
technique is usually employed when the subjects are hard to trace or the topic is
extremely sensitive. For example, surveys to gather information about alcohol addicts or
HIV aids patients.
4.3.3 Parameter and Statistic:
A parameter is a number that describes a whole population (such as population mean),
whereas a statistic is a number that describes a sample (such as sample mean). For example,
the average income in India is a population parameter. In contrast, the average income for a
sample chosen from India is a sample statistic. Both these values indicate the average income,
but one is a parameter while the other is a statistic.
Let us look at Table 4.1 below to understand the Parameter and Statistics of various
techniques:
Table 4.1: Summary Value, Parameter and Statistic
Summary Value Parameter Statistic

Mean μ or Mu x̄ or x-bar
Standard deviation σ or Sigma s
Proportion P p̂ or p-hat
Correlation ρ or rho r
Now, let us understand the difference between a parameter and a statistic by carefully looking
at how the same subject and the summary value can be either a parameter or a statistic in
Table 4.2. This difference is based on whether that value is summarized as a population or a
sample.
Table 4.2: Examples of Parameter and Statistic
Parameter Statistic
Mean weight of all Bulldogs. Mean weight of a random sample of 100 Bulldogs.
Standard deviation of all Standard deviation of a random sample of 1000
transaction times in an SBI transaction times at SBI bank.
bank
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Median income of 500 college students in University of Delhi is an example
of:
a) Statistic b) Parameter
c) Proportion d) Population
7. Which of the following is called Interval Sampling?
a) Simple Random Sampling b) Stratified Sampling
c) Purposive Sampling d) Cluster Sampling
8. For stratified sampling, the strata should be:
a) Mutually exclusive b) Collective exhaustive
c) Both a and b d) Overlapping
9. _________ is a technique in which the existing samples elements from their
contacts recruit sample elements:
a) Snowball Sampling b) Systematic Random Sampling
c) Purposive Sampling d) Cluster Sampling
10. A _______ is a number that describes a whole population.
a) Element b) Parameter
c) Proportion d) Statistic
ACTIVITY
A research scholar wants to collect the data from the banks’ customers who are
using electronic banking services to analyse the satisfaction and loyalty of the
customers towards the electronic banking services offered by their banks. As a
researcher, what all are required to be undertaken for collecting the data? Do you
need to take sample? Which sampling technique you will use? Is it probability
sampling or non-probability sampling? Discuss the same keeping in view of the
various sampling techniques available in research.
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4.4 SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE MEAN
4.4.1 Describing Sampling Distributions

Any probability distribution (and, hence, any sampling distribution) is a list of all possible
values for a statistic and the probability associated with each value can be somewhat
represented by its mean and standard deviation (see Fig. 4.1).
“A probability distribution of all the possible means of the samples is a distribution of
sample means” which is known as the sampling distribution of the mean. It tends to be
normal for samples of all sizes whenever the population is considered to be normal. The
sampling distribution of the proportion is defined as “a probability distribution of all the
possible proportions of the samples which may be somewhat represented by the mean and
standard deviation of the distribution of the proportions”.
Fig 4.1: Conceptual Population Distribution, Sample Distributions, and Sampling

Distribution (Source: Levin, Siddiqui, Rastogi & Rubin, 2017).
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The Mean of the Sampling Distribution of the Mean

It is defined as “the mean of the population from which the scores are sampled”.
Hence, the population mean and mean of the sampling distribution of the mean are equal as
shown in the below formula:
Mean of the sampling Population

distribution of the mean
Mean
μx̄ = μ
The Variance of the Sampling Distribution of the mean

It is defined as the population variance that is divided by the sample size “n” as shown
below:
Variance of the sampling Population
distribution of the mean Variance
σ2 x̄ = σ2
n Sample Size
The above formula depicts that as the sample size increases, the variance of the
sampling distribution of the mean decreases, hence, an inverse relationship exists between the
two.
Illustration 4.1: Assume, the population variance and the sample size given are 120 and 25
respectively. You are required to calculate the variance of the sample mean.
Solution: To compute the value of the variance of the sample mean,
σx̄ = σ
√n
= 120
√25
= 40
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Illustration 4.2: Assume in the previous example, the sample size increases to 36. Now,
calculate the variance of the sample mean.
Solution: To compute the value of the variance of the sample mean,
σx̄ = σ
√n
= 120
√36
= 20
As the sample size increases from 25 to 36, the variance of the sample mean decreases from
40 to 20 depict an inverse relationship between the two.
The Standard Error of the Sampling Distribution of the mean
It reveals how much we are anticipating the means from various samples to differ due
to sampling error. It is known as the standard error of the mean. The distribution of the
sample means that is less spread or has a smaller standard error is considered to be a better
estimator of the population mean.
 When the population is infinite, the formula for standard error is:
Standard error of the mean Population Standard

(Infinite population) Deviation
σx̄ = σ
√n
Sample Size
 When the population is finite and our sample is more than 5 percent of the
population, the formula for standard error is:
Population Standard
Deviation
Standard error of the mean
(Finite population)
σx̄ = σ × √N- n Sample Size
√n √N - 1
Population Size
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Illustration 4.3: Assume, the population size in the case of textile enterprise is 40 whereas
the population standard deviation is 10. Suppose, we take a random sample of 10 of these
textile enterprises. You are required to compute the standard error of the mean.
Solution: To compute the value of the standard error of the mean,
σx̄ = σ × √N- n
√n √N - 1
= 150 × √40-10
√10 √40-1
= (47.44) (0.877)
= 41.60
Illustration 4.4: Assume, a random sample of 25 is drawn from a population of 120 and the
population standard deviation given is 50. Compute the standard error of the mean.
Solution: To compute the value of the standard error of the mean,
σx̄ = σ × √N- n
√n √N - 1
= 50 × √120-25
√25 √120-1
= (10) (0.894)
= 8.94
4.4.2 Central Limit Theorem:

The central limit theorem states that:
“Given a population with a finite mean μ and a finite non-zero variance σ2, the sampling
distribution of the mean approaches a normal distribution with a mean of μ and a variance of
σ2/n as n, the sample size, increases”.
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Fig. 4.2 Distribution of Populations and Sample Means (Source:

https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_introductory-statistics/s10-02-the-sampling-distribution-
of-t.html)
The population means are indicated by the dashed vertical lines as shown in Fig 4.2. As the
sample size increases (regardless of population distribution), the shape of the sampling
distribution of the sample mean becomes progressively bell-shaped, centered on the
population mean. The distribution of the sample mean approximately becomes a normal
distribution by the time the sample size reaches 30.
Also, if the sample is drawn from a normal population, the sample distribution of the
mean will be normal irrespective of the sample size.
The formula for determining the probability that the mean will lie between the
specified values is:
z=x–μ
σ
According to the above formula, we must subtract the mean of the variable being
standardized and divide it by the standard error in order to convert any “normal random
variable” to a “standard normal random variable”. As a result, in this case, the above formula
becomes
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Population
Sample mean mean
z= –μ
σx̄ Standard error
of the mean
This is the formula for standardizing the sample mean.

Illustration 4.5: The mean and standard deviation of the population is μ= Rs 13,525 and σ=
Rs 4,180. Assume 100 samples are randomly drawn from the population. Calculate the mean
and standard deviation of the sample mean.
Solution: Since n=100,
μx̄=μ =Rs 13,525
and
σ x̄ = σ = Rs 4,180 = Rs 418
√n √100
Illustration 4.6: The mean and standard deviation of the population is μ = Rs 112 and σ = Rs
40. Assume 50 samples are randomly drawn from the population.
a) Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the sample mean.
b) What will be the probability that the sample mean lies between a value of 110 and
114?
Solution:
a) Since n=50 ,
μx̄=μ =Rs 112
and,
σ x̄ = σ = Rs 40 = 5.65685
√n √50
b) The probability that the sample mean lies between a value of 110 and 114:
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In the question, it is given that 50 samples are drawn, so, as per this Central Limit
Theorem applies which means that as the sample size exceeds 30, the sample mean
becomes approximately normally distributed.
P(110 < < 114) = P (110 - μx̄ < z < 114 - μx̄ )
σ x̄ σ x̄
= P (110 - 112 < z < 114 - 112)

5.65685 5.65685
= P (-0.35 < Z < 0.35) = 0.6368- 0.3632 = 0.2736

It is a 27.36% probability that the sample mean will lie between 110 and 114.
Illustration 4.7: The population of miles driven by truckers exhibits a mean and standard
deviation of 38.5 miles and 2.5 miles respectively. If a random sample of five drivers is
taken, determine the probability that the sample mean will be less than 36 miles. Assume that
the population of miles is normal.
Solution: In this, the sample mean is:
μx̄=μ =38.5
and, the standard deviation is:
σ x̄ = σ = 2.5 = 1.11803
√n √5
As the sample size exceeds 30, the sample mean becomes approximately normally
distributed.
Hence,
P( < 36) = P (z < 36 - μx̄ )
σ x̄
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= P (z < 36-38.5)
1.11803
= P (z < -2.24) = 0.0125

It is a 1.25% probability that the sample mean will be less than 36.
4.4.3 Relationship between Sample Size and Standard Error:
There is an inverse relationship between sample size and standard error. As the
sample size increases, the standard error decreases which means that the value of any sample
means will likely be closer to the value of the population mean.
Illustration 4.8: Calculate the value of standard error when the population standard deviation
σ given is 100 and the sample size is:
a) 25
b) 64
Solution:
a) When the sample size is 25
σx̄= σ = 100 = 100 = 20
√n √25 5
b) When the sample size is 64
σx̄= σ = 100 = 100 = 16.67
√n √64 6
As the sample size increases from 25 to 64, the standard error decreases from 20 to 16.67
depicting an inverse relationship between the two. As a result, there is a "diminishing return
in sampling" because σx̄ varies inversely with the square root of n.
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4.4.4 Sampling Distributions of Sample Proportion:

The sampling distribution of the proportion is defined as “a probability distribution of all
the possible proportions of the samples which may be somewhat represented by the mean and
standard deviation of the distribution of the proportions”.
 The formula for the mean of the sample proportion is:
Mean of Population
Mean of sample proportion
proportion
μ =p
 The formula for the mean of the standard error of the sample proportion is:
Standard error of
the sample
proportion σ = √p q , where q= 1- p
n
Illustration 4.9: An opinion poll of 900 residents of a large city asks whether they favour a
particular bond issue. If 45% are in favour, calculate the mean and standard error of the
sample proportion (from a sample of 400).
Solution: In this,
p = 0.45,
hence q =1− p = 0.55.
The mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion is:
μ = p = 0.38
σ = √pq = √ (0.45) (0.55) = 0.0249
√n √400
Illustration 4.10: An opinion poll of 5000 residents of a large city asks whether they favor a
particular bond issue. If 35% are in favor, calculate the mean and standard error of the sample
proportion (from a sample of 1600).
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Solution: In this,
p = 0.35,
hence q =1− p = 0.65.
The mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion is:
μ = p = 0.35
σ = √pq = √ (0.35) (0.65) = 0.11925
√n √1600
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
16. Suppose that a population with N= 144 has μ= 24. What is the mean of the
sampling distribution of the mean if the sample size given is 30?
a) 2 b) 4.8
c) 24 d) cannot be determined from given information
17. The central limit theorem assures that the sampling distribution of the mean:
a) is always normal
b) is always normal for large samples
c) appears normal only when N is greater than 1000.
d) Approaches normality as sample size increases.
18. Standard error (σx̄) varies ________with the square root of n.
a) directly b) inversely
c) positively d) no relation
19. Suppose the population with N=200 has μ= 14 and a standard deviation of 3.
The sample size of your sampling distribution is 100. What is the standard error of
the sampling distribution of the mean?
a) 14 b) 3
c) 0.3 d) cannot be determined from given information
20. As per central limit theorem, as the sample size reaches ____, the distribution of
the sample mean approaches the normal distribution.
a) 10 b) 20
c) 30 d) 40
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4.5 ESTIMATION
4.5.1 Describing Estimator and Estimate

An estimator is defined as a sample statistic that is employed to estimate a population
parameter. In other words, an estimator is a method of estimation i.e. statistical measure that
has been used. For estimating the population mean μ, the sample mean“ x̄ ” can be used as an
estimator whereas for estimating the population proportion, the sample proportion can be
used as an estimator.
Whenever we want to describe a particular numerical value of our estimator, we use
the term “estimate”. To put it in another way, an estimate is described as “a specific
observable statistical value”. For example (see table 4.3):
Table 4.3: Example of Population, Population Parameter, Sample Statistic and Estimate
Population Population Parameter Sample Statistic Estimate

(estimator)
(interested) (Wish to estimate)
Employees in a Mean turnover per Mean turnover for 9.5% turnover per
chocolate factory year 1 month year
In this example, the mean turnover for 1 month is an estimator and the specific numeric value
i.e. 9.5% is an estimated value.
4.5.2 Criteria of a Good Estimator:
As you have now understood the meaning of an estimator and estimate, let us explore
the various criteria of a good estimator. A good estimator is typically close to the parameter
being estimated. Hence, its quality will be determined by the following four properties
namely:
Unbiasedness
An estimator is called an unbiased estimator when the expected value of the estimator
is the same as that of the population parameter that is being estimated. That is, if θ is an
unbiased estimate of θ, then E (θ) must be equal to θ. The sample mean is considered to be an
unbiased estimator of a population mean. This is so because the population mean itself is
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equivalent to the mean of the sampling distribution of a sample mean drawn from the same
population. Many estimators are "asymptotically unbiased," which means that their biases
reduce to a nearly insignificant value (zero) when n becomes sufficiently large.
Efficiency
The term "efficiency" relates to an estimator's sampling variability i.e. the magnitude of the
standard error of the statistic. When two unbiased estimators compete, the one with the lower
standard error or standard deviation of the sampling distribution (for a given sample size) is
considered to be relatively more efficient. For example, in order to estimate the population
mean, we should decide whether to go for the sample mean or sample median. So, for this,
we have calculated the standard error of both the sample mean and sample median and it was
found to be 2.4 and 2.6 respectively. Hence, we can conclude that for estimating the
population mean, the sample mean is a more and better estimator as compared to the sample
median because it has a smaller standard error. Therefore, the smaller the estimator's standard
error, the more concentrated the distribution of an estimator around the parameter being
estimated, and hence the better this estimator is.
Consistency
Whenever there is an increase in the sample size, an estimator approaches the population
parameter closer and closer. Hence, we can say that an estimator is a consistent estimator of a
population parameter. To put it more precisely, an estimator becomes more accurate with
larger samples if it is consistent. The sample mean is considered an unbiased estimator of a
population mean irrespective of the shape of the population distribution, while the sample
median is an unbiased estimate of a population mean only if the population distribution is
symmetrical. In terms of both unbiasedness and consistency, the sample mean outperforms
the sample median as an estimate of a population mean.
Sufficiency
An estimator is considered to be sufficient if it conveys as much information about the
parameter in the sample as possible. The importance of sufficiency stems from the fact that if
a sufficient estimator exists, it is completely unnecessary to examine any other estimate; a
sufficient estimator guarantees that all information a sample may provide with regard to the
estimation of a parameter has been extracted.
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There are several techniques for estimating parameters that might result in estimators meeting
these properties. The two most essential methods are the least square method and the
maximum likelihood method.
4.5.3 Point Estimates
From the previous section, we have understood that the sample mean “x̄” is considered to be
the best estimator of the population mean “μ”. It has all four properties namely unbiasedness,
efficiency, consistency and sufficiency.
Point estimation is described as the process of determining an estimated value of a
population parameter such as the mean of a population from random samples of the
population. Any statistic can be referred to as a point estimate. A statistic is considered to be
an estimator of some parameter in a population. It is a type of estimation in which a single
value or a sample statistic is used to infer information about the population parameter as a
single value or point.
For instance:
• A point estimate of the population mean (μ) is the Sample mean (x̄)
• A Point estimate of the population variance (σ2) is the Sample variance (s2)
• A Point estimate of the population standard deviation (σ) is the Sample standard
deviation (s).
Point Estimate for the Population Mean
Consider the case of a pen manufacturing company. Each pen is individually wrapped
in a clean package before being haphazardly packed in a huge corrugated box. Because of the
haphazard packing, each carton contains a different quantity of pens. Because the pens are
sold per unit, the corporation needs to know how many pens are in each carton for invoicing
purposes. We randomly selected 5 boxes (105+ 110+ 120+ 115+ 130) and counted the
number of pens in each. As you are aware, the sample mean is computed by adding all of the
individual values (in this case, 580) and then dividing by the number of samples tested (in
this case, 5).
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Sample Mean: = ∑x
n
In order to solve this question, we can use the above equation and we get 580/5=116 pens. As
a result, the point estimate of the population mean, using the sample mean as our estimator, is
found to be 116 pens per box.
Point Estimate for the Population Variance & Standard Deviation
Now to estimate the variance or standard deviation associated with a population, the
point estimate of the population variance and standard deviation is simply the sample
variance and sample standard deviation as follows:
Point Estimate for the Population Proportion

The point estimate for the population proportion is defined as the proportion of units in a
given population that possess a specific property. It is symbolized as . If we get to know the
proportion of sample units that have the same attributes (symbolized p), we can use this as
an estimator of p.
4.5.4 Interval Estimates:
An interval estimate is described as a set of values between which a population
parameter falls. For example, a < x̄ < b is an interval estimate of the population mean. It
depicts that the population mean is greater than “a” but less than “b”.
4.5.5 Confidence Intervals:
A confidence interval comprises three parts namely i) Confidence level, (ii) Margin of
error, and iii) Statistic. The confidence level is defined as the uncertainty level in a process of
sampling. An interval estimate is formed by a margin of error and statistics that represent the
accuracy of the method. The margin of error of a sample statistic produces the interval
estimate of a confidence interval.
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We may, for instance, state that we have a 90% confidence level that the true
population mean lies within a given range. This is a confidence interval. To put it another
way, if the same sampling procedure is being used to choose other samples and determine
various interval estimates, then, in this case, 90% of the time the true population mean would
fall within the range indicated by the sample statistic margin of error. The confidence interval
for a 90% confidence level is:
x̄ - 1.64σx̄ = lower limit
x̄ + 1.64σx̄ = upper limit
Hence, the confidence limits are defined as the lower and upper limits of the confidence
interval.
Confidence intervals are preferable over point estimates as they emphasize both the
uncertainty and precision of the estimate.
Confidence Level
A confidence level is defined as “the probability element of a confidence interval”. It
expresses our level of assurance that a specific sampling procedure will produce a confidence
interval containing the true population parameter. Assume we collected several samples and
generated confidence intervals for each. While certain confidence intervals might accurately
represent the population parameter, others would not. For instance, if the confidence interval
is 90%, it assures that 90% of the intervals will have the true population parameter.
Relationship between Confidence Level and Confidence Interval
We might believe that in all estimating issues, we should employ a high confidence
level, such as 99%. A high confidence level appears to indicate an estimate with a high
degree of precision. However, in reality, a high confidence level will result in large
confidence intervals, which are not accurate because they may yield vague estimates.
Confidence Intervals for the Population Mean for Large Samples
The level of confidence can be any number between 0 and 100% but the most
common values are probably 90% (α=0.10), 95% (α=0.05), and 99% (α=0.01). For 95%
confidence, see Fig 4.3.
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Fig 4.3: For 95% confidence, the area in each tail is α/2 = 0.025.
When the population standard deviation (σ) is unknown, in that case, for estimating
the population standard deviation, we will make use of the sample standard deviation. So, in
this σ will be replaced by s. However, we can also symbolize this estimated value by ,
which is called a sigma hat.
 The formula for the confidence intervals for the population mean for large
samples (n≥ 30):
If σ is known: x̄ ± za/2 σ
√n
If σ is unknown: x̄ ± za/2 s
√n
 Estimate of the Population Standard Deviation (When the population is Infinite)
 Estimate of the Population Standard Deviation (When the population is Finite)
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Illustration 4.11: A random sample of 36 was drawn having a sample mean of 150. The
population standard deviation given is 24. You are required to provide the confidence interval
assuming a 95% confidence interval.
Solution: In this question, the population standard deviation is known.
n= 36, σ = 24, za/2 = 1.96 and x̄ = 150
σ = 24 = 4
√n √36
Now, let us find the confidence limits:
x̄ ± za/2 σ
√n
= 150 ± 1.96 (4) = 150 ± 7.84
= (142.16, 157.84)
Illustration 4.12: A random sample of 25 was drawn having a sample mean of 120 and a
sample standard deviation of 15. You are required to provide the confidence interval
Solution: In this question, the population standard deviation is unknown.
n= 25, σ = 15, za/2 = 1.96 and x̄ = 120
s = 15 = 3
√n √25
x̄ ± za/2 s
√n
= 120 ± 1.96 (3) = 120 ± 5.88
= (114.12, 125.88)
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Margin of Error
In a confidence interval, the margin of error is defined as “the range of values above
and below the sample statistic”. For example, assume that the local newspaper conducts an
election poll and finds that the independent candidate will receive 40% of the vote. The
survey, according to the newspaper, had a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence level.
Based on these observations, the confidence interval is as follows:
“We are 95% confident that the independent candidate will receive between 30% and
40% of the vote”.
The formula for the margin of error is:
E= za/2 σ
√n
E= za/2 s
√n
Confidence Intervals for the Population Mean from Small Samples

If the population standard deviation is unknown and we have a small sample size “n”,
then when we replace the sample standard deviation s for σ, the normal approximation is no
longer applicable. In this scenario, we choose a different distribution known as the “Student's
t-distribution” with n-1 degrees of freedom (df).
The Student's t-distribution is similar to the standard normal distribution in that it is
centered at 0 and has the same qualitative bell shape, but it has heavier tails than the standard
normal distribution, as seen in Fig. 1.4, where the curve (in brown) that meets the dashed
vertical line at the lowest point is the t -distribution with two degrees of freedom, the next
curve (in blue) is the t-distribution with five degrees of freedom, and the thin curve (in red) is
the standard normal distribution. As seen in Fig 1.4, as the sample size n rises, Student's t-
distribution approaches the standard normal distribution. Although there is a separate t-
distribution for each value of n, if the sample size is 30 or greater, it is usually appropriate to
use the standard normal distribution.
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Fig 4.4: Student’s t- distribution

 The formula for the confidence intervals for the population mean for small samples
(n<30):
If σ is known: x̄ ± za/2 σ
√n
If σ is unknown: x̄ ± ta/2 s
√n
Degrees of freedom i.e. df = n-1 and population must be normally distributed.
Illustration 4.13: A random sample of 25 was drawn having a sample mean of 120 and a
sample standard deviation of 15. You are required to provide the confidence interval
Solution: In this the population standard deviation is unknown.
n= 25, σ = 15, za/2 = 1.96 and x̄ = 120
s = 15 = 3
√n √25
x̄ ± za/2 s
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√n
= 120 ± 1.96 (3) = 120 ± 5.88
= (114.12, 125.88)
Illustration 4.14: Based on the random sample of 25 people working in a company, the
average travel time to reach the office is 60 minutes. The population standard deviation given
is of 20 minutes. You are required to design the working hours by establishing a 99%
confidence interval for the average travel time of everyone in the company.
Solution: In this, the population standard deviation is known.
n= 36, σ = 20, za/2 = 2.58 and x̄ = 60
σ = 20 = 4
√n √25
x̄ ± za/2 σ
√n
= 60 ± 2.58 (4) = 60 ± 10.32
= (49.68, 70.32)
Illustration 4.15: Based on the random sample of 100 people working in a company, the
average travel time to reach the office is 60 minutes with a standard deviation of 20 minutes.
You are required to design the working hours by establishing a 95% confidence interval for
the average travel time of everyone in the company.
Solution: In this the population standard deviation is unknown.
n= 100, s = 20, ta/2 = 2.262 and x̄ = 60
s = 20 = 2
√n √100
x̄ ± za/2 s
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√n
= 60 ± 2.262 (2) = 60 ± 4.524
= (55.476, 64.524)
Confidence Intervals for the Proportion Mean from Large Samples
The formula for determining the mean and standard error of proportion (already covered in
detailed in the sampling section of this lesson).
 The formula for the mean of the sample proportion is:
 The formula for the standard error of the sample proportion is:
 Estimated Standard error of proportion:
Confidence Interval formula for a Population Proportion (large samples):
Illustration 4.16: A random sample of 100 students is chosen for estimating the proportion
of female students at a large college. In the sample, there are 65 female students. You are
required to construct a 90% confidence interval for the proportion of female students at the
college.
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Solution: The proportion of female students in the sample is

p̂ =65/100=0.65
A 90% Confidence level means that α =1− 0.90=0.10,
So, α/2=0.05, hence, z0.05=1.65.
Hence, the confidence interval for the proportion of female students at the college is (0.571,
0.729).
Illustration 4.17: A random sample of 100 students is chosen for estimating the proportion
of female students at a large college. In the sample, there are 65 female students. You are
required to construct a 90% confidence interval for the proportion of female students at the
college.
p̂ =65/100=0.65
So, α/2=0.05, hence, z0.05=1.65.
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0.729).
Illustration 4.18: A random sample of 25 students is chosen for estimating the proportion of
female students at a large college. In the sample, there are 45 male students. You are required
to construct a 95% confidence interval for the proportion of male students at the college.
p̂ =45/100=0.45
So, α/2=0.025, hence, z0.025=1.96.
± za/2 √ (1 – )
√n
= 0.45 ± 1.96√ (1 – )
√n
= 0.45 ± 1.96√ (0.45) (0.55)
√25
= 0.45 ± 0.976
= (0.526, 1.426)
1.426).
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4.5.6 Determining the Sample Size in Estimation:

The formula for the minimum sample size required for estimating a population mean:
Illustration 4.19: You are required to find out the minimum sample size needed to establish
a 99% confidence interval for μ with a margin of error (E) = 0.2. Assume that the population
standard deviation is σ = 1.3.
Solution: 99% Confidence level means that α = 1− 0.99 = 0.01,
So, α/2=0.005, we obtain z0.005 = 2.58.
n = (za/2)2 σ2 (rounded up)
E2
= (2.58)2 (1.3)2 = 280.362
(0.2)2
The final answer is rounded up to 281 as it is not possible to take a fractional observation.
Illustration 4.20: You are required to find out the minimum sample size needed to establish
a 95% confidence interval for μ with a margin of error (E) = 0.5. Assume that the population
standard deviation is σ = 2.5.
Solution: 95% Confidence level means that α = 1− 0.95 = 0.05,
So, α/2=0.005, we obtain z0.025 = 1.96
The final answer is rounded up to 96 as it is not possible to take a fractional observation.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. Which of the following is not the property of a good estimator?
a) Sufficiency b) Biasedness
c) Consistency d) Efficiency
12. A _________is described as a set of values between which a population
parameter falls.
a) Interval Estimate b) Point Estimate
c) Confidence Level d) Margin of Error
13. If the population standard deviation is unknown and the sample size n is
small, then we use _____ distribution?
a) Normal Distribution b) Student t–distribution
c) Non-normal Distribution d) Polynomial Distribution
14. A sample of 45 individuals is taken from a population of 650. From this
sample, the sample mean is found to be 3.6 and standard deviation is
found to be 2.52 respectively. You are required to calculate the estimated
standard error of the mean?
a) 0.476 b) 0.376
c) 0.276 d) 0.176
15. Population mean is denoted by which symbol?
a) x̄ b) σx̄
c) s 2
d) μ
4.6 SUMMARY
• A population is a total group about whom the researcher wishes to make conclusions.
• A sample is a particular group from whom you will gather the data.
• Sampling is a process of picking individuals in order to draw conclusions from them
statistically and estimate the entire population’s attributes.
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• A type of sampling technique in which a researcher chooses specific criteria and picks
individuals randomly from a population is known as probability sampling. It is
categorized into four types namely simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling, systematic sampling and cluster sampling techniques.
• Non-probability sampling is a sampling approach in which a researcher selects study
participants at random. There are four types of non-probability sampling namely
convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling
techniques.
• A parameter is a number that describes a whole population (such as population mean),
whereas a statistic is a number that describes a sample (such as sample mean).
• The sampling distribution of the mean is defined as “the probability distribution of all
the possible means of the samples is a distribution of sample means”.
• The sampling distribution of the proportion is defined as “a probability distribution of

all the possible proportions of the samples which may be somewhat represented by
the mean and standard deviation of the distribution of the proportions”.
• The central limit theorem states that “Given a population with a finite mean μ and a
finite non-zero variance σ2, the sampling distribution of the mean approaches a
normal distribution with a mean of μ and a variance of σ2/N as N, the sample size,
increases”.
• An estimator is defined as a sample statistic that is employed to estimate a population
parameter. Whenever we want to describe a particular numerical value of our
estimator, we use the term “estimate”.
• The four properties of a good estimator are unbiasedness, efficiency, consistency and
sufficiency.
• Point estimation is described as the process of determining an estimated value of a
population parameter such as the mean of a population from random samples of the
population whereas an interval estimate is described as a set of values between which
a population parameter falls.
• A confidence level is the probability element of a confidence interval.
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4.7 GLOSSARY
Central Limit Theorem: As the sample size “n” increases the sampling distribution of the
mean tends to approach normality irrespective of the shape of the population distribution.
Cluster Sampling: A probability technique in which researchers divide a population into
subpopulations (known as clusters) that reflect the population.
Confidence Interval: A range of values that has some designated probability of including
the true population parameter value.
Confidence Level: Reflects the degree of uncertainty in a sampling process.
Consistent Estimator: Whenever there is an increase in the sample size, an estimator
approaches the population parameter closer and closer, thus, termed as a consistent estimator
of a population parameter.
Convenience Sampling: A non-probability technique in which the samples are selected
simply because they were considered to be the most convenient sample to choose from.
Efficient Estimator: Sampling variability of an estimator.
Estimate: A specific observable statistical value.
Estimator: A sample statistic that is employed to estimate a population parameter.
Finite Population: A population having a stated or limited size.
Infinite Population: A population in which it is not possible to describe all the elements
theoretically.
Interval Estimate: A set of values between which a population parameter falls.
Non-Probability Sampling: A researcher selects study participants at random.
Parameter: A number that describes a whole population.
Point Estimation: A process of determining an estimated value of a population parameter
such as the mean of a population from random samples of the population.
Population: A total group about whom the researcher wishes to make conclusions.
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Probability Sampling: A researcher selects a few criteria and randomly selects individuals
from a population.
Purposive Sampling: A non-probability technique in which the researcher selects the sample
on the basis of who they believe would be suitable for their study.
Quota Sampling: A non-probability technique in which the samples are selected from
different strata in quotas.
Sample: A particular group from whom you will gather the data.
Sampling distribution: A list of all possible values for a statistic and the probability
associated with each value that can be partially described by its mean and standard deviation.
Sampling: A process of picking individuals in order to draw conclusions from them
statistically and estimate the entire population’s attributes.
Simple Random Sampling: A probability technique in which every individual in a
population is chosen at random, and each individual has an “equal probability of being
chosen in a sample”.
Snowball Sampling: A non-probability technique in which the existing sample elements
from their contacts recruit sample elements.
Standard Error of Mean: Reveals how much we are anticipating the means from various
samples to differ due to sampling error.
Statistic: A number that describes a sample.
Stratified Random Sampling: A probability technique in which the population is divided
into smaller groups (i.e. stratas) where these stratas reflect the entire population and there is
no overlapping.
Sufficient Estimator: An estimator is considered to be sufficient if it conveys as much
information about the parameter in the sample as possible.
Systematic Sampling: A probability technique in which the researchers choose sample
members from a population at periodic intervals.
Unbiased Estimator: An estimator is called an unbiased estimator when the expected value
of the estimator is the same as that of the population parameter that is being estimated.
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1. Statistic 9. 0.3
2. Stratified Sampling 10. 30
3. Both a and b 11. Biasedness
4. Snowball Sampling 12. Interval Estimate
5. Parameter 13. Student t–distribution
6. 24 14. 0.376
7. Approaches normality as sample size 15. μ
increases.
8. inversely
1. Explain the various techniques of non-probability sampling with suitable examples.

2. The mean and standard deviation of the population is μ=Rs 12,550 and σ= Rs 2,250.
From a population, random samples of 100 are drawn. Calculate the mean and
standard deviation of the sample mean.
3. A management consulting agency wants to assess the mean number of years of
experience of executives in a given branch of management. A random sample of 28
executives gives x̄= 6.7 years and s = 2.4 years. Give a 99% of confidence interval for
the average number of years of experience for all executives in this branch.
4. The mean and standard deviation of a population of grade point averages at a college
are 3.51 and 0.3 respectively. Determine the probability that the sample mean will fall
between 2.41 and 2.71, if, from the population, a random sample of size 100 is
selected.
5. Briefly explain the four properties of a good estimator.
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4.10 REFERENCES
Albright, S.C., & Winston, W.L. (2015). Business Analytics: Data Analysis and Decision
Making (5th ed.). Cengage Publications.
Levin, R. I., Siddiqui, M. H., Rastogi, S., & Rubin, D. S. (2017). Statistics for Management
(8th ed.). London: Pearson.
Anderson, D., Sweeney, D., Williams, T., Camm, J., & Cochran, J. (2014). Statistics for
Business & Economics (12th ed.). India: Cengage Learning.
Cooper, D. R., Schindler, P. S., & Sharma, J. K. (2018). Business research methods (12th ed).
New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Education.
Surya, P. K. & Sharma, S. K. (2020). Business Research Methods and Analytics. New Delhi:
Taxmann publication.
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LESSON-5
HYPOTHESIS DESIGN AND TESTING

Dr. Pushpender Kumar
Professor
Department of Commerce
Kiori Mal College
University of Delhi
pkumar@kmc.du.ac.in
STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Population and sample
5.3.1 population
5.3.2 sample
5.3.3 Standard error
5.4 Hypothesis
5.4.1 Why hypothesis
5.4.2 What hypothesis
5.4.3 Type of hypothesis
5.4.4 Hypothesis testing
5.4.5 Hypothesis testing with mean - Student’s t-Test (t-Test)
5.4.6 Univariate hypothesis test using the t – test
5.4.7 Hypothesis testing for proportion
5.4.8 Hypothesis testing for two population mean
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5.5 Analysis of Variance

5.6 Error – I and II
5.7 Summary
5.8 Glossary
5.9 Answer to text in questions
5.10 Self – Assessment questions
 To understand the concept of Hypothesis

 To design the hypothesis
 To learn how to test the hypothesis
 To analyze the concept of Error – I and II
 To explain the hypothesis testing with mean and proportion
 To test hypothesis with confidence interval
 To explain the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
5.2 INTRODUCTION
To understand hypothesis in research, students must have prior knowledge of basic statistics
like average mean, standard deviation, standard error, sampling methods and sample size etc.
In this lesson, students and researchers will be able to understand the concept of hypothesis,
designing of hypothesis, and testing of hypothesis with the help of t-test and ANOVA.
Students will also learn the basics sampling error – I and error – II.
The researchers and students are always curious to understand the tentative outcome
of research. The testing of hypothesis explain us how to design the research hypothesis and
how to know with confidence level that on the basis of just one sample how do we predict
that same thing is prevailing in population also. This lesson will assist students to understand
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the risk involve in testing hypothesis in terms of Sampling error I and II which will help us to
minimize the risk of taking decision of rejecting or fail to reject the hypothesis. This lesson
will also explain different types of hypothesis method and how to design hypothesis. The
confidence interval will give us more confidence that research has not done any mistake in
testing hypothesis. The hypothesis will be tested with the help of T- test and further the
extension of t test in term of analysis of Variance (ANOVA).
Research is all about prediction, forecasting and measuring cause effecting
relationship among different variables. For example, students can test the hypothesis that
intelligence of a student is positively related to student’s grade or marks. Similarly, students
can collect data and analyse them to test any business problem or situation on the basis of a
sample data. This lesson is interesting as it will help students to know the tentative outcome.
Fig 5.1 represent the various topics; we have covered in the lesson.
Fig 5.1: Hypothesis testing types and steps
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5.3 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
We often work with certain datasets, on which we usually use the right statistical and
mathematical methods to find the hidden knowledge in the data. Scientists, mathematicians,
and statisticians have come up with a lot of ways to deal with data from all types of sources.
The real roots of inferential statistics lie in the testing of hypotheses, which is at the heart of
sampling theory. But real-life situations aren't always what you'd expect. Instead, they usually
have random details that are hard to deal with. Hypothesis testing is a related method that can
be used in these situations. Hypothesis testing or statistical hypothesis testing is a way to
compare two datasets or a sample from a dataset. It's a statistical method for drawing
conclusions, so at the end of the test, you can come to some conclusions about the things you
matched.
In this lesson, we start with the basics of sampling, population, sample, standard error,
sampling error, and attempt to understand why this area of analytics is important. We then
proceed on to the basics of hypothesis testing.
5.3.1 Population:
In a statistical investigation, the focus is usually on figuring out how big something is in
general and studying how people in a group differ in one or more ways. The people being
studied are called the population or universe. As such, in statistics, the population is a group
of things, living or not, that are being studied. Depending on the situation, this population
could be small or large. Most of the time, it's either impossible or impractical to get an entire
total number of the population. The population may be so big that it can't be counted. Also,
the units of the population could be destroyed or disturbed during a full examination, making
it impossible. All of these problems lead us to the idea of sampling, which means we need to
know what the word sample means. The characteristics of the population is described with
the population, e.g., the population mean variance etc., referred to as parameters.
5.3.2 Samples:
• A sample is a small group of people from a population that can be counted. The number
of participants in a sample is called the sample size. Instead of counting all of the people
in the population, only the participants in the trial are observed to find out what their
characteristics are. Then, the characteristics of the sample are used to make an
approximation or estimate of the population. However, sampling has a lot of benefits,
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especially when it comes to saving time and money. Sampling is used quite often in our
everyday lives. For example, A housewife usually tastes small quantity of food she has
cooked to see if it is done right and has the right amount of salt. The characteristics of
sample is described in terms of the sample of the respective population, e.g., the
sample mean (𝑥𝑥̅ ), sample variance (s2), etc., were termed as statistics.
ACTIVITY
A Ph.d student wants to conduct a research on students of University of Delhi
regarding their experience about online classroom learning during Covid – 19. In
this case, the population, he suppose to study will be all students of University of
Delhi and it would be impractical to get total number of students at a particular
point of time. So how to make this research/study possible. Do you need to take
sample? Decide on what basis and how you will select a sample for this study.
Make a assumption about the study.
5.3.3 Standard Error (S.E) :

The basic concept of standard error is to justify how you can decide and interpret the result
on the basis of just one sample drawn from the population. Standard deviation calculate
deviation within the observation of one set of data so how you can decide that if you take
another sample the output will remain same. To overcome from this problem, standard error
is calculated which help us to prove that if you take sample again and again then same
outcome or result will come. So Standard error is average of standard deviation of sampling
distribution.
S.E. stands for "standard error," which is the sampling distribution of a statistic's
standard deviation. The standard errors of well-known statistics is given below for large
samples, where n is the sample size, 2 is the population variance, P is the population
proportion, and Q = 1 – P, n 1 and n 2 are the sizes of two independent random samples
drawn from the given population (s).
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Statistics Standard Error
Sample mean ( )
Standard deviation of sampling distribution is called standard error. Average sample to

sample variation is called standard error. It gives consistency so called reliability coefficient.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Standard deviaton of sampling distribution is called _______________.
2. There is no difference between standard deviation and standard error. True /
False
3. The characteristics of sample are:
a) sample mean b) Variance
c) population mean d) all of the above
4. Error – I is representing alpha or byta ____________________.
5. I-you-me-mode is a style of writing.
5.4 HYPOTHESIS
5.4.1 Why hypothesis: In research it is very difficult to access the whole population because
it is time consuming and a costly affair so infer the population with the help of sample. In
other words we can’t access population or it’s unknown so use sample and infer to population
(hypothesis). For example, Tata automobile manufacture EV - Tiago and now improved
version of old one and they claim that New millage is > 26 KM. It’s assumption about
population. So population parameter is 26. Can you test all the car to know whether mileage
is more than 26 or not. Answer is no because it is not possible to test all the car so We go for
sample (subset of population) and test the hypothesis.
5.4.2 What hypothesis: Hypothesis is an assumption to claim. In businesses and industries,
manager, supervisor, and expert claim on the basis of their experience, practices and hunches.
For example:
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 Manufacture of i – phone, Apple company claim that performance of i-phone 14 is

better than i-phone 13. It is a claim on the basis of assumptions made by
representative of Apple company.
 Mahindra and Mahindra launched a car model Thar and claimed that new Thar
version will give better performance in terms of millage. It is also a claim on the
basis of their hunches, experience etc.
 Micro-lab a pharmaceutical company manufacture Dolo – 650 claims that it is a
different if you compare with other salt available in the market.
In academic research, hypothesis is designed on the basis of review of literature. For
example:
 New research published in American Economic Review claims a strong link
between Facebook use and increasing anxiety and depression.
 Humerous advertising is more effective in comparison to emotional and rational
advertising.
 There is a difference between the General Fertility Rate (GRF) of the illiterate and
literate women with the latter depicting lower levels of GFR at the national level.
 (GFR referes to the number of children born per 100-0 women in a year in the
reproductive age group of 15 -49 years.)
 Frequent breaks during daytime cut stress and prevent fatigue.
 the way exercise boosts immunity is by increasing the circulation of immune cells
in your blood, to help fight off infectious bacteria and viruses.
5.4.3 Types of hypotheses:
Alternative hypothesis: Your claim about population is alternative hypothesis which you
decide on the basis of your experience, practice, hunches, and review of existing literature or
reports or research. usually denoted by or For example:
• Mahindra claim about Thar that now improve version will give mileage more than 25
is a claim and alternative hypothesis. In this example something is more than other so
Here, , called a right-tailed alternative hypothesis. This is also
known as directional hypothesis as direction of more than something is given.
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• Dolo paracetamol manufacture claim that chances of ineffectiveness of dole is less

than 2%. In this example something is less than other. So Here, , called a
left-tailed alternative hypothesis. This is also known as directional hypothesis as
direction of less than something is mentioned.
• During Covid – 19, Bharat Biotech claim that efficacy of covaxin and covi-shild is
not same. In this example nothing is more or less. You don’t have any direction that
which is one is more or less so this is called non-directional hypothesis.
, called a two-tailed alternative hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis: the complimentary of alternative is called null hypothesis. The null
hypothesis is an assumption taken during the estimation of any test statistic, that denies the
possibility of any difference from the situation present in the actual population as a whole, it
is denoted by . The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that is tested for possible rejection
under the assumption that it is true. For example:
 The null hypothesis for above alternative (Mahindra claim about Thar that now
improve version will give mileage more than 25 is a claim and alternative
hypothesis. In this example something is more than other) will be :
That now improve version of Thar will give mileage less than or equal to 25.
So null hypothesis is : ≤ 25.( μ ≤ μ1)
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 The null hypothesis for above alternative (Dolo paracetamol manufacture claim
that chances of ineffectiveness of dole is less than 2%. In this example something
is less than other) will be:
That now Dolo ineffectiveness will be more than or equal to 2%.
So null hypothesis is ≥ 2%. (μ ≥ μ1).
 The null hypothesis for above alternative hypothesis (During Covid – 19, Bharat
Biotech claim that efficacy of covaxin and covi-shild is not same.) will be:
That efficacy of Covaxin and Covi-shield vaccine is same.
So null hypothesis is: μ = μ1.
5.4.3.1How to decide right tailed or left tailed:
On the basis of alternative hypothesis.
(i) > right tailed
(ii) < Left tailed.
(iii)μ1 ≠ μ2 two tailed.
Caveat: never use equal sign in alternative. always use in null hypothesis.( ≥, or ≤, =)
ACTIVITY
Make different kind of claims to represent different kind of alternative hypothesis
in terms of directional hypothesis and non-directional hypothesis. You can also
design hypothesis on the basis of literature review and on the basis of hunches,
experiences and define them in terms of right tailed, left tailed and two tailed test
hypothesis.
5.4.4 Hypothesis testing:

On the basis of sample if you infer the population, it is called hypothesis testing. For example
if Mahindra and Mahindra claim (Hypothesis) that now new Thar mileage will be better than
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previous Thar then on the basis of sample testing of 10 (sample) from population of Thar
(1000). You can test and claim whether claim is true or not. This process of matching sample
with population is called hypothesis testing. Here we will discuss the steps of hypothesis
testing
 Setting up the hypotheses: In this step, we set up alternative hypothesis on the
basis of claim and information available in the literature etc. and then make
complementary null hypothesis H0 by assuming that the sample statistical value is
the same as the population value. Also, the alternative is said to be consistent with
the null hypothesis. The most important thing is to choose the type of alternative
(two-tailed or single-tailed) based on the testing conditions and requirements.
 Choosing the level of significance: In this step, we choose the right level of
Significance ( ) based on how accurate the estimates are and how much risk we
are willing to take. This will be decided before the sample is chosen, which means
that will be set earlier in the process. Common significance levels are 0.10 (1
chance in 10), 0.05 (1 chance in 20), and 0.01 (1 chance in 100).
 Test criterion or test statistic: In this step, we choose the best test statistic and
figure out its value(s) based on the null hypothesis.
 Conclusion: Finally, we compare the statistic value with the standard value at the
given significance level, and accordingly conclude that whether to accept or reject
the null hypothesis.
5.4.5 Hypothesis testing with mean - Student’s t-Test (t-Test):
In some cases, researchers want to test hypotheses about population means with sample sizes
that aren't big enough to be roughly estimated by the normal distribution. The t-distribution is
used when the sample size is small and the population's standard deviation is unknown. The
t-distribution is a bell-shaped distribution with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of
one, just like the standardised normal curve. When the number of samples is more than 30,
the distribution and the Z-distribution may be almost the same.
 A t-test is a type of inferential statistic that is used to see if the sample mean (x ) is
very different from the hypothetical population mean ( ) value.
 the significance of the difference between two sample means only.

 significant differences between the two sets of data.
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 The statistical significance is determined by the t-statistic, the t-distribution values,

and the degrees of freedom.
 An analysis of variance is required in order to perform a test with three or more
means.
T-test assumptions:
 Normal Distribution: The first assumption is that a plot of the data shows a bell-
shaped distribution curve, which is a normal distribution.
 Continuous dependent variable: The second assumption about t-tests is about the
size of the measurement scale. The assumption for a t-test is that the scale used to
measure the data collected is a continuous scale, like the scores on an IQ test.
 Equality of variance: The final assumption is that the variance is the same
everywhere. Homogeneous, or equal, variance happens when the standard deviations
of samples are almost the same.
 Random sample: The final assumption is that the data comes from a simple random
sample, which means that it comes from a random selection of people who are
representative of the whole population.
 Sample size is less than 30: A hypothesis test that uses the t-distribution rather than
the z- distribution. It is used when testing a hypothesis with a small sample size and
unknown σ.
5.4.6 Univariate hypothesis test using the t – test:
where
follows student’s distribution with d.f. In symbolic form
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We now compare the calculated value of with the tabulated value of a certain level
of significance. If the calculated value tabulated value of , null hypothesis is
rejected and if the value of tabulated of , null hypothesis may be accepted at
that level of significance. The tabulated values of as given below:
Illustration: suppose a teacher believes that the average marks secured by students in each
subject is 50. A data is collected from 11 students and marks obtained are as follows:
Marks 56 54 44 57 55 57 58 51 61 51 54
Do the marks confirm the teacher believe?

The first step is to state the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis:
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Next, calculate a sample mean, = 54.36 and a sample standard deviation, S =

4.5, and estimates the standard error of the mean (SEM).
Standard error of mean; SEM = SD/√N.

4.5/√11 =1.35
Next, finds the t value associated with the desired level of statistical significance. If a 95
percent confidence level is required, the significance level is .05.
So
The value of at and 10 d.f. is 2.228. As , therefore is

rejected. It means that average marks are more than 50 marks at a 5% level of
significance. For confidence interval
CI σ
X̄ ± Z×
= √n
1.35
= 54.36 ± 1.9600×
√11
54.36 ± 0.798
= a 95% confidence interval of the mean [53.56 55.15] suggests that we are 95%
confident that the population mean is between 53.56 and 11.
5.4.7 Hypothesis test of a proportion:

The hypothesis test of a proportion is conceptually same as univariate hypothesis testing but
there is a difference in the mathematical formulation of standard error of the proportion.
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Researchers often test univariate statistical hypotheses about the size and distribution of a
population. Based on the sample proportion, you can guess what the population proportion is.
Conceptually, testing a hypothesis about a proportion is the same as testing a hypothesis
when the mean is the main matter. Mathematically, the standard error of the proportion is
calculated differently.
Illustration: MIT sloan school of management published a report on link between
presence of Facebook and a deterioration in mental health among college students.
The negative mental health effects were significant: “Access to Facebook lead to an
increase in severe anxiety disorder by 20%.
In other words, the null hypothesis to be tested is that the proportion of severe anxiety
disorder among college students is .2. The researcher formulates the statistical null
hypothesis that the population proportion (π) equals 20 percent (.2).
If a researcher conducts a survey with a sample of 200 students and calculates p = .7. though
the population proportion is not known. Here we will use Z test rather than t -test as sample
size is large. If the decision will be taken at the ,01 level of significance, the critical Z value
of 2.57 is used for the hypothesis test. Using the following formula
The formula for Sp = √p(1-p)/n
Sp = estimate of the standard error of the proportion
P = proportion of successes
So
Sp = √(.2)(.2)/200 = .028
Z = p – /Sp = .2 - .8/.028 = 21.42
Here Z value of 21.42 is more than the critical value of 2.57 so the null hypothesis is
rejected.
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5.4.8 hypothesis testing for two population mean:
In this case, two independent samples and of sizes and

have been drawn from the normal populations with mean and respectively under the
assumption that the population variance is equal and equal to .
The null hypothesis about difference between group is stated as:
1= 2 or 1- 2
The comparisons are between two sample means
Illustration: Null hypothesis: There is no difference between perception of students towards

online learning between male and female students.
Male students Female students
x̄1 = 11.2 x̄2 = 14.5
S1 = 2.6 S2 = 2.1
n1 = 14 n2 = 21
S = .797
The t – value is = (11.2 – 14.5)/ .797 = 4.14
Here calculated value of t, 4.14 exceed the critical t value of 2.75. at the .01 level. In other
words, research shows that female students have more positive perception towards online
learning.
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5.5 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
In t test, we compare two mean or populations for group. For example comparison between
male and female towards attitude or perception about online learning. Here, we have only two
groups or level of the independent variable, gender (male and female). On the other hand
dependent variable is one (attitude). If in case we want to compare more than two groups then
t- test will not work. For example we want to analyse the attitude of students of primary
school, middle school and college. Here we have three groups of students (independent
variable) but one dependent variable (attitude). In this case one – way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) is the appropriate statistical tool. Here we cannot use the t – test for hypothesis
testing. So null hypothesis is:
Ho: 1= 2= 3
Ha: 1 2 3
The null hypothesis is that all the means are equal and alternative is that atleast there is
difference between two groups.
Assumptions: (i) Data is normally distributed
(ii) Groups are independent.
(iii ) Equality of Variance
Difference between groups: The difference between 1 and 2 and 3 is called difference
between group.
Difference within groups: The difference within 1 or 2 or 3 is called difference within
groups.
Simultaneously comparing mean in case of more than two level is called Anova.
Illustration:
Using the following data, perform analysis of variance (ANOVA) using α = .05
Groups I Group II Group III

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67 45 74
45 43 76
33 23 87
53 23 56
43 43 56
Sol:
SSwithin: is calculated by squaring the deviation of each score from its group mean and
summing these scores.
Where Xij = individual score.
j= group mean for the jth group
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k = number of observations in a group
n = number of jth groups.
SS between is the variability of the group means about a grand mean, is calculated by squaring
the deviation of each group mean from the grand mean, multiplying by the number of items
in the group, and summing these scores.
Where j= group mean for the jth group
t= grand mean
nj = number of items in the jth group.
SSwithin = (67 – 48.2)2 + (45-48.2) 2 + (33-48.2) 2 + (53-48,2) 2 + (43-48.2) 2 + (45-35.4) 2 + (43-

35.4) 2 + (23-35.4) 2 + (23-35.4) 2 + (74-69.8) 2 + (76-69.8) 2 + (87-69.8) 2 + (56-69.8) 2 + (56-
69.8) 2
= 1892.8
SSbetween = 5(48.2-51.13)2 + 5(35.4 – 51.13) 2 + 5(69.5 – 51.13) 2
= 3185.23
MSbetween = 3185.23/(3-1) = 1592.5
MSwithin = 1892/(15-3) = 157.6
F = 1592.5/157.6 = 10.10
Fcritical(2,12)=3.89
Decision = Reject H0
The critical value of f at the .05 level for 2 and 12 degrees of freedom indicated that
an F of 3,89 would be required to reject the null hypothesis. In this example, we
conclude that we reject the null hypothesis. It appears that all groups are different.
5.6 ERROR – I AND II
Sampling error or risk in testing hypothesis: (Error – I and II)

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How confident you are if test is repeated, are you going to get same result or not. Because
hypothesis is tested on the basis of sample. There may be chance of error while selecting the
sample. So there is chance of risk involve in the hypothesis testing. Basically two types of
risk is involved while testing hypothesis. Here we will see which risk is more problematic.
The risk arise due to different situations.
Situation 01: Mahindra and Mahindra claim about new Thar that now new engine will give
you mileage more than 25.
In this case, if null hypothesis is rejected while it was true. Then in long run company image
will be affected due to wrong message about mileage of Thar.
Situation 02: Micro -lab pharmaceutical claim about dolo paracetamol that ineffectiveness of
medicine is less than 2%.
In this case if null hypothesis is rejected while it was true then cost of risk would be at the
cost of people. So in Error I and II we discuss the two types of error while testing the
hypothesis. The main goal of sampling theory is to be able to make valid conclusions about
the parameters of the whole population based on the results of a sample. In practise, we
decide whether to accept or reject a lot after looking at a sample from it. Because of this, we
might make the following two kinds of mistakes:
• Type I Error: Rejecting the Null Hypothesis , when it is true.
• Type II Error: Accepting when it is wrong, i.e., when , is true.
In terms of probability, we can write,
The α and β are called the sizes of type I error and type II error, respectively. α is called the
producer’s Risk, and β is called the consumer’s Risk.
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is true is false
Accept No error
Reject No error
CASE STUDY
US Study: Being addicted to social media can cause anxiety and depression
According to new research published in the American Economic Review, there is a strong
link between using Facebook and feeling more anxious and sadder. But social networks
don't agree and say the evidence isn't clear. The MIT Sloan School of Management wrote a
report about how college students' mental health seems to get worse when they use
Facebook. A new study is important because it compares two different sets of data from the
early days of Facebook, from February 2004 to September 2006. Facebook was slowly
introduced to college campuses in the US. It began with Harvard. The researchers compared
how students reacted when Facebook came to a campus. When the researchers looked at the
answers to the 4.3 lakh survey from that time, they found "a significant link between college
students' use of Facebook and their mental health getting worse."
The bad effects on mental health were big: "Access to Facebook led to a 7% rise in severe
depression and a 20% rise in anxiety disorders." Researchers think that using Facebook is
about 20% as bad as losing a job. And this was before the "like" button was added to
Facebook. Another thing that was seen was that Facebook's effects on mental health got
worse over time.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Data should be normally distributed for t-test. True / False

7. Rejecting the Null Hypothesis , when it is true is called
_______________.
8. Your claim is:
a) Alternative hypothesis b) Null hypothesis
c) Both of the above d) none of the above
9. Full form of ANOVA ____________________
10. Standard error is ____________________.
11. Complementary to your claim is
a) Alternative hypothesis b) Null hypothesis
c) Both of the above d) none of the above
12. Is there any error in case hypothesis is accepted when it is true.(T/F)
13. Accepting when it is wrong, i.e., when , is true is:
(a) Error – I (c) Both a and b
(b) Error - II (d) none of the above
14. Risk in Hypothesis testing is known as
(a)Error – I (c) Both a and b
(b)Error - II (d) none of the above
15. Matching sample mean with population is known as hypothesis
testing. true/false
16. Which among the followings representing assumptions of hypothesis
testing.
(i) Data is normally distributed (iii) Equality of variance
(ii) Groups are independent. (iv) All of the above.
17. represent sample parameter (True/False)
18. You can use .( ≥, or ≤, =) in alternative hypothesis.True/False.
19. We use Sample size less then 30 in ------------------------- test.
20. In case of sample size is more then 30 we use ----------------- test.
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5.7 SUMMARY
In a statistical investigation, the interest usually lies in the assessment of the general
magnitude and the study of variation concerning one or more characteristics relating to
individuals belonging to a group. This group of individuals under study is called the
population or universe.
A finite subset of statistical individuals in a population is called a sample and the
number of individuals in a sample is called the sample size.
The two sets of individuals, population and sample, the latter being a subset, may possess
separate statistical constants in varied situations. To avoid the verbal confusion, these
constants associated with the population, e.g., the population mean (μ), variance (σ^2 ) etc.,
referred to as parameters. Similarly, the constants associated with the sample of the
respective population, e.g., the sample mean ( ), sample variance (s2),
Tests of significance are one of an important aspect of the sampling, which helps to
make conclusions based on the sample results if there is:
the deviation between the observed sample statistic and the hypothetical parameter
value, or
the deviation between two independent sample statistics; is significant or might be
attributed to chance or the fluctuations of sampling.
The null hypothesis is an assumption taken during the estimation of any test statistic,
that denies the possibility of any difference from the situation present in the actual population
as a whole, it is denoted by H0. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that is tested for
possible rejection under the assumption that it is true.
A hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis is called an alternative
hypothesis, usually denoted by H1 or Ha. As such we are liable to commit the following two
types of errors:
Type I Error: Rejecting the Null Hypothesis H0, when it is true.
Type II Error: Accepting H0 when it is wrong, i.e., when H1, is true.
A region (corresponding to a statistic t) in the sample space S which amounts to a
rejection of H0 is termed as the critical region or region of rejection.
A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to test: the sample mean ( ) differs
significantly from the hypothetical value μ of the population mean. the significance of the
difference between two sample means. a significant difference between the two datasets.
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5.8 GLOSSARY
 Hypothesis is an assumption to claim.

 Standard Error. stands for "standard error," which is the sampling distribution of a
statistic's standard deviation
 Normal Distribution: The first assumption is that a plot of the data shows a bell-
shaped distribution curve, which is a normal distribution.
 Continuous dependent variable: The second assumption about t-tests is about the
size of the measurement scale. The assumption for a t-test is that the scale used to
measure the data collected is a continuous scale, like the scores on an IQ test.
 Equality of variance: The final assumption is that the variance is the same
everywhere. Homogeneous, or equal, variance happens when the standard deviations
of samples are almost the same.
 Random sample: The final assumption is that the data comes from a simple random
sample, which means that it comes from a random selection of people who are
representative of the whole population.
1. standard error 11. b

2. False 12. True
3. a 13. b
4. a 14. c
5. Conversational style 15 true
6. True 16. (iv)
7. Error - I 17. False
8. a 18. False
9. Analysis of Variance 19. t-test
10. which is the sampling distribution of a 20. z test
statistic's standard deviation
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1. Explain the need of the testing of hypothesis. Discuss the steps of hypothesis testing.
2. Discuss a hypothesis. What types of hypotheses do you know? Discuss each of them.
3. Discuss two types of errors in the hypotheses testing. Discuss their role in testing?
4. Define the following terms:
i) Type II error.
ii) Type I error
iii) Anova
5. Write the assumptions of the following tests:
i) test
ii) test
A sample of 200 batteries made by a company give a lifetime mean of 1540 hours
with a standard deviation of 42 hours. Is it possible that a sample has been drawn
from a population with a mean life time of 1500 hours? You may use 5% level of
significance. (Given Tabular value is 13.47) (D.U 2021)
The result of students’ survey indicated that a sample of 70 students secured an
average of 80 marks in business research paper with a deviation of 12 marks. Test
the hypothesis that the value hypothesis that the marks of the population mean is 100
against the alternative that is less than 100 marks. Use 5% level of significance.
(Critical value of statistic is 1.64).
Using the following data, perform analysis of variance (ANOVA) using α = .05
Groups I Group II Group III

84 131 99
87 120 96
118 143 129
130 145 153
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Surya, P.K., Sharma, S.K. (2020) Business research methods and analytics, Taxman
publication, New Delhi
William G. Zikmund (2003), Exploring marketing research. Thomson press.
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LESSON-6
NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
Jigmet Wangdus
Assistant Professor
DDCE, Campus of Open Learning
University of Delhi
jigmet@sol-du.ac.in
STRUCTURE

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Chi-square test
6.3.1 Chi-square goodness- of-fit test
6.3.2 Chi-square test of independence
6.4 Sign test
6.4.1 One sample sign test
6.4.1 Two sample sign test
6.5 Mann-Whitney U test
6.6 Wilcoxon signed-rank test
6.7 Kruskal Wallis test
6.8 Summary
6.10 References
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6.1 OBJECTIVE
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Understand the concept of non-parametric test
2. Identify different types of non-parametric test
3. Hypothesis testing using chi-square
4. Hypothesis testing using Sign test
5. Hypothesis testing using Mann-Whitney U test
6. Hypothesis testing using Wilcoxon signed rank test
7. Hypothesis testing using Kruskal Wallis test
6.2 INTRODUCTION
Parametric tests are generally used to draw inferences about one or more population based
upon sample information from those populations by making certain assumptions about the
population distribution like t-distribution or normal distribution. When the assumption of
normality is not satisfied along with small sample size, then we can use non-parametric
statistical test which is free form the assumption of normality.
The most important and popular statistical test for nominal and ordinal data is chi-
square. A nominal scale can be constructed for affiliation to political ideology by grouping
individual according to party loyalties – so many Right-wing, so many Left-wing, so many
independent and so on. From the nominal scale we cannot characterize the strength of any
individual affiliation to political ideology; we can only know what the affiliation is. From
nominal scale we get nose-counting data which tells us in how many cases a certain trait
occurs. There is no scope of shades of Gray in nominal data ; an observation either has the
trait or not.
Nominal data are generated by sorting and counting – sorting the data into discrete,
mutually exclusive categories and then counting the frequency of occurrence within each
category.
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The non-parametric tests are generally used when the data are not normally
distributed. Therefore, it is also known as Distribution free tests.
The non-parametric test is an alternative to parametric tests such as T-Test, ANOVA,
Linear Regression which are based upon the certain assumptions of the data.
6.3 CHI-SQUARE TEST
One of the most versatile and extensive used statistical tests is chi-square . The chi-
square is a non-parametric test applied to test any hypothesis relating to categorical data.
Where Oi = Observed frequency

Ei = Expected frequency
Chi-square distribution is defined for a certain number of degrees of freedom. The degree of
freedom (nu) is equal to the number of classes or categories to be compared as reduced by
the number of restrictions imposed on the comparison.
• If we do not have to estimate population parameter from the sample statistic

for calculation of expected frequency, then = k-1
• If we have to estimate (m) population parameter from the sample statistic for
calculation of expected frequency, then = k-m-1
• When the total frequency is small and =1, then we need to introduce a
continuity correction factor equal to 0.5 in computing chi-square value.
Chi-square distribution properties:
• The chi-square value can never be negative as chi-square value is a squared

value.
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• The standard normal variable (Z) lies between -1 and 1 is approximately 68 percent,
hence will be between 0 and 1 approximately 68 percent of time. Similarly,
27 percent of the time the value lie between 1 and 4.
• The shape of chi-square distribution depends on the degree of freedom. With the
increase in the degree of freedom, the distribution trends to be normal.
• For the application of the chi-square test, the data should be given in proportions or
percentages which should be converted into frequencies.
• The height of the density function decreases as the value of the random variables
increases.
• As the degree of freedom becomes large the distribution becomes

more symmetrical. In fact, as become infinite, its limit is the normal distribution
• The distribution of chi-square can be presented graphically as in Figure given

below
. Types of chi-square tests:
• Chi-square test of goodness-of-fit
• Chi-square test of independence/ homogeneity
• Chi-square test for difference in proportions

6.3.1 Goodness-Of-Fit Tests:
The chi-square goodness-of-fit test is also known as chi-square test for single sample, is
employed in hypothesis testing situation involving single sample. It determines the
association between the two variables.
Hypothesis evaluated : In the underlaying population represented by a sample are the
observed cell frequencies different form the expected cell frequencies?
The chi-square goodness-of-fit test is used to test the hypothesis that a random variable
follows a specified (i.e., hypothesized ) distribution. The procedure employs a criterion
proposed by Karl Pearson in 1899.
The chi-square goodness-of-fit test is based upon following assumptions
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• The data is categorical/nominal. The test data should represent frequencies for k
mutually exclusive categories
• The data evaluated consist of a random sample of n independent observations.
• The expected frequency of each cell is 5 or greater.
The following are the steps of computation:
1. Formulate the hypothesis:
a. Null Hypothesis: Data is consistent with specified population proportions
b. Alternative Hypothesis: Data is not consistent with the specified population

proportions
2. Select an appropriate level of significance for testing the null hypothesis

(Ho). (E.g., 1%, 5%, 10% etc.)
3. Compute the expected frequencies (Ei ) of the occurrence of events. The

expected frequency counts at each level of the categorical variables are equal
to the sample size times that hypothesized proportion form the null hypothesis.
Ei = n×pi
Where Ei = expected frequency count at the level i,
n= sample size
pi = probability or proportion of observation in level i.
4. The formula used to calculate chi-square is
Suppose we are given a set of J categories and from sample data the observed number
of occurrences of the random variable in each category : Oj where j = 1, 2,…….j. Under the
null hypothesis we assume that a set of expected frequencies from the J categories can be
computed: Ej where j = 1,2,……,j. The data could be presented as in Table below
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Category 1 2 3 …..................................... J
Observed
frequency O1 O2 O3 …..................................... OJ
Expected
frequency E1 E2 E3 …..................................... EJ
Using Pearson’s criterion, we compute a statistic known as Pearson’s .
For the goodness of fit test, the number of degrees of freedom (v) is always i-1. One
degree of freedom is lost because the sum of the expected frequencies is forced to equal the
sum of the observed frequencies.
Null Versus alternative hypotheses
Null hypothesis Ho : Oi = Ei for all cells
Where Oi = observed frequency for ith cell
Ei = Expected frequency for ith cell
Alternative hypothesis H1 : Oi ≠ Ei for at least one cell.
Where Oi = observed frequency for ith cell
Ei = Expected frequency for ith cell
Illustration 6.1
We are given a die that we hypothesize to be fair: i.e., all faces equally likely to appear. Then,
if pj equals the probability that the kth face appears, suppose that the die is thrown 54 times
and the one-through-six faces are observed 5,8,9,14,12 and 6 times respectively. If the die is
fair, we would expect to see each face 9 times. The data are presented in table given below.
Null Hypothesis Ho : pj = 1/6 (The die is fair)
Alternate Hypothesis H1 : pj ≠ 1/6 (The die is not fair)
Level of Significance, = 0.01
Calculation of chi-square =
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Die Oi Ei (Oi-Ei) (Oi-Ei)2
1 5 9 -4 16 1.78
2 8 9 -1 1 0.11
3 9 9 0 0 0
4 14 9 5 25 2.78
5 12 9 3 9 1
6 6 9 -3 9 1
∑Oi
=54 ∑Ei 54 ∑(Oi-Ei) = 0 6.67
The critical value of chi-square with 5 degree of freedom (v = k-1) and α of 0.01 is
15.09 (given in chi-square table). Since our computed value of 6.67 is less than the critical
(15.09) we fail to reject the null hypothesis. Thus, we can conclude that the die is fair. We
could have rejected the null hypothesis if the computed exceeds the critical value of
Illustration 6.2
An automobile company routinely purchases a certain type of raw material in lots of
1,000. The purchase department spread the orders among suppliers M,N,O,P in the ratio of
2:2:1:1. Data of 48 purchase orders are randomly selected from the last one-year orders.
Supplier M,N,O and P have received 26,8,8 and 6 orders respectively. Does the purchases
were done as per the given ratio? Test at α = 0.01.
Ho: purchases are distributed in the ratio of 2:2:1:1
H1: purchases are not distributed in the ratio of 2:2:1:1
Under Ho:
Supplier M is expected to receive = 2/(2+2+1+1) = 1/3 of the purchase orders. (16)
Supplier N is expected to receive = 2/(2+2+1+1) = 1/3 of the purchase orders. (16)
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Supplier O is expected to receive = 1/(2+2+1+1) = 1/6 of the purchase orders. (8)

Supplier M is expected to receive = 1/(2+2+1+1) = 1/6 of the purchase orders. (8)
Calculation of chi-square =
Supplier Oi Ei (Oi-Ei) (Oi-Ei)2
M 26 16 10 100 6.25
N 8 16 -8 64 4
O 8 8 0 0 0
P 6 8 -2 4 0.5
∑Oi
=48 ∑ Ei = 48 0 ∑ =10.75
6.25 (given in chi-square table). Since our computed value of 10.75 is more than the
critical (6.25) so we reject the null hypothesis. Thus, we can conclude that the purchases
are not distributed in the ratio of 2:2:1:1.
Illustration 6.3
ABC Sports company manufactures cricket bat of 3 different sizes. The company claims 60%
of bats are large, 30% Medium and 10 % small. Suppose a random sample of 100 cricket bats
has 45 large size, 50 medium and 5 small sizes. Is this consistent with the company’s claim?
Use a 0.05 level of significance.
Solution:
Let pl = the proportion of large
pm = the proportion of medium
ps = the proportion of small
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Null hypothesis: Ho : pl = 0.60 pm = 0.30 pr = 0.10

Alternate Hypothesis: Ha : at least one of the proportions in the null hypothesis is false.
Calculation of expected frequency:
Expected frequency large size = 100 × 0.6 = 60
Expected frequency medium size = 100 × 0.3 = 30
Expected frequency small size = 100 × 0.1 = 10
The formula for calculation of chi-square =
Observed Expected
Bat Size (Oi) (Ei (Oi-Ei) (Oi-Ei)2
Large 45 60 -15 225 3.75
Medium 50 30 20 400 13.33
Small 5 10 -5 25 2.5
∑Oi = 100 ∑ Ei = 100 0 ∑ = 19.58
The computed value of the chi-square test is 19.58.

5.99 (given in chi-square table). Since our computed value of 19.58 is more than the
critical (6.25) so we reject the null hypothesis. Thus, we can conclude that the cricket
manufactured by ABC Sport company is not in the proportion of 6:3:1
6.3.2 Test of Independence of Variables/ Test of association
Chi-square test of independence is applied when you have two categorical variables form a
single population. It is used to determine whether there is a significant association between
the two variables. Here the data are represented in tabular form in row and column. These
tests are also termed contingency-table tests because the tables representing cross-classified
data are called contingency tables.
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For example: if you want to understand whether there is any association between gender
(Male & Female) and profession (Teacher & Doctor), then we employ test of independence
to determine whether the variables are statistically independent. Suppose the response
obtained are given below
Gender Teacher Doctor Total
Male 32 48 80
Female 16 24 40
Total 48 72 120
Here the respondents are classified into four categories: Male teacher, Female teacher, Male
Doctor and Female doctor.
The following are the steps of computation
• Formulate the hypothesis:

o Null Hypothesis: There is no association between the two variables
o Alternate Hypothesis: There is an association between the two variables
or
o Null Hypothesis: The two variables are independent of each other
o Alternate Hypothesis: The two variables are not independent of each other
• Select an appropriate level of significance for testing the null hypothesis.
• Compute the expected frequency (Ei). The expected frequency counts at each level of
the categorical variable are equal to the sample size times the hypothesized proportion
from the null hypothesis
Eij = =
Where Ei = expected frequency count at level i

N = sample size
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Ri = Total observation of ith row

Cj = Total observation of jth column
• The formula used to calculate chi-square test statistics is
Where, Oij = Observed frequency counts at ijth cell

Eij = expected frequency
r = number of rows
c = number of columns
• Estimate the table value of chi-square test statistics by using chi-square

distribution table with a degree of freedom = (r-1)(c-1) and percent of level of
significance.
• Decision rule: Compare the computed chi -square with critical value of chi-square.
If the computed value is greater than critical value (from chi-square table) then
rejects the null hypothesis. And if computed chi-square value is smaller than or
equal (<=) to critical value of chi-square then we fail to reject he null hypothesis.
Illustration 6.4
Apple a smartphone manufacturing company provides you with the following information
about age groups and the liking for a particular model of smartphones which it plans to
launch.
On the basis of above data, can we conclude that the model appeal is independent of the age
of the respondents? Use alpha = 0.05 percent.
Customer who Age (< 25) Age (25-50) Age (>50)
Like 90 60 50
Unlike 110 40 50
Null Hypothesis Ho: the model appeal is independent of age.
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Alternate hypothesis: H1 : The model appeal is not independent of age.

Level of significance = = 0.05
Decision rule: 2,0.05 > 5.9915 then reject the null hypothesis.
Calculation of Expected frequency
Customer Age (< Age (25- Age

Total
who 25) 50) (>50)
Like 90 60 50 200
100 50 50
Unlike 110 40 50 200
100 50 50
Total 200 100 100 400
Calculation of Chi-square value
Observed Expected
frequency frequency (Oi-Ei) (Oi-Ei)^2 (Oi-Ei)^2/Ei
90 100 -10 100 1

60 50 10 100 2
50 50 0 0 0
110 100 10 100 1
40 50 -10 100 2
50 50 0 0 0
Total 6
Conclusion: The computed value of the chi-square test is 6.
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The critical value of chi-square with 2 degrees of freedom (v = (c-1)(r-1) = (3-

1)*(2-1)) and α of 0.05 is 5.99 (given in chi-square table). Since our computed value 6 is
more than the critical (5.99), so we reject the null hypothesis. Thus, we can conclude that
the model appeal is not independent of age.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
True of False
6. Non-parametric test deal with cases in which the assumption of normality
of the population is not satisfied.
7. Non-parametric tests are also called distribution-free tests because they do
not involve tests related to probability distribution
8. The observed frequency of every class should be at least equal to 5.
9. The O and E used to calculate must be absolute frequency
10. In goodness-of-fit test, the rejection region lies in both tails of the
distribution.
6.4 SIGN TEST
The sign test is used to test the null hypothesis that the median of a distribution is equal to
some value. It is applicable when the objective is to compare samples from two populations
and the samples are matched pairs. It can be used a) in place of a one sample t-test b) paired
sample t-test, c) for ordered categorical data (ordinal data) where a numerical scale is
inappropriate but where it is possible to rank the observations.
Types of sign tests:
• One-sample sign test
• Two sample sign tests.

6.4.1 One sample sign test
The sign test can test if the median of a collection of numbers is significantly greater than or
less than a specified hypothesized value.
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The following steps are required to calculate the sign test:
• Calculate the median value. The value greater than the median value is treated with
positive signs and values lesser than the median value is treated as a negative sign. If the
value is equal to the median value, that observation is excluded from data, and the size of
the sample gets reduced accordingly.
• For hypothesis testing, it is assumed that positive sign values are equal to negative sign
values. Hence, the data for the small sample is assumed binomial distribution. The data
for a large sample is assumed normal distribution. Data is considered as large sample
when np and nq are at least 5. In such a situation Z-statistic is used. Formulate null (Ho)
and Alternate (H1) hypothesis:
Null hypothesis: p=½
Alternative hypothesis: p ≠ ½ (Two-tail) or p > ½ or p < ½ (One-tail)
• Select an appropriate level of significance (a) for testing the null (Ho) hypothesis.
(Usually, 0.05/0.01/0.10 is used).
• The formula used to estimate Z-test is:
z=
• Where X = observed number of positive signs in sample. For large sample (np and nq
are at least 5) X value is increased by 0.5 if X < np and decreased by 0.5 if X> np, =
mean of the binomial distribution, x= standard deviation of the binomial distribution
= np
x= =
Where n= sample size, p = probability of occurrence = ½, q =1- p = 1/2)
• Estimate the table value for critical regions by using the Z-test statistic table.
• Decision Rule: Compare Z- test computed value and critical value (given in chi-square
table) (Decision Rule of the run test).
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Illustration 6.5
In a clinical trial, survival time (weeks) is collected for 10 subjects with non Hodgkin's
lymphoma. The exact survival time was not known for one subject who was still alive after
362 weeks when the study ended. The subjects' survival times of 10 subjects are
49, 58,75, 110, 112, 132, 151, 276, 281, 362
The researcher wished to determine if the median survival time was less than or greater than
200 weeks. Use 5% significance level for testing.
Solution
The median value is given as 200 weeks.
Number of observations below 200 weeks = 7 observations Negative (-)
49,58,75,110,112,132,151
Number of observations above 200 weeks = 3 observations (+)276, 281,362
Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that the median survival is 200 weeks
Ho: p = ½
Ha: p ≠ ½
The formula used to estimate one sample Z-test is
z= = = 0.949
Where X =7. For large sample (np and nq are at least 5) X value is increased by 0.5 if X < np
and decreased by 0.5 if X > np. Here, np = 10 x ½ = 5, nq = 5. Hence, consider the sample as
large sample size. Now, X > np; X value is decreased by 0.5 which will be 7- 0.5 = 6.5
= mean of the binomial distribution, = standard deviation of the binomial distribution
np = 10 x 1/2 = 5
x= = = = 1.581
Where n= 10, p = probability of occurrence = ½, q= 1 - p = 1/2

The critical value of the Z-test at 5% level of significance lies between (±1.96). As the
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calculated value (0.949) of Z is lies between the table values (t1.96), the null hypothesis (Ho)
is accepted. Therefore, the median survival is 200 weeks.
6.4.2 Two-sample sign test
The sign test is used when two observation of the same sample is done, one before treatment
another one after the treatment. It uses only sign between two values let's say x and y. Sign
test will only observe whether x > y or x = y or x < y. The values are not used in the
computation process.
The following steps are required to calculate the sign test:
• calculate the difference between the two observation's value. The difference between
two value is given positive or negative sign. Hence two samples are taken, one with a
plus and another with a minus sign. If the values have no difference, the values are
deleted from the data and the sample size gets reduced accordingly.
• For hypothesis testing, it is assumed that positive sign values are equal to negative
sign value. Hence, the data for the small sample is assumed as binomial distribution.
The data for a large sample is assumed as normal distribution. Data is considered as
large sample size when np and nq are at least 5. In such a situation Z-statistic is used.
Formulate null (Ho) and Alternate (H1) hypothesis:
Null hypothesis: Ho = There is no difference before and after observations
Alternative hypothesis: Hi = There is a difference in before and after observations
• After that, the third (3) step to the sixth (6) step process is the same as in the one-
sample sign test.
Illustration 6.6:
Two professors have developed height measurement instrument for students. A
researcher has administered 10 students. The results are presented in the below table. Use a
5% level of significance, test the claim that there is no difference between two instruments.
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Students Researcher1 Researcher2

1 142 138
2 140 136
3 144 147
4 144 139
5 142 143
6 146 141
7 149 143
8 150 145
9 142 136
10 148 146
Solution
Difference
Students Researcher1 Researcher2
(R1-R2)
1 142 138 +
2 140 136 +
3 144 147 -
4 144 139 +
5 142 143 -
6 146 141 +
7 149 143 +
8 150 145 +
9 142 136 +
10 148 146 +
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There are 8 positive differences and 2 negative differences.

Formulate hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there is no difference between the
instruments used for height measurement.
Ho: There is no difference between the two instruments
Ha: There is a difference in two instruments
z= = = 1.582
Where X =8. For large sample (np and nq are at least 5) X value is increased by 0.5 if X < np
and decreased by 0.5 if X > np. Here, np = 10 x ½ = 5, nq = 5. Hence, consider the sample as
large sample size. Now, X > np (8>5); X value is decreased by 0.5 which will be 8- 0.5 = 7.5
= mean of the binomial distribution, = standard deviation of the binomial distribution
np = 10 x 1/2 = 5
x= = = = 1.581
Where n= 10, p = probability of occurrence = ½, q= 1 - p = 1/2

calculated value (1.581) of Z lies between the critical values (± 1.96), the null hypothesis
(Ho) is accepted. Therefore, there is no difference between the two instruments used for
measuring height.
6.5 MANN- WHITNEY U TEST
The Mann-Whitney U test is used to compare differences between two independent groups
when the dependent variable is either ordinal or continuous, but not normally distributed. The
test is used to examine whether two samples have been drawn from population with the same
means. This test is an alternative to a parametric independent sample test.
The following steps are required to calculate the Mann-Whitney U test:
1) Formulate hypothesis: The two independent samples are equal or not.
Null Hypothesis: Two samples have an equal distribution from the mean
Alternative Hypothesis: Two samples do not have equal distribution
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Or
The sample I has the higher or lower distribution of mean as compared to the II
sample
2) The two independent samples are pooled together into a single sample to provide a
rank to each observation in the pooled sample. Arrange all the observations in the
ascending order and assign ranks all. If two or more observations have the same value
then the rank is equal to the average of the ranks that otherwise be allotted in the
pooled sample.
3) Now, Segregate the sample and determine the sum of the ranks of each sample (R.
and R2). R1 and R2, is the sum of the ranks to sample one and two
4) The formula used to estimate U-test is:
U1 = – R1
U2 = – R2
And note U1+U2 =
U1 = U-test with the sample 1,

U2 = U-test with sample II,
n1 = Sample size I,
n2 = sample size II
R1 = Sum of ranks of I,
R2 = sum of ranks of II
A large sample is considered when n1 or n2 is greater than 10. Then, Z-test
used is:
Z=
Where, =
= mean of sample I, x= standard deviation of sample I

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5) Estimate the table value for critical regions by using the Z-test statistic table. ( Refer
run test step 4 for computation of z-table critical value).
6) Decision Rule: Compare Z- test computed value (given in step 4) and table value
(given in step 5)
Illustration 6.7
The following data shows the age at which type II diabetes was diagnosed in young adults.
Use the 5% level of significance to check whether age of diagnosing is different for males
and females?
Females: 20 11 17 12 18
Males: 19 22 16 29 24 20 23 25 28 10
Solution:
The two independent sample of females (n1) and males (n2) age at the time of diagnose of
type II diabetes is given.
Null Hypothesis: Ho: Two groups of males and females have an equal distribution of age
mean
Alternative Hypothesis: H: Two groups of males and females do not have an equal
distribution of age mean
Ist step is to pool the data in a large sample and arrange it in ascending order to assign rank.
Next step is to segregate the sample and determine the sum of ranks of each sample (R1and
R2)
The formula used to estimate U-test is:
U1 = – R1
= – 24.5 = 50.5
Here, n (number of females) = 5, n2 (number of males) = 10, R1 = 24.5, R2 = 95.5

A large sample is considered when n1 or n2 is at least 10. Then, Z-test used is:
Z= = 3.123
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Where , = =
= = 8.165
= mean of sample I = 25, x= standard deviation of sample I= 8.165
Age M/F Rank Ri Females R2 Male
10 M 1 2
11 F 2 2
12 F 3 3
16 M 4 4
17 F 5 5
18 F 6 6
19 M 7 7
20 F 8.5 8.5
20 M 8.5 8.5
22 M 10 10
23 M 11 11
24 M 12 12
25 M 13 13
28 M 14 14
29 M 15 15
Total 120 24.5 95.5
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calculated value (3.123) of Z is higher than the table values (1.96), the null hypothesis (Ho) is
not accepted. Therefore, there is a difference in two groups of males and females as they do
not have an equal distribution of age mean.
6.6 WILCOXON SIGNED-RANK TEST
Wilcoxon signed-rank test is used to test the paired or two related samples means. It is used
to examine whether their population mean ranks are different in two related samples or not. It
Can be used as an alternative to paired t-test. The assumptions of the normal distribution are
not required in the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. It is a non-parametric test that can be used to
determine whether two dependent samples were selected from populations having the same
distribution or not.
The following steps are required to calculate the Wilcoxon signed-rank test:
1. Formulate the hypothesis
Null Hypothesis; There is no difference in two related sample mean
Alternate Hypothesis: There is a difference in two related sample mean
2. Compute the difference between the two paired samples. Retain the positive and negative
values but remove the value with no difference (zero) which reduces. sample size
accordingly.
3. Convert the difference in values into absolute values by removing their signs and assign
the rank to the absolute difference values. If two or more observations have the same
value then the rank is equal to the average of the ranks.
4. Segregate the ranks of absolute differences into positive and negative ranks. The
division. is possible by re-looking at the signs given in first step difference columns.
5. Calculate the sum of ranks of positive and negative values which is represented as T+
and T- respectively. Select T be the smaller of T+/ T-.
6. The formula used to estimate Z-test is:
Z=
Where, =
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N = sample size, T+ = sum of positive absolute ranks differences, T- = sum of

negative absolute ranks differences, T = smaller of T+ or T-,
= mean of sample I, x= standard deviation of sample T
7) Estimate the table value for critical regions by using the Z-test statistic table.
test step 4 for computation of z-table critical value)
8) Decision Rule: Compare Z- test computed value (given in step 6) and table value (given in
step 7)
Illustration 6.8
The below table provides details of people who lost weight due to medicine -X. The table
provides weight details of 12 people before and after taking medicine - X. The
weight (in kgs) is given below
Before 7 5 8 9 4 6 8 10 10 6 7 8
After 6 5 3 8 4 9 12 14 13 7 5 11
Does the medicine significantly (5%) impact reduction in weight?

Solution:
The paired samples are given before and after medicine 'X.
Null Hypothesis: Ho: There is no impact on weight reduction due to medicine X*
Alternative Hypothesis: H: There is an impact on weight reduction due to medicine X
N = 11, T+ = 47, T- = 19, T (smaller value of T+ / T-) = 19
Z= = = -1.244
Where, = =
= = 11.247
= mean of sample T, x= standard deviation of sample T
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d
(Before - The absolute The rank of Negative Positive
Before After After) value d absolute d rank rank
7 6 -1 1 2 2
5 5 0 0 6.5 6.5
8 3 -5 5 11 11
9 8 -1 1 2 2
4 4 0 0
6 9 3 3 6.5 6.5
8 12 4 4 9.5 9.5
10 14 4 4 9.5 9.5
10 13 3 3 6.5 6.5
6 7 1 1 2 2
7 5 -2 2 4 4
8 11 3 3 6.5 6.5
Total 66 19 47
calculated value (-1.244) of Z lies between the table values (±1.96), the null hypothesis (Ho)
is accepted. Therefore, there is no impact on weight reduction due to medicine X.
6.7 KRUSKAL- WALLIS TEST
The Kruskal -Wallis test is used to compare differences of more than two independent groups
when the dependent variable is either ordinal or continuous, but not normally distributed. It is
also used when the sample size is very small. The test is used to examine whether the 'n'
number of samples has been drawn from population with the same mean or median. This test
is an alternative to a parametric one-way ANOVA test.
The following steps are required to calculate the Kruskal-Wallis test:
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1) Formulate the hypothesis

Null Hypothesis: the samples (groups) come from populations with the same
distribution.
Alternative Hypothesis: At least one of the samples (group) comes from
different populations
2) The 'n' independent samples are pooled together into a single sample to provide a rank
to each observation in the pooled sample. Arrange all the observations in the
ascending order and assign rank to all. If two or more observations have the same
value then the rank is equal to the average of the ranks that otherwise be allotted in
the pooled sample.
3) Now, segregate the sample and determine the sum of ranks of each sample (r1,r2,…)
Let ri be the sum of all ranks r1+ r2 +.... till ith sample.
4) The formula used to estimate H-test and follows the chi-square distribution:
H=
Where k= number of groups, n = total number of elements in k groups

5) Estimate the table value for critical regions by using chi-square distribution to test the
null hypothesis with a degree of freedom, df=k-l and at alpha percent level of
significance.
6) Decision Rule: If the Computed value > Critical Table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. In other words, it the computed value <= Critical Table value, the null
hypothesis is accepted.
Illustration 6.9:
Does physical exercise alleviate depression? The researcher finds some depressed
people and check that they are all equivalently depressed. The allocation of each person is
done randomly to one of three groups: no exercise; doing jogging every day or doing gym
every day. At the end of the month, each participant needs to rate how depressed they feel
now on a Likert scale that runs from 1 ("totally miserable") to 100 (ecstatically happy"). The
table is given below:
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NE Jog Gym
23 22 59
26 27 66
51 39 38
49 29 49
58 46 56
37 48 60
29 49 56
44 65 62
Use 5% level of significance to check whether physical exercise significantly effects in the
alleviation of depression or not?
Solution:
The researcher has three sample groups with no exercise, doing jogging and gymming.
The hypothesis is:
Null Hypothesis: Ha: Alleviation of depression level is the same from all types of physical
exercises
Alternative Hypothesis: H1: Alleviation of depression level in at least two is different from
all
types of physical exercises
The next step is to pool the data of all the samples and arrange them in ascending order. After
that assign rank and segregate based on type of physical exercise. Then do some of the ranks
of each sample and label it 'r1'. 'r2', 'r3.
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Pooled K R1 R2 R3
Ascending order
data sample ri Rank (NE) (Jog) (Gym)
23 NE 22 Jog 1 1
26 NE 23 NE 2 2
51 NE 26 NE 3 3
49 NE 27 Jog 4 4
58 NE 29 NE 5.5 5.5
37 NE 29 Jog 5.5 5.5
29 NE 37 NE 7 7
44 NE 38 Gym 8 8
22 Jog 39 Jog 9 9
27 Jog 44 NE 10 10
39 Jog 46 Jog 11 11
29 Jog 48 Jog 12 12
46 Jog 49 NE 14 14
48 Jog 49 Jog 14 14
49 Jog 49 Gym 14 14
65 Jog 51 NE 16 16
59 Gym 56 Gym 17.5 17.5
66 Gym 56 Gym 17.5 17.5
38 Gym 58 NE 19 19
49 Gym 59 Gym 20 20
56 Gym 60 Gym 21 21
60 Gym 62 Gym 22 22
56 Gym 65 Jog 23 23
62 Gym 66 Gym 24 24
Total 300 76.5 79.5 144
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The formula used to estimate H-test and follows the y distribution:
H=
H=
= 7.27
Where k = 3 and n = 8+8+8 = 24
Estimate table value by using chi-square distribution with degree of freedom, df =k -1 = 3-l
=2. And at 5% level of significance. The table value is 5.991
Here, computed value (7.27) > Critical Table value (5.991). The null hypothesis (Ho) is
rejected. That means alleviation of depression level in at least two is different from all types
of physical exercises. There is a significant effect of exercise on depression levels.
Illustration 6.10: In a college 4 (Four) different groups of students were randomly assigned
to be taught by 4 different teachers, and their achievement test scores were recorded. Are the
distributions of test scores the same, or do they differ?
1 2 3 4
67 75 59 94
87 69 78 89
73 83 67 80
79 81 62 88
Solution: Rank the 16 measurements from 1 to 16, and calculate the four rank sums.
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1 2 3 4
67 (3) 75 (7) 59 (1) 94 (16)

87 (13) 69 (5) 78 (8) 89 (15)
73 (6) 83 (12) 67 (4) 80 (10)
79 (9) 81 (11) 62 (2) 88 (14)
Ti 31 35 15 55
H =
= 8.96
H0: the distributions of scores are the same
Ha: the distributions of scores are not same
Rejection region: For a right tailed chi-square test with α = .05 and df = 4-1 =3, reject H 0 if
H ≥ 7.81.
Reject H0. There is sufficient evidence to indicate that there is a difference in test scores for
the four teaching techniques.
6.8 KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TEST
Kolmogorov- Smirnov test or K-S Test is a nonparametric test named after Andrey
Kolmogorov and Nikolai Smirnov which is used as a goodness of fit and is suitable for small
sample size. It is the test of the equality of continuous or discontinuous, one-dimensional
probability distributions that can be used to compare a sample with a reference probability
distribution (one-sample K–S test), or to compare two samples (two-sample K–S test). In
essence, the test answers the question "What is the probability that this collection of samples
could have been drawn from that probability distribution?" or, in the second case, "What is
the probability that these two sets of samples were drawn from the same (but unknown)
probability distribution?". It is named after Andrey Kolmogorov and Nikolai Smirnov.
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Figure 6.1: Illustration of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic. The red line is a model CDF,
the blue line is an empirical CDF, and the black arrow is the K–S statistic
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic quantifies a distance between the empirical distribution
function of the sample and the cumulative distribution function of the reference distribution,
or between the empirical distribution functions of two samples. The null distribution of this
statistic is calculated under the null hypothesis that the sample is drawn from the reference
distribution (in the one-sample case) or that the samples are drawn from the same distribution
(in the two-sample case). In the one-sample case, the distribution considered under the null
hypothesis may be continuous, purely discrete or mixed. In the two-sample case, the
distribution considered under the null hypothesis is a continuous distribution but is otherwise
unrestricted. However, the two-sample test can also be performed under more general
conditions that allow for discontinuity, heterogeneity and dependence across samples.
Let’s assume that we have observation X1,X2…………Xn, which come from a distribution
P. The KS Test is used here to test whether the sample belong to P distribution.
Null Hypothesis H0 = the sample come from P distribution
Alternate Hypothesis H1 = the sample do not come from P distribution
The value of test statistics D is calculated as:
D = Maximum |Fo(X)−Fr(X)|
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Where:
• F0(X) = Observed cumulative frequency distribution of a random sample of n
observations.
• and F0(X) = k/n = (No. of observations ≤ X)/(Total no. of observations).
• Fr(X) = The theoretical frequency distribution.
The critical value of D is found from the K-S table values for one sample test.
Acceptance Criteria: If calculated value is less than critical value accepts null hypothesis.
Rejection Criteria: If calculated value is greater than table value rejects null hypothesis.
Illustration 6.11: Data was collected from 60 students (12 from each program) enrolled in
different programs to understand the intention of student to join the NCC.
Course B.Sc. Maths B.A. Eco B.Com MBA BMS

Number of 5 9 11 19 16
students
It was expected that 12 students from each class would join the NCC. Using the K-S test to
find if there is any difference among student classes with regard to their intention of joining
the NCC.
Solution:
H0: There is no difference among students of different program with respect to their intention
of joining the NCC.
We develop the cumulative frequencies for observed and theoretical distributions.
No. of students interested in FO(X)
Streams FT(X) = T/N ||FO(X)−FT(X)|
joining =O/N
Observed Theoretical
(O) (T)
B.Sc.
10 12 0.1667 0.2 0.17
Maths
B.A.
11 12 0.1833 0.2 0.18
Eco
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B.Com 15 12 0.25 0.2 0.25

BMS 10 12 0.1667 0.2 0.17
MBA 14 12 0.2333 0.2 0.23
Test statistic |D||D| is calculated as:

D=Maximum|F0(X)−FT(X)|= 0.25
The table value of D at 5% significance level is given by
D0.05= 1.36/√n = 1.36/√60 = 0.175
Since the calculated value (0,25) is greater than the critical value,(0.175) hence we reject the
null hypothesis and conclude that there is a difference among students of different streams in
their intention of joining the Club.
K-S Two Sample Test
In case of two independent samples, we can use the K-S two sample test. The test is used to
test the agreement between two cumulative distributions. The null hypothesis (H0) states that
there is no difference between the two distributions. The D-statistic is calculated in the same
manner as the K-S One Sample Test
Formula
D=Maximum|Fn1(X)−Fn2(X)|
Where −
• n1 = Observations from first sample.
• n2 = Observations from second sample.
It has been seen that when the cumulative distributions show large maximum deviation |D| it
is indicating towards a difference between the two sample distributions.
The critical value of D for samples where n1=n2 and is ≤ 40, the K-S table for two sample
case is used. When n1 and/or n2 > 40 then the K-S table for large samples of two sample test
should be used. The null hypothesis is accepted if the calculated value is less than the table
value and vice-versa.
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6.9 SUMMARY
• Non-parametric tests make fewer and less stringent assumptions like data is not
requirement to be normally distributed, data is drawn by random sampling, variables
association can be non-linear and observations are independent of each other. The
test is mainly used non-metric data i.e., ordinal or nominal.
• The Chi-square test is a non-parametric test used for mainly two purposes. First it
determines whether a sample data matches the population. This is a test of goodness
of fit. Secondly, it determines the association between the two variables. The
comparison of two contingency (categorical) variables are checked to find whether
they are related or not. This is a test of the independence of variables. Chi-square test
has certain properties like data is unsymmetrical values greater than or equal to zero
and categorical variables.
• The sign test is used to test the null hypothesis that the median of a distribution is
equal to some value. It can be used a) in place of a one-sample t-test b) in place of a
paired t t-test some value. or c) for ordered categorical data where a numerical scale
is inappropriate but where it is possible to rank the observations.
• The Mann-Whitney U test is used to examine whether two samples have been drawn
from population with the same mean. This test is an alternative to a parametric
independent sample test.
• The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is used to test the paired or two related samples
means. It is used to examine whether their populations mean ranks are different in
two related
samples or not. It can be used as an alternative to paired t-test.
• The Kruskal-Wallis test is used to examine whether the 'n' number of samples has
been drawn from populations with the same mean or median. This test is an
alternative to a parametric one-way ANOVA test.
• Kolmogorov- Smirnov test or K-S Test is a nonparametric test which is used as a

goodness of fit and is suitable for small sample size.
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1. T 2. F, 3. F 4. T 5. F
MCQ Questions
1. The nonparametric equivalent of an unpaired samples t-test is
a) Sign test
b) Wilcoxon signed-rank test
c) Mann-Whitney U test
d) Kruskal-Wallis test
2. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test compares
a) Two populations
b) Three or more populations
c) A sample mean to the population mean
d) None of these
3. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test can be
a) Upper tailed
b) Lower tailed
c) Either of upper tailed or lower tailed
d) None of these
4. If a Chi-square goodness of fit test has 6 categories and an N=30, then the correct
number of degrees of freedom is
a) 5
b) 6
c) 28
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d) 29
5. Comparing the times-to-failure of radar transponders made by firms A, B, and C,

based on an airline’s sample experience with the three types of instruments, one may
well call for:
a) A Kolmogorov-Smirnove test
b) A Kruskal-Wallis test
c) A Wilcoxon rank-sum test
d) A Spearman rank-correlation test
6. Which of the following test use rank sums?
a) F test
b) Chi-square and Sign tests
c) Runs test
d) Kruskal-Wallis and Wilcoxon test
7. In the Kruskal-Wallis test of samples, the appropriate number of degrees of freedom

is
a) K
b) K-1
c) K-2
d) n-K
8. When using the Sign test, if two scores are tied, then we
a) Count them
b) Discard them
c) Depends upon the scores
d) None of these
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9. The Mann-Whitney U test is preferred to a t-test when

a) Data are paired
b) Sample sizes are small
c) The assumption of normality is not met
d) Samples are dependent
10. The sign test assumes that the samples are
a) Independent
b) Dependent
c) Have the same mean
d) None of these
11. The sign test is
a) Less powerful than that of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test
b) More powerful than the pared sample t-test
c) More powerful than the Wilcoxon signed-rank test
d) Equivalent to the Mann-Whitney test
12. Which of the following test is most likely assessing the null hypothesis of “the
number of violations per apartment in the population of all city apartments is
binomially distributed with a probability of success in any one trial of $P=0.4”
a. The Kolmogorov-Smirnove test
b. The Kruskal-Wallis test
c. The Mann-Whitney test
d. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test
13. The Wilcoxon signed-rank is used
a) Only with independent samples
b) Only in matched pairs samples
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c) As an alternative to the Kruskal-Wallis test

d) To test for randomness
14. Which of the following tests must be two-sided?
a) Kruskal-Wallis test
b) Wilcoxon Signed rank test
c) Runs test
d) Sign test
15. In testing for the difference between two populations, it is possible to use
a) The Wilcoxon rank-sum test
b) The sign test
c) Either of the above
d) None of the these
Answers MCQ
1. d) Kruskal-Wallis test
2. a) Two populations
3. c) Either of upper tailed or lower tailed
4. a) 5
5. b) A Kruskal-Wallis test
6. d) Kruskal-Wallis and Wilcoxon test
7. b) K-1
8. b) Discard them
9. c) The assumption of normality is not met
10. b)Dependent
11. a)Less powerful than that of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test
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12. a. The Kolmogorov-Smirnove test

13. b)Only in matched pairs samples
14. d)Sign test
15. c)Either of the above
Questions
16. A poker-dealing machine is supposed to deal cards at random, as if from an infinite
deck. In a test, you counted 1600 cards, and observed the following: Spades 404
Hearts 420 Diamonds 400 Clubs 376 Could it be that the suits are equally likely? Or
are these discrepancies too much to be random?.
17. A genetics engineer was attempting to cross a tiger and a cheetah. She predicted a
phenotypic outcome of the traits she was observing to be in the following ratio 4
stripes only: 3 spots only: 9 both stripes and spots. When the cross was performed and
she counted the individuals she found 50 with stripes only, 41 with spots only and 85
with both. According to the Chi-square test, did she get the predicted outcome?
18. The personnel department of a large company wanted to see if there is any pattern in
the casual leave taken by the employees on weekdays. A random sample of 132 cases
is taken and classified by the day of the week the leave was taken. The observed
frequencies are given below:
Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
Observed frequency: 21 26 12 15 23 35
Can the personnel department conclude that there is no difference among days of
week insofar as casual leave is concerned? Test at 5 percent level of significance.
19. The divisional manager of a retail chain believes that the average number of
customers entering each of the five stores in his division weekly is the same. In a
given week, the manager reports the following number of customers in the five stores:
3,000; 2,960; 3,100; 2,780; and 3,160. Test the divisional manager's belief at 5
percent level of significance.
20. In setting sales targets, the marketing manager makes the assumption that order
potentials are the same for each of the four sales territories. A sample of 200 sales
data is given below:
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Sales Territories
I II III IV
120 95 118 72
Should the manager's assumption be rejected? Use a = 0.05.
21. A sample analysis of examination results of 1,000 students was made. It was found
that 260 students had failed, 110 students secured first division, 420 secured second
division and the rest obtained third division. Are these figures commensurate with the
general examination result which is in the ratio of 2:1:4:3, respectively, for the
various categories? You are given that the critical value of chi-square for 3 degrees of
freedom at 5% level of significance is 7.81
22. The following table gives the number of car accidents in Delhi that occurred during
various days of the week.
Day Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
No. of accidents: 14 16 8 12 11 9 14
Test whether the accidents are uniformly distributed over the week.
23. 7. A die is tossed 180 times with the following results:
No. Turned Up: 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency: 25 35 40 22 32 26
Test the hypothesis that the die is unbiased. Take a = 0.05.
24. A survey of 300 families, with three children each, selected at random gave the
following results:
No. of Male Children: 0 1 2 3
No. of Families: 60 87 93 60
Are these data consistent with the hypothesis that male and female births are equally
likely, at a lev of significance of 0.01?
25. The first proof of 200 pages of a book containing 560 pages revealed the number of
printing errors: following distribution of the
No. of errors in a page: 0 1 2 3 4 5
Total
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No. of pages: 112 63 20 3 1 1 200

Fit a Poisson distribution corresponding to these data and test the goodness of fit.
6.12 REFERENCES
1.Aczel, Amir D., Sounderpandian, J.,& Saravanan P. (2012). Complete Business

2. Albright, S.C.,& Winston, W.L. (2015).Business Analytics: Data Analysis and
Cengage Learning.
7. Stine, R.E., & Foster, D. (2013). Statistics for Business: Decision Making and Analysis
(2nd ed.). India: Pearson Education
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LESSON-7
CORRELATION, REGRESSION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Dr. Rituraj Saroha
Content Writer
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
rituraj.saroha@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

7.2 Introduction
7.3 Concepts of Covariance and Correlation
7.3.1 Covariance
7.3.2 Correlation
7.4 Regression Analysis
7.4.1 Fitting of linear model
7.4.2 Using regression for prediction
7.5 Summary
7.7 References
After going through the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• Understand the concepts of covariance, correlation and regression
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• Learn about the fundamentals of linear regression
• Appreciate the technique of fitting of linear regression model
• Discover the practical applications of linear regression for prediction
7.2 INTRODUCTION
This lesson will introduce you to the statistical concepts of covariance, correlation and
regression. Further, it will help you appreciate the techniques of building and fitting of a
linear regression model along with its applicability in predicting future statistical outcomes.
As in the previous lessons, the learner has already had a fair idea of various relevant
statistical techniques including sampling and hypothesis testing, this lesson will add to the
previously acquired knowledge base of the learner. Further, the new knowledge provided in
the lesson will help you interestingly appreciate how the learnt concepts are put to practical
uses in real-life scenarios.
CONCEPTS OF COVARIANCE AND CORRELATION
The lesson attempts to make the learner understand in simple terms the statistical concepts of
covariance and correlation:
7.3.1 Covariance:
Covariance is a statistical tool used to assess the directional relationship between two random
variables i.e. how a variable moves with regard to the direction of the other variable’s
movement. In simple terms, it lets you understand if a variables’ value will increase or
decrease in relation to the increase or decrease in the other variable’s value. It studies how
two variables change in comparison to one another. A positive covariance between two
variables means that the two variables increase or decrease together while a negative
covariance denotes that the two variables move in opposite directions. However, it does not
indicate the degree to which the two variables being measured move or increase/decrease in
relation to one another. A covariance of zero means that there is an unclear directional
relationship between the variables being measured i.e. an increase in the value of a variable is
equally likely to be paired with either an increase or decrease in the value of the other
variable under study.
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As learnt in the previous lessons, in order to statistically study the behaviour of two variables,
a number of observations are taken into consideration. So, in order to study the directional
relationship between the two variables, it is the directional relationship between the mean
scores of the two variables which is studied. Thus, covariance measures how data points are
distributed around a calculated mean.
Covariance is measured in units. Covariance formula deals with the calculation of data
points in relation to their movement from the average value in a dataset. As an example, the
covariance between two random variables X and Y i.e. Cov (X, Y) can be calculated using
the formula mentioned below (for population):
While for a sample covariance, the covariance formula is slightly tweaked as mentioned
below:
where,
Xi denotes the values of the X-variable
Yj denotes the values of the Y-variable
denotes the mean value of the X-variable
denotes the mean value of the Y-variable
n denotes the number of data points
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ACTIVITY
Suppose Mr. X is an investor whose existing portfolio of stocks owned by him
tracks the performance of the Nifty 50 stock market index. Now, Mr. X wishes to
include the stock of NNN Corp. But, before adding the stock to his portfolio he
wants to assess the directional relationship between the performance of his stock
and that of Nifty 50 as he doesn’t want to own a stock that tends to move in the
same direction as Nifty 50 as that might increase the unsystematic risk of his
portfolio. How can you help Mr. X make his decision?
Suggested course of action:
• Mr. X can obtain the average stock prices of NNN corp.’s stock along
with the yearly average figures of Nifty 50 index for the last 5 years and
calculate the mean scores for both.
• The differences between the respective stock prices and index values are
to be calculated from their respective mean values and the resultants be
multiplied with each other to be finally divided by four to give sample
covariance .
• If a positive covariance is found, it would indicate that the stock price and
the Nifty 50 index would tend to move in the same direction and thus, the
stock should not be bought.
7.3.2 Correlation:
Correlation is the statistical tool that measures the degree to which two random variables
move or behave in relation to each other. Thus, correlation measures the strength of
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relationship between the two variables. The correlation between two variables is determined
by the value of correlation coefficient which ranges between -1 and +1. A perfect positive
correlation between two variables denotes that the value of correlation coefficient is +1 while
that in case of perfect negative correlation will be -1. A positive correlation between two
variables means that if the value of one variable increase than the value of the other variable
will increase too and similar will be the case while the variable values are on decline. A
perfect positive correlation means that the two variables under study will move in a similar
manner i.e., simultaneously increase or decrease together for absolute 100% of the times. For
example, if the prices of the oil related stocks increase in the stock market while the gas-
related stock prices tend to increase as well, the both will be said to be positively correlated
with each other. And, the more predictably the two given types of stock prices continue to
increase or decrease together, their correlation coefficient will continue moving closer to +1
i.e., towards perfect positive correlation. Likewise, is the case for negative or perfect negative
correlation wherein the variables under study move in reverse direction with respect to each
other. For example, the height above sea level and temperature shares a negative correlation
between them as the temperature drops as the height above sea level increases. A zero
correlation is said to exist between the two variables if they share absolutely no relationship
between themselves. For example, the level of intelligence vis-à-vis the amount of tea
consumed could possibly be case of zero correlation if tested statistically.
There are several methods used to calculate the correlation between the variables. The most
commonly used method for measuring the strength of relationship between two variables is
calculating the coefficient of correlation through product moment method or Karl Pearson’s
coefficient of correlation or ‘r’ (also known as Pearson’s R statistical test) which measures
the linear relationship between the two variables under study.
• Pearson’s correlation coefficient for population:

When Karl Pearson's correlation coefficient is calculated for a population, it is commonly
represented by ρ (rho). The formula for calculating ρ for a given a pair of random variables
(X,Y) is as given below:
where,
Cov (X,Y) is the covariance between X and Y
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is the standard deviation of X
is the standard deviation of Y
• Pearson’s correlation coefficient for sample:

Pearson's correlation coefficient for a sample can be calculated using the formula mentioned
below:
where,
n is sample size
, are the individual sample points
, are the respective sample means
ACTIVITY
Count the number of glasses of water you consume in a day and find out the daily
average temperature of your city for a week. On the basis of the data so collected,
find out what level of correlation exists between the number of water glasses
consumed in a day and the average daily temperature.
Illustration 7.1: Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the data pertaining to a sample
as given below:
X 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Y 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Solution:
X X- (X - )2 Y Y- (Y - )2 (X - (Y-
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50 -150 22500 10 -30 900 4500
100 -100 10000 20 -20 400 2000
150 -50 2500 30 -10 100 500
200 0 0 40 0 0 0
250 50 2500 50 10 100 500
300 100 10000 60 20 400 2000
350 150 22500 70 30 900 4500
∑ 70000 - - 2800 14000
= = 200
= = 40
= 265
= 53
By substituting values in the formula, we get:
The calculated value of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient as 1 denotes a perfect positive
correlation between X and Y variables.
Illustration 7.2: A sample of five pairs of the ages of husbands and their wives is taken as
given below. Calculate Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient between the ages of husbands
and their wives and interpret the value of correlation coefficient.
Husband’s age in years (X) 21 23 27 29 31 35 37
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Wife’s age in years (Y) 19 20 25 22 29 32 35

Solution:
X X- (X - )2 Y Y- (Y - )2 (X - (Y-
21 -8 64 19 -7 49 56
23 -6 36 20 -6 36 36
27 -2 4 25 -1 1 2
29 0 0 22 -4 16 0
31 2 4 29 3 9 6
35 6 36 32 6 36 36
37 8 64 35 9 81 72
∑ 208 - - 228 208
= = 29
= = 26
= 14.42
= 15.10
By substituting values in the formula, we get:
The calculated value of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient as + 0.96 denotes a high degree
positive correlation between the ages of husbands and their wives for the chosen sample.
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7.4 REGRESSION ANALYSIS
It was Sir Francis Galton (1885) who introduced the term “regression” during his
study which postulated that the average height of the children of tall parents tends to
“regress” or move back towards the mean height of the population. He presented the term to
imply it as a process of predicting one variable from analysing the values of the other
variable. Regression as a tool of statistical analysis is employed to ascertain the inter-
relationships or associations among the various variables which happen to occur in any given
set of collected data. It can indicate the degree of strength of such inter-relationships and also
ascertain their statistical significance i.e., whether or not the observed inter-relationships or
associations exist due to chance or they exist owing to some logical reasons which warrant
further investigation. Thus, regression is a potent tool for statistical exploration and inference
that can also be used for predicting future results on the basis of the past observations.
‘Linear Regression’ is a scientific method or a statistical procedure of reliably
predicting the future values of a ‘dependent variable’ based on the values of one or more
variables known as ‘independent variables. It is a way of quantifying the causal effect of one
or more independent variables upon the dependent variable. For example, it can be used to
predict upto a certain degree the expected change in quantity demanded of a commodity in
case its price is increased or decreased. However, the prediction of future values is always an
estimate which can be reported to be close to the actual values only within a certain degree of
confidence or ‘confidence interval’.
• Simple Linear Regression:

It is the simplest form of linear regression where there is only one independent
variable under study in order to predict the values of a single dependent variable. For
example, a firm’s executive may try to predict the firm’s sales on the basis of rate of GDP
growth in the country using simple linear regression.
Simple linear regression model in the form of a regression line is stated as:
Yi = a + bXi + ei
where,
Yi is the dependent variable
Xi is the independent variable
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ei is the unpredictable random element or residual or error term

a represents the Y-intercept of the regression line, which can be calculated as
a (intercept) =
b is a constant which represents the slope of the regression line, which can be
calculated as
b (slope) =
Illustration 7.3 : Find simple linear regression equation for the following two sets of data for
dependent variable ‘y’ and independent variable ‘x’:
x 2 5 6 9 8 3 7
y 3 7 4 10 5 6 4
Solution:
x y x2 xy
2 3 4 6
5 7 25 35
6 4 36 24
9 10 81 90
8 5 64 40
3 6 9 18
7 4 49 28
∑x = 40 ∑y = 39 ∑ x2 = 268 ∑xy = 241
n=7
b (slope) = = = = 0.46
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a (intercept) = = = = 2.94
Simple linear regression line is denoted by the equation y = a + bx i.e.

y = 2.94 + 0.46x
• Multiple Linear Regression:

When more than one independent variable are studied in order to predict one dependent
variable, it is a multiple linear regression. It is an extension of simple linear regression,
wherein a number of independent or explanatory variables contribute to predict the outcomes
of a dependent variable.
The basic model of multiple linear regression is similar to that of simple linear
regression and is as described below:
Yi = a + b1Xi1 + b2Xi2 +…………+ bpXip + ei
for each observation i = 1, ………. , n
In the above-mentioned formula, n observations are considered for one dependent
variable and p independent variables. Thus, Yi is the ith observation of the dependent variable,
Xij is ith observation of the jth independent variable, where j = 1, 2, ..., p. bj denotes the values
of the parameters to be determined, and ei is the ith independent identically distributed normal
error.
7.4.1 Fitting of the linear model

The term ‘fitness of model’ in terms of statistics implies the extent to which the predicted
outcome fits or matches with the actual observations made. A regression model is said to be a
well-fitted model if the predicted results are close to the actually observed data values. In
order to statistically measure the goodness of fit of any regression model, one can take into
account the following measures:
• Standard error of estimate:
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This indicator of goodness of fit which is also known as standard error of regression
measures the standard deviation of the error term or residual of the predicted regression
model. It measures the average distance that the observed values fall from the predicted
regression line. Smaller values of standard error of regression indicates a better fit as they
mean that the actual observations are closer to the fitted line. Thus, it is a measure to assess
the precision of the predictions made using the regression model. The formula for calculation
of the standard error of estimate for a linear regression model with one independent variable
is given as follows:
SEE = =
where, the variable names represent the same as already explained above.
Although the standard error of estimate gives some indication of how certain one can be
about a particular prediction of dependent variable (Y) using the regression equation, it still
does not tell how well the independent variable explains the variation in the dependent
variable.
• Coefficient of Determination (R2):
In order to determine how well the independent variable explains the variation in the
dependent variable, the measure of coefficient of determination i.e. R2 is employed. It
measures the fraction of total variance in dependent variable that can be explained by the
independent variable in a regression model. The coefficient of determination or R-squared is
a fraction of total variation that can be explained by the regression model. So, if the R2 of a
model is 0.50, it implies that approximately half of the observed variations in the outcome
can be explained by the model's inputs. The formulae for calculating the R2 are as mentioned
below:
R2 =
= 1-
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= 1-
where,
Total variation = i.e. summation of squared deviation from the mean
( of the dependent variable Y
Unexplained variation = i.e. summation of squared deviation from the

predicted value ( ) of the dependent variable Y
• Adjusted R-squared:
Adjusted R-squared is a better indicator of goodness of fit for a regression model as

compared to the coefficient of determination (R2). It is a modified version of R-squared that
has been adjusted for the number of independent variables in the model. The value of
adjusted R-squared increases when the newly added independent variable or predictor
improves the model more than what would be expected by chance. On the other hand, it
decreases when a predictor improves the model by less than expected. Because of this, the
adjusted R2 is a better indicator of goodness of model-fit. The value of adjusted R-squared is
positive and not negative. Also, it is always lower than the value of R-squared. Increasing the
number of independent variables or predictors which are included in a regression model tends
to increase the R-squared value for the model, which entices the makers of the model to add
even more variables. This is called overfitting and can return a superfluously high R-squared
value which just creates an illusion of improved fitness of model. Therefore, the adjusted R-
squared is a measure used to ascertain how reliable the model-fit is and how much of it is
actually determined by the addition of new independent variables.
7.4.2 Using regression for prediction

Regression equations are quite commonly used in order to predict future outcomes on
the basis of the study of the given independent variables or predictors. This property of
regression analysis lets it find applications in a number of fields of research studies. The
coefficients in the regression equation denote the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. The most common application of a regression model is to predict a
model on the basis of a new data set rather than explain the data already present at hand. For
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example, in the field of marketing, the regression model can be used to predict the increase or
decrease in a firm’s revenue in response to the advertising efforts such as the size of an
advertisement campaign put up by it.
Any regression equation does not signify the direction of causation. So, the context of
the relationships among the independent and dependent variables must be understood in order
to justify the direction of causation indicated by the predicted regression model. For example,
a robust relationship might be indicated by a regression model between the number of clicks
received on an online advertisement and the amount of sales revenue actually collected.
However, the researcher will be at a loss regarding the direction of causation i.e. what leads
to what. At such a juncture, it is the common knowledge of marketing as a discipline which
leads to the conclusion that the clicks on online advertisements actually lead to sales and the
relationship is not vice versa. The regression equation in itself does not provide any idea
about the direction of the relationship.
By putting in the respective values of the independent variables in the regression
equation, the corresponding value of the mean of the dependent variables can be obtained.
The value of the mean of the predicted dependent variable can prove to be a fairly accurate
measure of the desired future outcome. However, it is subject to an error of prediction whose
value is determined by the known as the residual variance or unexplained variance in the
prediction model. The less the percentage of the unexplained variance is obtained, the more
robust the predicted model is claimed to be. The regression of best fit is the one which
contains the minimum amount of unexplained variance.
Further, the predicted regression model is subject to bias and precision. Bias in a
regression model implies the systematic high and low that creep into the predicted values. On
the other hand, the precision of a regression model implies the closeness of the observed
values to the predicted values. The model is to be precise if the predicted values are close
enough to the observed values.
The predictions in regression are made for calculation of the mean of the dependent
variable and there is variation around that mean. In the fitted regression line plot, the
regression line is nicely in the centre of the data points. However, there is a spread of data
points around the line. We need to quantify that spread to know how close the predictions are
to the observed values. If the spread is too large, the predictions will not provide useful
information.
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Regression analysis find applications in a number of industries as it can be employed for the
prediction of future industrial indices on the basis of a time-series of observations of the
generally industry-accepted statistical means. Regression analysis endeavours to obtain a
"best fitting" straight line between data points (plotted as X and Y coordinates on a graph)
such that the line can then be extended to determine future points on that graph. This process
can yield acceptable results subject to certain criteria which it is expected to satisfy. The
study of past performance is logical method to predict future outcomes as the trend
highlighted by the regression analysis attempts to demonstrate what might happen in future if
no additional actions are taken. It is a good method as it is based on past data which
represents a true or actual trend that had actually taken place in the past. Also, enough or
adequate data should be available in order to enable the researcher to study the past trend.
Outliers must not present in the data under analysis.
Let us study how we can actually regression analysis for prediction of future outcomes using
a method known as ‘Least Squares Method’. Least Squares Method is a type of mathematical
regression analysis which is employed for determination of the line of best fit for a given set
of data along with providing a visual demonstration of the relationship between the data
points. Each point of data represents the relationship between a known independent variable
and an unknown dependent variable. This method is used to find the best fit for a set of data
points by minimizing the sum of the offsets or residuals of points lying off the plotted curve.
This method of regression analysis involves the plotting of a set of data points on an x and y-
axes graph. An analyst using the least squares method will attempt to obtain a line of best fit
which will happen to be at the least possible distance from the maximum number of data
points. Such line of best fit explains the potential relationship between independent and
dependent variables which can be further extrapolated in order to predict the future data
points that would fall on the explolated line of best fit. This way, the analyst can get a fairly
close ides regarding how the future data points would behave.
The method of least squares also attempts to let the research have an idea of the overall
rationale or a plausible explanation behind the placement of the line of best fit among the data
points being studied. The most common application of this method, which is sometimes
referred to as "linear" or "ordinary", aims to create a straight line that minimizes the sum of
the squares of the errors that are generated by the results of the associated equations, such as
the squared residuals resulting from differences in the observed value, and the value
anticipated, based on that model. The line of best fit determined from the least squares
method has an equation that tells the story of the relationship between the data points. Line of
best fit equations may be determined by using various computer-assisted software models,
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which include a summary of outputs for analysis, where the coefficients and summary
outputs explain the dependence of the variables being tested. The line that best fits the linear
relationship between the two variables is known as a least-squares regression line, which is so
plotted that it minimizes the vertical distance from the data points to the regression line. The
term “least squares” is used because it is the smallest sum of squares of errors, which is also
called the "variance". While plotting the regression analysis line graph, the dependent
variables are shown on the vertical i.e. y-axis, while the independent variables are shown on
the horizontal or x-axis as shown in Fig 7.1. These designations will form the equation for the
line of best fit, which is determined from the least squares method for the given set of data
points by reducing the sum of the squares of the offsets (residual parts) of the points from the
plotted curve.
Fig 7.1: Line graph of regression equation using ‘Least Squares Method’
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7.4.3 Mathematical procedure to establish the line of best fit using “Least Squares
Method”
As per the least squares method, the mathematical equation of the regression line can
be expressed as given below:
Y = mX + b
where,
y = how far up on the y-axis
x = how far along the x-axis
b = the Y-intercept (where the line crosses the Y-axis)
m = slope or gradient of the regression line (how steep the line is)
Accordingly, in order to find out the line of best fit for ‘n’ points, the following steps are to
be followed:
Step 1: For each (x,y) point, calculate the values of x2 and xy
Step 2: Calculate the summation of all x, y, x2 and xy, which are represented as ∑x, ∑y, ∑x2
and ∑xy
Step 3: Calculate the value of slope m as below:
m (slope) =
where, ‘n’ is the number of points

Step 4: Calculate the value of Y-intercept ‘b’ as below:
b (intercept) =
Step 5: Put together the equation of regression line as below:

Y = mX + b
7.4.4 Example of linear regression analysis using ‘Least Squares Method’

Suppose a shopkeeper has found out for how many hours in a day did the sun shine in this
area during the last five days (Monday to Friday) and also the number of ice cream cones that
he had sold at his shop during the same days. Now, he wishes to predict the number of ice
cream cones that he would be able to sell on Saturday so that he can make preparations
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accordingly if the weather forecast (hours of sunshine expected) is known. The information
as recorded by the shopkeeper is as mentioned in the below table:
Sr. No. Day of the “X” “Y”

week
Hours of sunshine Number of ice cream cones sold
1 Mon 2 4
2 Tue 3 5
3 Wed 5 7
4 Thu 7 10
5 Fri 9 15
Now, so as to predict the number of ice cream cones that the shopkeeper can expect to sell on
Saturday, we need to find the best m (slope) and b (y-intercept) that suits the data
Y = mX + b
Accordingly, we ned to sequentially follow the steps as explained above:
Step 1: For each (x,y) point, the values of x2 and xy can be calculated as below:
x y x2 xy
2 4 4 8
3 5 9 15
5 7 25 35
7 10 49 70
9 15 81 135
Step 2: Let us calculate the summation of all x, y, x2 and xy, which are represented as ∑x,
∑y, ∑x2 and ∑xy as below:
x y x2 xy
2 4 4 8
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3 5 9 15
5 7 25 35
7 10 49 70
9 15 81 135
∑x: 26 ∑y: 41 ∑x2: 168 ∑xy: 263
Also n (number of data values) = 5

Step 3: Let us calculate slope m:
m (slope) =
= = 1.5183.….
Step 4: Next, let us calculate y-intercept b:
b (y-intercept) =
= 0.3049.….
Step 5: Accordingly, let us put together the equation of the regression line as below:
y = mx + b
y = 1.518x + 0.305
Accordingly, the expected number of ice cream cones can be predicted within a certain
degree accuracy by putting in the value of x (number of hours of sunshine predicted) in the
above equation of regression line. So, suppose the shopkeeper gets to know about the weather
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forecast report which says "we expect 8 hours of sun tomorrow", he can then use the above
equation to estimate that he will sell
y = 1.518 x 8 + 0.305 = 12.45 ice cream cones
Accordingly, the shopkeeper can prepare the fresh waffle cone mixture atleast for 13 ice
cream cones in advance.
7.5 SUMMARY
The lesson, in a sequential order, covers the statistical concepts of covariance, correlation,
regression and model fitting. It lets the learner understand the basic fundamentals at work
behind the aforesaid statistical techniques along with appreciate the mathematical formulae
used in order to quantify the values obtained as result of running the mentioned statistical
techniques on a quantitative data set. Further, the lesson allows the learner to appreciate how
the regression analysis is used for model fitting and prediction of future outcomes using the
least squares method. Utilizing the knowledge acquired from studying the given lesson, the
learner is encouraged to further expand his mental horizon by undertaking further study of
how the given statistical techniques are practically applied in real-world scenarios. Doing so
will result in a deep rooted and internalized knowledge with regard to the statistical
techniques covered under the purview of the given lesson.
MCQ
Q.1) Which one of the following cannot be a value of a correlation coefficient between two
variables?
A.) +1.25 B.) +1 C.) -1 D.) -0.5
Q.2) The term ‘regression’ was first introduced by whom?

A.) Karl Pearson B.) Blaise Pascal C.) Francis Galton D.) Thomas Bayes
Q.3) Which statistical tool is used to assess the directional relationship between two
random variables?
A.) Correlation B.) Covariance C.) Linear Regression D.) Multiple Regression
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Q.4) In a Covariance formula, what does ‘n’ denote?

A.) Number of data points B.) Covariance C.) Mean D.) Error
Q.5) What do smaller values of standard error of regression indicate in a linear regression
model?
A.) A better fit B.) A worse fit C.) No fit D.) None of the above
Q.6) The term “least squares” means the same as which one of the following?
A.) Covariance B.) Variance C.) Correlation D.) Standard error
Q.7) Which of the following is the best among the given indicators of goodness of fit of a
regression model?
A.) R-square B.) Adjusted R-square C.) Correlation Coefficient D.) Standard error
Q.8) i.e. summation of squared deviation from the predicted value ( ) of the
dependent variable Y denotes which of the following?
A.) Total variation B.) Explained variation C.) Unexplained variation
D.) Coefficient of determination
Q.9) Which of the following statistical tools is often employed for prediction of future
values based on the analysis of past values?
A.) Correlation B.) Covariance C.) Regression D.) Variance
Q.10) Which of the following cannot indicate the goodness of fit of a regression model?
A.) R-square B.) Adjusted R-square C.) Covariance D.) Standard error
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Q.11) In the formula of Pearson’s correlation coefficient for sample, what does ‘n’ stand
for?
A.) Sample size B.) Covariance C.) Mean D.) Error
Q.12) Which of the following statements is true for correlation analysis?

A.) It is a bivariate analysis
B.) It is a multivariate analysis
C.) It is a univariate analysis
D.) Both A and C
Q.13) Which of the following involves using an independent variable is used to explain a
dependent variable?
A.) Linear regression analysis
B.) Multiple regression analysis
C.) Non-linear regression analysis
D.) None of the above
Q.14) Which of the following statements is true about the regression line?
A.) A regression line is also known as the line of the average relationship
B.) A regression line is also known as the estimating equation
C.) A regression line is also known as the prediction equation
D.) All of the above
Q.15) Which of the following are types of correlation?

A.) Positive and Negative
B.) Simple, Partial and Multiple
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C.) Linear and Nonlinear

D.) All of the above
Answer Keys
Q.1) A Q.9) C
Q.2) C Q.10) C
Q.3) B Q.11) A
Q.4) A Q.12) C
Q.5) A Q.13) A
Q.6) B Q.14) D
Q.7) B Q.15) D
Q.8) C
Long Questions
1. Explain the difference between the concepts of covariance and correlation. Elaborate
each difference with providing suitable examples.
2. Discuss the various indicators of fitness of model for a multiple linear regression
model.
3. Using a suitable example, explain how regression analysis can be used for prediction
of future outcomes.
7.7 REFERENCES
Ethington, C. A., Thomas, S. L., & Pike, G. R. (2002). Back to the basics: Regression as it
should be. In Higher education: Handbook of theory and research, 17, 263-293.
216 | P a g e

Sykes, A.O. (1993). An Introduction to Regression Analysis. Coase-Sandor Institute for Law
& Economics Working Paper, No. 20.
1. Aczel, Amir D., Sounderpandian, J.,& Saravanan P. (2012).Complete Business Statistics

(7th ed.). India: McGraw Hill Education India Private Limited.
2. Albright, S.C.,& Winston, W.L. (2015).Business Analytics: Data Analysis and Decision
Making (5th ed.). Cengage Publications.
3. Anderson, D., Sweeney, D., Williams, T., Camm, J., & Cochran, J. (2014). Statistics for
Business &Economics (12th ed.). India: Cengage Learning.
Cengage Learning.
7. Stine, R.E., & Foster, D. (2013). Statistics for Business: Decision Making and Analysis
(2nd ed.). India: Pearson Education.
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LESSON-8
LINEAR AND DUAL PROGRAMMING PROBLEM

Author Name Mr. Ashish Kumar Garg
Designation Assistant Professor
Institute Ramjas College
University of Delhi
Email Id ashishgarg4766@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Linear Programming Problem
8.3.1 Formulation of LPP Model
8.3.2 Graphical Method of Solving LPP
8.3.3 Unbounded Solution
8.3.4 Infeasible Solution
8.3.5 Simplex Method with more than two variables
8.4 Dual Programming Problem
8.4.1 Primal to Dual Convertion
8.4.2 Important Characteristics of Duality
8.4.3 Advantage and Application of Duality
8.4.4 Step for a Standard Primal Form
8.4.5 Rules for Converting any Primal into Dual
8.4.6 Problems
8.6 Summary
8.7 Glossary
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8.8 References
In Mathematics, linear programming is a method of optimizing operations with some

constraints. The main objective of linear programming is to maximize or minimize the
numerical value. It consists of linear functions which are subjected to constraints in the form
of linear equations or in the form of inequalities. Linear programming is considered an
important technique that is used to find the optimum resource utilization. The term “linear
programming” consists of two words linear and programming. The word “linear” defines the
relationship between multiple variables with degree one. The word “programming” defines
the process of selecting the best solution from various alternatives.
Linear Programming is widely used in Mathematics and some other fields such as economics,
business, telecommunication, and manufacturing fields.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
There are several techniques that someone can employ while making decisions. For example,
quantitative techniques enable someone to take decisions objectively and efficiently.
Linear programming
This technique basically helps in maximizing an objective under limited resources. The
objective can be either optimization of a utility or the minimization of a disutility. In
other words, it helps in utilizing a resource or constraint to its maximum potential.
Someone generally uses this technique only under conditions involving certainty. Hence, it
might not be very useful when circumstances are uncertain or unpredictable
Game theory
Sometimes, someone uses certain quantitative techniques only while taking decisions pertaining
to their business rivals. The game theory approach is one such technique.
This technique basically simulates rivalries or conflicts between businesses as a game. The aim
of managers under this technique is to find ways of gaining at the expense of their rivals. In
order to do this, they can use 2-person, 3-person or n-person games.
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Queuing theory
Every business often suffers waiting for periods or queues pertaining to personnel, equipment,
resources, or services.
For example, sometimes a manufacturing company might gather a stock of unsold goods due to
irregular demands. This theory basically aims to solve such problems.
The aim of this theory is to minimize such waiting periods and also reduce investments in such
expenses.
For example, departmental stores often have to find a balance between unsold stock and
purchasing fresh goods. someone in such examples can employ the queuing theory to minimize
their expenses
Network techniques
Complex activities often require concentrated efforts by personnel to avoid waste of time,
energy, and money. This technique aims to solve this by creating strong network structures for
work.
There are two very important quantitative techniques under this approach. These include the
Critical Path Method and the Programme Evaluation & Review Technique. These techniques
are effective because they segregate work efficiently under networks. They even drastically
reduce time and money.
8.3 LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEM
This technique basically helps in maximizing an objective under limited resources. The
objective can be either optimization of a utility or the minimization of a disutility. In
other words, it helps in utilizing a resource or constraint to its maximum potential.
In this problem we will find out the variable, constraints and objective function then we will find
out the solution of the mathematical model of exist.
8.3.1 Formulation of LPP Models: Whenever some word problem is given then we convert
it into a mathematical model which is known as LPP Problem.
We Shall begin with some simple examples.
Illustration 8.1: - Consider a calculator company that produces a scientific calculator and a graphing
calculator. Long-term projections indicate an expected demand for at least 1000 scientific and 800
graphing calculators each month. Because of limitations on production capacity, no more than 2000
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scientific and 1700 graphing calculators can be made monthly. To satisfy a supplying contract, a
total of at least 2000 calculators must be supplied each month. If each scientific calculator sold
results in Rs.120 profit and each graphing calculator sold produces an Rs.150 profit, how many of
each type of calculator should be made monthly to maximize the net profit?
Solution -
Let’s make a mathematical model for the problem. Suppose x is the number of scientific
calculators produced and y is the number of graphing calculators produced.
Since the company cannot produce negative calculators; it will produce either no or positive
numbers of calculators only,
we must have x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0. But, keeping in mind the demand of each type of calculator we
have
x ≥ 1000
y ≥ 800
let x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0. Thus, we can drop a superficial requirement of x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 from our modeling.
But we caution you that this may not be the case always and many times it makes sense to assume
variables t o be non-negative.
Another issue is to take care of the production capacity of the calculators. So,
x ≤ 2000
y ≤ 1700.
Looking at the supply restriction, we must have
x + y ≥ 2000.
There is no other information which is in the form of restrictions/conditions in the question.
Then, we move on to look at the profit part. The net profit from sale of x scientific and y
graphing calculators is
120x + 150y
Finally, we are able to identify our aim (or objective) so as to maximize the net profit per
month, which means,
max 120x + 150y
but our x and y must satisfy the restrictions. In conclusion, the ultimate model of the problem
becomes
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Max 120x+
150y
subject to
1000 ≤ x ≤ 2000
800 ≤ y≤ 1700
x + y≥ 2000.
8.3.2 Graphical Method of Solving LPP:
Illustration 8.2
Consider a calculator company which produces a scientific calculator and a graphing calculator.
Long-term projections indicate an expected demand of at least 1000 scientific and 800 graphing
calculators each month. Because of limitations on production capacity, no more than 2000 scientific
and 1700 graphing calculators can be made monthly. To satisfy a supplying contract, a total of
atleast 2000 calculators must be supplied each month. If each scientific calculator sold results in
Rs.120 profit and each graphing calculator sold produces a Rs.150 profit, how many of each type of
calculators should be made monthly to maximize the net profit.
Solution -
Let’s make a mathematical model for the problem. Suppose x is the number of scientific
calculators produced and y is the number of graphing calculators produced.
Since the company cannot produce negative calculators; it will produce either no or positive
numbers of calculators only, we must have x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0. But, keeping in mind the demand of
each type of calculator we have
x ≥ 1000
y ≥ 800.
let x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0. Thus, we can drop a superficial requirement of x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 from our modeling. But
we caution you that this may not be the case always and many at times it makes sense to assume
variables be non-negative.
Another issue is to take care of production capacity of the calculators. So,
x ≤ 2000
y ≤ 1700.
Looking at the supply restriction, we must have
x + y ≥ 2000.
There is no other information which is in the form of restrictions/conditions in the question.
Then, we move on to look at the profit part. The net profit from sale of x scientific and y
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graphing calculators is
120x + 150y
Finally, we can identify our aim (or objective) so as to maximize the net profit per month,
which means,
max 120x + 150y
but our x and y must satisfy the restrictions. In conclusion, the ultimate model of the problem
becomes
max 120x + 150y
subjected to
1000 ≤ x ≤ 2000
800 ≤ y ≤ 1700
x + y≥ 2000
Since the model is set up in a two-dimensional plane, we can see what we are intending to
do. Let us draw the region formed by the restrictions on x and y.
The portion shaded in red is the collection of points (x, y) satisfying
1000 ≤ x ≤ 2000
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800 ≤ y ≤ 1700
x+y ≥ 2000
Now, what we want is to maximize 120x + 150y in this domain (i.e., red shaded region) only. In
other words, we wish to find a pair (x∗, y∗) which lies in the shaded region and provide the maximum
value of our goal function 120x + 150y.
Though there are infinite points in the identified region and testing everyone of them is not a good
idea, we need to design a strategy that can find the answer to our objective in a simpler way. This is
what we shall be intending to do in the next few modules to follow but for the time being, let us see
how the objective function behaves on the ‘corner points’ of the shaded region.
The corner points are A, B, C, D, E, and their coordinates are described in the graph. Let us
tabulate the results
Point Value of
120x+150y
A:(1200,80) 264,000
B:(2000,800) 360,000
C:(2000,1700) 510,000
D:(1000,1700) 375,000
E:(1000,1000) 270,000
From these five values(only), we can clearly make out that the best one is C (2000, 1700) with the
maximum value of 120x + 150y as 510,000.
Although, we have not checked it just by looking at the above graph we can at least guess and
get confident about our guess that no matter what other point (x, y) we select in the shaded
region, the maximum value remains 510,000 and no further improvement (or enhancement) is
possible in it within the shaded region.
We can conclude that the company should manufacture 200 scientific calculators and 1700 graphing
calculators to get the best monthly profit of Rs 510,000 within the limitations of the company.
8.3.3 Unbounded Solution:
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If the value of the objective function can be increased or decreased indefinitely, such
solutions are called unbounded solutions. In this case we say that the problem has unbounded
solutions.
Let’s take some examples for better understanding .
Illustration 8.3. Solve graphically the following L.P.P.
Sol:
Proceeding stepwise, the permissible region is shaded in the figure which is unbounded.
From the figure it is clear that the dotted line through the origin representing can be
moved parallel to itself in the direction of increasing and still have some points in the
permissible region.
Thus can be made arbitrarily large and so the problem has no finite maximum value of .
Hence the problem has unbounded solution.
Illustration 8.4. Solve by graphical method, the L.P.P.
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Sol:
Proceeding stepwise, the permissible region is shaded in the figure which is unbounded.
From the figure it is obvious that the dotted line through the origin representing can be
moved parallel to itself in the direction of increasing and still have some points in the
permissible region.
Thus can be made arbitrarily large and so the problem has no finite maximum value of .
Hence the problem has unbounded solution.
8.3.4 Infeasible Solution:
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A set of values of the variables satisfying the constraints and the non negative restrictions of a
L.P.P is called feasible solution of the L.P.P.
A solution is infeasible when no combination of decision variable values can satisfy the entire
set of requirements and constraints.
Illustration 8.5
Sol:
In the given problem sum of two variables less than or equal to zero but objective function is
to maximize sum of the variable. So here we will have region in which solutions is not in the
first quadrant so we can say solution is infeasible.
8.3.2 Simplex method with more than two variables:
COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE OF SIMPLEX METHOD. (THE MAXIMIZATION
PROBLEM)
-It consists of the following steps systematically.
Step 1. If the given problem is of minimization, convert it into the maximization problem.
For this, multiply both sides of the objective function by and put .
If is the maximum value of then will be the minimum value of .
Step 2. Make all the 's non-negative.
The R.H.S, of each of the constraints should be non-negative. If the L.P.P. has a constraint
for which a negative is given, it should be converted into positive value by multiplying
both sides of the constraint by .
For example if the given constraint is , it will change to .
Step 3. Convert inequalities of constraints into equations. For this introduce slack or surplus
variables. The coefficients of slack or surplus variables in the objective function are zero.
Introduce artificial variables, if necessary.
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Step 4. Find the initial B.F.S. Follow the method to find the initial B.F.S. If artificial
variables are introduced in the L.P.P. then follow the two-phase method or Big -method for
solving such problems.
Step 5. Construct the initial simplex table. It should be remembered that the values of non-
basic variables are always zero at each iteration.
Step 6. Test the initial B.F.S. for optimality. Compute the net evaluation for each variable
by using the formula .
Note that in the starting simplex table 's are same as 's. Also 's corresponding to basic
variables are zero.
Optimality test. (a) If for all , the solution under consideration is optimal.
(i) Alternative optimal solution will exist if any (for non-basic variable) is also zero.
(ii) If for all , corresponding to non-basic variables, then the solution is unique
optimal solution.
(b) If for any f i.e, if at least one is positive the solution under test is not optimal. In
this case we must proceed to improve the solution (step 7).
(c) If corresponding to maximum positive , all elements of the column are negative of
zero, the solution under teat will be unbounded. ach) If optimality condition is satisfied but
the value of at least one artificial variable present in the basis is non-zero, the problem will
have no feasible solution.
step 7. Select the entering (incoming) vector and departing (outgoing) vector. To improve the
initial B.F.S. we select the vector entering the basis matrix and the vector to be removed from
the basis matrix by the following rules :
To find Incoming vector. The incoming vector is always selected corresponding to the
largest positive value of .
If maximum value of occurs for more than one then we can select any of these vectors
as incoming vector.
To find Outgoing vector. The departing vector is selected corresponding to that value of
for which
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if is the incoming vector. Note. If the above-mentioned minimum value is not unique then
more than one variable will vanish in the next solution. As a result the next solution will be a
degenerate B.F.S. for which the outgoing vector is selected in a different way.
Step 8. If is the entering vector and is the outgoing vector then the element which
lies at the intersection of minimum ratio arrow and incoming vector arrow is called the
pivot element (key element). We put this element in .
In order to bring in place of incoming vector , unity must occupy the place In other
words key element should be 1 . If it is not so then divide all the elements of this row by
the key element . Then subtract suitable multiples of the row containing the key element
from all other rows and obtain zero at all other positions of this column . Now bring in
place of and construct the revised simplex table.
Thus we get improved basic feasible solution.

Step 9. Test the improved B.F.S. for optimality.
If it is not optimum, repeat steps 7 and 8 until we obtain an optimum solution.
Illustration 8.6. Solve by simplex method the following L.P.P.
Maximise
Sol. The given problem is of maximization and all 's are positive.
Introducing slack variables to convert constraint inequalities into equations, the

given problem becomes
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subject to
The starting B.F.S. is
The solution to the problem using simplex method is given below :
B CB Cj 2 5 7 0 0 0 Min. Ratio
XB Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 XB /Y3
Y4 0 100 3 2 4 1 0 0 25(min)
Y5 0 100 1 4 2 0 1 0 50
Y6 0 100 1 1 3 0 0 1 100/3
Z = CB XB 2 5 7 0 0 0 XB/Y2
=0
Y3 7 25 3 /4 1/ 2 1 1/4 0 0 50
Y5 0 50 -1/2 3 0 -1/2 1 0 50/3 (min)
Y6 0 25 -5/4 -1/2 0 -3/4 0 1 Neg
Z = CB XB -13/4 3/2 0 -7/4 0 0

=175
Y3 7 50/3 5 /6 0 1 1/3 -1/6 0

Y2 5 50/3 -1/6 1 0 -1/6 1/3 0
Y6 0 100/3 -4/3 0 0 -5/6 1/6 1
Z = CB XB -3 0 0 -3/2 -1/2 0
=200
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In the last table all delta j’s are less than or equal to zero so solution is optimal and optimal
solution is 0,50/3,50/3 and maximum value of objective function is 200.
8.4 DUAL PROGRAMMING PROBLEM
Every LPP called the primal is associated with another LPP called dual. Either of the problems is
primal with the other one as dual. The optimal solution of either problem reveals the information
about the optimal solution of the other
8.4.1 Primal to Dual Convertion
Subject to restrictions
The corresponding dual is defined as
Subject to restrictions
. . . . ….. …… ………. ……… ……..
Matrix Notation of above problem will be

Primal Problem is
Subject to
and
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Dual
8.4.2 Important characteristics of Duality :

1. Dual of dual is primal
2. If either the primal or dual problem has a solution, then the other also has a
solution andtheir optimum values are equal.
3. If any of the two problems has an infeasible solution, then the value of the
objectivefunction of the other is unbounded.
4. The value of the objective function for any feasible solution of the primal is less
than thevalue of the objective function for any feasible solution of the dual.
5. If either the primal or dual has an unbounded solution, then the solution to
the otherproblem is infeasible.
6. If the primal has a feasible solution, but the dual does not then the primal will
nothave a finite optimum solution and vice versa.
8.4.3 Advantage and Application of Duality :
1. Sometimes dual problem solution may be easier than primal solution,
particularly when the number of decision variables is considerably less than slack
/ surplus variables.
2. In the areas like economics, it is highly helpful in obtaining future decision
in theactivities being programmed.
3. In physics, it is used in parallel circuit and series circuit theory.
4. In game theory, dual is employed by column player who wishes to minimize his
maximum loss while his opponent i.e., Row player applies primal to maximize
his minimum gains. However, if one problem is solved, the solution for other
also can be obtained from the simplex tableau.
5. When a problem does not yield any solution in primal, it can be verified with dual.
6. Economic interpretations can be made, and shadow prices can be determined
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enabling the managers to take further decisions.

8.4.4 Step for a Standard Primal Form :
1 Change the objective function to Maximization form
2 If the constraints have an inequality sign ‘≥’ then multiply both sides by -1 and convert the
inequality sign to ‘≤’.
3 If the constraint has an ‘=’ sign then replace it by two constraints involving the
inequalities going in opposite directions. For example, x1+ 2x2 = 4 is written as
x1+2x2 ≤ 4
x1+2x2 ≥ 4 (using step2) → - x1-2x2 ≤ - 4
4 Every unrestricted variable is replaced by the difference of two non-negative variables.
5 We get the standard primal form of the given LPP in which.
All constraints have ‘≤’ sign, where the objective function is of maximization
form.
All constraints have ‘≥’ sign, where the objective function is of minimization
form.
8.4.5 Rules for Converting any Primal into its Dual :

1. Transpose the rows and columns of the constraint co-efficient.
2. Transpose the co-efficient (c1,c2,…cn) of the objective function and the right side
constants (b1,b2,…bn)
3. Change the inequalities from ‘≤’ to ‘≥’ sign.
4. Minimize the objective function instead of maximizing it.
8.4.6 Problems :
Illustration 8.7
Subject to
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Solution
Primal
Subject to
Dual is given by
8.5 SUMMARY
The main points which we have covered in this lesson are what is LPP and how to represent it
geometrically and find its solutions and later on we have discussed duality of Linear
Programming Problem and how to convert primal to dual LPP.
1) The Electric Appliance Company produces two products; refrigerators and

coolers. Production takes place in two separate departments. Refrigerators are
produced in Department I and coolers produced in Department II. The company's two
234 | P a g e

products are produced and sold on a weekly basis. The weekly production cannot
exceed 25 refrigerators in Department I and 35 coolers in Department II, because of
the limited available facilities in these two departments. The company regularly
employs a total of 60 workers in the two departments. A Refrigerator requires 2 man-
week of labour, while a cooler requires 1 man-week of labour. A refrigerator
contributes a profit of Rs. 60 and a cooler contributes a profit of Rs. 40 . How many
units of refrigerators and coolers should the company produce to realize maximum
profit?
2) A firm manufactures two types of products and sells each of them at a profit of
Rs. 2 per product. Each product is processed on two machines and . Type
product requires one minute of processing time on machine and two minutes on
machine . Type product requires one minute on machine and one minute on
machine . The machine is available for not more than 6 hours and 40 minutes
while machine is available for 10 hours during any working day.
Formulate the given problem as a LPP and find how many products of each type
should the firm produce each day in order to get maximum profit.
3) An automobile manufacturer manufacture automobiles and trucks in a factory that is

divided into two shops. Shop , which performs the basic assembly operation, must
work 5 man-days on each truck but only 2 man-days on each automobile. Shop ,
which performs finishing operation, must work 3 man-days for each automobile or
truck that it produces. Because of men and machine limitations, shop has 180 man-
days per week available while shop has 135 man-days per week. If the
manufacturer makes a profit of Rs. 300 on each truck and Rs. 200 on each
automobile, how many of ench should he produce to maximize his profit?
4) A company produces two types of leather belts, say type and . Belt is of
superior quality and belt is of a lower quality. Profits on the two types of belts are
40 and 30 paise per belt, respectively. Each belt of type A requires twice as much time
as required by a belt of type . If all belts were of type , the company would
produce 1000 belts per day. But the supply of leather is sufficient only for 800 per
day. Belt requires a fancy buckle and 400 fancy buckles are available for this, per
day. For belt of type , only 700 buckles are available per day. How should the
company manufacture the two types of belts in order to have maximum overall profit?
(Rohilkhand ; Jodhpur 93)
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5) A publisher sells a hard cover edition of a text book for Rs. 72 and a paperback
edition of the same text for Rs. 40. Costs to the publisher are Rs. 56 and Rs. 28 per
book respectively in addition to weekly costs of Rs. 9600 . Both types of books
require 5 minutes of printing time, although hard cover requires 10 minutes binding
time and the paperback requires only 2 minutes. Both the binding and printing
operations have 4800 minutes available each week. How many of each type of book
should be produced in order to maximize profit?
6) A manufacture has employed 5 skilled men and 10 semi-skilled men and make an
article in two qualities : deluxe model and an ordinary model. The making of a deluxe
model requires 2 hrs work by a skilled man and 2 hrs work by a semi-skilled man.
The ordinary model requires 1 hr by a skilled man and 3 hrs by a semi-skilled man.
By union rules no man may work more than 8 hrs per day. The manufacturer's clear
profit on deluxe model is Rs, 15 and on an ordinary model is Rs. 10. How many of
each type should be made in order to maximize his total daily profit ?
Answer:
1) Refrigerator 12.5 , Cooler 35, Max Profit 2150
2) Maximum profit is Rs 800 when Products A And B are produced corresponding to the
points on the corresponding to the points on the line segment MN.
3) Trucks 30, Automobiles 15 per week, Max profit 12000
4) 200 belts of type A, 600 belts of type B ; profit Rs 260.
5) Maximum profit is Rs 3072 when 288 books of hard cover edition and 672 books of
paperback edition are sold.
6) Maximum profit is Rs 350 when 20 ordinary and 10 deluxe models are made.
Fill in the blanks and MCQ’s Problems
Fill in the blanks "....." so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1 In L.P.P. the function which is to be optimized is called an ...... function.
2 The linear inequations (or equations)under which the objective function is to be
optimized are called ......
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3 A set of values of the variables satisfying the constraints and non-

negative restrictions of a L.P.P. is called a ...... solution of the L.P.P.
4 If the value of the objective function can be increased or decreased indefinitely,
such solutions are called ....... solutions.
5 A necessary and sufficient condition for the existence and non-degeneracy of all the
basic solutions of ( equations in unknowns), is that every set of
columns of the augmented matrix is .......
6 The positive variables which are added to L.H.S. to the constraints to convert them
into equalities are called the ...... variables.
7 The positive variables which are subtracted from the L.H.S. of the constraints to
convert them into equalities are called the ...... variables.
8 The non-basic variables in a basic solution are ...... valued variables.
9 A feasible solution to a L.P.P. in which the vectors associated to non-zero variables
are ...... is called a B.F.S.
10 A L.P.P. of ..... variables can be solved graphically.
Multiple Choice Questions.
Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a), (b),
(c) and (d).
11 The extreme points of the convex set of feasible solutions of the L.P.P.
s.t. are
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d) .
12. If there is no feasible region in a L.P.P. then we say that the problem has
(a) infinite solutions
(b) no solution
(c) unbounded solution
(d) none of these.
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13. The solution of the L.P.P. Max. s.t.

is
(i)
(b)
(c)
(d) none of these.
14. Given the following set of equations :
The B.F.S. involving and is
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) none of these.

15. The maximum number of basic solutions to a set of simultaneous equations in
unknowns is
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) none of these.

True or False.
Write "T' for true and ' ' for false statement.
16. A basic feasible solution is said to be optimum, if it optimizes the objective function.
17. A basic feasible solution is called degenerate if one or more basic variables are zero-
valued.
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18. The L.P.P. optimize , s.t. has

single point as its feasible region.
19. The L.P.P. Max. s.t. has a
feasible solution.
20. By graphical method any L.P.P. can be solved easily.
8.7 REFERENCES
Hamdy A. Taha., Operation Research An Introduction, Pearson Publication, 10th Edition
Kanti Swarup, P.K Gupta, Man Mohan, Operation Research ,Sultan Chand Publication, 4th
Edition
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LESSON-9
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
Dr. Satish Kumar & Dr. Dhirendra Singh
Designation: Assistant Professor
Institute : Shaheed Rajgruru College of Applied Sciences for Women
University: University of Delhi
Email Id: satish.kumar@rajguru.du.ac.in &
dhirendra.singh@rajguru.du.ac.in
STRUCTURE

9.2 Introduction
9.2.1 Changes in Cj’s
9.2.2 Change in
9.2.3 Change in the Coefficients aij’s
9.2.4 Addition of New Activity (Variable)
9.3 Summary
9.5 Answers
9.6 Multiple Choice questions
9.7 Case Study
9.8 Glossary
9.9 References
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After studying this chapter, students should be able to identify situations in which sensitivity
analysis can be applied. Understand fundamental concepts and mathematical structure of
sensitivity model.
9.2 INTRODUCTION
In solving a linear programming problem after getting its optimal solution, sometimes it is
desired to make some changes in some of the parameters of the problem. There are two ways
to find the solution of a new problem. One is to solve the changed problem starting from the
scratch, as the original problem has been solved and other way is to solve it using the optimal
table already obtained. The second option saves time and labor and that is from where
emerges the idea of sensitivity or post-optimality analysis. Some of the changes in the given
problem which we shall consider are:
1. Changes in the objective function coefficients, Cj’s i.e. profit (cost) per unit
associated with decision variables.
2. Changes in the bi values (or right-hand side constants of the constraints), i.e.,
available of resources.
3. Changes in the coefficients of decision variables on the left-hand side of the
constraints, i.e., consumption of resources per unit of decision variables .
4. Structural changes due to the addition of some variables.

5. Structural changes due to the addition of some linear constraints.
After the above-mentioned changes have been affected in an linear programming problem,
we may have any of the following cases:
a) The optimal solution remains unaltered that is the basic variables and their values are
essentially unchanged.
b) The basic variables remain the same but their values undergo changes.
c) The basic solution gets changed entirely.
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9.2.1 CHANGES IN CJ’S
The coefficient, Cj in the objective function of an LP model represents either the profit or the
cost per unit of an activity (variable) Xj . The question that may now arise is: What happens
to the optimal solution and the objective function value when this coefficient is changed? For
example, let Rs 12 be the per unit profit coefficient of a particular variable in the objective
function of an LP model. After obtaining an optimal solution, the decision-maker may realize
that the true value of this coefficient might be any value between Rs 11 and Rs 13 per unit.
The sensitivity analysis can help him to determine both lower and upper value (i.e., range) of
this coefficient (or any other such coefficients) without affecting the current optimal solution.
For this he may decide whether resources from other activities (variables) should be diverted
to (diverted away from) a more profitable (or less profitable) activity.
Here, again two cases arise:
i. Cj is to be changed is the cost of a non-basic variable.
ii. Cj is to be changed is the cost of a basic variable.
In both cases, feasibility of new problem remains unchanged but the optimality may change.
For case (i) only one entry is to be evaluated. If then the solution of the
existing problem remains optimal for the new problem also and write it down. In case (ii)
calculate for all non-basic variables. If then the solution of the original
problem remains optimal for the changed problem and write it down. If for some
j, then prepare new simplex table for the changed problem with new entries and use
the regular simplex method till the optimality conditions are satisfied and write the solution
of the changed problem from the optimal table thus obtained.
Evaluation Method
Where, k indicate the rows corresponding to basic variables.

Illustration 9.1: Solve the following linear programming problem:
Subject to the constraints
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Discuss the change in on the optimality of the optimal basic feasible solution.
Solution: Convert all constraints into equations by using slack
variables , we get
Table-9.1: Initial Simplex Table
B 3 5 5 0 0
0 18 3 2 1 0 0 18/2=9
0 4 1 0 0 1 0 ------
0 6 0 1 0 0 1 6/1=6→
Z = 0 -3 -5↑ 0 0 0
0 6 3 0 1 0 -2 6/3=2→
0 4 1 0 0 1 0 4/1=4
5 6 0 1 0 0 1 ------
Z =30 -3↑ 0 0 0 5
3 2 1 0 1/3 0 -2/3
0 2 0 0 -1/3 1 2/3
5 6 0 1 0 0 1
Z=36 0 0 1 0 3
Since all , so optimal solution is , and Max Z=36
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Sensitivity Analysis
The coefficient of non-basic variables and are .

i) Change in and i.e. . Let and be the change in and
respectively. Then , . If and .
Then, the value of the objective function and optimal solution will remain unchanged.
ii) Change in . Here, . In general,
In this case, the solution will remain optimal.
Let be changed to , then
or or
The optimal solution will remain unchanged if changes in are infinite.

Illustration 9.2: A company wants to produce three products: A, B and C. The per unit profit
on these products is Rs 4, Rs 6 and Rs 2, respectively. These products require two types of
resources, manpower and raw material. The LP model formulated for determining the optimal
product mix is as follows:

Mainpower Constraint
Raw Material Constraint
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and
Where, number of units of products A, B and C, respectively, to be produced.
(a) Find the optimal product mix and the corresponding profit of the company.
(b) Find the range of the profit contribution of products A and C in the objective function,
such that current optimal product mix remains unchanged.
(c) What shall be the new optimal product mix when profit per unit from product C is Rs.
12 and not Rs. 2
Solution:
(a) Convert all constraints into equations by using slack variables and then
solving the linear programming problem by usual simplex method, the optimum solution
is given by
Table-9.2 Optimal Simplex Table
B 4 6 2 0 0
4 1 1 0 -1 4/3 -1/3
6 2 0 1 2 -1/3 1/3
Z = 12 0 0 6 10/3 2/3
Since all So optimal solution is and Max. i.e. to get the

maximum profit of Rs. 16 the company should produce one unit of product A and two units
of product B, while the company should not produce product C.
(b) (i) From the optimum simplex table, we observe that is the basic variable. This
means that a further decrease in its profit contribution will make less profitable and the
current optimal product mix will be affected. If increase the contribution of the product A
will become more profitable. Thus, in either case the current product mix will be affected
and hence we need to know the lower as well as upper limit on the value of within which
the optimal solution will not be affected.
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or or
(ii) Change in i.e., . Let be the change in . Then . If or
or
This implies that as long as the profit contribution per unit of product C is less than Rs. 8
(i.e., change should not be more that Rs. 8), it is not profitable to produce it and the current
optimum solution will remain unchanged.
(c) Increase the value of is Rs. 12 in place of Rs. 2 then new optimal table
Table-9.3 Updated Table
B 4 6 12 0 0
4 1 1 0 -1 4/3 -1/3 ---------
6 2 0 1 2 -1/3 1/3 2/2=1→
Z = 12 0 0 -4 ↑ 10/3 2/3
4 2 1 ½ 0 11/6 -1/6
12 1 0 ½ 1 -1/6 1/6
Z=20 0 2 0 16/3 4/3
Since all So the solution is optimal. Then new optimal solution is

and Max. i.e., company should produce 2 units of product A,
1 unit of product C and no unit of product B to get the maximum profit of Rs. 20.
9.2.1 CHANGES IN
Because of any change in , solution of the changed problem may become infeasible as
. If the new basic solution is feasible, then the same simplex table will be the
optimal table for the changed problem also and write the new solution. If new gives
infeasible solution, then use dual simplex method to restore feasibility of the solution and
write the solution of the changed problem. In this method, the evaluation criteria are as
follows:
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Where, is the (i, e)th element of

Illustration 9.3: Consider the following linear programming problem:
Determine the range for discrete changes in the component and of the requirement
vector so as to maintain the feasibility of the current optimum solution.
Solution: Convert all constraints into equations by using slack and surplus
variables and artificial variable we get
Table-9.4 Initial Simplex Table

B -1 2 -1 0 0 0 -M
0 10 3 1 -1 1 0 0 0 10/1=10
0 6 -1 4 1 0 -1 0 1 6/4=3/2→
0 4 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 4/1=4
Z=0 M+1 -4M-2↑ -M+1 0 M 0 0
0 17/2 13/4 0 -5/4 1 ¼ 0 -1/4 34
2 3/2 -1/4 1 1/4 0 -1/4 0 ¼ ------
0 5/2 ¼ 0 3/4 0 ¼ 1 -1/4 10→
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Z=3 ½ 0 3/2 0 -1/2↑ 0 M+1/2
0 6 3 0 -2 1 0 -1 0
2 4 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 10 1 0 3 0 1 4 -1
Z=8 1 0 3 0 0 2 M
Since all and no artificial variable appear in column of B. So optimal solution is

and Max.
And
The individual effects of changes in and where, such that the

optimality of the basic feasible solution is not violated are given by:
Let is change
Let is change
Now, since and , the required range of variation is and

4-
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Illustration 9.4: A factory manufactures three products A, B and C for which the data is
given in the table below. Find the optimal product mix if the profit/unit is Rs. 32, Rs. 30 and
Rs. 40 for product A, B and C respectively.
Product Available Resources
A B C
Material Required (kg/unit) 5 4 3 2,500 kg.
Machine Hours required /unit 2 3 1 1,275 hours
Labour hours require/unit 3 2 4 2,100 hours
(a) Find the optimal solution if machine hours available become 1,350 instead of 1,275.
(b) Find the optimal solution if labour hours become 2,000 instead of 2,100
Solution: Formulation of Linear Programming Problem

Material required Constraint
Machine hour required Constraint
Labour hour required Constraint
and
Where, number of units of products A, B and C, respectively.
Convert all constraints into equations by using slack variables and
then solving the linear programming problem by usual simplex method, the optimum solution
is given by in the following table:
Table-9.5 Optimum Simplex Table
B 32 30 40 0 0 0
0 125 3/2 0 0 1 -1 -1/2
30 300 ½ 1 0 0 2/5 -1/10
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40 375 ½ 0 1 0 -1/5 3/10
Z = 24,000 3 0 0 0 4 9
Since all So optimal solution is and Max.

(a) Machine hours available become 1,350 instead of 1,275 i.e., change in

B 32 30 40 0 0 0
0 100 3/2 0 0 1 -1 -1/2
30 330 ½ 1 0 0 2/5 -1/10
40 360 ½ 0 1 0 -1/5 3/10
Z = 24,300 3 0 0 0 4 9

If machine hours increased by 75 (1350-1275), the product B will increase by 30 units and
product C will decrease by 15 units. Thus, the optimal solution will be
and Max. .
(b) Labour hours become 2,000 instead of 2,100 i.e., change in

B 32 30 40 0 0 0
0 225 3/2 0 0 1 -1 -1/2
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30 310 ½ 1 0 0 2/5 -1/10
40 345 ½ 0 1 0 -1/5 3/10
Z = 24,300 3 0 0 0 4 9
If labour hours decreased by 100 (2100-2000), the machine hours will increase by 10 units
and product C will decrease by 30 units. Thus, the optimal solution will be
and Max. .
9.2.3 CHANGE IN THE COEFFICIENTS aij’s
Suppose that the elements of coefficient matrix A are changed. Then two cases arise:
i. Change in a coefficient, when variable is not a basic variable.
ii. Change in a coefficient, when variable is a basic variable.
Evaluation criteria for case-I
When a non-basic variable column B is changed to , the only effect of such change
will be on the optimality condition. Thus the solution will remain optimal, if
However, the range for the discrete change in the coefficients of non-basic variable in
constraint, i can be determined by solving following linear inequalities:
Here, is the kth column unit matrix B. if , then is unrestricted in sign.

Evaluation Criteria for Case-II
Suppose a basic variable column B is changed to . Then conditions to maintain both
feasibility and optimality of the current optimal solution are:
a)
b)
Illustration 9.5: Given the following linear programming problem:
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The following table gives the optimum solution

B 3 4 1 7 0 0 0
3 16/19 1 9/38 1/2 0 5/38 -1/38 0
7 5/19 0 21/19 0 1 -1/19 8/38 0
0 126/19 0 59/38 9/2 0 -1/38 -15/38 1
Z 83/19 83/19 0 169/38 1/2 0 1/38 53/38 0
Discuss the effect of discrete changes in the activity co-efficient of ‘A’ on the current
basic feasible solution to the given linear programming problem.
Solution: From the above table, we have
Thus, we have
Let the element or A changed to

Case-I: is not the basis B
In the optimum table , , and are not the basis, therefore, the ranges for discrete
changes in the coefficient corresponding to these non-basis vectors are given by the
following inequations:
Evaluation Criteria
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⇒
Hence, or
or
⇒
or
or
⇒
Case-II: is in the basis B
In the optimum table , and are in the basis, therefore, any discrete change in
belonging to any of these vectors may affect the feasibility as well as the optimality of the
original optimum basic feasible solution .
Consider the discrete changes in
Evaluation Criteria
The range for the change in the element in in order to maintain the optimality of the
solution is therefore given by
Further, since for the element , r=2 and k=4, therefore, we have
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The range for the discrete change in the element in order to maintain the feasibility of the
solution is, therefore, given by
i.e. 84/19
Hence, 5-84/19 or 11/19 (since )
Similarly, the ranges for changes in the elements , etc. can also be obtained.
9.2.4 ADDITION OF NEW ACTIVITY (VARIABLE)
Addition of new activity, adds one more column in the given optimal table of the problem
which may or may not affect the optimality condition. If optimality condition
is not affected, the solution of the given table will remain optimal for the changed problem
also. If optimality condition are affected then use the usual simplex method to find the
optimal solution.
If a new variable is introduced with cost coefficient and with column .

Discuss the effect of adding the new variable and find out its revised solution, if any.
Solution: Convert all constraints into equations by using slack variables , we get
B 3 5 0 0
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0 4 1 0 1 0 -----
0 18 3 2 0 1 18/2→
Z=0 -3 -5↑ 0 0
0 4 1 0 1 0
5 9 3/2 1 0 1/2
Z=45 9/2 0 0 5/2
Since all , So optimal solution is and Max.

From the above table, we observe that
and
Since a new variable is introduced, we compute

B 3 5 0 0 7
0 4 1 0 1 0 1 4/1=4→
5 9 3/2 1 0 1/2 1 9/1=9
Z=45 9/2 0 0 5/2 -2↑
Since all , So the solution under test is not optimal. This indicates that the conditions of
optimality are violated. Therefore, a new optimum solution can easily be obtained.
B 3 5 0 0 7
7 4 1 0 1 0 1
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5 9 ½ 1 -1 1/2 0
Z=53 13/2 0 2 5/2 0
Since all , so the optimal solution is and Max. Z=53
Addition of a constraint in the given problem means addition of one more row in the given
optimal simplex table which may affect the feasibility of the solution. While adding the new
constraint, first check whether the given optimal solution satisfies the constraint. If it satisfies
then the same solution remains optimal for the new problem also and write it. If it does not
satisfy the constraint, the current optimum solution become infeasible. In this situation, dual
simplex method is used to find the new optimum solution.
If add a new constraint . Then discuss the effect of adding this constraint
and find out its revised solution if any.
Solution: Convert all constraints into equations by using slack variables , we get

B 60 30 20 0 0 1
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0 48 8 6 1 1 0 0 48/8=6→
0 20 4 2 3/2 0 1 0 20/4=5
0 8 2 3/2 ½ 0 0 1 8/2=4
Z=0 -60↑ -30 -20 0 0 0
0 16 0 0 -1 1 0 -4 -----
0 4 0 -1 ½ 0 1 -1/2 8→
60 4 1 ¾ ¼ 0 0 1/2 240
Z=240 0 15 -5↑ 0 0 30
0 24 0 -2 0 1 2 -5
20 8 0 -2 1 0 2 -1
60 2 1 5/4 0 0 -1/2 3/2
Z=280 0 5 0 0 10 10

New constraint
(Satisfied)
Thus, optimal solution of the original problem does not change if we introduce the above
constraint to it.
9.3 SUMMARY
Sensitivity analysis provides the ranges within which a linear programming model can vary
without changing the optimality of the current optimal solution. The formulation to conduct
sensitivity analysis followed by numerical examples have been solved how changes in the
parameters specially:
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• The change in the objective function coefficients

• Requirement vector i.e., right hand side value of the constraint
• Addition of variables
• Addition of constraints, etc.
Discuss the effect on the optimality of the solution, when the objective function is changed to
2. Consider the linear programming problem
The optimal table of this linear programming problem as slack variables added to
constraints (1) and (2) respectively is
B 5 6 0 0
6 3 0 1 2/5 -3/5
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5 2 1 0 -1/5 4/5
0 0 7/5 2/5
Use the sensitivity analysis, find the optimal solution with the following changes in above
linear programming problem:
a) Change from 5 to 1
b) Change from 5 to 1 and from 6 to 1
c) Change from 7 to11 and 7 to 15.
3. Consider the following linear programming problem:
The optimal table of this linear programming problem with as slack variables added to
constraints (1) and (2) respectively is:
B 1 2 0 0
2 3/2 0 1 1/2 ½
1 ½ 1 0 -1/2 ½
0 0 1/2 3/2
i) If a new variable is introduced with cost coefficient and with column

. Discuss the effect of adding the new variable and find out its revised
solution, if any.
ii) If adding the following new constrains:
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a) .
b)
Then discuss the effect of adding this constraint and find out its revised solution if
any.
4. Given the LPP
Determine the separate ranges for discrete changes in , and consistent with the
optimum solution of the given LPP.
5 Consider the following linear programming problem to determine optimal product-

mix of the products A, B and C which require processing in three departments:

Fabrication hours
Finishing hours
Packaging hours
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The application of simplex algorithm to solve the problem for optimal solution in the
following table is given by
B 5 10 8 0 0 0
10 8 1/3 1 0 1/3 -1/6 0
8 10 2/3 0 1 -1/3 5/12 0
0 18 -8/3 0 0 1/3 -17/12 1
Z=160 11/3 0 0 2/3 5/3 0
In context of this problem, determine whether the current basis would change for each of the
following independent changes:
(a) Profit for A increases by Rs. 2 per unit and profit for B increases by Rs. 3 per unit.
(b) New profit value of product B is Rs. 14 and product C is Rs. 6.
(c) Profit rate for each product decreases by rupees two
(d) Availability becomes 80 hours in each department.
(e) Fabrication hours increased by 10 and finishing hours decreased by 10.
6. A manufacturer produces four products A, B, C and D each of which is processed on three
machines X, Y and Z. The time required to manufacture one unit of each of the four
products and the capacity of each of three are indicated in the following table:
Product Processing time (in hrs.)
Machine X Machine Y Machine Z
A 1.5 4 2
B 2 1 3
C 4 2 1
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D 3 1 2
Capacity hrs. 550 700 200
The profit contribution per unit of the four products A, B, C and D is Rs. 4, 6, 3 and 1
respectively. The manufacturer wants to determine its optimal product-Mix.
(a) Formulate the above linear programming problem
(b) Find out the optimal product-mix and total maximum profit contribution.
(c) Which constraints are binding?
(d) If the profit contribution from product Y increase by Rs. 2 per unit, will the optimal
product-mix change?
(e) If machine X is to be shut down for 50 hours due to repair, will the product-mix
change?
9.5 ANSWERS
1. and Max.Z=12
2. and Max.Z=36
b) and Max.Z=5
c) and Max.Z=148/5 and and Max.Z=30
3. i) and Max.Z=7/2
ii) (a) and Max.Z=7/2
ii) (b) and Max.Z=5/2
4. 15/16 , -17/6 and -1/8

5. (a) Current basis does not change
(b) No change
(c) Current basis will change
(d) Current basis may not remain optimum
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(e) No change in the current basis.

6. (a)
and
, Maximum Profit Z=525
(c) First and third constraints
(d) Product-mix will not change.
(e) Product-mix will not change.
9.6 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Sensitivity analysis
(a) is also called post-optimality analysis as it is carried out after the optimal solution
is obtained
(b) allows the decision-maker to get more meaningful information about changes in
the LP model parameters
(c) provides the range within which a parameter may change without affecting
optimality
(d) all of the above
2. When an additional variable is added in the LP model, the existing optimal solution
can further be improved if
(a)
(b)
(c) both (a) and (b)
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(d) none of the above

3. Addition of an additional constraint in the existing constraints will cause a
(a) change in objective function coefficients ( )
(b) change in coefficients

(d) one of the above
4. If the additional constraint added is an equation and an artificial variable appears in
the basis of the new problem, the new optimal solution is obtained by
(a) assigning zero cost coefficient to the artificial variable if it appears in the basis at
negative value
(b) assigning – M cost coefficient to the artificial variable if it appears in the basis at
positive value
(c) either (a) and (b)
5. To ensure the best marginal increase in the objective function value, a resource value
may be increased whose shadow price is comparatively
(a) larger
(b) smaller
(c) neither (a) nor (b)
(d) both (a) and (b)
6. While performing sensitivity analysis, the upper bound infinity on the value of the
right-hand side of a constraint means that
(a) there is slack in the constraint
(b) the constraint is redundant
(c) the shadow price for that constraint is zero
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7. The entering variable in the sensitivity analysis of objective function coefficients is
always a
(a) decision variable
(b) non-basic variable
(c) basic variable
(d) slack variable
8. In sensitivity analysis of the coefficient of the non-basic variable in a cost
minimization LP problem, the upper sensitivity limit is
(a) original value + Lowest positive value of improvement ratio
(b) original value – Lowest absolute value of improvement ratio
(c) positive infinity
(d) negative infinity
9. If the RHS value of a constraint is changed to another value within specified limits,
then the new optimal solution would have
(a) same optimal solution
(b) a lower objective function value
(c) a higher objective function value
(d) same set of variables in the solution mix
10. A change in the objective function for a non-basic variable can affect
(a) values of all non-basic variables
(b) values of all basic variables
(c) Only the value of that variable

11. The right-hand side range is often referred to as the range of
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(a) improvement
(b) feasibility
(c) infeasibility
(d) optimality
12. The shadow price for a constrain is the value of an
(a) additional unit of the resource
(b) Same value of the resource
(d) none of these
13. To maintain optimality of current optimal solution for a change ∆ in the coefficient
ck of non-basic variable xk, we must have
(a) ∆ -
(b)
(c)
(d)
14. The 100 per cent rule for RHS values says that if the sum of the percentage change is
less than or equal to 100%, then
(a) dual prices do not change
(b) different dual prices may exist
(c) both (a) and (b) may occur
15. The 100 per cent rule for objective function coefficients says that if the sum of the
percentage change is less than or equal to 100%, then
(a) optimal solution does not change
(b) a different optimal solution may exist
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(c) both (a) and (b) may occur

ANSWERS
1 (d) 2 (a) 3 (c) 4 (c) 5 (a) 6 (d) 7 (d) 8 (c) 9 (d) 10 (c) 11 (b) 12 (a)
13 (a) 14 (a) 15 (a)
9.7 CASE STUDY
A stainless-steel utensil manufacturer makes three types of items. The restrictions, profit and
requirements are tabulated below:
Utensil Type I II III
Raw material requirement (kg per unit) 6 3 5
Welding and finishing time (hours per unit) 3 4 5
Profit per unit (Rs.) 3 1 4
If stainless steel (raw material) available is 25 kg and welding and finishing time available is
20 hours per day, then the optimum product mix problem is expressed as:

Raw material restriction
Time restriction
Questions for Discussion

a) The second type of utensil would change the current optimal basis if its profit per unit
is: ≥ 1; ≥ 1.02; ≥ 1.06; ≥ 2; ≥ 3.
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b) The simplex multiplier associated with the machine time restriction of 20 hours is (–
3/5). Thus, the multiplier remains unchanged for the upper limit on the machine time
availability of 25; 27.5; 35; 42.5; 32.5 hours.
c) The increase in the objective function for each unit availability of machine time
higher than the upper limit indicated in part (b) is ... (show calculations).
d) The profit of the third type of utensil is Rs. 4 per unit. The lower unit on its
profitability such that the current basis is still optimal is 4; 3; 2.5; 2; < 2.
9.8 GLOSSARY
Linear Programming
A mathematical technique used to help management decide how to make the most effective
use of an organization’s resources.
Objective function
A mathematical statement of the goal of an organization, stated as an intent to maximize or
minimize some important quantity such as profit or cost.
Inequality
A mathematical expression containing a greater than or equal to relation or less than or equal
to relation between the left-hand side and the right-hand side of expression.
Constraint
A restriction that inhibits the value that can be achieved by the objective function.
Non negativity Constraints

A set of constraints that requires each decision variable to be nonnegative; that is, each
decision variable must be greater than or equal to zero.
Solution of a Linear Programming Problem
A set of values of the variables satisfying the constraints of a linear programming problem is
called a solution of the linear programming problem.
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Feasible solution of a Linear Programming Problem

A set of values of the variables satisfying the constraints and the non-negative restrictions of
a linear programming problem is called a feasible solution of the linear programming
problem.
Optimal Solution of a Linear Programming Problem
A feasible solution of a linear programming problem is said to be optimal if it also optimized
the objective function of the problem.
Optimality Test
A test of whether the solution obtained by the current iteration of an iterative algorithm is an
optimal solution.
Slack Variable
The positive variable which is add to left hand side of the constraints to convert into
equations is called the slack variable.
Surplus Variable
The positive variable which is subtract from left hand side of the constraints to convert into
equations is called the surplus variable.
Simplex Method
An iterative procedure for solving linear programming problems.
Iterative Procedure
A process that repeats the same steps over and over.
Analysis of how sensitive the optimal solution is to the value of each parameter of the model.
Analysis of how the recommendations of a model might change if any of the estimates
providing the numbers in the model eventually need to be corrected. The study of how other
plausible values for the probabilities of the states of nature would affect the recommended
decision alternative.
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Range of Optimality
The range of values over which an objective function coefficient may vary without causing
any change in the optimal solution.
9.9 REFERENCES
Swarup, K., Gupta, P.K. & Mohan, M.(2012). Introduction to Management Science
Operations Research 13th Edition. Sultan Chand & Sons Educational Publishers, New Delhi.
Sharma, S.D. (2017). Operations Research 15th Edition. Kedar Nath Ram Nath 132,R.G.
College Road, Meerut (UP), INDIA
Malik, A.K., Yadav, S.K. &Yadav, S.R. (2012). Optimization Techniques. I.K. International
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Vasishtha, A.R., Gupta, R.K., Kumar, R., Arti, R. & Vasishtha, H.(2011). Linear
Programming 12th Edition. Krishna Prakashan Media (P) Ltd. Meerut (UP), INDIA
Taha, H. A. (2002). Operations Research: An Introduction, 7th Edition, Prentice Hall of

India.
Hiller, F.S. & Lieberman, G.J. (2010). Introduction to Operations Research-Concepts and
Cases, 9th Edition, New Delhi, Tata McGraw Hill (Indian Print)
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LESSON-10
APPLICATION OF LP MARKETING, FINANCE,

OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
Assistant Professor
abhishekbhu008@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

10.2 Linear programming
10.2.1 Components of Linear Programming
10.2.2 Characteristics of Linear Programming
10.2.3 History of Linear Programming
10.2.4 Area of Application of LP
10.2.5 Prerequisite of Linear Programming
10.2.6 Formulation of Linear Programming Problem
10.2.7 Assumptions
10.3 Application of LP in Marketing
10.4 Application of LP in Finance
10.5 Application of LP in Operations Management
10.5.1 Definition of Operations Management
10.5.2 Objectives of Operations Management
10.5.3 Application of Linear Programming
10.6 Summary
10.7 Practice Questions
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The purpose of chapter is to

1. Imparts the learning about linear programming applications encountered in practice.
2. Familiar with the wide range of problems that can be modelled as linear programs.
3. Experiencing and developing linear programming models to solve a problem or
improve a business process including media portfolio selection, production scheduling
and operations management.
10.2 LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Linear programming is a mathematical technique for allocating scarce resources. The

technique is frequently used to maximise the value of a goal, such as minimising costs or
increasing profits while dealing with constraints. In layman's terms, this means that the
technique is intended to assist marketers or managers in planning and making better resource
allocation decisions. In fact, linear programmes enable marketers to make the best use of
limited resources, such as money, manpower, materials, time, or skills, to name a few.
Marketers must convert the given problem into a linear programming model, using the
appropriate variables and standard techniques to solve the real-world problem. The model
includes the following components:
1) Variables representing the available options
2) The mathematical expression relating to the variables and conditions at hand.
According to Bazaraa, Jarvis, and Sherali (2011), linear programming is a mathematical
model with a goal function and constraints that can be used to help a business decide how to
best utilise its current market and generate sustainable profits.
Linear programming generates solutions based on the characteristics and characteristics of
the actual situation or problem. As a result, the application of linear programming is very
broad, and it can find solutions in a variety of fields such as marketing. In fact, this technique
has proven to be extremely effective in marketing and distribution management, among other
areas. A marketing manager, for example, can use linear programming to distribute a fixed
advertising budget across multiple media channels in order to maximise audience exposure.
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Thousands of decision variables and constraints are used in the model to solve practical
problems in marketing research. The underpinning strength is the use of the extreme point of
a function to satisfy certain constraints (Bazaraa et al., 2011). In this situation, the constraints
on the problem are linear, and the function in the linear equation that is used to optimise
solutions for the marketing research problem is known as the objective function.
Canonical nature of LP
The linear programming problem typically has a canonical form that involves maximisation
and minimization. Decisions involving certainty, uncertainty, and risk can be made using the
model. Maxima criteria, which offer the suitable optimistic decision criterion, can be used to
make decisions in uncertain situations. Given the unpredictable nature of the situation, the
payoffs must be taken into account. This same value can be calculated as follows:
(maximum reward) + (1- ) (minimum payoff)
10.2.1 Components of Linear Programming

The basic components of the LP are as follows:
10.2.2 Characteristics of Linear Programming
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Linear programming problems share four key characteristics:

1) The goal of linear programming is to find an expression that minimises or maximises some
quantity, such as cost to profit, known as the objective function.
2) The constraints or restrictions limit the extent to which the goal can be pursued and
achieved.
3) When it comes to linear programming, there must be more than one alternative course of
action to take because it is a tool that determines which decision is the best course of action
for allocating resources.
4) Finally, both the objective and the constraints must be expressed in terms of linear
equation inequalities.
Linear Programming Problems (LPP) are problems that are concerned with determining
the best value for a given linear function. The optimal value can be either the maximum or
the minimum. The given linear function is regarded as an objective function in this context.
The objective function can have multiple variables that are subject to conditions, and it must
satisfy a set of linear inequalities known as linear constraints. Linear programming problems
can be used to find the best solution for a variety of scenarios, including manufacturing
problems, diet problems, transportation problems, allocation problems, and so on.
10.2.3 History of Linear Programming
The problem of solving a system of linear inequalities dates back at least as far as Fourier,
after whom the method of Fourier-Motzkin elimination is named. Linear a mathematical
planning model created during World War II gave rise to programming to plan expenditures
and returns to decrease army costs and increase enemy losses enemy. It wasn't made public
until 1947. Following the war, numerous industries used it in their daily planning.
Russian mathematician Leonid Kantorovich, who created linear programming problems in
1939, George B. Dantzig, who published the simplex method in 1947, and John von
Neumann, who created the theory of duality in the same year, are the subject's creators.
Leonid Khachiyan demonstrated that the linear programming problem could be solved in
polynomial time for the first time in 1979, but Narendra Karmarkar's introduction of a new
interior point method in 1984 marked a more significant theoretical and application-based
advancement in the field.
The original example by Dantzig of determining the optimal assignment of 70 individuals to
70 jobs serves as an illustration of the value of linear programming. The number of possible
configurations exceeds the number of particles in the universe, so it takes a significant
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amount of computing power to test every combination in order to choose the best assignment.
However, by framing the issue as a linear programme and using the Simplex algorithm, the
best answer can be found in a matter of seconds. The number of potential optimal solutions
that must be checked is drastically reduced by the linear programming theory.
10.2.4 Area of Application of LP
Product Mix
Use to decide which products to include in the production plan and in what quantities those
products should be produced in order to make the best use of the machines and machine
hours that are available while maximising profit.
Blending Issues
Use for choosing different raw material mixtures to create the best products at the lowest
possible cost, such as food, drinks, etc.
Production Schedule
Utilize to create a production schedule that will meet future product demand while reducing
production and inventory costs.
Production Quantity
Use in figuring out how many different grades of petroleum products to produce, say, in
order to make the most money.
Distribution System
Use the distribution system to choose one that will reduce the overall shipping costs from
numerous warehouses to various market locations.
Minimal Advertising
In order to maximise returns on investment, use in allocating a small advertising budget
among radio, TV, and newspaper spots.
Investment
Using a variety of available stocks and bonds to build an investment portfolio in order to
maximise returns on the investment
Scheduled Work
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Use in creating a work schedule that enables a large restaurant to accommodate staff needs at
all times of the day while reducing the overall staff size.
10.2.5 Prerequisite of Linear Programming
1. A clearly stated goal must be set for either increasing revenue or reducing expenses.
2. The objective function must be linear, and the number of resources available for the
objective functions must be constrained.
3. To choose the best course of action, alternate options must be available.
4. It is necessary to express an objective function mathematically.
10.2.6 Formulation of Linear Programming Problem
Linear programming problems typically consist of three components:
1. Decision variables, the value of which is determined by the problem to be solved.
2. The objective function, which must be maximised or minimised (e.g., maximisation
of profits or minimisation of total costs, as the case may be).
3. Decision variables-related constraints, limitations, or conditions
A Linear Programming problem is solved by:
1. First listing the goal in algebraic form, including the decision variables, but in
algebraic expression. This expression is known as the objective function, and it can be
maximised or minimised.
2. Using algebraic notations to express the constraints as algebraic inequalities involving
the decision variables.
3. The above steps complete the development of the Linear Programming problem.
10.2.7 Assumptions
Linear Programming is based on the following assumptions:
1. Purpose All of the relationships between function and constraints are linear.
This assumption has the following corollaries:
(a) We assume no economies of scale or diseconomies of scale; six units of product T require
six times the amount of raw material as one unit of T.
(b) We assume that the decision variables do not interact; the total raw material required for
X and T is simply the sum of the individual requirements for X and K 2.
There is only one goal function. There was only one goal in our product-mix problem, and
that was to maximise profit. However, it is not easy in practise. An organisation may have a
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number of objectives for a specific decision, with possibly some priorities in between, all of
which must be considered together.
10.3 APPLICATION OF LP IN MARKETING
Linear programming has numerous advantages as a tried-and-true problem-solving method

that can improve decision-making, from media selection to market research.
This technique is especially useful when making a decision in certain marketing applications
where there are constraints or restrictions.
Marketing research is a statistical process that businesses use to collect data and identify
customer requirements and wants, along with the finest ways to satisfy them while ensuring
long-term profits (Zopounidis & Pardalos, 2010). The objectives are to enable the company
operations to fine-tune the marketing mix so as to address the requirements of customers
through an equitable product supply based on customer demands.
The right decisions can be made by managers through descriptive, diagnostic, and predictive
research at the strategic, tactical, and operational levels using the right market research
information. Making decisions depending on the needs and prerequisites of the target market
can be advantageous for the organisation if management optimises the linear programming
model.
For instance, to carry out a marketing/consumer research programme, a company might
decide to use a variety of techniques to reach the target audience and decide on the best
combination of product characteristics to address the needs and desires of the customer using
the suitable media outlet (Zopounidis & Pardalos, 2010). The available budget, restrictions,
and total amount of money are what determine which media options are available. Media
outlets include, but are not limited to, magazines, radio, social media, and other platforms
that can be tailored to reach the target audience. The linear programming method can also be
used to choose the best advertising budget from a variety of advertising channels.
A common example is the use of linear programming to determine the effectiveness of
available advertising alternatives using the formula:
WAA = Adjusted audience (AA) x Exposure factor (E x F) x Evaluation Factor (E v F)
In the above formula, AA is the target audience, E × F is the fraction of the audience that
reads the advertisement, and (E v F) is a subjective weight that is based on a scale of 0-1
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score. Assume that 4 advertising vehicles have been considered, the objective function is
expressed as:
Maximize total WAA=
To determine the best advertising vehicle, enter the formula into Excel and run an excel
solver.
Illustration 10.1
The Dyson Company, which recently launched a new line of hair appliances, has $282,000 to
spend on advertising. The product will first be tested in the Dallas area. The funds will be
used for a TV advertising blitz over one weekend in November (Friday, Saturday, and
Sunday).Daytime advertising, evening news advertising, and Sunday game-time advertising
are the three options available. A mix of one-minute TV spots is preferred.
Ad Type Reached With Each Ad Cost Per Ad

Daytime 3,000 $5,000
Evening News 4,000 $7,000
Sunday Game 75,000 $100,000
Dyson intends to display at least one ad of each type (daytime, evening-news, and game-
time). Furthermore, only two game-time ad spots are available. Every day, ten daytime and
six evening news spots are available. SMM wants to run at least five ads per day, but only
spend $50,000 on Friday and $75,000 on Saturday.
Define the Decision Variables
DFR = number of daytime ads on Friday
DSA = number of daytime ads on Saturday
DSU = number of daytime ads on Sunday
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EFR = number of evening ads on Friday

ESA = number of evening ads on Saturday
ESU = number of evening ads on Sunday
GSU = number of game-time ads on Sunday
Define the Objective Function
Maximize the total audience reached:
Max (audience reached per ad of each type) x (number of ads used of each type)
Max 3000DFR +3000DSA +3000DSU +4000EFR+4000ESA +4000ESU +75000GSU
Define the Constraints
Take out at least one ad of each type:
(1) DFR + DSA + DSU > 1
(2) EFR + ESA + ESU > 1
(3) GSU > 1
Ten daytime spots available:
(4) DFR < 10
(5) DSA < 10
(6) DSU < 10
Six evening news spots available:
(7) EFR < 6
(8) ESA < 6
(9) ESU < 6
Only two Sunday game-time ad spots available:
(10) GSU < 2
At least 5 ads per day:
(11) DFR + EFR > 5
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(12) DSA + ESA > 5

(13) DSU + ESU + GSU > 5
Spend no more than $50,000 on Friday:
(14) 5000DFR + 7000EFR < 50000
Spend no more than $75,000 on Saturday:
(15) 5000DSA + 7000ESA < 75000
Spend no more than $282,000 in total:
(16) 5000DFR + 5000DSA + 5000DSU + 7000EFR
+ 7000ESA + 7000ESU + 100000GSU7 < 282000
Non-negativity:
DFR, DSA, DSU, EFR, ESA, ESU, GSU > 0
The Management Scientist Solution
Objective Function Value=
199000.000
Variable Reduced Costs Value
DFR 0.000 8.000
DSA 0.000 5.000
DSU 0.000 2.000
EFR 0.000 0.000
ESA 0.000 0.000
ESU 0.000 1.000
GSU 0.000 2.000
Solution Summary
Total new audience reached = 199,000
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Number of daytime ads on Friday 8

Number of daytime ads on Saturday 5
Number of daytime ads on Sunday 2
Number of evening ads on Friday 0
Number of evening ads on Saturday 0
Number of evening ads on Sunday 1
Number of game-time ads on Sunday 2
10.4 APPLICATION OF LP IN FINANCE
LP can be used in capital budgeting, make-or-buy, asset allocation, portfolio selection,

financial planning, and other financial decisions. Portfolio selection problems entail selecting
specific investments, such as stocks and bonds, from a pool of investment options. Managers
of banks, mutual funds, and insurance companies face similar challenges. The goal function
is usually to maximise expected return or minimise risk.
Illustration 10.2
The investment funds available to Xtrend Savings total $20 million. It intends to invest over
the subsequent four months to maximise total interest earned, and at the start of the following
month, it will have at least $10 million available for a high-rise building project in which it
will be involved. Xtrend currently only plans to invest in 3-month construction loans (earning
6% monthly interest) and 2-month government bonds (earning 2% monthly interest). Every
month, you can invest in any of these. Money not used for these two investments can be
invested locally and earns a monthly return Construct a linear programme to assist Xtrend
Savings in determining how to invest over the next four months if it does not want to have
more than $8 million in either government bonds or construction loans at any time.
Solution:
Define the Decision Variables
Gi 1 = amount of new investment in government bonds in month i (for i = 1, 2, 3, 4)
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Ci = amount of new investment in construction loans in month i (for i = 1, 2, 3, 4)

Li = amount invested locally in month i,(for i = 1, 2, 3, 4)
Define the Objective Function
Maximize total interest earned in the 4-month period:
Max (interest rate on investment) X (amount invested)
Max .02G1 + .02G2 + .02G3 + .02G4+ .06C1 + .06C2 + .06C3 + .06C4 + .0075L1 +
.0075L2 + .0075L3 +
.0075L4
Define the Constraints
Month 1's total investment limited to $20 million:
(1) G1 + C1 + L1 = 20,000,000
Month 2's total investment limited to principal and interest invested locally in Month 1:
(2) G2 + C2 + L2 = 1.0075L1 or G2 + C2 - 1.0075L1 + L2 = 0
Month 3's total investment amount limited to principal and interest invested in government
bonds in Month 1 and locally invested in Month 2:
(3) G3 + C3 + L3 = 1.02G1 + 1.0075L2 or - 1.02G1 + G3 + C3 - 1.0075L2 + L3 = 0
Month 4's total investment limited to principal and interest invested in construction loans in
Month 1,
government bonds in Month 2, and locally invested in Month 3:
(4) G4 + C4 + L4 = 1.06C1 + 1.02G2 + 1.0075L3 or - 1.02G2 + G4 - 1.06C1 + C4 -
1.0075L3 +L4 = 0
$10 million must be available at start of Month 5:
(5) 1.06C2 + 1.02G3 + 1.0075L4 > 10,000,000
No more than $8 million in government bonds at any time:
(6) G1 < 8,000,000
(7) G1 + G2 < 8,000,000
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(8) G2 + G3 < 8,000,000

(9) G3 + G4 < 8,000,000
No more than $8 million in construction loans at any time:
(10) C1 < 8,000,000
(11) C1 + C2 < 8,000,000
(12) C1 + C2 + C3< 8,000,000
(13)C2 + C3 + C4 < 8,000,000
Non-negativity:
Gi, Ci, Li > 0 for i = 1, 2, 3, 4
The Management Scientist Solution
Objective Function Value= 1429213.7987

G1 0.0000 8000000.0000
G2 0.0000 0.0000
G3 0.0000 5108613.9228
G4 0.0000 2891386.0772
C1 0.0000 8000000.0000
C2 0.0453 0.0000
C3 0.0076 0.0000
C4 0.0000 8000000.0000
L1 0.0000 4000000.0000
L2 0.0000 4030000.0000
L3 0.0000 7111611.0772
L4 0.0000 4753562.0831
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10.5 APPLICATION OF LP IN OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
10.5.1 Definition of Operations Management

The management of the department within an organisation tasked with producing goods
and/or services is known as operations management. Examples of these products and services
can be found all around you. Every publication you read, every film you watch, every email
you send, every phone call you make, and every medical procedure you undergo. The
operations function of one or more organisations are involved in the treatment you receive.
One needs to understand "Operating Systems" in order to understand Operations
Management clearly. A configuration of resources combined for the delivery of goods or
services is referred to as an operating system.
Operating systems can be found in businesses like retail stores, hospitals, bus and taxi
companies, tailors, hotels, and dental offices. Any operating system converts inputs while
utilising physical resources to produce outputs that serve the purpose of meeting customer
demands. The process of transforming or converting inputs into finished goods or services
outputs. One uses a variety of inputs, including capital, labour, and information, to create
goods and services or additional transformation procedures (e.g., storing, transporting, and
cutting). To make sure the desired results are at various stages of the transformation process,
an organisation collects data (feedback) and then determines whether corrective action is
required by comparing them to previously established standards(control).
10.5.2 Objectives of Operations Management
Customer service and resource utilisation are two categories into which operations
management goals can be divided.
1. Customer service
The first goal is to provide excellent customer service, which is defined as meeting all of the
needs of the client. So, one of operations management's main goals is to provide excellent
customer service. The Operations Management must deliver a product that meets the
customer's requirements for quality, cost, and delivery time. Consequently, by offering the
"right thing at the right price at the right time," the primary objective can be satisfied.
Typically, an organisation will strive to achieve specific standards, or levels, on these
dimensions, and operations managers will have a significant impact on these efforts. Thus, in
order to provide the necessary customer service, this objective will affect the operations
manager's choices.
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2. Resource Utilisation
Utilizing resources effectively to satisfy customer needs is another important goal. To
achieve effective operations through efficient resource use, customer service must be
provided. Operating system failure due to ineffective resource management or poor customer
service.
Utilizing resources effectively, that is, getting the most out of them or reducing their loss,
underutilization, or waste, is the main focus of operations management. The percentage of
time that is used or occupied, the amount of space used, the intensity of activity, etc. can all
be used as indicators of how fully the resources are being used. Each metric shows how much
of these resources' potential or capacity is actually being used. This is referred to as the
resource utilisation objective.
The achievement of the both satisfactory customer service and resource utilisation is a
concern of operations management. A change in one will frequently result in a decline in the
other. Often, neither can be maximised, so both must be accomplished with a satisfactory
level of performance. These two goals must be the focus of all operations management
activities, and operations managers will encounter many issues as a result of this conflict.
Therefore, operations managers need to try to balance these fundamental goals.
1.5.3 Application of Linear Programming
Operations managers use linear programming (LP), a mathematical modelling technique, to
find alternative solutions to decision-making issues. Prior uses include figuring out the best
trucking and airline routes, chemical and oil blends, staffing plans, and patient case mixtures.
The primary objective of operations management is to increase an organization's operational
systems' productivity. The supply chain transformation process is the main focus of
operations management.
The terms variables, constraints, and objective function are used in linear programming.
Additionally, the variables are possible inputs for the problem.
The limitations are mathematical equations that restrict the values of the solutions. The
objective function is also the equation that stipulates the performance metric. Processes,
operations, and supply chain activities are terms used in operations management. Processes
are actions that both humans and machines take part in.
Operations are specific actions that convert raw materials into finished goods. The
management of resources, information, and finances between the supplier and the customer is
another aspect of supply chain activities.
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By minimising costs, linear programming seeks to maximise profits. Additionally, increasing

an organization's operational systems' productivity is a goal of operations management. The
supply chain transformation process is the main focus of operations management.
Demand planning is primarily done to reduce overall costs. Demand planning will also lessen
stock-outs and enhance customer service. You can make sure you have enough inventory to
satisfy your customers' needs by employing this method. In this situation, you will require
less inventory. You must forecast demand, which is the business's projection of future
consumer demand for a good or service, in order to accomplish this. The lead time is another
important consideration. The lead time is the amount of time that passes between placing an
order and having it delivered to the customer. We can make a buffer stock if we take into
account these variables. We will be able to manage supply and demand fluctuations thanks to
this buffer stock.
We want to try as hard as we can to cut costs as much as we can. Additionally, we aim to
make the most money possible. Demand planning can be used in this situation to collaborate
with our supply chain partners. With this approach, we can ensure that we have enough stock
while also lowering costs. We can also ensure that we have the appropriate amount of
inventory by cooperating with our supply chain partners. We will be able to lower expenses
and raise the calibre and customer service by doing this. Without having too much or too
little inventory, we can accomplish our objectives.
Additionally, the majority of businesses strive for increased operational efficiency. Reducing
the amount of inventory required achieves this. If this happens, then we can increase our
profits.
1. Production Planning Problem
Illustration 10.2
A product is produced in a factory in units of 5 units of part A and 4 units of part B. There are
120 and 240 units, respectively, of different raw materials, needed for parts A and B. Three
different processes can be used to make these components. The quantity of raw materials
needed for each production run and the number of units produced for each part are listed
below
Method Input per run (units) Output per run (units)
Raw material Raw material Part A Part B

1 2
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1 7 5 6 4
2 4 7 5 8
3 2 9 7 3
Formulate a L.P. model to determine the number of production run for each method so as to
maximize the total number of complete units of the final product.
Solution:
Formulation of Linear Programming Model
Let X1, X2, X3 represent the number of production run for method 1,2 and 3 respectively. The
objective is to maximize the total number of units of the final product. Now, the total number
of units of part A produced by different method is 6X1, 5X2, 7X3 and for part B is 4X1, 8X2,
3X3 .Since each unit of the final product requires 5 unit of part A and 4 unit of part B, it is
evident that the maximum number of the final product cannot exceed the smaller value of
and
Thus, the objective is to maximize
Z = Minimum of ( and )
Constraints are on the availability of raw materials. They are, for

Raw material 1,
Raw material 2,
The above formulation violates the linear programming properties since the objective
function is non-linear. (Linear relationship between two or more variable is the one in which
the variable are directly and precisely proportional). However, the above model can be easily
traduced to the generally acceptable linear programming format.
Let, y= Min ( and )
It follows that ≥ y and ≥y
i.e., and
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Thus, mathematical model for the problem is Maximize Z= y

Subject to constraints,
,
Where, X1, X2, X3, y
2. Product mix problem

A company produces two things. It buys casting, which is then drilled, polished, and
machined. The cost of casting for items a and b is Rs. 2 and Rs. 3, respectively, and they are
sold for Rs. % and Rs. 6 each. Three machines have hourly operating costs of Rs. 20, Rs. 14,
and Rs. 17.50, respectively. The machine's capacities are
Part A Part B
Machining Capacity 25/hr 40/hr
Boring Capacity 28/hr 35/hr
Polishing Capacity 35/hr 25/hr
Formulate the L. P. model to determine the product mix that maximizes the profit.
Solution
Formulation of L.P. Model Let x1 and x2 represent the number of units of A and b to be
manufactured per hour. The objective is to maximize the profit. Profit per part of item A and
B is calculated as:
Part A (Rs.) Part B (Rs.)
Machining Capacity =0.80 =0.50
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Boring Capacity =0.50 =0.40
Polishing Capacity =0.50 =0.70
Casting Cost 2.00 3.00

∴ Total Cost 3.80 4.60
Selling Price 5.00 6.00
∴ Profit 3.00 4.60 6.00 1.40 1.20 1.40
Therefore, objective is to
Maximize z= 1.2X1 + 1.4X2
Constraints are on the capacities of the machine. For one hour running of each machine, they
are
1X1 + 1X2 ≤ 1,
25 40
1X1 + 1X2 ≤ 1,
28 35
1X1 + 1X2 ≤ 1,
35 25
OR 8X1 + 5X2 ≤ 200,
5X1 + 4X2 ≤ 140,
5X1 + 7X2 ≤ 175,
Where, X1 ≥ 0, X2 ≥ 0
3. Transportation Problem
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Supply Demand
Dehradun 200 Ambala 300
Ludhiana 600 Noida 400
Prestige Equipment transports refrigerator units from Dehradun and Ludhiana factories to
distribution centres in Ambala and Noida. The following table summarises transportation
costs:
Transportation of product from source of production to distribution centre:
Source Destination Transportation Cost (Rs)
Dehradun Ambala 30
Noida 40
Ludhiana Ambala 60
Noida 50
The supply and demand, in number of units, is shown below:
Capacity of supply and demand of refrigerator:
How should transportation from Dehradun and Ludhiana be organised save the money?
Solution
The information of this problem can be summarized by the following map which is referred
as figure:
200 600
Supply
Transportation
30
Costs (Rs.)
Number X
Demand Ambala Noida
Figure: Map of no of supply and demand of refrigerator along with transportation cost
Table : Source of supply to destinations with number and transportation cost
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Source Destination Number Transportation Cost (Rs)

Dehradun Ambala X 30x
Noida Y 40y
Ludhiana Ambala Z 60z
Noida W 50w
Thus, the LP model is as follows:

Minimize: C = 30x + 40y + 60z + 50w
Subject to:
x + y ≤ 200 [Supply]
z + w ≤ 600 [Supply]
x + z ≥ 300 [Demand]
y + w ≥ 400 [Demand]
x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0 , z ≥ 0, w ≥ 0 [Non-negativity]
10.6 SUMMARY
Marketing Application
Media Selection
• Media selection is one application of linear programming in marketing.
• LP can assist marketing managers in allocating a set budget to various advertising
media.
• The goal is to maximise exposure reach, frequency, and quality.
• Restrictions on allowable allocations typically arise as a result of company policy,
contract requirements, and media availability.
Marketing Research
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• Marketing research is conducted by a company to learn about consumer

characteristics, attitudes, and preferences.
• Marketing research services include creating the study, conducting surveys, analysing
the data gathered, and making recommendations to the client.
• Targets or quotas for the number and types of respondents to be surveyed may be
established during the research design phase.
• The marketing research firm's goal is to conduct the survey in such a way that it meets
the client's needs at the lowest possible cost.
Financial Application
• LP can be used in capital budgeting, make-or-buy, asset allocation, portfolio
selection, financial planning, and other financial decisions.
• Portfolio selection problems entail selecting specific investments, such as stocks
and bonds, from a pool of investment options.
• Managers of banks, mutual funds, and insurance companies face similar
challenges.
• Typically, the objective function is to maximise expected return or minimize risk.
Operations Management Applications
• In operations management, LP can be used to help make decisions about product mix,
production scheduling, staffing, inventory control, capacity planning, and other issues.
• Multi-period planning, such as production scheduling, is an important application of
LP.
• Typically, the goal is to develop an efficient, low-cost production schedule for one or
more products over a number of time periods.
• Typical constraints include production capacity, labour capacity, storage space, and
others.
10.7 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What are essential characteristics of linear programming model

2. Discuss briefly the steps to formulate a linear programming problem. Explain with an
example
3. Write short note on the limitations of linear programming
4. In relation to Linear Programming, explain the implication of the following
assumptions of the model:
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a. Linearity of the objective function and constraints

b. Certainty and
c. Decision variables
d. Non negativity constraints in LPP.
5. Explain the following terms
a. Linearity
b. Feasible solution
c. Objective function
d. Unbounded solution
e. Optimal solution
6. Orient Paper Mills produces two grades of paper X and Y Because of raw material
restrictions not more than 400 tons of grade X and not more than 300 tons of grades Y
can be produced in a week. There are 160 production hours in a week. It requires 0.2
and 0.4 hour to produce a ton of products X and Y respectively with corresponding
profit of Rs 20 and Rs 50 per ton. Formulate a LPP to optimize the product mix for
maximum profit.
7. Vitamin A and B is found in foods F1 and F2. One unit of food F1 contains 3 units of
vitamin A and 4 units of vitamin B and that of F2 contains 6 units of vitamin A and 3
units of vitamin B One unit of vitamin F1 and F2 cost Rs 4 and Rs 5 respectively. The
minimum daily need per person of vitamin A and B is 80 and 100 units respectively.
Assuming that anything in excess of daily minimum requirement is harmful. Find out
the optimum mixture of F1 and F2 at the minimum cost which meets the minimum
requirement of vitamin A and B. Formulate this as a LP problem.
8. A transport company has two types of trucks, Type A and Type B. Type A has a
refrigerated capacity of 20 m3 and a non-refrigerated capacity of 40 m3 while Type B
has the same overall volume with equal sections for refrigerated and non-refrigerated
stock. A grocer needs to hire trucks for the transport of 3,000 m3 of refrigerated stock
and 4 000 m3 of non-refrigerated stock. The cost per kilometer of a Type A is $30,
and $40 for Type B. How many trucks of each type should the grocer rent to achieve
the minimum total cost?
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9. A school is preparing a trip for 400 students. The company who is providing the
transportation has 10 buses of 50 seats each and 8 buses of 40 seats, but only has 9
drivers available. The rental cost for a large bus is $800 and $600 for the small bus.
Calculate how many buses of each type should be used for the trip for the least
possible cost.
10. A store wants to liquidate 200 of its shirts and 100 pairs of pants from last season.
They have decided to put together two offers, A and B. Offer A is a package of one
shirt and a pair of pants which will sell for $30. Offer B is a package of three shirts
and a pair of pants, which will sell for $50. The store does not want to sell less than
20 packages of Offer A and less than 10 of Offer B. How many packages of each do
they have to sell to maximize the money generated from the promotion?
1. Aczel, Amir D., Sounderpandian, J.,& Saravanan P. (2012). Complete Business

2. Albright, S.C., & Winston, W.L. (2015).Business Analytics: Data Analysis and
Management Science: Quantitative Approaches to Decision Making (13th ed.).
India: Cengage Learning.
5. Balakrishnan, N., Render, B., Stair, R. M., & Munson, C. (2017). Managerial
decision modeling. Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education.
7. Stine, R.E., & Foster, D. (2013). Statistics for Business: Decision Making and
Analysis (2nd ed.). India: Pearson Education
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LESSON-11
TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM, TRANSHIPMENT

PROBLEM AND ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
Assistant Professor, Dept. Commerce & Management
Abhishekbhu008@gmail.com
Structure

11.2 Introduction
11.3 Transportation Problem
11.3.1 Types of Transportation Problem
11.3.2 Method to solve Transportation Problem
11.3.3 Transportation Problem
11.3.4 Transportation Problem: (Least Cost Cell Method)
11.3.5 Transportation Problem: (Vogel's Approximation Method)
11.4.1 Formulation of the Transhipment Problem
11.4.2 Mathematical formulation of Transhipment Problem
11.4.3 Transhipment Problem with impaired flow
11.4.4 Algorithm to solve transhipment problem with impaired flow
11.4.5 Unbalanced capacitated transhipment problems
11.4.6 Numerical Examples
11.5.1 Objectives of an Assignment Problem
11.5.2 Hungarian Method of Solving an Assignment Problem
11.5.3 Assignment Problem
11.6 Glossary
11.8 References
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• Understand the purpose of this lesson is to impart knowledge about problems with
transportation, transshipment, and assignment;
• Learn how to use the transportation simplex method to solve transportation problems;
• Define, recognize, and formulate an assignment problem. Know how to solve
assignment problems using the Hungarian algorithm;
• Understand why it is important to balance transportation problems and be able to
balance a problem instance;
• Explain the three models in this chapter (the models for transportation, assignment,
and transshipment) can each be written as linear programmes and solved using
general-purpose linear programming tools;
• Identify the best solution for each of the three models will be expressed in terms of
integer values for the decision variables if the right-hand side of the linear
programming formulations is all an integer.
11.2 INTRODUCTION
This chapter facilitates an overview of the notion about transshipment issue is a special
Linear Programming Problem (LLP) because it takes into account the presumption that all
sources and sinks can simultaneously accept and distribute shipments (function in both
directions). The goal of the transportation model, a special form of linear programming
issues, is to reduce the overall cost of moving commodities from the various supply origins to
the various demand destinations and the basic goal of an assignment problem is to reduce the
overall amount of time needed to accomplish a group of activities, or to increase skill ratings,
or to reduce the cost of the assignments.
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11.3 TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM
The main goal of solving a transportation problem is to determine the most efficient way to
use the resources of m supply sites to meet the needs of n demand places. A variable cost of
moving the goods from one supply point to another or a comparable constraint should be
taken into account while trying to discover this ideal combination.
Important definitions of Transportation problem are:
Determining the quantity to be transported from each origin to each destination while
minimising the overall transportation cost is the goal of the transportation problem.
There should be n destinations and m origins. Let ai be the supply volume at the I th origin.
Let bj be the demand at j's destination. It is known for all combinations that the price of
shipping one unit of an item from origin I to destination j is equal to cij (i,j). Transported
quantity from point I to point j will be xij. In order to reduce the overall transportation cost,
the quantity xij to be delivered over all routes (i,j) must be determined. Both the origins'
supply constraints and the destinations' demand demands must be met.
The above transportation problem can be written in the following tabular form:
:
Now the linear programming model representing the transportation problem is given by
A feasible solution to a transportation issue is a set of non-negative numbers xij(i=1,2,..,m,
j=1,2,...n) that meets the conditions.
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Basic Variable Solution: If a feasible solution to a transportation problem only requires m+n-
1 allocations, where m is the number of rows and n is the number of columns, then the
solution is said to be basic.
The phrase "optimal solution" describes a practical (though not always "basic") strategy that
lowers the overall cost of transportation.
Non degenerate basic feasible solution: If a transportation problem's basic viable solution has
precisely m+n-1 allocations in independent positions, it is not degenerate. In this example,
there are m rows and n columns in a transportation problem.
Degeneracy: If a fundamentally workable solution to a transportation problem has fewer
allocations than m+n-1, it is said to be degenerate. The transportation issue in this instance
consists of m rows and n columns.
11.3.1 Types of Transportation Problem
Transportation issues of several kinds:
Balanced: When both supplies and demands are equal, a transportation issue is said to be
balanced. When supply and demand are not equal, a transportation issue is said to be out of
balance. Depending on what is required to make the problem balanced, either a dummy row
or dummy column is introduced in this type of problem. After then, it can be addressed
similarly to the balanced problem.
11.3.2 Method to solve Transportation Problem
To find the initial basic feasible solution there are three methods:
1. NorthWest Corner Cell Method.
2. Least Call Cell Method.
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM).
Northwest Corner Method

Least Cost Method
298 | P a g e Vogel’s Approximation Method
11.3.3 Transportation Problem
The transportation issue was introduced in the section before; in this section, the NorthWest
Corner Cell Method will be used to find the first simple, practical answer.
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
Q1 3 1 7 4 300
Q2 2 6 5 9 400
Source
Q3 8 3 3 2 500
Demand 250 350 400 200 1200
Explained: Given three origins (O1, O2, and O3) and four destinations (D1, D2, D3, and D4)
For the sources O1, O2, and O3, the supplies are 300, 400, and 500, respectively. Demands
are respectively 250, 350, 400, and 200 for the destinations D1, D2, D3, and D4.
Solution: According to the North West Corner approach, the beginning point must be the
north-western corner of the table, or (O1, D1). When determining the price per transportation,
every single value in a cell is taken into consideration. After evaluating the supply from
source O1 and demand for column D1 in the figure, a minimum of two should be awarded to
the cell (O1, D1). Since there is no longer any requirement for Column D1, the entire Column
D1 will be cancelled. The quantity coming from source O1 is still 300 – 250 = 50.
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
250
Q1 3 1 7 4 300 50
Q2 2 6 5 9 400
Source
Q3 8 3 3 2 500
250
Demand 0 350 400 200 1200
Examine the northwestern quadrant of the table, which is (O1, D2), but leave off column D1.
Then, distribute the bare minimum of supply among the corresponding column and rows. The
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sourceO1 should only allocate 50 to the cell, which is less than what is required for D2 (i.e.,
350). (O1, D2).
Cancel row O1 because the supply from row O1 is finished. Column D2 still has a demand of
350 - 50 = 50.
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
250 50
Q1 3 1 7 4 300 50 0
Q2 2 6 5 9 400
Source
Q3 8 3 3 2 500
250 350
Demand 0 300 400 200 1200
Finding the north-west corner of the remaining table, O2, D3, now compare the O2supply
(100) to the D2 demand (400) and assign the smaller (100) to the cell (O2, D2). Cancel the
row O2 since the supply from O2 has been fully satisfied. 400 - 100 = 300 is the remaining
demand for column D3.
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
250 50
Q1 3 100 7 4 300 50 0
300
Q2 2 6 5 9 400 100 0
Source 8 3
Q3 3 2 500
350 400
250 300 300
Demand 0 0 200 1200
Proceeding in the same way, the final values of the cells will be:
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Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
250 50 100
Q1 3 7 300 4 300 50 0
300 300
Q2 2 6 5 9 400 100 0
Source 8 3 3
Q3 2 500 200 0
350 400 200
250 300 300 0
Demand 0 0 0 1200
Note that in the last remaining cell, which was cell, the demand for the pertinent columns and
rows is equal (O3, D4). Since O3 was in supply and D4 was in demand, the cell in this case
received 200. The last item was that neither a row nor a column contained anything.
To get the basic solution, which is (250 * 3) + (50 * 1) + (300 * 6) + (100 * 5) + (300 * 3) +
(200 * 2) = 4400, just multiply the value of each cell by the assigned value.
11.3.4 Transportation Problem: (Least Cost Cell Method)

The North-West Corner approach was covered at the prior session. The Least Cost Cell
technique will be covered in this session.
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
Q1 3 1 7 4 300
Q2 2 6 5 9 400
Source
Q3 8 3 3 2 500
Demand 250 350 400 200 1200
The Least Cost Cell approach requires that the least expensive cell in the table be identified,
and that cell is 1 (cell (O1, D2)).
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Now contrast the supply in row O1 with the demand in column D2 and assign the cell with
the lower number. Give the cell 300 because it is the lesser value. As the supply from O1 is
exhausted, the demand for column D2 is 350 - 300 = 50, hence this row should be cancelled..
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
300 1
Q1 3 7 4 300 0
Source Q2 2 6 5 9 400
Q3 8 3 3 2 500
350
Demand 250 50 400 200 1200
Find the cell with the lowest cost among the remaining cells next. Cells (O2, D1) and (O3,
D4) are the two least expensive, both costing 2. Let's decide (O2, D1). Next, ascertain the
supply and demand for the relevant cell. Then, allocate the smallest sum between the two to
the cell. Finally, remove the row or column whose supply or demand is now zero as a result
of the allocation
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
300
Q1 3 1 7 4 300 0
2 400
250
Source Q2 6 5 9 150
Q3 8 3 3 2 500
250 350
Demand 0 50 400 200 1200
Now, (O3, D4), with a cost of 2, is the cell with the lowest cost. As the supply is greater than
the demand, assign 200 to this cell. Therefore, the column is removed.
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Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
300 1
Q1 3 7 4 300 0
250
2 200
9 400
Source Q2 6 5 150
500
Q3 8 3 3 2 300
250 350 200
Demand 0 50 400 0 1200
The two unallocated cells with the lowest costs are the other two. Please choose any at
random (O3, D2). From the supply in the corresponding row and the demand in the
corresponding column, enter the smallest amount you can into this cell. Remove the row or
column with a value of zero.
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
300 1
Q1 3 7 4 300 0
2 9
250 200
Q2 6 5 400 150
Source 50
Q3 8 3 3 2 500 300 250
350
250 50 200
Demand 0 0 400 0 1200
Currently, the cheapest cell is (O3, D3). Eliminate the row or column with a value of zero and
distribute the minimum of supply and demand.
Destination
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D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
300
1
Q1 250
3 7 4 300 0
9
200
Q2 2 6 5 400 150
Source 8 50 250 3 500 300 250
Q3 3 2 0
350
250 50 400 200
Demand 0 0 150 0 1200
There is only one cell left, (O2, D3), and it costs $5. Its supply is 150 and demand is 150,
hence demand is 150 and both are equal in quantity. Allocate it to this cell.
Destination
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
250
3 300 1
Q1 7 4 300 0
150
5 200 9
Q2 2 6 400 150 0
50 250 3 200 2
Q3 8 3 500 300 250 0
350 400
250 50 150 200
Demand 0 0 0 0 1200
11.3.5 Transportation Problem: (Vogel's Approximation Method)

Simply multiply the cost of the cell by the values assigned to it, then add the results to get
the fundamental solution, which is (300 * 1) + (25 * 2) + (150 * 5) + (50 * 3) + (250 * 3) +
(200 * 2) = 2400.
The Least Cost Cell method and the North-West Corner method were discussed in the prior
session. In this session, the Vogel's Approximation method will be discussed.
Destination
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D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
Q1 3 1 7 4 300
Q2 2 6 5 9 400
Source
Q3 8 3 3 2 500
Demand 250 350 400 200 1200
The answer is to first identify the lowest value for each row, then the next lowest. The
corresponding row difference should then be filled in with the absolute difference between
these two lowest values, as seen in the image below. The second-least value, 3, and the two
least values in row O1 are separated by an absolute difference of 2. Rows O2 and O3 have
identical absolute differences of 3 and 1, respectively.
The lowest value should be found for each column, then the next lowest. The corresponding
column difference should then be filled in with the absolute difference between these two
lowest values, as shown in the image. Column D1's least value is 2, followed by its second-
least value, 3, and their absolute difference is 1. Columns D2, D3, and D3 all have absolute
differences of 2, 2, and 2, respectively
Destination
Row
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply difference
Q1 3 1 7 4 300 2
Source Q2 2 6 5 9 400 3
Q3 8 3 3 2 500 1
Demand 250 350 400 200 1200
Column
Difference 1 2 2 2
These numbers for the row and column disparity are also known as penalties. Pick the most
severe penalty right now. Three strikes, or row O2, is the maximum penalty. Then, by
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choosing the cell in row O2 with the lowest cost, divide the minimal amount between the
supply of the corresponding row and the demand of the corresponding column. Since demand
is lower than supply, put 250 in the cell to reflect the desire for the column. Delete column
D1 next.
Destination
Row
Q1 250 3 1 7 4 300 2
400
Source Q2 2 6 5 9 150 3
8
Q3 3 3 2 500 1
250
Demand 0 350 400 200 1200
Column
Difference 1 2 2 2
From the remaining cells, find out the row difference and column difference.
Destination
Row
Q1 3 1 7 4 300 2 3
250 400
Source Q2 2 6 5 9 150 3 1
Q3 8 3 3 2 500 1 1
250
Demand 0 350 400 200 1200
Column
Difference 1 2 2 2
- 2 2 2
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Select row O1 to correlate with the maximum penalty of 3, once more. The cheapest cell in
row O1 is (O1, D2), with a cost of 1. Distribute from the relevant row and column the least
quantity of supply and demand to the cell. Remove the row or column with a value of zero.
Destination
Row
1
300
Q1 3 7 4 300 0 2 3
250 400
Source Q2 2 6 5 9 150 3 1
Q3 8 3 3 2 500 1 1
250 350
Demand 0 50 400 200 1200
Column
Difference 1 2 2 2
- 2 2 2
Now find the row difference and column difference from the remaining cells.
Destination
Row
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
300
difference
1
Q1 3 7 4 300 0 2 3
250
-
400
Q2 2 6 5 9 3 1 1
150
Source 8
Q3 3 3 2 500 1 1 1
250 350
Demand 400 200 1200
0 50
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Column
1 2 2 2
Difference
- 2 2 2
- 3 2 7
You should now select the maximum penalty, which is 7 and falls under column D4. The
cheapest cell in column D4 is (O3, D4), which costs 2. More cell phones are available than
are needed (O3, D4).
Remove the column and give the cell $200.
Destination
Row
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
300
difference
1
Q1 3 7 4 300 0 2 3
250
-
Q2 2 6 5 9 400 150 3 1 1
Source 8 200
Q3 3 3 2 500 300 1 1 1
250 350 200

Demand 400 0 1200
0 50
Column
1 2 2 2
Difference
2 2 2
-
2 7
- 3
• Find the row difference and the column difference from the remaining cells.
Destination
Row
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
difference
Source Q1 3 1 7 4 300 0 2 3 -
-
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300
250
Q2 2 6 5 200
9 400 150 3 1 1
1
3
Q3 8 3 2 500 300 1 1 1 0
250 350 200
Demand 400 1200
0 50 0
Column 2
1 2 2
Difference
2 2 2
-
3 2 7
-
2
- 3
The maximum punishment at this time is three, which corresponds to column D2. The cell in
D2 with the smallest value is (O3, D2). Select the supply and demand that is least balanced,
then remove the column.
Destination
Row
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
difference
300
Q1 3 1 7 4 300 0 2 3 -
-
250
Q2 2 6 5 9 400 150 3 1 1
50 1
200
3 500 300
Q3 8 3 2 1 1 1 0
250
250 350 200
Demand 50 400 0 1200
0
0
Column 2
1 2 2
Difference
- 2 2 2
- 3 2 7
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2
- 3 -
• Now there is only one column so select the cell with the least cost and allocate
the value.
Destination
Row
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
difference
300
Q1 3 1 7 4 300 0 2 3 - -
250
Q2 2 6 5 9 400 150 3 1 1
50 1
250 200
3 500 300 250
Q3 8 3 2 1 1 1 0
0
250 350 400 200
Demand 50 150 0 1200
0
0
Column 2
1 2 2
Difference
- 2 2 2
- 3 2 7
2
- 3 -
• Now there is only one cell so allocate the remaining demand or supply to the
cell
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Destination
Row
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
difference
300
Q1 3 1 7 4 300 0 2 3 - -
150
250
Q2 2 6 5 9 400 150 0 3 1 1
50 1
250 200
3 500 300 250
Q3 8 3 2 1 1 1 0
0
250 350 400 200
Demand 50 150 0 1200
0 0
0
Column 2
1 2 2
Difference
- 2 2 2
- 3 2 7
2
- 3 -
There is no equilibrium left. Therefore, multiply each cell's assigned value by its
associated cell cost, then sum them all up to get the total cost, which is (300 * 1) +
(250 * 2) + (50 * 3) + (250 * 3) + (200 * 2) + (150 * 5) = 2850.
Transporting goods or containers to one site, then from there to another is known as
transshipment, also spelled transshipment. One possible explanation is transloading,
sometimes known as switching from one method of transportation to another while travelling
(for example, from a ship to a vehicle on the road). Another contributing factor is separating
the enormous shipment at the opposite end after bundling small shipments into one giant
package (deconsolidation). Transshipment often takes place at transport hubs. Additionally, a
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sizeable portion of international transshipment takes place in designated customs zones to

avoid the need for customs checks or duties, which would otherwise pose a considerable
obstacle to efficient shipping. When a package travels via intermediary nodes (transshipment
nodes) before reaching a specified destination node, transportation concerns called
transshipment problems take place. Transshipment problems can develop into more serious
transportation problems that can be fixed by a focused programme. Concerns about
transshipment can also be addressed using general-purpose linear programming techniques.
In this work, the author presents a method to solve a linear transshipment problem with
impaired and increased flow. The literature research shows that there is no systematic
technique to find the best solution to the same problem. We consider a modification of the
conventional transshipment model in which the origin and destination limitations could be
both unequal and unequal. It is shown that the models may be transformed into a similar
common transportation problem by adding one extra row and column. Both balanced and
imbalanced transshipment situations have challenges that need to be addressed, and we have
come up with solutions for both. The methods and transformations are easy to understand and
apply. The method of solving the issue may be helpful.
11.4.1 Formulation of the Transhipment Problem

Several fundamental presumptions are required in order to adequately describe the
transshipment problem, including:
• The system's indexing is as follows: display style i=1, l dots, m, display style j=1, l
dots, n, for the m origins and n destinations, respectively.
• The quantity of the good produced at the origins is identical to the quantity required at
the destinations; There is only one uniform good that needs to be conveyed.
• Shipping from one node to another is possible and can start simultaneously at the
sources (also to and from a destination). The cost of shipping is independent of the
weight of the shipment.
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• The transshipment problem is a unique Linear Programming Problem (LLP) since it

assumes that all sources and sinks may accept and distribute shipments concurrently
(function in both directions).
11.4.2 Mathematical formulation of Transhipment Problem
Assume you have n destinations and m origins. It may be useful to number the sources and
destinations consecutively, with the origins numbered from 1 to m and the destinations
numbered from m + 1 to m + n. This is because every origin and destination in a
transshipment problem may ship to any other origin and destination.
Let the quantities available at the origins be ai and the demands at the destinations be
i=1mai=j=m+1m+nbj.
Let cij represent the per-unit cost of shipping from station I to station j and let xij represent
the amounts transferred from station I to station j. Cji and Cij don't have to be identical.
According to our definition, a supply point is one that can deliver goods to another location
but cannot take goods from any other points. Demand points are points, like supply points,
that can accept goods from other points but cannot send goods to any other places. A
transshipment point is a location that has the ability to both accept products from other
locations and send them to other locations. As a result, the Transshipment Problem is defined
as
Minimize z=∑i=1m+n∑j=1j≠im+ncijxij
subject to
∑j=1j≠im+nxij−∑j=1j≠im+nxji=ai∀i=1,2,……,m∑i=1i≠jm+nxij−∑i=1i≠jm+nxji=bj∀j=m+1,
m+2,……,m+nxij≥0∀i,j=1,2,……..,m+n;i≠j
The aforementioned formulation is a linear programming problem, which is somewhat

similar to a transportation problem because the coefficients of the xji's are 1. In this
circumstance, there are initially m supply points and n demand sites. Nevertheless, all of the
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supply and demand locations are transformed into transshipment sites, yielding m + n
transshipment points.
However, the problem can be easily reduced to a standard transportation
problem.
Where tj is the total quantity shipped as a result of a transshipment from the jth destination
and it is the total amount shipped as a result of a transshipment through the ith origin.
Consider that T > 0 is a big enough number to guarantee that ti T for all I and tj T for all j.
Now that ti + xii = T has been defined, the nonnegative slack variable xii is used to reflect the
discrepancy between T and the actual quantity of transshipment through the ith origin. If we
assume that tj + xjj = T, then the nonnegative slack variable xjj represents the difference
between T and the actual quantity of transshipment through the jth destination.
Thus, the transshipment problem reduces to
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subject to
xij 0 ∀i,j = 1, 2,…………..……m + n; i ≠ j
Cii = 0 ∀i = 1, 2,…………..……m + n
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The above mathematical model represents a standard transportation problem with (m + n)

origins and (m + n) destinations.
For the aforementioned problem (P2), we will put together the transportation tableau as
follows: Each supply point and transshipment point will require a row in the tableau, while
each demand point and transshipment point will require a column. Every point of supply will
have an amount equal to its initial amount, and every point of demand will have an amount
equal to its initial amount of demand.
Let T stand in for the total supply. Then, the supply and demand at each transshipment point
will be equal to the point's initial supply plus T and the point's initial demand plus T,
respectively. Every transshipment point that is a net supplier, for example, will have a net
outflow equal to the point's initial supply, and every transshipment site that is a net demander,
for example, will have a net inflow equal to the point's initial demand. Although we do not
yet know how much will be transferred through each transshipment point, the total volume
will not exceed T. This explains why the supply and demand at each transshipment site are
modified by T. We promise that each transshipment's net outflow.
Note 1: An origin's total shipment must include both its production and its transshipment.
Similar to this, a destination's total revenue must equal both its demand and any transshipped
goods.
Note 2: T can also be thought of as an origin and destination buffer stock. T need to be big
enough to handle all transshipments since we believe that any quantity of items can be
transshipped at any point. Given that it is obvious that the volume of products transshipped at
any given location cannot exceed that which is produced or received, we take
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Note3: The problem's (P2) solution uses the basic variables 2m + 2n-1. In contrast, m + n of
these variables that occur in the diagonal cells indicate the leftover buffer stock, and if they
are removed, we are left with (m + n-1) basic variables that are of importance to us.
Remark 1: A transportation problem with an optimal solution (P2) leads to a transshipment

problem with an optimal solution (P1) that has the same objective function value.
11.4.3 Transhipment Problem with impaired flow

It may occasionally be necessary to maintain reserve stockpiles at the sources, say for
emergencies, in order to limit the overall transit flow to a certain level, say P. Next, we have
where P ′ = P + (m + n)T
The transshipment problem with impaired flow is given by
subject to
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According to the flow constraint in the problem (P3), a total amount of source reserves
(i=1mai+(m+n)T)P′) and destination slacks (j=m+1m+nbj+(m+n)T)P′) must be held at the
various sources and destinations, respectively. As a result, an additional destination is created
to receive the source reserves and an additional source is added to fill the destination slacks.
As a result, the linked transportation issue with limited flow is shown below.
Subject to
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Note 4: We assign a cost zero to all the cells in the additional row and column except the
(m + n + 1, m + n + 1) th cell, where we assign a cost M, where M is a large positive number.
11.4.4 Algorithm to solve transhipment problem with impaired flow
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Step 1: Take into account the linear envelope issue. The envelope issue is balanced if
i=1mai=j=m+1m+nbj, in which case take T=i=1mai; otherwise, take T=max(i=1mai, j
=m+1m+nbj), and end.
Step 2: The second step is to limit the flow to P′, where P′="" b="" style="margin: 0px;
padding: 0px;"> a transit desk like this: Each supply point and transshipment point must have
a table row, and each demand point and transshipment point must have a column.
Step 3: Add a fake demand point or sequence with the formula: demand =
((i=1mai+(m+n)T)P′) or supply = ((j=m + 1m+nbj+(m+n) T)-P'). Shipments from a point to
itself and to dummy are both regarded as zero. The supply at each transshipment point is
equal to the initial supply (ai, I = 1, 2,..., m) + T, which is equal to the original demand (bj, j
= m). There is a need. + 1, m + 2,..., m + n) + T. Additionally, each supply point's supply is
the same as the original supply T I = m + 1, m + 2,..., m + n, and each demand point's
demand is the same as the original demand T (for j = 1, 2,..., m). This ensures that at
transshipment sites that are net suppliers, net suppliers have a net outflow equal to the point's
original supply and net consumers have a net inflow equal to the point's original the total
amount that will be transported at each transshipment site is unknown.
Step 5: Find the best elementary feasible solution of the transformed transport problem (P4).
Step 6: Ignoring diagonal cell assignments, the solution obtained is the optimal basic feasible
solution of the envelope problem (P3).
11.4.5 Unbalanced capacitated transhipment problems

If in a given problem, the total availability ∑i=1m+nai∑i=1m+nai is not equal to the total
demand ∑j=1m+nbj∑j=1m+nbj, then some of the source and/or destination constraints are
satisfied as inequalities. This gives rise to an unbalanced capacitated transshipment problem
(UCTsP) whose related balanced capacitated transportation problem is given below.
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Subject to
There are different cases of UCTsP depending on the circumstance. We go over the different
UCTsP cases in the section after that.
Case I: Due to high storage costs at some sources, there are occasionally circumstances
where it is desirable to maintain supplies at the sources for emergencies and/or an
excess supply to destinations. The resulting UCTP is as follow
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Subject to
Solving (P8) can be solved by solving the following transportation problem
Subject to
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where
Which is of the form (P2).
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In a different scenario, sources might need to overproduce and some destinations might still
be undersupplied since the entire material supply at sources is less than the total demand at
various destinations. As a result, the problem is as follows:
Subject to
The Problem can also be reduced to the form (P2) as follows
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Subject to
where
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Which is simply resolved. Additionally, the flow-constrained problem (P9) can be simplified
to the form problem (P3).
Case II: The issue appears as follows when the entire supply at the sources is less than
the total demand at the destinations and the problem must be solved by generating
more than enough at the sources:
Subject to
This issue can be simply reduced to problem (P11) form and resolved.
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Consider, too, the scenario in which the issue takes the following form.
Subject to
1. Here, total availability is greater than total requirement, no storage is allowed at

sources and over supply to destinations is allowed, can be solved by reducing it to the
form (P9).
2. Case III:
Certain situations, where storage is allowed at sources and demands are to be exactly
met at destinations give rise to UCTP of the form:
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(P14)
Subject to
3. The only new column that is required to solve this problem (P14) is one
whose variables represent the sources' stored amounts. Here, the issue is reduced to
the form (P9), making it simple to resolve.
4. The issue is that short supplies are permitted at destinations, precise
amounts must be delivered, and there are restrictions of the following kind:
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Subject to
can also be resolved in a similar manner by turning it into a problem (P11).

Unbalanced capacitated transshipment issue algorithm
Transform the unbalanced transshipment problems of forms P8, P10, P12, P13, P14, and P15
into the corresponding transportation problems as shown in Step 1. P9, P9, P9, P11, P11, and
P11.
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Step 2: Problem P9 and P11 have the same fundamental structure as Problem P2, which has
an optimal basic feasible solution that can be found. This is covered in Section 2.
11.4.6 Numerical Examples
Illustration 1. A transshipment issue with a flow issue
Think about the following Two origins and two destinations are involved in the unbalanced
transshipment problem (P16). Table 1 below lists the availability at the sources, the
requirements at the destinations, and the cost of transportation.
Table1 (Cost matrix of unbalanced transhipment problem (P16))
I j O1 O2 D1 D2 aj
O1 0 1 5 4 3
O2 1 0 2 6 4
D1 5 2 0 2 ..
D2 4 6 2 0 ..
bj - - 6 3
Since ∑j=34bj>∑i=12ai∑j=34bj>∑i=12ai we take buffer stock, T = max (∑i=12ai, ∑j=34bj)

= 9T = max (∑i=12ai,∑j=34bj) = 9 and convert the problem into a balanced transshipment
problem by adding 9 units to each ai and bj; i, j = 1,2,3,4. The transformed transportation
problem is given in Table 2.
Table 2 (Transformed transportation problem)
I j 01 O2 D1 D2 ai
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01 0 1 5 4 12
O2 1 0 2 6 13
D1 5 2 0 2 9
D2 4 6 2 0 9
dO3 0 0 0 0 2
bj 9 9 15 12
Let P ′ be the total flow, restricted to 40.
Here you add a dummy row dO3 and a dummy column dO3 with each cell having a cost 0
except c55 having cost M. And we
take demand=∑i=14ai−P′=43−40=3demand=∑i=14ai−P′=43−40=3 and supply=∑j=14bj−P′=
45−40=5supply=∑j=14bj−P′=45−40=5.
Next you have to find out the initial basic feasible solution by any of the regular method and
check its optimality. The optimal solution is given in the Table 3 below.
Table 3 Optimal solution of transformed transportation problem with impaired flow
i j O1 O2 D1 D2 dO3 ai
O1 0(9) 1 5 4 0(3) 12
O2 1 0(9) 2(4) 6 0 13
D1 5 2 0(9) 2 0 9
D2 4 6 2 O(9) 0 9
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dO3 0 0 0(2) 0(3) M 5
bj 9 9 15 12 3
To achieve the best fundamental viable solution for the transshipment problem with hindered
flow by disregarding the allocations in the diagonal cells. The ideal schedule is O1 ——dO3,
3 units; O2——D1, 4 units; O3——D1, 2 units; and dO3——D2, 3 units, with a minimum Z
value of 8. Alternatively, you can state that x15 = 3, x23 = 4, x53 = 2, and x54 = 3.
The flow chart describes the ideal schedule for the transshipment problem with impaired flow
(Fig. 1)
Since the allocations in the diagonal cells in Fig. 1 have no physical significance, i.e., no
transportation, they are disregarded. The following is a summary of the remaining
allocations.
a) O1 moves three units to the dummy point source/destination, increasing dO3's supply
capacity to five units, including the two units that were initially available.
(b) Of the five units that dO3 can supply, dO3 transports two to D1 and three to D2.
In case (c), O2 moves 4 units to D1.
As a result, the initial need for 6 units of D1 and 3 units of D2 is met.
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You now understand the fundamental ideas related to linear programming problems and how
to solve them. Above, we talked about the transportation and transhipment problems. You
will now study the assignment's problem and debate alternative solutions.
Giving various resources (items) to various actions (receivers) one-to-one is the goal of the
assignment issue; that is, assigning the same number of operations to an equal number of
operators, with each operator performing only one operation. Think about an account officer
who has four employees and four tasks. It depends on the subordinates' effectiveness whether
they finish each task more swiftly or more slowly. If you need to give one task to one person
while keeping the total number of person hours to a minimum, you have an assignment
problem. Despite being a specific instance of the transportation problem, the approaches
taught in Unit 4 do not address the assignment problem. We use a different approach, the
Hungarian approach, to resolve an assignment problem.
As It is quicker and easier than other approaches to finding the optimum solution to a
transportation problem. The travelling salesman problem is just one of the assignment
problem kinds that are covered in this section along with methods for their Hungarian
approach resolution.
In the unit that follows, a single server M/M/1 queueing model with Poisson input and
exponential service time will be explained along with the basic structure and operation of a
queueing system.
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Fig;1.4 Solving Transhipment and Assignment

https://www.imsl.com/blog/solving-transshipment-assignment-problems
11.5.1 Objectives of an Assignment Problem

You should be able to do the following after finishing this unit:
• formulate an assignment problem; use the Hungarian method to find the best
solutions to assignment problems;
• find solutions for unique cases of assignment problems, such as the
maximization problem, unbalanced assignment problem, alternative optimal
solutions,
• Assignment restrictions; address the issue of the travelling salesman as an
assignment issue.
If the number of sources and destinations is equal, a transportation issue can be seen
as an assignment issue. Each source's capacity and each destination's needs are
multiplied by one. For an assignment problem, the supplied matrix must be a square
matrix; however, not for a transportation problem.
Consider a situation where there are n people and n jobs, and a specific role needs to
be assigned to each person. This assignment problem can be represented using the
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cost matrix, also referred to as a matrix of real numbers, as shown in the

accompanying table.:
Person Job
1 1 2… j…
n
2
. C11 C12 …. C1j….
. C1n
I
. C21 C22… C2i …
. C2n
n .
.
Cil Ci2… Cii…
Cin
.
.
Cn1Cn2…Cnj…
Cnm
Where cij is the time, it took for the ith individual to do the jth job. Let xij stand for
the ith person's jth job assignment. Thus, the assignment problem can be expressed
mathematically as follows:
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The constant cij served as the representation of time in the prior issue. Cost or another
parameter could be the one that needs to be minimized in the assignment problem
under discussion.
Transportation issues in general can be resolved using the same approach as an
assignment problem. The Hungarian approach, an alternative strategy, is how we
resolve it. This approach is more expedient and straightforward than other approaches
to figuring out the best solution to a transportation problem. Let's talk about the
Hungarian method for finding the correct response to a homework question.
11.5.2 Hungarian Method of Solving an Assignment Problem

The following steps can be used to solve an assignment problem in the best possible way:
1. Verify the squareness of the supplied matrix. If not, add an appropriate number of
dummy rows (or columns) with 0 cost/time components to make it square.
2. In each row of the cost matrix, find the smallest cost component. Take out the
smallest element from each row's other elements.
3. Find the smallest element in each column of the resulting cost matrix, and then
subtract it from each element in that column.
Find the best assignment in the resulting matrix by using the following criteria:
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a) Examine the rows one by one until you find a row that contains exactly one zero. In
the corresponding column, circle this zero (written as 0) and cross out all other zeros.
Continue in this manner until every row has been looked at. Do not touch any row
that contains more than one zero; move on to the next row instead.
b) Repetition of step I above for the cost matrix's columns.
c) If a reduced matrix row or column has more than one zero, arbitrarily select the row
or column with the fewest zeroes. Choose at random any zero in the given row or
column. All the zeros in the relevant row and column should be crossed out before
drawing a rectangle around it. Continue performing steps I (ii), and (iii) until every
zero has been assigned (by tracing a rectangle around it) or crossed.
d) The best assignment is done in the cells that correspond to 0 if each row and each
column of the resulting matrix has one and only one assigned 0. You can now quit
because the best possible solution to the issue has been found. If not, move on to the
next action.
5. Execute the following by drawing the least amount of horizontal and/or vertical lines
through all the zeros:
a) Check the boxes next to the rows where assignments haven't been created.
b) Mark with an asterisk (*) any columns that have zeros in the designated rows.
c) Check the boxes next to any rows that contain assignments in marked columns but
have not yet been marked.
d) Then, if any, check the boxes next to any columns that include zeros in the newly
designated rows. Mark with a checkmark ( ) any rows that have assignments in the
newly indicated columns.
e) Make straight lines through each designated column and each unmarked row.
6. Change the cost matrix to read:
a) Determine the tiniest element that is not enclosed by any of the lines.
b) Add it to the elements at the intersection of the two lines after deducting it from all
the uncovered elements.
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c) All other components bounded by the lines are unaltered.

7. Continue the process till the best result is obtained.
11.5.3 Assignment Problem

Illustration 1: A computer Centre needs to create four application programs and has four
professional programmers available. The director of the computer Centre provides the
following estimate for the amount of computer time (in minutes) needed by the relevant
experts to create the application programs:
Programmes
A B C D
Programmes 1 120 100 80 90
2 80 90 110 70
3 110 140 120 100
4 90 90 80 90
Find the assignment structure that reduces the amount of time needed to create the application
programmes.
Solution: Subtract the minimum element of each row from the sum of its other elements.
Notably, the first row must have at least 80 entries. The elements of the first row must
therefore have 80 subtracted from each of them, from 120, 100, 80, and 90, respectively. The
resulting matrix would thus have the following elements in its first row: 40, 20, 0, and 10,
respectively. In a manner similar to this, the elements of the additional rows of the resulting
matrix are also obtained. The matrix that results is as follows:
A B C D
40 20 0 10
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1 10 20 40 0
2 10 40 20 0
3 10 10 0 10
Now, let's split each component of the resulting matrix by the smallest member in that
column. The first column must have at least 10 entries. Therefore, each of the 40, 10, 10, and
10 components in the first column must have 10 subtracted from it. The resulting matrix has
the following elements in its first column: 30, 0, 0, and 0. In a manner similar to this, the
elements of the other columns of the resulting matrix are also obtained. The matrix that
results is as follows:
A B C D
30 10 0 10
1
0 10 40 0
2
0 30 20 0
3
0 0 0 10
Starting with the first row, we now cross all other zeros in the corresponding column and
draw a rectangle around the 0 in each row with a single zero. Here, there is only one zero in
the first row. Therefore, we cross all other zeros in the appropriate column and draw a
rectangle around it.
We get
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A B C D
1 30 10 10
0
2 0 10 40 0
3 0 30 20 0
4 0 0 0 10
There is not a single zero in the second, third, or fourth row. We therefore proceed column-
wise. One zero appears in the second column. As a result, we outline it with a rectangle and
cross every other zero in the same row. We get
A B C D
1 30 10 10
0
2 10 40 0
0
3 0 30 20
0
4 0 0 10
0
The aforementioned matrix doesn't have a single zero in any row or column. Therefore, we
initially advance row-wise in order to discover the row having more than one zero. The
second row contains two zeros.
So, we arbitrarily draw a rectangle around one of these zeros and cross one of them. In cell
(2, A), let's cross the zero and draw a rectangle around it (2, D). The first column's extra zeros
are crossed out. Remember that we could have just as easily selected the zero in cell (2, D),
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drawn a rectangle around it, and crossed all the other zeros. A different result would have
resulted from this.
The aforementioned matrix doesn't have a single zero in any row or column.
As a result, we initially, in every row and column where a rectangle has been drawn, all that
is left is one zero. This indicates that we have only given one operator control over one
operation. As a result, the following is the best solution:
A B C D
1 30 10 0 10
2 0 10 40 0
3 0 30 20 0
4 0 0 10
0
Keep in mind that task assignments should be based on the cells that correspond to the zeroes
around which rectangles have been drawn. Consequently, the optimum response to the issue
is:
B D 4 A, 3 C, 2 1
Programmer 1 receives program C in this manner, whereas Programmer 2 receives
programmer A, etc. The minimum development time for the programs is 350 minutes, or 80
+ 80 + 100 + 90. You should pause here and try to solve the following assignment problem to
check your understanding.
11.6 Glossary
Term Full Form/Formulae/Meaning
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Destination It is the location to which shipments are transported
Unit Transportation It is the cost of transporting one unit of the consignment from
cost an origin to a destination
Feasible Solution A solution that satisfies the row and column sum restrictions
and also the non-negativity restrictions is a feasible solution
Optimal Solution A feasible solution is said to be optimal solution when the total
transportation cost will be the minimum cost.
Transshipment point What is a transhipments point?

A location where material is transferred between vehicles.
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
Transshipment Transfer of a shipment from one carrier, or more commonly,

discharged from one vessel to another whereas in transit
Hungarian method The method used for solving an assignment problem is

called Hungarian method
Simplex method Simplex method is an approach to solving linear programming
models by hand using slack variables, tableaus, and pivot
variables
Slack and surplus Slack and Surplus variables represent the distinction between
left and right side of a constraint
variable
Standard form of The standard form of linear programming is. max z = ∑ c i x

i. Subject to. xi> 0.
LPP
FOB Free on Board
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
(III) MCQ Questions:
1. In a transportation problem where the demand or requirement is equal to the available

resource is known as
a) Balanced transportation problem
b) Regular transportation problem
c) Resource allocation transportation problem
d) Simple transportation model
2. In the Hungarian method of solving an assignment problem, the row reduction is

obtained by
a) Dividing each row by the elements of the row above it
b) Subtracting the elements of the row from the elements of the row above it
c) Subtracting the smallest element from all other elements of the row
d) Subtracting all the elements of the row from the highest element in the matrix.
3. The Assignment Problem is solved by

a) Complex method
b) Graphical method
c) Vector method
d) Hungarian method
4. The assignment matrix is always a

a) Rectangular matrix
b) Square matrix
c) Identity matrix
5. The similarity between Assignment Problem and Transportation Problem is

e) Both are rectangular matrices
f) Both are square matrices
g) Both can be solved by graphical method
h) Both have objective function and non-negativity constraints.
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6. An alternative optimal solution to a minimization transportation problem exists

whenever opportunity cost corresponding to unused route of transportation is:
a) Positive and greater than zero
b) Positive with at least one equal to zero
c) Negative with at least one equal to zero
7. One disadvantage of using the North-West Corner Rule to find initial the solution to
the transportation problem is that
a) It is complicated to use
b) It does not take into account the cost of transportation
c) It leads to a degenerate initial solution
d) All of the above
8. When total supply is equal to total demand in a transportation problem, the problem is
said to be
a) Balanced
b) Unbalanced
c) Degenerate
d) None of these
9. Which of the following methods is used to verify the optimality of the current solution
of the transportation problem
a) Least cost method
b) Vogel's approximation method
c) Modified distribution method
d) all of these
10. In the optimal solution, more than one empty cell has their opportunity cost as zero, it
indicates
a) The solution is not optimal
b) The problem has alternate solution
c) Something wrong in the solution
d) The problem will cycle
11. An assignment problem is considered as a particular case of

a) Transportation problem
b) Sequencing problem
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c) Queuing problem
d) Game theory
12. Dummy row or column is added in an assignment problem

a) To balance total activities and total resources
b) To prevent a solution from becoming degenerate
c) To prevent a solution from becoming degenerate
d) To increase the profit function
13. While solving an assignment problem, an activity is assigned to a resource with zero
opportunity cost because objective is to ______
a) minimize total cost of assignment
b) reduce total cost of assignment to zero
c) reduce cost of that assignment to zero
d) maximize total cost of assignment
14. Maximization assignment problem is transformed into a minimization problem

by____.
a) adding each entry in a column from the maximum value in that column
b) subtracting each entry in a column from the maximum value in that column
c) subtracting each entry in the table from the maximum value in that table
d) adding each entry in the table from the maximum value in that table
15. The transshipment issue is a

a) unique Linear Programming Problem (LLP)
b) assumption of all sources
c) function in both directions
d) Transportation
Answer of MCQ questions

1. Balanced transportation problem
2. Subtracting the smallest element from all other elements of the row
3. Hungarian method
4. Square matrix
5. Both have objective function and non-negativity constraints
6. Positive with at least one equal to zero
7. It does not take into account the cost of transportation
8. Balanced
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9. Modified distribution method

10. The problem has alternate solution
11. Transportation problem
12. To prevent a solution from becoming degenerate
13. Minimize total cost of assignment
14. Subtracting each entry in the table from the maximum value in that table
15. Unique Linear Programming Problem (LLP)
(IV) Short Answer Questions:
1. What is the transportation problem, and how can it be resolved?

2. Describe the transportation model.
3. What is the most effective way to tackle TP?
4. What method of transportation is used?
5. Why is transshipment crucial in shipping?
6. What distinguishes transshipment from transit?
7. Which method of transport minimizes transshipment and delay?
8. Describe the assignment problem with two examples.
9. What are the unique traits of an assignment problem?
10. How do you resolve a condition of assignment problem that is unbalanced?
(II)Long Answer Questions:
1. Compare and contrast the stepping stone method with the MODI method for resolving
a transportation issue.
2. A factory has four stores, S1, S2, S3, and S4, which are supplied by three warehouses,
W1, W2, and W3. The warehouses have monthly capacities of W1 = 100 units, W2 =
40 units, and W3 = 60 units. S1 = 30 units, S2 = 50 units, S3 = 65 units, and S4 = 55
units are the monthly requests at the stores.
The following table lists the transportation costs from warehouses to stores in Indian
rupees:
Stores
Warehouses S1 S2 S3 S4
W1 14 16 12 20
W2 12 14 10 08
W3 10 16 08 15
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The problem here is to determine the optimum distribution for the factory to minimize
shipping costs.
3. What distinguishes transshipment problems from transportation problems?
4. How do you solve an assignment problem with a zero? Describe using an example
5. How do you resolve the issue if the assignment's objective is to maximize profits? If
the goal of the assignment is to maximize profits, how do you solve the problem?
6. What distinguishes the transshipment node from the origin node in the shortest route
problem?
7. There are five people available to do four tasks. Table 65 provides the duration of
each worker's time on each job. The objective is to distribute labor so that the four
projects can be completed in the shortest amount of time possible. Apply the
Hungarian approach to the issue.
8. What distinguishes a transportation issue from an assignment issue?
11.8 REFERENCES
• The following six texts discuss transportation, assignment, and transshipment

problems: Bazaraa, M., and J. Jarvis. Linear Programming and Network Flows. New
York: Wiley, 1990. Bradley, S., A. Hax, and T. Magnanti. Applied Mathematical
Programming.
• Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1977. Dantzig, G. Linear Programming and
Extensions.
• Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963. Gass, S. Linear Programming:
Methods and Applications, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985. Murty, K. Linear
Programming.
• New York: Wiley, 1983. Wu, N., and R. Coppins. Linear Programming and
Extensions. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. Aarvik, O., and P. Randolph.
• “The Application of Linear Programming to the Determination of Transmission Line
Fees in an Electrical Power Network,” Interfaces 6(1975):17–31. Denardo, E., U.
Roth Blum, and A. Swersey.
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• “Transportation Problem in Which Costs Depend on Order of Arrival,” Management

Science 34(1988):774–784. Evans, J. “The Factored Transportation Problem,”
Management Science 30(1984):1021–1024. Gillett, B.
• Introduction to Operations Research: A Computer Oriented Algorithmic Approach.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976. Glassey, R., and V. Gupta. “A Linear Programming
Analysis of Paper Recycling,” Management Science 21(1974): 392–408. Glover, F.,
et al.
• “A Computational Study on Starting Procedures, Basis Change Criteria and Solution
Algorithms for Transportation Problems,” Management Science 20(1974):793–813.
• “An Application of the Assignment Problem,” Operations Research 18(1970):745–
746. Srinivasan, P.
• “A Transshipment Model for Cash Management Decisions,” Management Science
20(1974): 1350–1363. Wagner, H., and D. Rubin. “Shadow Prices: Tips and Traps for
Managers and Instructors,” Interfaces 20(no. 4, 1990):150–157.
• R.J Aguilar, Systems Analysis and Design. Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey (1973) pp. 209–220
• H. L. Bhatia, K. Swarup, M. C. Puri, Indian J. pure appl. Math. 8 (1977) 920-929
• Malakooti, B. (2013). Operations and Production Systems with Multiple Objectives.
John Wiley & Sons.
• Das, S. K., A. Goswami, and S. S. Alam. “Multiobjective Transportation Problem
with Interval Cost, Source and Destination Parameters.” European Journal of
Operational Research, Vol. 117, No. 1, 1999, pp. 100–11
-------------------------------------------End-----------------------------------------------------------------
----
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LESSON-12
INTEGER PROGRAMMING PROBLEM

Dr. Satish Kumar &
Dr. Dhirendra Singh
Designation: Assistant Professor
Institute : Shaheed Rajgruru College of Applied Sciences for Women
University: University of Delhi
Email Id: satish.kumar@rajguru.du.ac.in &
dhirendra.singh@rajguru.du.ac.in
STRUCTURE

12.2 Introduction
12.3 Mathematical Model of Integer Programming Problem
12.3.1 Pure Integer Programming Problem
12.3.2 Mixed Integer Programming Problem
12.3.3 Zero-One Integer Programming Problem
12.4 Techniques for Solving Integer Programming Problem
12.4.1 Gomory’s Cutting Plane Method
12.4.1.1 Construction of Gomory’s Constraints
12.4.1.2 Fractional Cut Method – ALL integer LPP
12.4.1.3 Fractional Cut Method – Mixed Integer LPP
12.4.2 Branch and Bound Technique
12.5 Summary
12.7 Answers
12.8 Multiple Choice Questions
12.9 Application Areas
12.10 Case Study
12.11 Glossary
12.12 References
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After studying this chapter, students should understand the limitations of the simplex method
in deriving integer solutions to linear programming problems. Applying cutting plane and
branch and bound methods to obtain optimal integer solutions of the variables in a linear
programming problem.
12.2 INTRODUCTION
Integer Programming Problem (IPP) is a special class of linear programming problems where
some or all variables are constrained to assume non-negative integer values. Such problems
are called all integer or mixed integer problems. In business and industry, it occurs frequently
where quite often discrete nature of variables is involved in many decision variables. One
might think it sufficient to obtain an integer solution to this special class of linear
programming problem by using the usual simplex method ad then rounding off the fractional
values thus occurring in the optimal solution. However in some cases, the deviation from the
exact optimal integer values may become large enough to given an infeasible solution.
Hence, there was a need to develop a systematic procedure in order to identify the optimal
integer solution to such types of problems.
12.3 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF INTEGER PROGRAMMING

PROBLEM PROPROBLEM
The linear programming problem with the additional requirements that the variables can take
only, integer values may have the following mathematical form:
Max./Min. Z
Subject to the constraints:
and
where, are integer valued for
12.3.1 PURE INTEGER PROGRAMMING PROBLEM

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An integer programming problem in which all variables are required to be integers is called a
pure or all integer programming problem. For example, the linear programming problem:
Max/
Where, is a pure integer linear programming problem.
12.3.2 MIXED INTEGER PROGRAMMING PROBLEM
On the other hand, an integer linear programming problem in which only some of the
variables are required to be integers is known as a mixed integer programming problem. For
example, the linear programming problem:
Where,
is a mixed integer linear programming problem. Here is not required to be an integer.
12.3.3 ZERO-ONE INTEGER PROGRAMMING PROBLEM
An integer programming problem in which all the variables must have integer values only
zero or unity, is called the zero-one integer programming problem. For example, the linear
programming problem:
where
12.4 TECHNIQUES FOR SOLVING INTEGER PROGRAMMING

PROBLEM
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There are many algorithms for solving the integer programming problem. Here, we shall
discuss the following two methods:
12.4.1 Gomory’s Cutting Plane Method
12.4.2 Branch and Bound Technique
12.4 .1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF GOMORY’S CONSTRAINTS

To illustrate construction of a Gomory’s constraint, let us consider a linear programming
problem in which an optimum non-integer basic feasible solution has been attained as
displayed in the simplex table below:

Clearly, the optimum basic feasible solution is given by
Since is a non-integer solution, we assume, for the sake of exposition only, that is
fractional.
Now, the constraint equation
Reduces to
……..(1)
Because are basic variables, we must have B= This implies that

and .
Now, since the fractional part of must also be non-negative. We split over each
of the in (1) into an integral part of , and a non-negative fractional part , for j-
=0,1,2,3,4. After this decomposition ,(1) may be written as
Or ……..(2)
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A comparison between (1) and (2) suggests that if we add an additional constraint in such a
way that the L.H.S of (2) is an integer, then we shall be forcing the non- integer towards
an integer.
The desired Gomory’s constraint is
12.4.1.2 FRACTIONAL CUT METHOD-ALL INTEGER LPP
An iterative procedure for the solution of an all-integer linear programming problem by

Gomory’s fractional cut method (or cutting plane method) may be summarized in the
following steps:
Step 1: Express the give linear programming problem into its standard form and determine an
optimum feasible solution by using simplex method ignoring the integer value restriction.
Step 2: Test the integrity of all the optimum solution.
a) If the optimum solution admits all-integer values, an optimum basic feasible solution
is attained.
b) If the optimum solution does not include all- integer values, then move on to next
step.
Step 3: Choose the largest fractional value of the basic variables. Let it be
Step 4: Express each of the negative fractions, if any, in the kth row of the optimum simplex
table as the sum of a negative integer and a non- negative fraction.
Step 5: Generate the Gomorian constraint (fractional cut) in the form
Where
Step 6: Add the Gomorian constraint generated in step 5 at the bottom of the optimum
simplex table. Use dual simplex method to find an improved optimum solution.
Step 7: Go to step 2 and repeat the procedure until as optimum basic feasible all-integer
solution is obtained.
Example-1: Find the optimum integer solution to the following linear programming problem:
where
Solution: Convert all constraints into equations by using slack variables , we
get
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B 1 1 0 0
0 5 3 2 1 0 5/3→
0 2 0 1 0 1 ------
Z = 0 -1↑ -1 0 0
1 5/3 1 2/3 1/3 -2/3 5/2
0 2 0 1 0 1 2→
Z = 0 0 -1/3↑ 1/3 1/3
1 1/3 1 0 1/3 -2/3
1 2 0 1 0 1
Z = 7/3 0 0 1/3 1/3
Since all , so the optimal solution is and Max. Z=7/3

To obtain an optimum integer solution, we have to add Gomorian Constraints:
Max. Fractional
Since, corresponding to the first row i.e. is the source row.
Now, expressing the negative fraction in the source row as a sum of negative integer and
positive fraction.
Since, is the source row, we have
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The fractional cut constraint is given by
Where, is the Gomory Slack. Adding Gomory Constraint at the bottom of optimum
simplex table 12.1.
Table-12.2
B 1 1 0 0 0
1 1/3 1 0 1/3 -2/3 0
1 2 0 1 0 1 0
0 -1/3 0 0 -1/3 -1/3 1
Z = 7/3 0 0 1/3↑ 1/3 0
Apply Dual Simplex Method:

Outgoing Vector
Incoming Vector
There is a tie, so we can select anyone of them incoming vector. So, we choose be
incoming vector. And, applying usual simplex method.
Table-12.3
B 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 -1 1
1 2 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 -3
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Z = 2 0 0 0 0 0
Since all and all and all restricted variables are integers. Hence, an
optimum integer solution is and Max. Z=2
Example-2: The owner of a ready-made garments stores two types of shirts known as Zee-
Shirts and Button-down shirts. He makes a profit of Rs. 1 and Rs. 4 per shirt on Zee-shirts
and Button-shirts respectively. He has two Tailors A and B at his disposal to stitch the shirts.
Tailor A and Tailor B can devote at the most 7 hours and 15 hours per-day respectively.
Both these shirts are to be stitched by both tailors. Tailor A and Tailor B spend two hours and
five hours respectively in stitching Zee-shirt, and four hours and three hours respectively in
stitching a Button-down shirt. How many shirts of both the types should be stitched in order
to maximize daily profit?
(a) Set-up and solve the linear programming problem.
(b) If the optimal solution is not integer-valued, use Gomory’s technique to derive the
optimal integer solution.
Solution: (a) Let =Zee-shirts and Button-down shirts
Then the linear programming problem becomes
where
(b)Convert all constraints into equations by using slack variables and then
solving the linear programming problem by usual simplex method, the optimum solution is
given by in the following table.
Table-12.4
B 1 4 0 0
4 7/4 1/2 1 1/4 0
0 39/4 7/2 0 -3/4 1
Z = 7 1 0 1 0

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Max. Fractional
simplex table 12.4.
Table-12.5
B 1 4 0 0 0
4 7/4 ½ 1 1/4 0 0
0 39/4 7/2 0 -3/4 1 0
0 -3/4 -1/2 0 -1/4 0 1
Z = 7 1↑ 0 1 0 0

Outgoing Vector
Incoming Vector
Apply usual simplex method
Table-12.6
B 1 4 0 0 0
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4 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 9/2 0 0 -5/2 1 7
1 3/2 1 0 1/2 0 -2
Z = 11/2 0 0 1/2 0 2
Since, is still not an integer i.e., is source row.

Max. Fractional
Since, corresponding to the third row i.e. is the source row.
simplex table 12.6.
Table-12.7
B 1 4 0 0 0 0
4 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 9/2 0 0 -5/2 1 7 0
1 3/2 1 0 1/2 0 -2 0
0 -1/2 0 0 -1/2 0 0 1
Z = 11/2 0 0 1/2↑ 0 2 0

Outgoing Vector
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Incoming Vector
Apply usual simplex method

Table-12.8
B 1 4 0 0 0 0
4 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 7 0 0 0 1 7 -5
1 1 1 0 0 0 -2 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 -2
Z = 5 0 0 0 0 2 1
optimum integer solution is and Max. Z=5.
Thus, the owner of ready-made garments should produce one Zee-shirt and also one Button-
down shirt in order to get the maximum profit of Rs. 5.
12.4.1.3 FRACTIONAL CUT METHOD-MIXED INTEGER LPP
This method is similar to the Fractional Cut Method—All Integer Linear Programming
Problem. The only difference is in Step V when generating the Gomorian constraint. The
Gomorian Constraint generation is as follows:
and ,
i.e.
where, is known as the Gomorian Slack variable and this constraint as the Gomory’s cut.
Example-3: Find the optimum integer solution to the following linear programming problem:
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where
Solution: Convert all constraints into equations by using slack variables ,
we get
+

B 4 6 2 0 0 0
0 5 4 -4 0 1 0 0 ------
0 5 -1 6 0 0 1 0 5/6→
0 5 -1 1 1 0 0 1 5/1
Z = 0 -4 -6↑ -2 0 0 0
0 25/3 10/3 0 0 1 2/3 0 5/2→
6 5/6 -1/6 1 0 0 1/6 0 ------
0 25/6 -5/6 0 1 0 -1/6 1 ------
Z = 5 -5↑ 0 -2 0 1 0
4 5/2 1 0 0 3/10 1/5 0 ------
6 5/4 0 1 0 1/20 1/5 0 ------
0 25/4 0 0 1 ¼ 0 1 25/4→
Z = 15/2 0 0 -2↑ 3/2 9/5 0
4 5/2 1 0 0 3/10 1/5 0
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6 5/4 0 1 0 1/20 1/5 0
2 25/4 0 0 1 ¼ 0 1
Z = 30 0 0 2 2 2 0

Max. Fractional
simplex table 12.9.
Table-12.10
B 4 6 2 0 0 0 0
4 5/2 1 0 0 3/10 1/5 0 0
6 5/4 0 1 0 1/20 1/5 0 0
2 25/4 0 0 1 ¼ 0 1 0
0 -1/2 0 0 0 -3/10 -1/5 0 1
Z = 30 0 0 2 2↑ 2 0 0

Outgoing Vector
Incoming Vector
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Table-12.11
B 4 6 2 0 0 0 0
4 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 7/6 0 1 0 0 1/6 0 1/6
2 35/6 0 0 1 0 -1/6 1 5/6
0 5/3 0 0 0 1 2/3 0 -10/3
Z = 80/3 0 0 0 0 2/3 0 20/3
Since all , so the optimal solution is and Max. Z=80/3

Since, is still not an integer i.e. .e. is the source row.
simplex table 12.11.
Table-12.12
B 4 6 2 0 0 0 0 0
4 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 7/6 0 1 0 0 1/6 0 1/6 0
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2 35/6 0 0 1 0 -1/6 1 5/6 0
0 5/3 0 0 0 1 2/3 0 -10/3 0
0 -5/6 0 0 0 0 -5/6 0 -5/6 1
Z = 80/3 0 0 0 0 2/3↑ 2 20/3 0

Outgoing Vector
Incoming Vector
Table-12.13
B 4 6 2 0 0 0 0 0
4 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
6 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1/6 1/5
2 6 0 0 1 0 0 1 5/6 -1/5
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 -10/3 4/5
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 -6/5
Z = 26 0 0 0 0 0 2 20/3 4/5
optimum integer solution is and Max. Z=26
12.4.2 BRANCH AND BOUND METHOD
The concept behind this method is to divide the entire feasible solution space of the L.P
problem into smaller parts called sub-problems and then search each of them for an optimal
solution. This approach is useful in those cases where there is large number of feasible
solutions and enumeration of those becomes economically impractical and impossible.
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The branch and bound method start by imposing feasible and infeasible upper or lower
bounds for the decision variables in each sub-problem. This helps in reducing the number of
simplex method iterations to arrive at the optimal solution, because each sub problem worse
than he current feasible bound is discarded and only the remaining sub problems are
examined. At a point where no more sub problems can be created, we will find an optimal
solution.
The iterative procedure is summarized below:
Step 1: Obtain an optimum solution of the given L.P.P. ignoring the integer restriction.
Step 2: Test the integrability of the optimum solution obtained in step 1. There are two
cases:
i) If the solution is in integers, the current solution is optimum to the given integer
programming problem
ii) If the solution is not in integers, go to next step.
Step 3: Considering the value of the objective function as upper bound, obtain the lower
bound by rounding off to integer values of the decision variables.
Step 4: Let the optimum value of the variable be not an integer. Then
subdivide(branch) the given L.P.P into two problems:
Sub Problem 1: Given L.P.P. with an additional constraint
Sub Problem 2: Given L.P.P. with an additional constraint
Where is the largest integer contained in .
Step 5: Solve the two sub problems obtained in step 4. There may arise three cases:
i) If the optimum solution of the two sub problems is integral, then the required solution
is one that gives larger value of z.
ii) If the optimum solution of the one sub problems is integral and the other sub problem
has no feasible optimal solution, then the required solution is same as ha of the
sub problem having integer valued solution.
iii) If the optimum solution of one sub problem is integral while that of the other is not
integer valued then record the integer valued solution and repeat steps 3 and 4 for
the non- integer valued sub problem.
Step 6: Repeat steps 3 to 5, until all integers valued solution are recorded.
Step 7: Choose the solution amongst the recorded integer valued solutions that yields an
optimum value of z.
Example-4: Use the branch and bound method to solve the following linear
programming problem:
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Solution: First solve the given linear programming problem using usual method ignoring the
integer restriction. The optimal solution of the problem is
Since the value of the variable is not an integer, we branch on this variable. The two
branches are and . Thus, we have
Sub-Problem-I
and
Sub-Problem-II
and
On solving these problems separately, the optimum solutions are as follows:

Sub-Problem-I: No Feasible Solution
Sub-Problem-II:
Since the value of the variable in Sub-Problem-II is not an integer, we branch on this
variable. The two branches are and . Thus, we
have
Sub-Problem-III
and
and
Sub-Problem-IV
and
and
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On solving these problems separately, the optimum solutions are as follows:

Sub-Problem-III:
Sub-Problem-IV:
Hence, the required optimum solution is
The complete branch and bound procedure for the given linear programming problem is
shown below: Sub-Problem-I
No Feasible Solution
Non-integer Optimum
Solution Sub-Problem-III
Sub-Problem-II
Sub-Problem-IV
Fig. 12.1
12.5 SUMMARY
• In this chapter, an extension of the linear programming problem, referred to as an

integer programming problem, was introduced where few or all variables must be
integers.
• If all the variables in a problem are integers, then such problems are referred to as all-
integer linear programming problem.
• If some, but not necessarily all, variables are integers, then such problems are referred
to as mixed-integer linear problems.
• If all the variables of a problem are 0 or 1, then such problems are referred to as 0–1
integer linear programming problem.
• The study of integer linear programming is helpful when fractional values for the
variables are not permitted and rounding off their values may not provide an optimal
integer solution.
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1. Find the optimum integer solution of the following L.P.P.

a)
b)
c)
2. Use Branch and Bound method for solving the following L.P.P.
a)
b)
3. A manufacturer of baby-dolls makes two types of dolls: Doll P and Doll Q.

Processing of these two dolls is done on two machine A and B. Doll P requires two
hours on machine A and six hours on machine B. Doll Q requires five hours on
machine A and also five hours on machine B. There are sixteen hours of time per day
available on machine P and thirty hours on machine Q. The profit gained on both the
dolls is same, i.e., one rupee per doll. What should be daily production of each of the
two dolls?
(a) Set up and solve the linear programming problem.
(b) If the optimal solution is not integer values, use Gomory’s technique to derive the
optimal solution.
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4. A company manufacturers two products and which requires time on three

different machines , and . Product requires 2 hours on machine
and 1 hour on machine Product requires 4 hours on machine and 2
hour on machine There are 50 hours available on machine , 16 hours on
machine and 20 hours on machine The per unit profit on
products and are Rs. 30 and Rs. 50 respectively. Determine the output mix that
will maximize the total profit per week, when only integer solution is acceptable.
12.7 ANSWERS
1. (a)
(b)
(c)
2. (a)
(b)
3. (a) Formulation of linear programming problem:
Where be the P type doll and be the Q type doll
(b)
4. 16 units of and no unit of , maximum profit = Rs.480
12.8 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. In a mixed-integer programming problem

(a) All of the decision variables require integer solutions
(b) Few of the decision variables require integer solutions
(c) Different objective functions are mixed together
(d) None of the above
2. The use of cutting plane method
(a) Reduces the number of constraints in the given problem
(b) Yields better value of objective function
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(c) Requires the use of standard LP approach between each cutting plane application
(d) All of the above
3. The 0 – 1 integer programming problem
(a) Requires the decision variables to have values between zero and one
(b) Requires that all the constraints have coefficients between zero and one
(c) Requires that the decision variables have coefficients between zero and one
4. The part of the feasible solution space eliminated by plotting a cut contains
(a) Only non-integer solutions
(b) Only integer solutions
(c) Both (a) and (b)
5. While solving an IP problem any non-integer variable in the solution is picked up in
order to
(a) Obtain the cut constraint
(b) Enter the solution
(c) Leave the solution
6. Branch and Bound method divide the feasible solution space into smaller parts by
(a) Branching
(b) Bounding
(c) Enumerating
7. Rounding-off solution values of decision variables in an LP problem may not be
acceptable because
(a) It does not satisfy constraints
(b) It violates non-negativity conditions
(c) Objective function value is less than the objective function value of LP
8. In the Branch and Bound approach to a maximization integer LP problem, a node is
terminated if
(a) A node has an infeasible solution
(b) A node yields a solution that is feasible but not an integer
(c) Upper bound is less than the current sub-problem’s lower bound
9. Which of the following is the consequence of adding a new cut constraint to an
optimal simplex table
(a) Addition of a new variable to the table
(b) Makes the previous optimal solution infeasible
(c) Eliminates non-integer solution from the solution space
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10. In a Branch and Bound minimization tree, the lower bounds on objective function
value
(a) Do not decrease in value
(b) Do not increase in value
(c) Remain constant
11. The situation of multiple solutions arises with
(a) Cutting plane method
(b) Branch and bound method
12. The corners of the reduced feasible region of an integer LP problem contains
(a) Only integer solution
(b) Optimal integer solution
(c) Only non-integer solution
13. While applying the cutting-plane method, dual simplex is used to maintain
(a) Optimality
(b) Feasibility
14. A non-integer variable is chosen in the optimal simplex table of the integer LP
problem
to
(a) Leave the basis
(b) Enter the basis
(c) To construct a Gomory cut
15. Modifications made for the mixed-integer cutting plane method are:
(a) Value of the objective function is bounded
(b) Row corresponding to an integer variable serve as a source row
(c) Top most rows of the simplex table contain integer variables
ANSWER
1 (b) 2(c) 3(a) 4(a) 5(a) 6(a) 7(d) 8(d) 9(d) 10(b) 11(d)
12(a) 13(b) 14(c) 15(b)
12.9 APPLICATION AREAS
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Application of Integer Programming Problem
The IPP has many applications in industry and management. Some of these are discussed below:
1. Travelling Salesman Problem
Suppose there are ‘n’ cities with known distances between any pair of cities. A salesman starts
from his home city; visit each city once and return to his starting point. The objective is to min
the total traveling time (or cost of distance). Such a problem can be formulated as zero-one
INTEGER programming problem
Mathematical
here denotes the distance from city ‘i’ to the city ‘j’ and i,j,k are integers varying from 1 to n
such that
1. only one directed are may be assigned to a specific value

of k
2. only other city may be reached from a specific city i
3. only one other city can initiate directed are to a specified city j
4. The round trip will consist of connected arcs D. It is

given that the k directed arc ends at some specific city j, the (k+1)th directed arcs must start at
th
same city j.
2. Fixed Charge Problem
In this problem it is required to produce at least N units of a certain product on n different

machines. Let is a number of units produced on machines j(=1 to n ). The product cost
function for the j th function is given by
Where is the setup cost or foundation cost for machine j. Thus, the problem is
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The objective function in this case is non-linear because of the presence of fixed charge .
This difficulty mat be removed by using the mixed integer problem as follows
Let
The problem reduces to
12.10 CASE STUDY
Zodiac is well known brand in the fashion industry. It manufactures different types of shirts
in different sizes, neck ties and other fashion accessories for professionals. Recently, it
decided to make use of some latest techniques in order to help itself in the cloth cutting
operation. The cutting operation for shirts is extremely time-consuming and gives rise to high
set-up costs. A large amount of cloth was also being wasted in the cutting operation. The
process of cutting involved putting several layers of cloth of standard width on a table and
putting stencils, i.e., the templates in order to cut the cloth. However, the choice of the
templates was based on judgement, which was leading to a lot of wastage. To overcome this
problem, the services of R&D department were seeked, so as to minimize the setup cost and
excess, subject to certain constraints:
1. Number of layers that can be cut is limited by the length of the knives and the
thickness of the fabric
2. Length of the cutting table, which limits the number of stencils that can be cut in one
operation. As the length of the stencils for the different sizes is almost equal, the
maximum number of stencils on the cutting table is actually independent of the
combination of the stencils used. Assumed that all stencils have equal length. The
following data on cutting operation of a shirt, and demand pattern for different sizes is
as follows:
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Size 39 41 43 45 47
Demand 55 85 92 61 30
The spreading of the fabric on the cutting table, the fixing of the layers and stencils, and the
cutting itself are extremely delicate and time-consuming operations. Therefore, the number of
these operations should be minimized. The problem then reduces to find the optimal
combination of the number of layers of cloth on the cutting table and the associated set of
stencils to reduce minimum number of setups, while satisfying the demand with no variation.
There was an upper bound on the number of layers at 35 and the cutting table length could
hold at most four stencils. Three cutting patterns were to be used. Develop an appropriate
mathematical model to suggest an optimal solution to this problem.
12.11 GLOSSARY
Integer Linear Programming

Integer LP problems are those in which some or all of the variables are restricted to integer
(or discrete) values.
Pure Integer Programming Problem
Pure (all) integer programming problems in which all decision variables are restricted to
integer values.
Mixed Integer Programming Problem
Mixed integer programming problems in which some, but not all, of the decision variables
are restricted to integer values
Zero-One Integer Programming Problem
Zero-one integer programming problems in which all decision variables are restricted to
integer values of either 0 or 1
Branch and Bound Method
The Branch and Bound method are used to solve all-integer, mixed-integer and zero-one
linear programming problems.
Dual Simplex Method
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Dual simplex method is applicable to those linear programming problems that start with
infeasible but otherwise optimum solution.
12.12 REFERENCES
Swarup, K., Gupta, P.K. & Mohan, M.(2012). Introduction to Management Science
Operations Research 13th Edition. Sultan Chand & Sons Educational Publishers, New Delhi.
Sharma, S.D. (2017). Operations Research 15th Edition. Kedar Nath Ram Nath 132,R.G.
College Road, Meerut (UP), India
Vasishtha, A.R., Gupta, R.K., Kumar, R., Arti, R. & Vasishtha, H.(2011). Linear
Programming 12th Edition. Krishna Prakashan Media (P) Ltd. Meerut (UP), INDIA
Taha, H. A. (2002). Operations Research: An Introduction, 7th Edition, Prentice Hall of

India.
Conforti, M., Cornuejols, G. & Zambelli, G. (2014). Integer Programming, New York/;
Springer.
Hiller, F.S. & Lieberman, G.J. (2010). Introduction to Operations Research-Concepts and
Cases, 9th Edition, New Delhi, Tata McGraw Hill (Indian Print)
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University of Delhi

Semester - I
Course Credit - 4.5
MANAGERIAL
ECONOMICS
Editorial Board
Dr. Ritesh Kumar Mishra
Ms. Shalini Prakash
Content Writers
Ms. Sonal Katyal, Dr. Rajdeep Singh,
Dr. Jitendra Singh, Dr. Dezy Kumari,
Dr. Minesh Srivastava, Mr. Subhash Manda,
Dr. Rajeev Kumar Upadhyay

ISBN: .............................
1st edition: 2022
Published by:
Printed by:
Managerial Economics
INDEX
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

Lesson 1: Introduction to Microeconomics..............................................................................01
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Introducing Management Students To Microeconomics.
1.4 Decision of Business Firms Under Different Objectives.
1.5 Marginal Analysis and Its Uses in the Business Decision Making.
1.6 Summary
UNIT 2: THEORIES OF DEMAND

Lesson 2: Theories of demand..............................................................................................24
2.1 Learning Objective
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Theories of Demand
2.4 Law of Demand
2.5 Utility Function
2.6 Revealed Preferences Theory
2.7 Indifference Curve
2.8 Income Effect and Substitution Effect
2.9 Demand Function
2.10 Demand Forecasting
2.11 Summary
UNIT 3: PRODUCTION AND COST

Lesson 3: Theory of production...............................................................................................68
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Production Function
3.4 Production in Short run
3.5 Production in Long run
3.6 Summary
Lesson 4: Theory of cost...........................................................................................................93
4.2 Introduction
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4.3 Cost Concepts

4.4 Traditional Theory of Costs
4.5 Modern Theory of Costs
4.6 Summary
UNIT 4: MARKET STRUCTURE

Lesson 5: Market structures...................................................................................................123
5.2 Market Structures
5.3 Perfect Competition
5.4 Monopoly
5.5 Price Discrimination
5.6 Pricing Strategies
5.7 Monopolistic Competition
5.8 Oligopoly
5.9 Summary
Lesson 6: Oligopoly............................................................................................. ................165

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Oligopoly
6.4 Oligopoly Models
6.5 Game Theory
6.6 Summary
UNIT 5: MARKET FAILURES

Lesson 7: Market Failures...................................................................................................184
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Market Failure
7.4 Conclusion
7.5 Summary
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LESSON 1
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
Jitendra Singh
jiten10rbs@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Introducing Management Students to Microeconomics.
1.3.1 Meaning and Definition of Managerial Economics.
1.3.2 Characteristics of Managerial Economics
1.3.3 Scope of Managerial Economics
1.4 Decision of Business Firms Under Different Objectives.
1.4.1 Major Theories of Business Firms under Different Objectives.
1.4.2 Managerial economics and decision making.
1.5 Marginal Analysis and Its Uses in Business Decision-Making.
1.5.1 Marginal analysis and its uses
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.9 References

● The objective of this lesson is to help the learner to understand the meaning of
managerial economics and what role it has in the subject of economics.
● How is it different from the umbrella subject of economics?
● Students will get to know the importance of managerial economics in the operation of
the business and its scope.
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● The views of eminent economists on the topic of managerial economics are also given
in this lesson.
● They will learn about the characteristics and nature of managerial economics.
● How do business firms take decisions under different objectives and what are the
major theories that guide their decisions?
● Students will learn about marginal analysis and its uses in business decision-making.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Economics is the study of the optimal use of scarce resources to satisfy human needs
and wants. In a world, where resources are limited and the population is increasing every day,
there is a mismatch of resources and people using them. This mismatch leads to several
socioeconomic problems in society such as hunger, poverty, etc. There is a race to hoard as
many resources as possible and accumulate wealth disproportionately by the powerful people
of the society. Poor people are at the receiving end of this race. This has resulted in income
inequality, access accumulation of resources in one part of the society, and scarcity in the
other. The study of economics is one way to solve this problem of imbalance and irregular
and artificial distribution of resources and wealth. Therefore, it is imperative to learn to
manage the resources in the best way to serve the needs of all. Economics is all about
learning to manage resources in the best manner.
The same problem can be seen at a micro level also, say, in a firm. Here, the
application of the principles of economics is commonly known as managerial economics.
Managerial economics is the study of the allocation of the resources available to a firm or
management to produce goods and services. It is concerned with choice. It is goal-oriented
and aims at maximizing the achievement of objectives. Managerial economics is a small part
of economics and does the same work as that of economics but at a micro level. In this
chapter, we will be discussing managerial economics in a more detailed manner.
1.3 INTRODUCING MANAGEMENT STUDENTS TO

MICROECONOMICS
Managerial economics is a branch of economics that deals with the functioning and
management of a business entity. Managerial economics is essentially that part of economics
that is applied to business decision-making. It is a body of knowledge consisting of economic
concepts, logic and reasoning, economic laws and theories, and tools and techniques for
analysing economic phenomena, evaluating economic options, and for optimizing the
allocation of resources. Economists have defined managerial economics according to their
perception of the Subject. Managerial economics is the study of economic theories, concepts,
logic, and tools of analysis that are used in analysing business conditions with the objective
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of finding an appropriate solution to business problems. As regards its nature, managerial

economics can be considered primarily as applied microeconomics.
1.3.1 Meaning and Definition of Managerial Economics:
After the publication of the book “Managerial Economics” by Joel Dean in 1951,
managerial economics as a subject gained popularity. Managerial economics can best be
understood as the application of concepts of economics in decision-making at the managerial
level of the business entity. It conducts economic analysis for identifying problems,
organizing information, and evaluating alternatives. Managerial economics can also be
defined as the study of economic theory, logic, and methodology which are generally applied
to seek solutions to the practical problems of business. Managerial economics ties the gap
between traditional economic theory and the real business situation in two ways.
Firstly, it offers a number of tools and techniques to enable the manager to become
more efficient decision making in real-world and practical situations.
Secondly, it serves as an integrating course to show the interaction between the
various areas in which the firm operates.
For example, when a large business organization decides to start a new operation in a new
area, they have to make several important decisions regarding the right amount of capital
infusion, prospective market, availability of raw materials and proper infrastructure, security
concerns, availability of human resources, etc. before they go ahead with the operation. They
require expert managerial advice during this juncture, without which they are more likely to
make bad decisions that will lead to the failure of their business operations. A novice can't be
expected to make prudent business decisions. Knowledge of managerial economics becomes
essential and only the people having expertise in managerial economics are equipped with the
necessary skills and knowledge to make these important decisions for the business.
Managerial economics also plays the same role when a business entity expands its area of
operations. They do try to replicate their existing business practices which again are based on
principles of managerial economics but even then, they require a manager who has a clear
understanding of managerial economics to provide optimal solutions to managerial decisions
making problems.
Managerial economics is often called ‘Business economics’ or ‘Economics of the Firm’ in
management studies. Both the terms, however, include ‘economics’ as a basic discipline
useful in certain functional areas of business management. The term managerial refers to the
functions of management. The main functions of management are decision-making and
forward planning.
Decision-making means the process of choosing from among available alternatives to achieve
the firm's established goals. A managerial team is always expected to come up with all the
possible alternatives and select the best alternative. Sometimes, this exercise of selecting the
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best alternative can become tedious exercise and has a tendency to delay the decision-making
process but with the right knowledge and centralizing the interests of the business, the best
alternative can be found and selected quickly. This is what decision-making is within a
business.
Forward planning refers to making plans for the future. A business organization cannot be
run on narrowmindedness. It needs to have profoundness. Managers are required to plan to
keep in mind the future of the business. A narrow approach would only lead to the failure of
the business. The long approach always works for the better. The plan cannot be made
keeping in mind the lifetime of the owner of the business but keeping in mind the lifetime of
the business which is supposed to be indefinite.
Managerial economics takes the help of decision-making sciences or quantitative methods.
Decision-making sciences or quantitative methods refer to the tools and techniques of
analysis, optimization analysis, statistical methods, game theory, and capital budgeting.
Decision-making sciences make special use of mathematical economics and econometrics to
derive optimal solutions to managerial decision-making problems and other optimization and
forecasting. It is fundamentally concerned with the art of economics making rational choices
to yield maximum return out of minimum resources and effort by making the best selection
among alternative courses of action. The subject matter of the business must go through
economic analysis, as that can be helpful in solving business problems, policy, and planning.
Managerial economics definition by different Economists.
"Managerial economics consists of using an economic model of thought to analyse
business situations."
Malcolm E. McNair and Richard S.
"Managerial economics is the integration of economic theory with business practice to
facilitate decision making and forward planning by management."
Milton H. Spencer & Siegelman
"The purpose of managerial economics is to show how economic analysis can be used
in formulating business policy."
Joel Dean.
"Managerial economics is a study of the behaviour of Firms in theory and practice."
Bates and Parkinson.
"Managerial economics is concerned with the application of economic concepts and
economic analysis to the problems of formulating rational managerial decisions."
Mansfield.
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Thus, managerial economics is an attempt to use economics and economic logic in

formulating business policy. It is that body of economic knowledge used to examine business
problems for making appropriate business decisions and formulating future plans.
1.3.2 Characteristics and Nature of Managerial Economics
(i) Micro-economic in character - Microeconomics is the branch of economics
that deals with individual units of the economy. These individual units may be
a person or firm or group. Managerial economics is concerned with the
analysis of and finding optimal solutions to decision-making problems of
businesses or firms, so it is microeconomic in character. Decision-making in a
firm or business affects them but has minimal effect on the economy of a
country thereby microeconomic in nature.
(ii) Pragmatic - It avoids difficult and abstract issues associated with the
analytical tools and techniques of economic theory, which are helpful in
decision-making in business. Managerial economics is all about the individual
touch in the decision-making process, avoiding complexities of organizational
dictation or theoretical economics principles. Dealing with every issue
individually is the primary approach of managerial economics which is more
pragmatic.
(iii) Theory of the firm or economics of the firm - It mostly uses that body of
economic concepts and philosophies which is known as the theory of the firm
or economics of the firm. As firms or business organizations work distinctly
than other governmental or non-governmental organizations, think tanks, etc.
Many economic principles are developed keeping in mind the macro nature of
economic policy making therefore they are unfit to be applied to a firm.
Governmental organizations follow a welfare approach in their operations, and
many non-governmental organizations also follow different approaches based
on their individual agendas and areas of operations but firms or any other
business organization are in the business of money-making for their
promoters. Profit is one of the main goals of firms or businesses and therefore
cannot be run using the same theory of economics that applies to other
organizations mentioned above. This distinct style of functioning is one of the
major reasons for the development of managerial economics.
(iv) Normative economics rather than positive economics - The main body of
economic theory confines itself to descriptive hypotheses, trying to generalize
about the relation among different variables without judgment about what is
desirable. Normative economies on the other hand prescribe what ought to be,
i.e., it distinguishes the ideal from the actual. Managerial economics is
prescriptive not merely descriptive therefore follows a real-world approach.
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(v) Goal-oriented end prescriptive - Analysing the managerial problems and

goal of the organization of business units, managerial economics aims at
finding-out optimal solutions to the business problems of firms. In other
words, it is problem-solving and goal oriented.
(vi) Conceptual and metrical - Managerial economics is based on a sound
framework of economic concepts. Its subject matter is not an arbitrary
collection of prescriptions. It aims to analyse business problems based on
established concepts. Thus, it is conceptual and metrical in nature.
(vii) Managerial Economics Deals with the Application of Economics -
Managerial economics is the branch of study that deals with economic theory
and its application to business management. Managers need to understand
pertinent aspects of economic theory like demand, supply, production, pricing,
markets, etc. It helps them in managing businesses in a structured manner with
the application of the principle of economics to managerial decision-making.
Some of the important aspects of economic theory which can be applied to
business management are as follows –
Demand Analysis: Laws of demand. the elasticity of demand, and factors
affecting demand.
Production Analysis: Laws of variable proportions, Law of returns to scale,
economies and diseconomies of scale.
Market Analysis: Nature of product market like perfect competition,
monopoly, oligopoly, monopolistic competition. Product pricing and output
decisions in different forms of market.
Difference between economics and managerial economics
Sr.No. Economics Managerial Economics
1. Deals with the body of principles itself. It deals with the application of
certain principles to solve the
problems of the Firm.
2 Economics includes both Microeconomic in character.

macroeconomics and microeconomics.
3 It studies both the economics of the It studies only individual firms.

individual as well as the economics of
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the aggregate.
4 It deals with the study and distribution It deals with a study of only
theories of rent, wages, interest, and profit theories.
profits.
5 Both positive and normative in nature. Normative in nature.
6 It studies only economic aspects. It studies both economic and

non-economic aspects.
7 It hypothesizes economic relationships It adopts, modifies, and

and builds simplified economic models. reformulates economic models to
suit specific conditions and
serves the specific problem-
solving process.
8 Based on certain assumptions. As it is These assumptions disappear due

not possible to know beforehand all the to practical situations. Real-
possibilities therefore the theories are world situations require solutions
developed based on assumptions. that are specifically customized
to that situation and hence
applying economic theories
based on assumptions would only
result in failure.
1.3.3 Scope of Managerial Economics.

1. Demand analysis and forecasting
2. Cost analysis
3. Production and supply analysis
4. Pricing decisions, policies, and practices.
5. Profit management and Capital Management.
6. Analysis of business environment.
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6.Analysis of
Business Env.
5.Profit & 1.Demand

Capital Analysis and
Management Forecasting
Scope of
Managerial
Economics
4.Pricing-
decision,
2.Cost Analysis
Policies &
Practices
3.Production
& Supply
Analysis
1. Demand Analysis and Forecasting: A business firm is an economic organization that is

engaged in transforming productive resources into goods that are to be sold in the market. A
major part of managerial decision-making depends on accurate estimates of demand. Demand
analysis is done by estimating the demand function.
The demand function describes the relationship between the quantity of the demand and the
factors associated with it. The demand for quantity reflects the function of the price of the
goods or services, income, taste, price of related goods, and preferences. For example, while
buying paper for the firm, the factors that will affect the decision of a customer would be –
i. Price of the paper of X paper company
ii. Price of the paper of other providers
iii. Price of the ink or toner
iv. Paying capacity of the customer or his personal disposable income
v. Quality of the paper
vi. Other factors such as the operating cost of the paper, etc.
All these factors are considered under demand analysis. To analyse the demand, the demand
function needs to be estimated.
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In another example, say, a firm 'A' sells paper. For the sake of explanation, we will use this
example of firm A throughout this section. The management will have to do a demand
analysis to find the demand for paper in the market where it operates. Consider the market is
in rural areas where the main economic activity is agriculture. The demand for paper in that
region would be very less and therefore selling paper in that area won't be making any profit
for the firm if it operates in only that region. But in urban areas, where the economic activity
is highly diverse, there are offices of many companies, and they would certainly require
papers for their office work. In that region, the firm would make a profit because of the large
market. Demand analysis would determine the right market for the product where the product
is in high demand.
Demand forecasting is the process of predicting the demand for a product in a future time
period. It is done to plan future production inventories, new product development, etc. The
current demand and values of the product are needed to calculate the future values and
demand for the product. Correct estimates of the demand help the firm in decision-making,
strengthening market position and enlarging profits.
2. Cost Analysis: Cost estimates are most useful for management decisions. The different
factors that cause variations in cost estimates should be given due consideration for planning
purposes. The chief topics covered under cost analysis are- cost concepts and classifications,
cost-output relationships, economies and diseconomies of scale, Cost control, and Cost
Production. Cost analysis becomes more important when the goal is profit-making. The cost
of production should always be less than the sale price of the product in the market. The
margin between the two is the profit after all.
For example, firm 'A' would have to do a proper cost analysis to find the cost of the
production of paper. They would have to ensure the cost of production should not go up to a
limit where the profit margin would be affected. In case it does, they would have to do the
cost-cutting to maintain the profit margin. The management has to consider the competition
in the market during cost analysis. Any increase in the cost of production would either
decrease their profit margin or increase the price of the product in the market and both cases
would be detrimental to the firm.
3. Production and Supply Analysis: Production analysis proceeds in physical terms and
deals with different production functions and their managerial uses. Supply analysis deals
with various aspects of the supply of commodities. The chief topics come under - supply
schedule, curves and function, the Law of supply and its limitation, the elasticity of supply,
and factors influencing supply.
For instance, to capture the market, firm A will have to ensure a proper supply of paper to all
of its customers. Any irregularities will only cause distrust among customers, and they will
look for alternatives in that case. Time is a precious component in the business field.
Customers have deadlines and they need their products on time so that their business runs
smoothly. Therefore, any delay in production or supply would cause distrust among
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customers. So, management has to do production and supply analysis periodically to find any
deficiencies and resolve them on time so that production and supply work can be completed
efficiently.
4. Pricing Decision, Policies, and Practices: The price of a product is directly related to the
firm’s total revenue, hence it constitutes the most important field of managerial economics.
The various aspects that are dealt with under it cover price determination in various market
forms, pricing policies, pricing methods, differential pricing, productive, and price
forecasting. Pricing decisions should also consider the cost of production before determining
the final price of the product. Therefore, pricing decisions and cost analysis go hand in hand.
For example, firm A would have to price its paper competitively in the market to make it an
attractive option to prospective customers. Customers always look for cheaper options,
therefore, an unnecessary increase in the sale price would be counterproductive. At the same
time, the firm also has to analyse whether the other firms are pricing their products
unreasonably low to weed out the competition in the market. In that case, the firm should
price its products reasonably. There would be some monetary loss for a short time but in the
long term, it would be beneficial as no one can afford to lose money for that long. Therefore,
cost analysis should always be done in line with pricing decisions.
5. Profit Management and Capital Management: The main purpose of a business firm is
to earn maximum profit. There is always an element of uncertainty about profits because of
variations in costs and revenues. The important aspects covered in this area are the nature and
measurement of profit, profit policies, and techniques of profit planning like break-even
analysis. Capital management implies planning and control of capital expenditure because it
involves a large sum and the problems in disposing of the capital assets are so complex that
they require considerable time and labour. The management of these capital assets such as
time and labour to control the cost of production is one of the main duties of managers. The
main topics dealt with under capital management are the cost of capital, rate of return, and
selection of projects.
For example, firm A selling paper would fail if the capital infusion were unnecessarily higher
than the profit. Capital expenditure should always be controlled unless it's going to play a
role in increasing sales. Sometimes, when the demand is high, supply is increased to balance
the demand and the present labour force becomes too less for the job, in that situation, firms
hire more workers who are there just to fill the gap. But when the demand goes down, the
same workers become a liability for the firm. If the surplus workers are not let go on time, it
would create a mismatch between profit and capital. Therefore, proper management of both
profit and capital is necessary for the proper functioning of the business.
6. Analysis of Business Environment: The environmental factors influence the working and
performance of a business undertaking. Therefore, the managers will have to consider
environmental factors in the process of decision-making. Decisions taken in isolation of
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environmental factors would prove harmful to the firm. Therefore, the management must be
fully aware of the economic environment, particularly those economic factors which
constitute the business climate. Certain macroeconomic theories such as Income and
Employment Theory, Monetary Theory, etc., help in analysing business climate. Analysis of
monetary policy, fiscal policy, industrial policy, foreign trade policy, and other direct controls
also help in forecasting business climate. Therefore, macro-economic theory and government
policies are also included in the scope of managerial economics.
For instance, firm A would have to take into consideration the economic environment of the
region where they are operating. Say, in times of recession, the firm would have to decrease
the supply and should have buffer money or an emergency fund to survive during this
difficult time. It should plan for any unforeseen calamity. Other factors such as law and order
in the area, inflation, etc. can also affect the business of the firm and therefore the same must
be properly planned and managed.
1.4 DECISION OF BUSINESS FIRMS UNDER DIFFERENT

OBJECTIVES
Meaning Of Firm
A firm is an organization that combines and organizes resources for the purpose of producing
goods and services for sale. In other words, a firm is a unit engaged in the production of
goods and services. A firm can be –
- Small, medium, and large
- Sole Proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations
- Public sector, Private sector, and Joint sector.
A Firm has many objectives which include: -
● Desired outcomes
● Strategy or policy to achieve their goals
● Consumer satisfaction.
The economists differ in opinion regarding the objective of the business firms. According to
classical economists, the main aim of the firm is to earn maximum profit. The reason for this
is that earlier, owners of the firms were mostly called organizers. For example, Managers or
organizers were the owners of the organization themselves. The interest was in profit
maximization. But in the modern period, the importance of joint stock companies and
partnerships has been increasing. In place of sole entrepreneur or partnership, the owners of
joint stock companies and partnerships are a large number of shareholders who reside in
different places. The actual management of these companies is in the hands of their appointed
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managers. These managers get salaries for the work rendered and certain other facilities like
free accommodation, car, etc. The main interest of the shareholder of the joint stock company
and partnerships is in the profit of the company, but the interest of the manager is not only
earning profits for the firm like increasing the sales and development of the company but also
increasing their own salaries and other facilities. The manager tries to ensure that the
company may go on earning adequate profit.
1.4.1 Major Theories of Business Firms under Different Objectives
1. Profit Maximisation: - Nicholson and Williamson
Profit maximization is the only objective of business firms and is the main assumption of
traditional economic theory. It also forms the basis of conventional price theory. Profit
maximization is regarded as the most reasonable and analytically the most productive
business objective. Under the assumptions of given tastes and technology, the price and
output of a given product under perfect competition are determined with the sole objective of
maximizing profits.
Profit Maximization Theory conditions: - If the difference between Total Revenue (TR) and
Total Cost (TC) is maximum.
Profit= TR- TC
(i) MC (Marginal Cost) = MR (Marginal Revenue)
(ii) MC – must be rising at the point of equality between MC and MR
(a) MC < MR – Total profits are not maximized
(b) MC > MR – The level of total profit is being reduced.
(c) MC = MR – Profits are Maximized.
2. Baumol’s Model (Revenue Maximization Model)
The basic principle of this theory is that the objective of the firms is sales maximization
rather than Profit Maximisation. Sales here mean total revenue earned by the sale of goods.
According to this theory, once profits reach an acceptable level, the goal of the firms
becomes the maximization of sales revenue rather than the maximization of profit.
Managers pursue those goals which further their interests. Sales revenue trend is a more
readily available indicator of firm performance.
3. Marris Model Growth Maximisation
Marris' approach is based on the fact that ownership and control of the firm are in the hands
of two different sets of people. According to this theory, the rate of growth and potential of
growth are the Standards used to measure the success of the Firm. The managers of the firm
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aim at the maximization of the growth rate and shareholders, or owners aim at the
maximization of their dividend and share price of the firm.
Marris developed a balanced growth model in which the manager chooses the growth rate at
which the firm's sales, profits, assets, etc., grow. He suggests the utility functions of
managers and owners to highlight the different goals set by both. The utility function of
managers is denoted by the symbol 'Um' and includes variables such as salaries, power, status,
job security, etc. upon which managers set their goals in the firm which is different from the
owners'. Utility functions of owners are shown by Marris as 'Uo' which include variables such
as profits, market share, output capital, etc. These are the goals of owners in the firm which
do not coincide with that of managers.
Um= f (Salaries, Power, Status, Job security, etc.)
Uo= f (Profits, Market share, Output capital, public esteem, etc.)
4. Williamson’s Model of Managerial Utility or Discretion.
According to this theory, managers are free to pursue their own self-interest once they have
achieved a level of profit that will pay a satisfactory dividend to shareholders and still ensure
growth. They are free to increase their own emoluments and also the size of their staff and
expenditure on them provided owner-shareholders are paid their expected profits or dividends
as the case may be. Managers seek to maximize their own utility function subject to a
minimum level of profit.
Utility Function U= f (S, M, ID)
Where: - S= staff expenditure (More stuff is valued because they lead to the manager
getting more salary, more prestige, and more security).
M= Managerial Emoluments (Secretaries, company car, phones, perks for employees).
ID= Discretionary Investment (Discretionary investment or investment are what remain with
the manager after paying taxes and dividend to shareholders in order to retain effective
control of the firm).
5. Behavioural Theory of Organisation Goals: -
Simon Model or Satisficing Theory
Herbert Simon propounded the behavioural theory of the firm. According to him the firm’s
principal objective is not maximizing profit but satisfying or satisfactory profits.
He claimed that due to the imperfection of data and uncertainty prevailing in the real world.
The profit policy of the firm is not maximizing profit but Satisficing. The term ‘Satisficing’
means Satisfactory overall performance. The firm’s aim is not to maximize profits but to
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attain a certain level or rate of profit holding a certain share of the market or a certain level of
sales.
Cyert-March Model or Satisfying Theory.
The Cyert-March model says that in a modern large multiproduct firm, ownership is separate
from management. Here, the firm is not considered as a single entity with a single goal of
profit maximization by the entrepreneur. Instead, Cyert and March regard the modern
business firm as a group of individuals who are engaged in the decision-making process
relating to its internal structure having multiple goals. They emphasize that the modern
business firm is so complex that individuals within it have limited information and imperfect
foresight with respect to both internal and external developments. The modern business firm
is a complex organisation in which the decision-making process should be analysed in
variables that affect organisational goals, expectations, and choices.
6. Rothschild’s Hypothesis or Security Profit
Economist Rothschild is of the view that 'there is another motive which is probably of a
similar order of magnitude as the desire for maximum profit, the desire of security profits.’
The firm is motivated not by profit maximization but by the objective of security profit. It
implies that a firm is deciding its price and output policy does not aim at maximising its
profits at a particular time or particular period. The primary goal of the firm is long-run
survival.
7. Satisfaction Maximisation
As per the view of ScitoVsky, maximisation of satisfaction is the main objective of the firm
and not preferring profit-maximisation. He is concerned with managerial effort and the
disfavour that managers have for work. According to him, an entrepreneur would maximize
profits only if his choice between more income and more leisure is independent of his
income. It is due to the fact that after a certain level of profits, the psychology of the
entrepreneur will be to give more preference to leisure in comparison to profits. In other
words, the supply of entrepreneurship should have zero income elasticity. But an
entrepreneur does not aim at profit maximisation. He wants to maximise satisfaction and keep
his efforts and output below the level of maximum profits.
1.4.2 Managerial economics and decision making
The term managerial refers to the function of management. The main functions of
management are decision-making and forward planning. Decision-making means the process
of choosing from among available alternatives to achieve the firm's established goals.
Managerial economics is concerned with the decision-making process, decision model, and
decision variables at the firm level. The managers within the firm think, take and execute
decisions, either individually or collectively. These decisions may be scientific or intuitive,
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strategic or tactical, certain or uncertain, major or minor, hard or soft. All the decisions
involve some degree of choice. Hence, these are economic in nature and attempt towards a
solution to the problem. Business economists assist managers in using specialized skills and
sophisticated techniques to solve the difficult problem of successful decision-making and
forward planning. Business decisions can be classified into various categories depending
upon the functional areas of the managers.
Steps in decision-making
Business economics is concerned with decision-making at the level of the firm. This decision
has a far-reaching effect on the firm. Systematic efforts are required to be made to arrive at
the right decision at the right time and right place. Delays in taking decisions or
implementing decisions might turn things for the worse for the firm. Taking the right
decisions at the right time is also important in the sense that it will keep the firm ahead of the
competition in the market. The steps of decision-making are as follows –
1. Identify Business Problem
2. Defining Objective
3. Discovering Available Alternative
4. Evaluating Consequences of Various Alternatives
5. Selecting Best Alternative
6. Execution Sensitivity Analysis
1. Identify business problems

In any business decision, the first step is to identify the business problem. It is a key
part of the organization to understand the real problem. Businesses don't look for
problems or deficiencies in their functioning unless they incur losses or when their
sales go down. They often mistake their sales decline as a result of the decline in
demand or an increase in inflation. But in many cases, the problem lies inwards. They
fail to do proper business analysis or in managerial functions, meaning they fail to
identify the real problem. For example, if the problem lies in the quality of the
product and the sales go down, instead of looking into it, they think it is because of
the low demand. Sometimes, there are external factors too. A change in the
governmental tax policies or a real demand problem, etc can also cause problems. For
example, if there is a private mobile manufacturer in the country, he has to recognize
not only the demand-supply scenario in the country but also the role of government
tax policy, state government taxes, goods and services taxes, etc. In short, the
businesses will have to first identify the problem to deal with them.
2. Defining objective
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In any economic or business decision, the determination of the objective or goal of the
organization is the second step in any decision-making. The most probable answer
will be profit maximization. But, in the modern corporate sector, profit maximization
may not be the only goal, or sometimes, may not even be the most important goal, as
goals like sales maximization or growth maximization takes the centre stage.
Sometimes, organizations have multiple goals like sales maximization along with
customer satisfaction by going for price minimization. Some goals are mutually
beneficial for most of the people within the organization. Say, if the goal is 'market
share maximization'. This will make not only the sales and marketing departments
happy, but the public esteem of that organization also goes up. Achieving such a goal
will make the shareholders and managers very happy. A crucial factor in determining
the objective is the time horizon set to achieve the goal. Further, the presence of risk
and uncertainty, which makes the process of determining the objective a challenging
job, should be seriously considered.
3. Discovering Available Alternatives
The third step involves searching for an answer to the question 'what are the various
options available?' In other words, one has to explore all available alternatives. Ideally
speaking, the decision maker should explore all possible alternatives and choose the
best one. But that is practically not possible due to time, cost, and resource
constraints. For example, in the era of globalization, there is a firm wanting to
modernize its technology. It has various alternatives to choose from. Either it
indigenously develops with its own Research and Development (R & D), or it gets
into a joint venture with a known internationally famed company or gets into a
technical collaboration. This way, one will get the latest technology and they won't
have to spend a fortune or time, which are very crucial for any business to get them.
4. Evaluating Consequences of Various Alternative
Each of these alternatives has its benefits (opportunities) and limitations (constraints)
that bring us to the fourth step, i.e., predicting the consequences of these alternative
options available. If the firm goes for developing its own R & D, it will definitely be
cost-effective, but the time horizon might be lengthened, which is crucial in the
modern competitive world. On the other hand, the use of a known name in the
business may get the firm started within no time. But one has to see what price the
firm has to pay before going in for a joint venture. Alternatively, the firm can simply
borrow the technical expertise.
5. Selecting the Best Alternative
The most important step, i.e., the fifth step of decision making (after exploring the
alternatives), is the decision maker has to choose one of the alternatives, which is the
most optimal and coincides with the stated objective. A variety of tools are used to
reach the "optimal" decision, like marginal analysis, linear programming, game
theory, etc.
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6. Execution Sensitivity Analysis

Keeping the uncertainty about the future in mind, one must always be prepared for the
situation, "how should one change his optimal decision or how will the optimal
decision change if one or some of the factors affecting the decision undergo change?"
This is precisely the sensitivity analysis and is the sixth step in decision-making. For
example, an automobile company has entered into a joint venture with a known name
in the international field with the objective of sales maximization. A vital sensitivity
analysis will be, what happens, if there is a recession in the economy and per capita
real income of middle-class Indians falls, leading to a fall in the demand for passenger
cars. Further, it is important to note that even after implementing the project, its
performance must be monitored vis-à-vis expectations, so that projection errors are
minimized in the future.
1.5 MARGINAL ANALYSIS AND ITS USES IN THE BUSINESS

DECISION MAKING
Marginal analysis is a process by which businesses examine the variable change in adding or
buying one unit of a good or service in a present set-up. In simple words, businesses calculate
the net benefits of adding or buying one more unit of a good, service, or business activity in
comparison to its cost.
Generally, there would be a marginal change in value, either positive or negative, when
adding one more unit of a product, therefore the name marginal analysis. For example, in a
factory, ten machines are used to manufacture plastic toys. The owner wants to expand his
business, but he doesn't know if the expansion would be good for the business or not. He can
do the marginal analysis to check the feasibility of expansion by calculating the net benefits
of adding one more machine in the factory over the cost of installing the machine. If the
calculation suggests a benefit, he can go for the expansion otherwise not.
When resources are scarce, managers have to be careful about utilizing each and every
additional unit of resources or inputs. For example, if one has to decide whether an additional
man-hour or machine-hour is to be used, it is necessary to ascertain what is the additional
output expected from it. Likewise, a decision about additional investment has to be taken in
view of the additional return from investment. For all such additional magnitudes of output or
return, economists use the term "marginal", the examples being marginal output of labour,
marginal output of machines, marginal return on investment, marginal revenue of output sold,
marginal costs of production. Before using the concept of marginalism, the following points
are worth noting:
(i) Nature of Relationship among Variables be clearly stated: - This means that the
dependent variable is to be distinguished from the independent one. For instance, if
sales depend on advertisement, advertisement is an independent variable and sales is
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the dependent variable, and one would talk of marginal sales of advertisement. On the
other hand, if the advertisement budget depends on sales revenue, one would speak of
marginal advertisement of sales.
(ii) Independent Variable is to be changed by just One Unit: - To work out the impact
of independent variable on dependent variable, independent variable is changed by
one unit for example, one additional hour of labour to find out 'marginal' output of
labour or an additional one crore of investment to get 'marginal return on investment'.
(iii) Marginal is different from Average: - Concept of margin is not to be confused with
the concept of average. For example, the average output of labour is the ratio of total
output to total labour (Total output ÷ Total labour). But marginal output of labour is
the ratio of change in output to one unit change in labour.
Marginal analysis is the study of variables in terms of the effect that would occur if they were
changed by a small amount.
Marginal is defined as changes in dependent variable (whose value dependent on independent
variable) associated with one unit change in the dependent variable
Y= f(X)
Y= dependent variable
X= independent variable
Using the symbol ∆ is denoting change.
Change in the value of the independent variable X by Notation ∆X and change in dependent
variable Y is ∆Y.
Marginal Y= ∆Y/∆X which means change in dependent variable associated with one unit
change in the value of X.
In economics the term Marginal Analysis
Table 1.1: Explains the relationship between average and marginal concepts.
No. of labours Total output Average output Marginal output
(L) (Q) (Q/L) (∆Q/∆L)
1 22 22 -
2 40 20 18
3 54 18 14
4 72 18 18
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5 95 19 23
6 120 20 25
Note: ∆ is a symbol denoting change.
Facts
1. If the average output decreases, the marginal output decreases faster than the average
output such that the marginal is lesser than the average (18<20,14<18).
2. If the average output remains the same, marginal output equals the average (18=18).
3. If the average output increases, the marginal output is faster than the average output
(23>18,25>20).
Rules
1. Every factor labour may be paid according to the marginal product (W=MPL)
2. Every good (X) maybe priced according to the marginal utility (PX=MUX)
3. Profit is maximized where marginal revenue equals to marginal cost (MR=MC)
In the instance, if these rules are not followed, the equilibrium will not be reached.
The model of marginal analysis is a very useful concept of Managerial economics to use
marginalism, regarding continuous function. But if we have got decreased data, the concept
of marginalism is substituted by incrementalism.
Following Types of Concepts related to Marginal analysis
1. Marginal Revenue: - It is the change in total revenue associated with one unit change
in output sold.
2. Marginal cost: - It is the change in total cost following one unit change in output
produced.
3. Marginal cost pricing: - It is the fixation of price of an item equal to the cost of
producing and assignment of the item.
4. Marginal product of labour: - It is the change in total output due to one unit change
in labour employed with other factors of production remaining constant.
5. Marginal productivity of capital: - It is the change in total output due to one unit
change of capital.
6. Marginal rate of substitution: - The marginal rate of substitution of X for Y
(MRSXY) is defined as the amount of Y the consumer is just willing to give up getting
one more unit of X and maintain the same level of satisfaction.
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7. Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution: - Rate at which one factor, e.g., labour is
substituted for another factor input, e.g., capital, with output held constant.
Incremental Approach Vs. Marginal Analysis

Incremental analysis is especially useful in looking at trade-offs which are linear. In such
cases, only the endpoints of a range need to be compared. For instance, if both the cost
function and revenue function are linear for output over the range from zero to technical
capacity of a plant, it is adequate to determine the incremental result of producing at capacity
compared to no output at all. Also, if a choice is to be made between two technical processes
which may be used to produce the same level of output, incremental approach alone can be
used. Here, we cannot compare the processes in terms of marginal cost of moving from one
to the other. But there is an incremental cost, associated with the change in technology and
this can be studied.
On the other hand, marginal analysis is especially useful in looking at trade-offs which are
determined by curvilinear functions. For example, if the cost function is curvilinear, marginal
cost changes as output is increased. The concept of marginal analysis calls for unit-by-unit
comparisons of marginal cost with marginal revenue as output is increased, until the best
level of output is found at the point where marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue
(MC=MR) Marginal (unit-by-unit) analysis can be better than incremental reasoning in
several other cases:
(a) Choice of best-level of input when the input-output relationship shows diminishing
returns.
(b) Choosing best product-mix as limited by commonly required scarce resources where
the products substitute at decreasing rates.
(c) Choosing least cost combinations of inputs where inputs are substitutable at
decreasing rates.
(d) Choosing optimum maturity of assets which gain value at decreasing rates over time.
1.6 SUMMARY
In this lesson, we discussed the nature and scope of managerial economics and how it
is associated with Economics. We discussed the decision process, decision model and
decision variables at the firm level. We also learnt how managers within the framework think
about decisions and their execution. The main points and themes covered in the lesson are
how decisions may be scientific or intuitive, strategic, or tactical, certain or uncertain, major
or minor, hard or soft. Business economists assist managers in using specialised skills and
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sophisticated techniques to solve the difficult problem of successful decision-making forward

planning. This is what we study in Managerial economics which is a must for all management
students to learn.
1.7 GLOSSARY
Managerial economics: focuses on the application of economic theory and methodology to

the solution of practical business problems.
Managerial economics: applies economic theory and methods to business and administrative
decision making.
Theory of the firm: The basic model of the business enterprise is called the theory of the
firm.
Profit margin or net income divided by sales, and the return on stockholders' equity, or
accounting net income divided by the book value of total assets minus total liabilities, are
practical indicators of firm performance.
1. Explain the concept of Managerial Economics. Discuss the difference between

Economics and Managerial economics.
2. Discuss decisions of business firms under Different objectives. Illustrate your answer
with relevant examples.
3. Discussion about managerial economics is the result of the close interrelationship
between management and economics.
4. Explain the concept of Marginal analysis. Discuss the difference between Marginal
analysis and Incremental Analysis.
5. “Managerial economics is an integration of economic theory, decision science and
business management.” Comment.
Multiple Choice Questions: -
1. Which is not the subject of Managerial Economics?
(a) Accounting Theory
(b) Profit Management
(c) Cost and Production Analysis
(d) Capital Management
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2. The theory of firm also called -

(a) Macro Economics
(b) Microeconomics
(c) Welfare Economics
(d) None
3. Which among the following areas are covered by the subject managerial economics?
(a) Environmental issues
(b) Operational issue
(c) Operational and environmental issue
(d) all of them
4. When did the subject Managerial Economics gain popularity?
(a) 1949
(b) 1950
(c) 1951
(d) 1952
5. Which among the following subject studies the behaviour of the firm in theory and
practice?
(a) Managerial Economics
(b) Welfare Economics
(c) Microeconomics
(d) Macro Economics
6. Managerial economics is close to……………. Economics.
(a) Industrial
(b) National
(c) Business
(d) Micro
7. Which concept is not related to Marginal Analysis?
(a) Marginal Cost
(b) MRTS
(c) Marginal Revenue
(d) MPS
8. Which among the following options is correct for major theories of Business Firms?
(a) Profit Maximization
(b) Baumol’s Model
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(c) Marris Model

(d) All of these
9. Who said, “Managerial economics is a study of the behaviour of Firms in theory and
practice.”?
(a) Malcoln E. Mc-Nair and Richard S.
(b) Milton H. Spencer & Siegelman.
(c) Bates and Parkinson
(d) Mansfield
10. Managerial economics as a subject gained popularity first in which country?
(a) USA
(b) India
(c) Germany
(d) Russia
Answers: - 1- (a), 2- (b), 3- (c), 4- (c), 5- (a), 6- (d), 7- (d), 8- (d), 9- (c), 10-(a),
1.9 REFERENCES
Hirschey (Managerial Economics, Hirschey, Cengage Learning 12th Edition to be referred)

R.L Varshney & K.L. Maheshwari (Managerial Economics, Sultan and Chand, 22nd Edition
to be referred)
Samuelson, Paul, (Economics Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company limited, New
Delhi, 2007).
Managerial Economics, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2011
Samuelson, William.Managerial economics/William F. Samuelson, Stephen G. Marks. –7th
ed.
Joel dean 1951, Managerial economics
R.L Varshney & K.L. Maheshwari (Managerial Economics, Sultan and Chand, 22nd Edition
to be referred)
Samuelson, Paul, (Economics Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company limited, New
Delhi, 2007).
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Managerial Economics, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2011
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LESSON 2
THEORIES OF DEMAND
Dr. Dezy Kumari
Post-doctoral Fellow
Institute of Economic growth, Delhi
Email. id: dezypu@gmail.com
STRUCTURE
2.1 Learning Objective

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Theories of Demand
2.4 Law of Demand
2.5 Utility Function
2.5.1 Utility
2.5.2 Concepts of Utility
2.5.3 Approaches to Consumer Behaviour
2.6 Revealed Preferences Theory
2.7 Indifference Curve
2.8 Income Effect and Substitution Effect
2.9 Demand Function
2.9.1 Determinants of Demand
2.9.2 Elasticity of Demand
2.10 Demand Forecasting
2.11 Case Studies
2.12 Summary
2.13 Glossary
2.14 Self-assessment questions
2.15 References
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2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
 To introduce the demand concepts and function

 To define the Utility and Revealed Preference Hypothesis
 To understand the use of demand forecasting and the demand schedule curve in
managerial economic
2.2 INTRODUCTION
This unit will contain an analysis of demand, an indifference curve, and demand forecasting.
The reader will understand that demand evaluation is an essential phase of economic and
financial analysis. The producers produce and provide items to meet demand. When demand
and supply are equal, the monetary conditions of the nation are in equilibrium. This demand
and supply are a market force that offers dynamism to the financial stipulations of the
country. The demand is now not continually static. The adjustments in demand, or elasticity
of demand, offer room for managerial choice making like what to produce, how much to
produce, when to produce, and where to distribute the products.
2.3 THEORY OF DEMAND
The demand for anything, at a given price, is the amount of it that will be bought per unit of
time at that price. Demand means always demanding something at a price. Demand means
always demanding something at a price; the term has no significance unless a price is stated
or implied.
According to Chapman, ‘Demand is the quantitative expression of preferences.’

According to Hansen, "quantity of a commodity that will be purchased at a particular price
and not merely the desire of a thing"
Clearly, demand may be defined as the quantity of goods or services desired by an individual,
backed by their ability and willingness to pay. It may be noted that demand is not the same as
desire or need. Doubtless, many people who cannot afford a motor car would like one, and
doubtless many children need more milk than they get, but unless desire or need is backed up
by ability and willingness to pay, it does not affect the volume of sales. The demand for a
thing at a given price is the amount of it that would in fact be bought at that price.
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Types of Demand:
1 Direct and indirect demand: The demand for consumer goods that satisfy human wants
is called "direct demand." For instance, let us take the case of food, for which demand is
direct, another example is demand for T-shirts On the contrary, when the same good
satisfies human wants indirectly, it is known as indirect demand, or hand demand for
goods that are used by producers for producing goods and services. (Example: demand
for cotton by a textile mill)
2 Joint demand and composite demand: The demand for one commodity leading to the
demand for another is known as joint demand. For example, demand for ink and paper is
joint demand. On the other hand, demand is said to be composite when a thing is
demanded for more than one purpose. The demand for coal and rubber is composite, as
they are used for several purposes.
3 Price demand: Price demand refers to the various quantities of the commodity that the
consumer will buy per unit of time and at a certain price (other things remaining the
same). The quantity demanded changes with the change in price. The quantity demand
increases with a fall in price and falls with an increase in price. In other words, we can
say that quantity demanded, and price have a negative correlation as
D1 = f(P1),
where D1 = Demand for Commodity 1
f = function
P1= Price of commodity 1
4 Income demand (Normal Goods): Income demand indicates the relationship between
income and demand for a consumer good or service. The income demand curve shows
how much quantity a consumer will buy at different levels of income. Generally, there is
a positive relationship between income and consumer demand.
D1 = f(I1),
where D1 = Demand for Commodity 1
f = function
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I1= Income of commodity 1
As per the above figure indicates that as the income of the consumer increases demand also
increases when income falls demand also decreases
Inferior Goods: In the case of inferior goods, the relationship between income and demand
becomes negative. It is only due to the fact that, so long as the income of the consumer
remains below a particular level of minimum subsistence, he will continue to buy more
inferior goods even when his income increases by small increments. But when his income
starts rising above the subsistence level, he reduces his demand for inferior goods. The
phenomenon has been described by Sir Robert Giffen and is called the "Giffen Paradox."
5 Cross Demand: Cross demand refers to the relationship between quantity demand for
good "A" and the price of related good "B," other things being equal. In simple words, by
cross demand," we mean the change in the quantity demand of a commodity without any
change in its price but due to a change in the price of related goods (i.e., B commodity).
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The related goods can either be substitute goods or complementary goods. The demand
curve in the case of substitute goods will be upward sloping, while the demand curve for
complementary goods will be downward sloping.
6 Alternative demand: Demand is known as "alternative" when it is satisfied by

alternative ways. Let us consider the demand for light. It has an alternative demand: one
can get light either from electricity, kerosene, or gas.
2.4 LAW OF DEMAND
The law of demand is one of the best known and most important laws of economic theory.
This law is based on the law of diminishing marginal utility. This law states the relationship
between the quantity demanded and the price.
Marshall explains the law as follows: "The amount demanded increases with a fall in price
and diminishes with a rise in price’’
It means that the quantity demanded increases with a fall in price and vice versa. In other
words, when the price of a commodity falls, the demand for the commodity increases, and
when the price rises, the demand for the commodity decreases. However, it can be explained
as follows: DX = f (Px, Pn, Y, T)
Where, DX = Demand for commodity X
Px = Price of the commodity x
Pn= Price of the related commodities
Y = Income of the Consumer
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T = Taste
Assumption
According to Stigler and Boulding, the law of demand is based on the following assumptions:
 There should be no change in the income of the consumers
 There should be no change the taste of preferences of the consumers
 Price of the related commodities should remain unchanged
 There should be no change in the size of population
 The commodity in question should be a normal one
 There should be perfect competition in the market
Explanation of the law

The law of demand states that there is an inverse relation between the price and demand for a
commodity. The demand for a commodity is higher at a lower price and lower at a higher
price. Although, this relationship is not proportional yet, it does not mean that when prices
fall by one-half, the demand for goods will double. It simply shows the direction of change in
demand as a result of a change in price.
Tabular representation
Price/kg. (In Rupees) Quantity Demanded (in
Kgs.)
10 10
8 20
6 30
4 40
2 50
It is obvious from the above table that with the fall in the price per kg. quantity demand rises,
and as the price goes on rising, quantity demand goes on falling. e.g., when the price of
apples is Rs. 8 per kg., the quantity demanded of apples is 10 kg., and as the price falls from
Rs. 8 to Rs. 2, the quantity demand of apples increases from 10 to 50 kg, thereby establishing
a negative relationship between price and quantity demanded.
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In this figure along X-axis, we measured demand for apples and along Y axis, prices of
apples. if price decreases then quantity increases.
Why the Demand Curve slopes Downward?
There are several reasons responsible for the inverse price demand relationships, which have
been explained as follows:
1. Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility: The law of demand is based on the law of
diminishing marginal utility, which states that as the consumer purchases more and
more units of a commodity, the utility derived from each successive unit goes on
decreasing. It means that as the price of the commodity falls, the consumer purchases
more of the commodity so that his marginal utility from the commodity falls to be
equal to the reduced price, and vice versa.
2. Substitution Effect: substitution effect also leads the demand curve to slope from left
to right. As the price of a commodity falls, price of substitute goods remains the same,
the consumer will buy more of that commodity. For instance, tea and coffee are
substitute goods. If the price of tea goes down, the consumer may substitute tea or
coffee, although the price of coffee remains the same. Therefore, with a fall in price,
the demand will increase due to the favourable substitution effect.
3. Income Effect: Another reason for the downward slope of the demand curve is the
income effect. As the price of the commodity falls, the real income of the consumer
goes up.
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4. New Consumers: When the price of a commodity falls, many other consumers who
were not consuming that commodity previously will start consuming it. As a result,
total market demand goes up.
5. Psychological Effects: When the price of a commodity falls, people tend to buy
more, this is both natural and psychological. Therefore, the demand increases with the
fall in prices. For example, when the price of silk falls, it is purchased for all family
members.
Importance of the Law
The law of demand has great theoretical and practical importance in economics as:
1. Price Determination: The law of demand is useful to the monopolist in fixing the
price of their products. The monopolist comes to know how much the quantity of the
commodity will increase or decrease with the change in price.
2. Importance of the Consumer: The law of demand tells us that with the fall in price,
the consumer will buy more of the commodity. On the other hand, with the increase in
price, he will buy less of that commodity. Thus, the consumer maximises his
satisfaction.
3. Importance to finance minister: The finance minister, while imposing the tax, keeps
in mind the law of demand. It is the law through which he comes to know the effect of
tax on the amount demanded of various commodities.
4. Importance for Planning: The law of demand has great importance for the planning
commission. The planning commission, while framing the plan, keeps in mind not
only the demand schedule but also the effect of price on a commodity.
5. Importance for producers: The law of demand provides guidelines to the producers
regarding the production of goods whose prices have reduced. Generally, the law of
demand states that, other things being equal, with the rise in price, quantity demand
falls and with the fall in price, quantity demand increases. Therefore, it is for the
welfare of the producers to concentrate on the production of those goods for which
prices have been reduced.
6. Importance for Farmers: Through the law of demand, the farmers also come to
know how a good or bad crop affects the economic condition of the country. If there
is a good crop, the price will certainly go down, and the farmers will not be benefited
more, but the rest of society will be benefited.
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2.5 UTILITY FUNCTION
2.5.1 Utility
The term ‘utility’ refers to that quality of a commodity by virtue of which our wants are
satisfied. In other words, wants is called the utility of a good. Utility can also be defined as
value in use of commodity as the satisfaction one gets from the consumption of a good, is its
value-in-use. When commodities are used, they also give pleasure or pain to the consumer.
Whatever the effects of goods may be, they satisfy human wants. As long as goods satisfy
human wants, they are said to possess utility. It has been observed that non-material goods
like the services of doctors, teachers, and artists satisfy human wants as much as material
goods. Thus, where there is utility, there are non-material goods.
According to Prof. Hibdon, ‘Utility is the ability of a good to satisfy a want’
According to J.S. Nicholson, "Utility" may be the quality that makes a thing desirable.
2.5.2 Concepts of Utility
The concepts of utility can be explained on the basis of the consumption of a commodity as-
1. Initial Utility:
Initial utility means the utility derived from the consumption of its first unit. In other
words, when the consumption of a commodity is made and the consumer gets the
utility at the first stage, it is known as initial utility. It is always positive. For instance,
when a man starts taking chapati or roti, the utility from the first unit obtained is the
initial utility.
2. Marginal Utility:
It refers to the additional utility on account of the consumption of an additional unit of
a commodity. According to Prof. Boulding, "the marginal utility that results from a
unit increase in consumption" Prof. Chapman says, ‘Marginal utility is an addition
made to total utility by consuming one more unit of a commodity’. Marginal utility
can be expressed as
MUnth= TUn- TUn-1

Where, MUnth= Marginal utility of nth unit
TUn= Total Utility of n units
TUn-1= Total utility of n-1 units
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For example- When a consumer consumes one roti, he gets total utility equal to 10 units. By
consuming second roti total utility becomes 18 units i.e., 10+8. Therefore, marginal utility of
the second roti is 8 units i.e.,8= 18-10
There are three types of marginal utility:
 Positive Marginal Utility: When total utility increases with the consumption
of a commodity, it is called positive marginal utility. Let us suppose. When
one eats roti, one gets total utility at every additional unit, as 10,18,24,28,30---
---- etc. We see that total utility increasing constantly. This is a case of
positive marginal utility.
 Zero Marginal utility: Zero marginal utility is defined as no addition to the
total utility by the consumption of an additional unit. In the above example,
total utility reaches 30 by using the fifth unit of an article (roti). One gets the
same total utility, i.e., 30 at the next unit (sixth unit). Thus, the consumer gets
zero marginal utility.
3. Negative Marginal Utility: In the above examples, when the consumer uses the 7th
unit, the total utility diminishes by using one more unit, i.e., from the 6th unit to the
7th unit, the total utility is 28 units. Therefore, at this stage, the consumer gets
negative marginal utility after obtaining maximum satisfaction from the commodity,
i.e., roti (28-20 = -2).
4. Total Utility:
Total utility means the total satisfaction received by the consumer from the
consumption of all units taken together at one time. According to Leftwitch, "total
utility" refers to the entire amount of satisfaction from consuming various quantities
of a commodity. In mathematical terms, total utility is a direct function of the number
of units of a commodity. It can be written as
TUX = f(QX)
Where TUx = Total utility of a commodity X
f= function of Qx
QX = Quantity of a commodity X
Relations between Total Utility and Marginal Utility
Quantity Total Utility Marginal Utility
1 10 10 Initial Utility
2 18 18-10=8
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3 24 24-18 = 6 Positive
4 28 28-24 = 4
5 30 30-28 = 2
6 30 30-30 = 0 Zero
7 28 28-30 = -2 Negative
It is clear from the table that total utility increases as a very large number of units are
consumed by the consumer. At the first unit, total utility is equal to 10, which is the initial
utility, and further, it is increased to 18,24,28,30. Here we must remember that this increase is
at a diminishing rate, but still has positive utility. At the 6th unit, total utility is constant, i.e.,
30 units, and later on starts declining at an increasing rate. At the 7th unit, total utility is
recorded as 28 units. Therefore, we can say that total utility goes on increasing as long as the
marginal utility of a commodity remains positive.
On the other side, at the first unit of consumption, marginal utility is equal to 10, and on
successive units, it goes on falling until 5th unit of commodity is consumed. At the 6th unit,
marginal utility becomes zero, the point of full satisfaction or saturation. Here, the consumer
gets maximum satisfaction. At the 7th unit, marginal utility is -2 i.e., negative. This is the
point of over satisfaction.
2.5.3. Approaches of the consumer Behaviour
There are two approaches of consumer behaviour i.e.
a) Cardinal Approach – Marshallian View
b) Ordinal Approach – Hickian View
Cardinal approach
Under cardinal approach there are two main laws i.e., i) law of Diminishing Marginal Utility
ii) Law of Equi-Marginal Utility
i) Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility
This law was first given by the French engineer, Gossen. According to this law, as an
individual continues to consume a commodity, the marginal utility obtained from its
additional units goes on diminishing. For example, when one man is hungry and finds to get
roti, the utility is maximum for the first unit of roti. At the second time (by eating a second
Roti), one gets less utility. This process goes on, and utility at every step continues to
diminish. Therefore, it is called Gossen’s First Law. Dr. Marshall explained the law in a
better way. He says that "the additional benefit that a person derives from a given increase in
his stock of things diminishes with every increase in the stock that he already has."
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According to Chapman, "the more we have of something, the less we want additional
increments of it, or the more we want not to have additional increments of it’
According to Anatol Murad, ‘The law states that, other things being equal, the marginal
utility of a stock decreases as the quantity of the stock increases."
According to Samuelson, "as the amount consumed of a good increase, the marginal utility of
the good leads to decrease’
Assumptions:
The main assumptions of the law are as stated as:
 Utility can be measured in cardinal number like 1,2,3……. n units.
 The utility of a commodity depends on its own quantity rather than the quantities of
other commodities.
 The law applies only when the commodity is continuously consumed
 All units consumed by the consumer are same in all respect i.e., same colour, shape,
and taste etc.
 Marginal utility of money remains constant
 There is no change in the price of the commodity and its substitute.
 There is no change in the taste, habits, fashion of the consumer.

Units Total Unity Marginal utility
1 12 12 Initial utility
2 20 8
3 26 6
4 30 4 Positive utility
5 32 0
6 32 -2
7 30 -4 Negative
Above table shows that total utility is 12 from the first unit, and as more and more units are
consumed and bought, total utility increases and further by 20, 26, 30, 32……. up to 4 units
at a diminishing rate. At the fifth unit, total utility is constant, and after that, total utility goes
on diminishing. On the other hand, marginal utility refers to the subsequent increment in
total utility. It is clear from the table that the first units yield 12 marginal utilities. This will
satisfy the consumer's desire to some extent, and the intensity of that desire will decrease. At
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the second unit, one gets less marginal utility than at the first unit. Similarly, at the third
unit, one gets less marginal utility as compared to the second unit. This process will go up to
the fourth unit. Therefore, the fifth unit may yield zero marginal utility. Now, if the
consumer is forced to take six units, it will upset the entire system, and the consumer gets
zero utility. In other words, the consumer will get the negative marginal utility at six units,
one gets negative, i.e., -2, followed by a -4 marginal utility. In short, we may conclude from
the above analysis that as the consumer buys more and more units of a commodity, the
marginal utility from each successive unit will continue to decrease.
Diagrammatical Representation of the law
In this figure, units of a commodity are measured on X-axis whereas utility on Y-axis.
MU is the marginal utility curve, which slopes downward from left to right. It shows that the
first unit of the commodity yields 20 units, the second 12 units, and so on. At the 5th unit,
one gets zero marginal utility. Here, the MU curve touches the X-axis at point MU. At the
6th unit, one gets negative marginal utility, and therefore, the MU curve goes below the X-
axis. Therefore, marginal utility from an additional unit goes on decreasing, and so on.
Exceptions of the law
The law is universally applicable if all assumptions are fully met. But in practical life, it is
not so. Therefore, there are exceptions, which are briefly discussed below:
 Rare Things: The foremost exception to the law is that it does not apply in the case
of certain rare things like stamps, coins, etc. But this exception cannot be regarded as
genuine because the assumption of homogeneity is violated.
 Initial Stages: When the initial units of a commodity are used in less than an
appropriate quantity, the marginal utility of additional units increases.
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 Public Goods: In the case of public utility goods, marginal utility from additional
increases. But this assumption is contrary to the law of diminishing marginal utility.
 Misers: It is stated that as the stock of money with a miser increases the greed for
acquiring more and more money increases. It means the law of diminishing marginal
utility does not apply in the case of misers.
 Things of Display: The present law is also not applicable in the case of display. For
instance, in case of fashion and taste, the law is not properly applicable.
 Discontinuous Consumption: The law of diminishing marginal utility does not
apply if there is time lag between the use of commodity. It requires the continuous
consumption for its application.
 Music or Poetry: It is said that by hearing music or poetry for the second time, we
get more satisfaction than the first hearing. Thus, the hearing of music and poetry is
another exception of the law.
ii) Law of Equ-marginal Utility
The law of equi-marginal utility was propounded in the 19th century by a French engineer
named Gossen. The law is nothing but an extension of the law of diminishing marginal
utility. The law of diminishing marginal utility applies in the case of a single commodity. In
reality, the consumer does not consume one commodity but a number of commodities at a
given time. Therefore, for this purpose, we have to extend the law of diminishing marginal
utility, which we call the Law of Equi-Marginal Utility. It is also called Gossen’s second law.
Moreover, different economists have called it differently. Dr. Marshall has called it ‘Law of
Maximum Satisfaction’
Statement of the Law
The law of equi-marginal utility may be defined as under:
According to Dr. Marshall, ‘If a person has a thing which he can put to several uses, he will
distribute it among these uses in such a way that it has the same marginal utility in all’
MUa/Pa= MUb/Pb= MUn/Pn
According to Samuelson, ‘A consumer gets maximum satisfaction when the ratio of
marginal utilities of all commodities and their price is equal.
According to Lipsey, ‘The household maximizing its utility will so allocate its expenditure
between commodities that the utility of the last penny spent on each is equal’
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According to Hicks, ‘Utility will be maximized when the marginal unit of expenditure in
each direction brings the same increment of utility’. It means
MU1=MU2=MU3
Assumption:
The law of equi-marginal utility is based on the following assumptions:
 Every consumer wants to maximize his satisfaction
 Price of the commodity remains constant. No change in the prices of substitutes or
complimentary goods.
 Income of the consumer remains constant.
 Commodities can be divided and sub-divided into the required commodities.
 Marginal Utility of money remains constant.
 Consumer has a rational behaviour.
 No change in money, taste, fashion, habits, and customs of the consumer.

Let us suppose that the consumer must spend Rs. 5 on two different commodities viz.
mangoes and oranges. Further, we assume that price of each of the commodities is Rs. 1.
Marginal utilities of different units of mangoes and oranges are shown in the table:
Unit Rs. M.U. of mango M.U. of Orange
1 8(2) 10(1)
2 6(4) 8(3)
3 4 6(5)
4 2 4
5 1 2
Let us assume that at one time, the consumer spends his income on one commodity. The
consumer spends first rupee on oranges which yields him 10 units of marginal utility. From
the second rupee, he gets utility equal to 8 units. Now as one goes on spending more and
more, the marginal utility goes on falling. On the other hand, if the consumer spends first
rupee on mangoes, he gets 8 unit of utility. Bit as one goes on spending more and more on
oranges; the marginal utility of oranges goes on diminishing. Moreover, if the consumer
spends Rs. 5 on oranges then he will buy only oranges, which gives 30 units of utility
(10+8+6+4+2=30). Thus, as the consumer wants to buy two commodities, he will spend first
rupee on oranges and second on mangoes, again third on oranges. Similarly, the consumer
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will spend fourth and fifth on mangoes and oranges respectively. In this way the consumer
enjoys maximum satisfaction.
Diagrammatic representation
In this figure, units of money have been taken on the X-axis and the marginal utility of both
commodities on the Y-axis. The figure depicts that at a given level of income, i.e., Rs. 5, the
consumer would spend Rs. 3 on oranges and Rs. 2 on mangoes. In the case of mangoes, the
consumer is in equilibrium at point P, while it is at point P1 in the case of oranges. The
consumer finds that when Q = Q1, he gets maximum satisfaction. Moreover, if the consumer
spends Rs. 3 on oranges, the utility gained is equal to the PMNE. On the other hand, if the
consumer spends Rs. 2 on oranges, the loss in utility will be equal to L'M'N'P. So, it is clear
that the loss of utility is greater than the gain. Thus, it is not worthwhile to buy any other
proportion than 3 units of oranges and 2 units of mangoes.
Modern Statement of the Law
Modern economists have given a new name to this law as ‘Law of Proportionality’.
According to them, a consumer yields maximum satisfaction only when the ration of
marginal utilities derived from different goods and their prices is equal. For example: the
price of commodity-X is paise 50 and the consumer buys 10 units. The consumer gets 10
units of marginal utility from 10th unit. In the same way, if the price of the commodity-X is
paise 25 and the consumer buys 12 units, he gets 3 units from the 12th unit. The formula to
calculate the marginal utility according to modern economists is as under:
MUa/Pa= MUb/Pb=………. MUn/Pn
Importance of the law
Let us explain the significance of the law from the following points:
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1. Consumption: Every consumer wants to get the most satisfaction from their limited
income. The income of the consumer is limited, while his wants are multiple.
Therefore, if a consumer spends his limited income on different commodities in such
a way that the last unit of the commodity yields equal marginal utility, he will get
maximum satisfaction.
2. Public Finance: The law of substitution has also its importance in the sphere of
public finance. By public finance, we mean the revenue and expenditure activities of
the government. At the time of levying taxes, the finance minister takes help. He
levies taxes in such a way that the marginal social sacrifice (MSS) of each taxpayer is
equal.
3. Exchange: The law also applies to exchange. Exchange means replacing of goods
which gives him less utility for another which yields more utility.
4. Production: Every producer in the market wants to get maximum Profit. Therefore,
in order to achieve this objective, the producer has to use several factors for
production.
5. Distribution: The law of equi-marginal utility gives us explanation about the

distribution of national income. Distribution is done in such a way that in the long
period every factor of production gets it share according to its marginal productivity.
Therefore, in order to have such a distribution, factors have to be substituted.
Limitations or Exceptions of the Law

The following are the limitations of the law:
1. Irrational Behaviour of the Consumer: This law is based on the assumption that
every consumer is rational but in real sense, consumer acts in irrational manner. His
behaviour is greatly influenced by habits, advertisements, fashions etc. Under these
cases, he fails to avail maximum satisfaction.
2. Utility is subjective: The law stands nowhere as consumer’s behaviour is based on
his psychology. It is difficult to measure one’s psychology or utility as it is possible in
case of heat or energy.
3. Unrealistic Assumption: This law is based on false unrealistic assumptions like
homogeneous products, constant fashion, taste, habits etc. But this is wrong as they go
on changing in a dynamic world.
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4. Marginal Utility of money is not constant: The law of equi-marginal utility is based
on the assumption that marginal utility is constant. In real life, it is not so. The utility
of money goes on decreasing with the passage of time, when there is a change in the
price of a commodity.
5. Ignorance of the consumer: It is a fact that a common consumer does not possess
complete knowledge of all commodities and their prices in the market. Moreover,
prices are subject to change. Therefore, ignorance of the consumer is a biggest
hindrance, so the law does not apply properly.
6. Invisible Good: Another limitation of the law is that it is not applicable in case of
invisible goods. There are certain goods which cannot be divided or sub-divided i.e.,
T.V., car, freeze etc. If these commodities are divided, they will lose their utility. In
such cases this law is not applicable.
7. Durable Goods: Still another limitation of the law persists as it is difficult to measure
the utility in respect of durable goods such as car and machinery.
8. Scarcity of the Good: In the present world, there is acute shortage of some
commodities, and the consumer is compelled to purchase an alternative or substitute
goods in the market. In such cases, it is very difficult to measure the utility of such
commodities.
2.6 REVEALED PREFERENCE THEORY
Prof. Samuelson’s Revealed Preference Theory is a behaviourist ordinal utility analysis as

distinct from the introspective ordinal utility theory of Hicks and Allen. It is the third root of
the logical theory of demand and has been called by Hicks the "direct consistency test" under
strong ordering. This theory analyses consumers' preferences for a combination of goods on
the basis of observed consumer behaviour in the market.
Samuelson’s theory is based on the premise that choice reveals preference. Keeping this fact
in mind, a consumer buys a combination of two goods because he likes this combination in
relation to others, because it is cheaper than others. Suppose the consumer buys combination
A rather than combinations, or D. It means that he reveals his preference for combination A.
He can do this for two reasons. First, combination A may be cheaper than the other
combinations B, C, D. Second combination A may be dearer than others, and even then, he
likes it more than other combinations. In such a situation, it can be said that A is revealed to
be preferred to В, C, D or В, C, D are revealed inferior to A.
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Given the income and prices of the two goods X and Y, LM is the price-income line of the
consumer which shows the various combinations of X and Y on the given price-income
situation LM. In other words, the consumer can choose any combination between A and B on
the line LM or between C and D below this line. If he chooses A, it is revealed preferred to B.
Combinations C and D are revealed inferior to A because they are below the price-income
line LM. But combination E is beyond the reach of the consumer being dearer for him
because it lies above his price-income line LM. Therefore, A is revealed preferred to other
combinations.
Assumptions:
The revealed preference hypothesis is based on the following assumptions:
 The consumer’s tastes do not change
 His choice for a combination reveals his preference for that.
 The Consumer chooses only one combination at a given price income line
 He prefers a combination of more goods to less in any situation
 It assumes consistency in consumer behaviour. If A is preferred to B in one situation,
B cannot be preferred to A in the other situation. This is the two-term consistency,
according to Hicks which must satisfy two conditions on a straight-line curve: a) If A
is left of B, B must be right of A; b) if A is right of B, B must be left of A. This is the
Hick’s Direct Consistency Test under strong ordering.
 This theory is based on the assumption of transitivity. Transitivity, however, refers to
the three- term consistency. If it is preferred to B, and B to C, then the consumer must
prefer A over C. This assumption is necessary for the revealed preference theory if
consumer is to make a consistent choice from given alternative situations.
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2.7 INDIFFERENCE CURVE
The indifference curve analysis measures ordinal utility. It explains consumer behaviour in
terms of his preferences or rankings for different combinations of two goods, say X and Y.
An indifference curve is drawn from the indifference schedule of the consumer. The latter
shows the various combinations of the two commodities, such that the consumer is indifferent
to those combinations. An indifference schedule is a list of combinations of two
commodities, the list being so arranged that a consumer is indifferent to the combination,
preferring none of the others.
A curve which is a diagrammatic presentation of indifference set. It shows different

combination of two commodities (like apples and oranges) between which a consumer is
indifferent. Each combination offers him the same level of satisfaction.
Assumption of the law
The indifference curve analysis remains some of the assumptions of the cardinal theory,
rejects others and formulates its own. The assumptions of the ordinal theory are the
following:
i) The consumer acts rationally so as to maximize satisfaction.
ii) These are two goods X and Y
iii) The consumers possess complete information about the prices of the good in the
market.
iv) The prices of the two goods are given.
v) The consumer’s taste, habits and income remain the same throughout the analysis.
vi) The consumer arranges the two goods in a scale of preferences which means that
he has both ’preference’ and ‘indifference’ for the goods.
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2.8 INCOME EFFECT AND SUBSTITUTION EFFECT
Income Effect
As the price of the commodity falls, the real income of the consumer goes up. Real income is
that which is measured in terms of goods and services. For example, a consumer has Rs. 10,
and wants to buy oranges whose price is Rs. 20 per dozen. It means the consumer can buy
one dozen oranges with his fixed income. Now suppose the price of oranges falls to Rs. 7 per
dozen, which leads to an increase in his real income of Rs. 3. In this case, either the consumer
will buy more quantity of oranges than before, or he will buy some other commodity with his
increased income.
For most goods, the income effect asserts that as a product’s price declines (increases), an
individual’s real income (purchasing power) increases (decreases). The increase in real
purchasing power resulting from a fall in prices enables the individual to consume greater
quantities of a commodity, while the opposite is true for an increase in prices. In other words,
an increase in real purchasing power generally (although not always) leads to an increase in
quantity demanded. The goods of the types for which this phenomenon holds are referred to
as "normal goods." Unfortunately, the income effect does not always have the expected
positive effect on the quantity demanded of a good. In some cases, as an individual’s
purchasing power increases, the quantity demanded for that good fall. Goods of this type are
called inferior goods. Examples of such goods may be potatoes, bus tickets, soup bones, and
bologna. We will return to this issue shortly when considering separately the effect of
changes in money income on the demand for goods and services.
Substitution Effect
The substitution effect also leads the demand curve to slope from left to right. As the price of
a commodity falls, prices of its substitute goods remain the same, the consumer will buy
more of that commodity. For instance, tea and coffee are substitute goods. If the price of tea
goes down, consumers may substitute tea for coffee, although the price of coffee remains the
same. Therefore, with a fall in price, the demand will increase due to favourable substitution
effect. The substitution effect reflects changes in consumers’ opportunity costs. The
substitution effect states that as a product’s price declines, consumers will substitute the now
less expensive product for similar goods that are more expensive.
In the majority of cases, the income effect and the substitution effect complement and
reinforce each other. That is, declines in the price of a good will not only have a positive
substitution effect, but will also have a positive income effect as well. As a result, the
ordinary demand curve will be downward sloping. Even in the case of inferior goods, where
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the income effect is negative, the ordinary demand curve will exhibit a downward slope
because the substitution effect, which is always positive with a drop in price, outweighs the
negative income effect.
Therefore, the substitution and income effects will generally work in the same direction,
causing consumers to purchase more as the price falls and less as the price rises. The
indifference curve can be used to separate these two effects.
 In the case of a normal good, higher
real income leads to an increase in
quantity demanded, this complements
the increase due to the substitution
effect. This change is shown in the
diagram below:
 In the case of an inferior product, the

income effect leads to a fall in the
quantity demanded, which will work against the substitution effect. In the following
diagram, the substitution effect is Q2 Q5; the income effect is Q5 Q4. However, the
substitution effect outweighs the
income effect and overall, the quantity
demanded rises. The overall change in
quantity demanded results in an
increase of Q2 Q4. This means the
demand curve is downward sloping
because a price fall increases the
quantity demanded.
 When a good is inferior and the income effect

outweighs the substitution effect, it is called a
Giffen good. This is, however, unlikely,
because the substitution effect is almost
always stronger than the income effect.
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2.9 DEMAND FUNCTIONS
The demand function is a function that describes how much of a commodity will be
purchased at the prevailing prices of that commodity and related commodities, alternative
income levels, and alternative values of other variables affecting demand. Price is not the
only factor that determines the level of demand for a good. Another important factor is
income. The rise in income will lead to an increase in demand for normal commodities. A
few goods are named as inferior goods for which demand will fall when income rises.
Another important factor that influences the demand for a good is the price of other goods.
Other factors that affect the demand for a good apart from the above-mentioned factors are:
Changes in Population
Changes in Fashion
Changes in Taste
Changes in Advertising
A change in demand occurs when one or more of the determinants of demand change and it is
expressed in the following equation.
Qd X = f (Px, Pr, Y, T, Ey, Ep, Adv.)
Where,
Qd X = quantity demanded of good ‘X’
Px = the price of good X
Pr = the price of a related good
Y = income level of the consumer
T = taste and preference of the consumers
Ey = expected income
Ep = expected price
Adv = advertisement cost
The above-mentioned demand function expresses the relationship between the demand and
other factors. The quantity demanded of commodity X varies according to the price of
income (Y), commodity (Px), the price of a related commodity (Pr), expected income (Ey),
taste and preference of the consumers (T), and advertisement cost (Adv) spent by the
organization.
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2.9.1 Determinants of Demand:

There are many economic, social and political factors or determinants which greatly
influence the demand for a commodity. Some of these factors are as follows:
1. Price of a commodity: The foremost significant factor which influences the demand
is the price of the commodity. As the price of a commodity changes, it causes an
inverse change in the demand for commodity.
2. Price of Related Goods: Demand for commodity is also influenced by the change in
the price of related goods. These goods are of two types viz. substitute goods or
complementary goods. Substitute goods are those which can replace each other’s in
use like tea and coffee while the complimentary goods are those which are jointly
demanded as petrol and car etc.
3. Income of the consumer: Income of the consumer is another factor which influences
demand. Generally, there is direct relation between income of the consumer and his
demand. The demand for normal goods rises with an increase in income and falls with
a fall in income. In the case of inferior goods, the demand falls with an increase in
income and rises with decrease in income.
4. Distribution of wealth: The amount demanded of a commodity is also influenced by
the distribution of wealth in society. If there is an equal distribution of income in the
society, the demand will be higher and in case of inequality demand will be less.
5. Tastes and preferences: Taste and preferences of the consumer also influence the
demand to a great extent. They include fashion, habits, customs, advertisement,
climate, new inventions etc.
6. Government Policy: Government policy is also responsible to influence the demand
for the commodity. The government imposes taxes on various commodities which
lead to increases in the price of commodities. As a result, demand goes down.
7. Population Growth: The growth of population is another determinant to influence
the demand of a commodity. Increase in population leads to an increase in demand for
all types of goods whereas decrease in population means less demand for such
commodities.
8. State of Business: The demand for commodities also depends on business conditions
prevailing in the country or region
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2.9.2 Elasticity of Demand

In economics, the term "elasticity" means a proportionate (percentage) change in one variable
relative to a proportionate (percentage) change in another variable. The quantity demanded of
a good is affected by changes in the price of the good, changes in the price of other goods,
changes in income, and changes in other factors. Elasticity is a measure of just how much of
the quantity demanded will be affected by a change in price or income. Elasticity of demand
is a technical term used by economists to describe the degree of responsiveness of the
demand for a commodity due to a fall in its price. A fall in price leads to an increase in
quantity demanded, and vice versa. The elasticity of demand may be as follows:
 Price Elasticity
 Income Elasticity and
 Cross Elasticity
i) Price Elasticity
The response of consumers to a change in the price of a commodity is measured by the price
elasticity of the commodity demand. The responsiveness of changes in quantity demanded
due to changes in price is referred to as price elasticity of demand. The price elasticity of
demand is measured by dividing the percentage change in quantity demanded by the
percentage change in price.
Price Elasticity = Proportionate change in the Quantity Demanded /Proportionate change in
price = Percentage change in quantity demanded/Percentage change in price
(ΔQ/Q)/ (ΔP /P)
ΔQ = change in quantity demanded
ΔP = change in price
P = price
Q = quantity demanded
The following are the possible combination of changes in Price and Quantity demanded. The
slope of each combination is depicted in the following graphs.
1. Relatively Elastic Demand (Ed >1) a small percentage change in price leading to a
larger change in Quantity demanded.
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2. Perfectly Elastic Demand (Ed = ∞) a small change in price will change the quantity
demanded by an infinite amount.
3. Relatively Inelastic Demand (Ed < 1) a change in price leads to a smaller percentage
change in quantity demanded.
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4. Perfectly Inelastic Demand (Ed = 0) the quantity demanded does not change
regardless of the percentage change in price.
5. Unit Elasticity of Demand (Ed =1) the percentage change in quantity demanded is
the same as the percentage change in price that caused it.
ii) Income Elasticity

According to Stonier and Hauge: ‘Income elasticity of demand shows the way in
which a consumer’s purchase of any good changes as a result of change in his
income’.
It shows the responsiveness of a consumers purchase of a particular commodity to a
change in the quantity demanded to the percentage change in income.
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The following are the various types of income elasticity:

Zero Income Elasticity: The increase in income of the individual does not make any
difference in the demand for that commodity. (Ei = 0)
Negative Income Elasticity: The increase in the income of consumers leads to less purchase
of those goods. (Ei < 0).
Unitary Income Elasticity: The change in income leads to the same percentage of change in
the demand for the good. (Ei = 1).
Income Elasticity is Greater than 1: The change in income increases the demand for that
commodity more than the change in the income. (Ei > 1).
Income Elasticity is Less than 1: The change in income increases the demand for the
commodity but at a lesser percentage than the change in the Income. (Ei < 1).
iii) Cross Elasticity
It is the ration of proportionate change in the quantity demanded of Y to a given
proportionate change in the price of the related commodity X. It is a measure of relative
change in the quantity demanded of a commodity due to change in the price of its substitute
complement. It can be expressed as-
If two commodities are unrelated goods, the increase in the price of one good does not result
in any change in the demand for the other goods. For example, the price fall in salt does not
make any change in the demand for car.
Use of Elasticity of Demand:
1. Useful for Business: It enables the business in general and the monopolists in
particular to fix the price.
2. Fixation of Price: It is very useful to fix the price of jointly supplied goods
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3. Fixation of Wages: It guides the producers to fix wages for labourers.

4. In the sphere of international trade: It is of greater significance in the sphere of
international trade.
5. Effect on employment: The effect of machines on employment opportunities depends
on the elasticity of demand for the goods produced by such machines.
2.10 DEMAND FORECASTING
Demand forecasting refers to the prediction or estimation of a future situation under a given
constraint. In a sense, knowledge of future demand is crucial for both new firms and those
planning to expand their scale of production. Since the output is to be sold, since virtually
nothing can be produced overnight, sales forecasts are required to determine the quantity of
production. Therefore, a forecast is a prediction of a future event. It implies measurement of
that event, which may not be per cent accurate since that much accuracy is not possible in
view of the uncertainties of the future. A demand forecast will help the manager take
effective decisions.
Objectives of Demand Forecasting:
The major short run decisions are: The major long run decisions are:
 Purchase of inputs  Expansion of existing capacity
 Maintaining of economic  Diversification of the product mix
 level of inventory  Growth of acquisition
 Setting up sales targets  Change of location of plant
 Distribution network  Capital issues
 Management of working capital  Long run borrowings
 Price policy  Manpower planning
 Promotion policy
Requirements for good demand forecasting

Demand forecasting for a commodity cannot be made merely through guess work. It requires
a detailed understanding of the current and future conditions of the market in which the firms
producing the commodity operate. Such understanding can be obtained through market
research. For easy understanding, we may list the elements of basic requirements of demand
forecasting as below:
(A) Elements Connected to Consumers
 Total number of consumers
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 Distribution of consumer Products

 Total purchasing power and per capita/household income
 Income elasticities
 Consumer tastes, social customs
 Consumer Marketing details: where they do buy and when etc.
 Effect of design, colour, etc. on consumers’ preferences.
(B) Element Concerning the Suppliers
 Current level of sales
 Current Stock of goods
 Trends in sale and stocks
 Market share
 Pattern of seasonal fluctuations
 Research and Development trends
 Company strength and weakness
 New product possibilities
(C) Elements Concerning the Market
 The effect of price change i.e., price elasticity
 Product characteristic
 Identification of competitive and complementary products
 Number and nature of competitors
 Forms of market competition
 General price levels
 Prices of similar goods
Steps involved in Demand Forecasting

To have an efficient, accurate, and meaningful forecast, the management should proceed
according to a systematic plan. The various steps involved in demand forecasting, are
discussed as follows:
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1. Clarity of objectives: To have an efficient forecasting, one should have a clarity of

objectives. It will remove the difficulties involved in the way of forecasting. A firm may
use the concept to determine various things viz, allocation of funds for sale promotion,
fixation of price, inventory control etc. The forecasting will differ for each and every
approach.
2. Selection of Goods: Before, forecasting the entrepreneur might have to select the goods
for which forecasting has to be made whether, it is for consumer and capital goods for
existing goods.
3. Selection of Method: Another step involved in demand forecasting is the selection of
method according to which forecasting must be made. In fact, the scope and success of a
particular method depends upon the area of investigation, degree of accuracy required,
availability of data etc.
4. Interpreting the Results: The last but not least is the interpreting of the results. It is
based on certain assumption. If there happens to be a change in the assumptions involved
in forecasting, the revision of forecast will become almost inevitable.
Methods or Techniques of Demand Forecasting
Demand forecasting is a difficult exercise as consumer’s behaviour is most unpredictable. It
is motivated and influenced by multiplicity of factors. Economists and statisticians have
tried their best to develop several methods of demand forecasting. These methods are
explained:
A) Consumer’s Survey Method
This method uses the most direct approach to demand forecasting by directly asking the
consumers about their future consumption plan. In this method, the burden of forecasting
goes to the buyers. This method is very simple and free from statistical burden. It is of
three types:
i) Complete Enumeration Survey
ii) Sample Survey
iii) End-Use Method
i) Complete Enumeration Survey: In the complete enumeration survey, the probable
demands of all the consumers for the forecast period (as given by consumers
themselves) are summed up to have the sales forecast for the forecast period. For
example, if there are n consumers and their probable demands for commodity X in the
forecast period is X1, X2, X3………Xn , the sales forecast would be
X= X1+X2+X3………. +Xn
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ii) Sample Survey: Under the sample survey method, the probable demand expressed by
each selected unit summed up to get the total demand of sample units in the forecast
period. It is then blown up to find the total demand in the market. That is, the total
sample demand is multiplied by the ratio of number of consuming units in the sample.
This method when carefully applied gives good results especially for the new products and
brands. Proper care should be taken in choosing a sample size which should not be too big.
The advantages of sample survey over complete enumeration method are:
 This method is simple
 This method is less costly
 Less possibility of data error
B) End Use method: The sale of a product under consideration is projected on the basis
of a demand survey of the industries using this product as an intermediate product.
The demand for the final product is the end-use demand for the intermediate product
used in the production of this final product. However, an intermediate product may
have many end-uses (like steel, which can be used in agricultural machinery,
construction, etc.). It may have demand in both domestic and international markets.
The demands for final consumption and exports net of imports are estimated through
some other forecasting method, and the demand for intermediate use is estimated
through a survey of its user industries regarding their production plans and input-
output efficiencies. Then the sum of final consumption demand and export demand
net of imports of any commodity can be obtained with the help of an input-output
model.
C) Opinion Poll Method: The opinion poll methods aim at collecting opinions of those
who are supposed to possess knowledge of the market, e.g., sales representatives,
sales executives, professional marketing experts and consultants. The opinion poll
method consists of:
 Expert- opinion method
 Delphi-method
 Market studies and experiments
D) Statistical Methods: In the theory of demand forecasting, the statistical techniques

have proved to be useful. Statistical techniques are used to maintain objectivity as
well as precision in demand forecasting. Here, statistical methods have been
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explained which utilize historical and cross-section data for estimating long-term
demand. Statistical methods are considered to be superior techniques of demand
estimation for the following reasons.
 The element of subjectivity in this method is minimum
 Method of estimation is scientific
 Estimation is based on the theoretical relationship between the dependent and
independent variables.
 Estimates are relatively more reliable
 Estimation involves smaller cost
Merits of Consumer Survey Method:
The advantages of this method are as under:
 This method does not require mathematical calculations
 This method is based on the first-hand knowledge of the salesman.
 It is useful to forecast the sales of new products
 This method does not require any historical data
Demerits:
Although, this method has certain advantages, yet it suffers from the following disadvantages
as:
 It is only a subjective approach
 It is suitable only for short-term forecasting
 Salesman lacks vision and may not foresee the influence of several unknown factors
 Individual industry will have to depend on some other method to estimate the future
demand of its product for final consumption.
Qualities of a good Demand Forecasting

The world is changing rapidly with the introduction of new techniques of production and
highly development of infrastructure. As there are several methods of demand forecasting, it
is essential to notice some qualities of a good forecasting. However, following criteria should
be adopted for forecasting:
1. Simplicity: Any mathematical techniques of demand forecasting may be simple so
that it may deliver better results.
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2. Accuracy: For forecasting, statistical data is pre-requisite. Therefore, data may be

undertaken which is accurate, correct and dependable.
3. Easy availability: The results of a demand forecast must be easily available and well
understand.
4. Economy: Another quality of a good demand forecast that it must be economical.
Generally, a firm keeps a balance between the benefits and the extra cost of providing
the improved forecasting.
Importance of Demand Forecasting

Demand forecasting is of great significance for decision making in modern business. The
main points of importance are summarized below:
1. Planning of Production: It is a pre-requisite for planning of production in a firm. A
firm has to expand its capacity according to the likely demand for its output.
Otherwise, the capacity will be wasted
2. Sales Forecasting: Sales forecasting depends much on the demand forecast.
Promotional efforts of the firm should be based on demand forecasting.
3. Control on Business Activities: For Satisfactory control of business inventories (raw
materials, intermediate goods, semi-finished products and finished products) need
regular estimates of future requirements which can be derived only from the demand
forecasts.
4. Decision/Policy making: Demand forecasting is necessary for deciding about the
growth rate of the firm, its long-term investment programmes and financial planning.
5. Useful for Stability: Demand forecasting is useful for stabilizing the production and
employment within the firm. If dependable demand forecasts are available for the
firm, then the firm can more easily design its business operation to counter the
cyclical and seasonal changes in the demand for its good.
To select the appropriate forecasting technique, the manager/forecaster must be able to
accomplish the following:
 Define the nature of the forecasting problem
 Explain the nature of the data under investigation
 Describe the capabilities and limitations of potentially useful forecasting
techniques.
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 Develop some predetermined criteria on which the selection decision can be

made.
2.11 CASE STUDIES
2.11.1 Case Study-1

Mr. Ashish Ranjan, an economist, at XYZ Limited, has estimated that if there is a one percent
increase in the price of textiles the demand for Textiles would come down buy 1.2%.
Similarly, if food prices go up by 1% the demand for textiles would decline by 0.96%.
Finally, if there is 1% increase in the share of agriculture in the national income, then the
demand for Textiles would go up by 0.4 %.
Price elasticity is an area where active intervention by the mills can contribute to the
expansion of demand. The margins in the textile business as shown by CII and agrile and
Vishakha study vary from 26% to 46% (this includes margins of manufacturers, wholesalers,
semi-wholesalers and retailers). If the distribution system could be rationalized so as to bring
down the final price of cloth, then by exploiting price elasticity alone, demand can go up.
Questions
1. Identify the various types of demand elasticity’s relevant to textile demand in India.
2. What role has been visualized for price elasticity of demand for textiles in India?
3. If price of cloth is reduced by 14% how much will be the demand increases?
2.11.2 Case Study-2

A not-so-popular Nordic bridge 1
It was not quite what the planners had in mind when Sweden and Denmark opened their
expensive bridge across the Oresund strait in July. After an early boost from summer tourism,
car crossings have fallen sharply, while trains now connecting Copenhagen, the Danish
capital, and Malmo, Sweden’s third city, are struggling to run on time. Many people think the
costs of using the bridge are simply too high. And, from the point of view of Scandinavian
solidarity, the traffic is embarrassingly one-sided: far more Swedes are going to Denmark
than vice versa. So last week the authorities decided to knock almost 50% off the price of a
one-way crossing for the last three months of this year. The two governments, which paid
nearly $2 billion for the 16km (10-mile) state-owned bridge-communal, reckoned that, above
all, it would strengthen economic ties across the strait and create, within a few years, one of
1
‘A not-so-popular Nordic bridge’, The Economist, 7 October 2000 assessed on 04.11.2022
https://www.economist.com/europe/2000/10/05/a-not-so-popular-nordic-bridge
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the fastest-growing and richest regions in Europe. But ministers on both sides of the water,
especially in Sweden, have been getting edgy about the bridge’s teething problems. Last
month Leif Pagrotsky, Sweden’s trade minister, called for a tariff review: the cost of driving
over the bridge, at SKr255 ($26.40) each way, was too high to help integrate the region’s two
bits.
Businessmen have been complaining too. Novo Nordisk, a Danish drug firm which moved its
Scandinavian marketing activities to Malmo to take advantage of ‘the bridge effect’, has been
urging Danish staff to limit their trips to Malmo by working more from home. Ikea, a
Swedish furniture chain with headquarters in Denmark, has banned its employees from using
the bridge altogether when travelling on company business, and has told them to make their
crossings –more cheaply if a lot more slowly – by ferry. The people managing the bridge
consortium say they always expected a dip in car traffic from a summer peak of 20,000
vehicles a day. But they admit that the current daily flow of 6,000 vehicles or so must
increase if the bridge is to pay its way in the long run. So, they are about to launch a new
advertising campaign. And they are still upbeat about the overall trend: commercial traffic is
indeed going up. The trains have carried more than 1m passengers since the service began in
July. Certainly, the bridge is having some effect. Many more Swedes are visiting the art
galleries and cafes of Copenhagen; more Danes are nipping northwards over the strait. Some
75% more people crossed the strait in the first two months after the bridge’s opening than
during the same period a year before. Other links are being forged too. Malmo’s Sydsvenska
Dagbladet and Copenhagen’s Berlingske Tidende newspapers now produce a joint Oresund
supplement every day, while cross-border ventures in health, education and information
technology have begun to bear fruit. Joint cultural ventures are also underway. And how
about linking eastern Denmark more directly with Germany’s Baltic Sea coastline, enabling
Danes to go by train from their capital to Berlin in, say, three hours? Despite the Danes’ nej
to the euro, it is still a fair bet that this last much-talked-about project will, within ten years or
so, be undertaken.
Questions
1. Explain why the demand for the bridge is likely to be price-elastic.
2. If the Swedish government estimates that the price elasticity is ─1.4, calculate the
effect on traffic using the bridge, stating any assumptions.
3. Why is the calculation above not likely to give an accurate forecast for the long term?
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2.11.3 Case Study-3

Jewellery is the name of the game2
Once upon a time, there was a saying, ‘old is gold’. Today, the mantra is ‘gold is old’. The
latest fashion trend is off diamond jewellery. This shift in preference from gold to diamond
jewellery was bound to happen. It doesn't take a degree in nuclear physics to figure out that in
today's changing economic environment, consumption patterns are being dictated by the
youth. And for them, gold is flashy and Gaudy. The biggest problem with gold jewellery is
that you can't wear it all the time. The bulk of the gold jewellery owned by consumers is
worn only on a special occasion and then put away in a locker. Diamond jewellery, on the
other hand, is practical and ideal for daily or casual use.
Many gold jewellery dealers believe that one reason why people are shifting away from
gold jewellery is because of the decline in gold prices. A few years ago, trading at Rs. 5600
per ten grams, whereas today, it is trading at rupees 4200 per 10 grams. This dealer believes
if gold prices start to rise, the preference of people will shift once again to gold. Could there
be any truth in this theory? No, perhaps not. These people need to go back to school and
brush up on their economics. One way of looking at this issue is that because people are
shifting their preference to diamonds, the demand for gold has gone down. Because there is
less demand for gold, the price for gold is low. Because the craze for diamond jewellery is
increasing, it is unlikely that the demand for gold will increase and therefore it is unlikely that
the price of gold will increase.
Questions
1. Do you agree with the above inference? explain
2. Is it a case of changes in personal preferences, social perception, fashion trends or
capital valuation of the two kinds of jewellery?
3. Do you visualize a significant shift over time given the income and spatial distribution
of India's population?
2.12 SUMMARY
This unit has presented the basic elements of demand, consumer preference pattern and utility
function, demand forecasting. The law of demand states that other factors are held constant
nt, the quantity demanded is inversely related to price. Other factors that affect demand are: i)
income of consumers; ii) price of related product; iii) tastes and preferences; and iv) number
2
Mehta, P.L., ‘Managerial Economics: Analysis, Problems AND Cases’, p.70.
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of buyers. The law of demand is also verified with the help of marginal utility and
indifference curve analysis. The main points highlighted in this unit are:
 A change in the quantity demanded refers to a movement along a particular demand
curve caused by a change in the price of the good. It is also known as the Extension
and contraction of demand.
 A change in demand refers to a shift of demand curve the resulting from a change in
consumer preferences, income, or prices of related goods.
 When an increase in the price of one good results in increased demand for other
goods, then the two goods are said to be substitutes
 When an increase in the price of one good results in a decreased demand for other
goods, then the two goods are said to be complements.
 When the price of one good increases/decreases but the demand for other goods does
not change, then the two goods are unrelated.
 When the consumer consumes additional units of a good, the marginal utility of that
good declines. This is known as the law of diminishing marginal utility.
 As an additional unit of a good provides lesser and lesser utility to the consumer, the
consumer will buy these additional units only at a lower price. Hence, the law of
demand states that more is demanded at a lower price.
 A consumer maximizes his total utility by allocating his income among goods on the
basis of the law of equi-marginal utility which states that for the best allocation of
income the marginal utility per rupee in each good must be equal.
 An indifference curve is the locus of points representing all such combinations of the
two goods which give equal satisfaction.
 Indifference curves have the properties of negative slope, convexity, and non-
intersection. A higher indifference curve means higher utility.
2.13 GLOSSARY
 Demand: it refers to various amounts of a commodity that a consumer is ready to buy

at different possible prices of the commodity.
 Individual demand schedule: this is a table showing various quantities of a
commodity that a consumer is ready to buy at different possible prices of the
commodity at a point of time.
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 Market demand schedule: it is a schedule showing various quantities of a

commodity which all the buyers in the market are ready to buy at different possible
prices of the commodity at a point of time.
 Demand curve: this is a graphic representation of the demand schedule.
 Law of demand expresses an inverse relationship between the price of a commodity
and its quantity demanded. It means that other things being equal, the demand for a
commodity falls with a rise in its price and rises with a fall in its price. Geometrically,
it is represented by a downward-sloping demand curve.
 Exception of the law of demand occurs in case of i) articles of distinction ii) Giffen
goods and iii) ignorance of the buyers.
 Shift in the demand curve occurs when demand for a commodity is related to factors
other than the price of the commodity. When more is demanded at the same price
there a is forward Shift in the demand curve when less is demanded at the same price,
there is a backward shift in the demand curve. A forward Shift in the demand curve is
a situation of increase in demand. A backward Shift in the demand curve is a situation
of decrease in demand.
 Normal good is that good whose income effect is positive and price effect is
negative.
 Giffen good: a special case of inferior good. In the case of such goods, a fall in price
induces a reduction in quantity demanded (because of a very strong negative income
effect)
 Inferior good: a product whose consumption decreases as income increases (i.e., its
income elasticity is negative)
 Income effect: it refers to a change in quantity demanded of a commodity when the
real income of the consumer changes owing to a change in the price of the
commodity.
 Indifference curve: The locus of points representing the combination of the two
goods all of which give equal satisfaction to the consumer.
 Marginal rate of substitution: the rate at which the consumer is prepared to give up
one good for acquiring another good.
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 Derived demand: the demand for products or factors that are not directly consumed
but go into the production of a final product. The demand for such a product or factor
exists because there is demand for the final product.
 Substitute good: A product that is similar to another and can be consumed in place of
it. Two goods are substitute if the quantity consumed of one increase when the price
of the other increases.
 Complementary good: a product consumed in conjunction with another product two
goods are complementary if the quantity demanded of one increases when the price of
the other decreases.
 Price effect: change in the consumption of the good due to a change in the price of
the good.
 Utility: the amount of satisfaction by consuming a good or service.
 Substitution effect: an increase in the quantity of the good whose price falls after
income has been so ‘adjusted’ that the real purchasing power of the consumer remains
the same as before.
MCQ Questions:
1. When there is a change in demand leading to a shift of the Demand Curve to the right,
at the same price as before, the quantity demanded will-
a) Decrease b) Increase c) Remain the same d) Contract
2. An exceptional demand curve is one that moves-
a) Upward to the right b) Downward to the right c) Horizontally d) Vertically
3. Revealed Preference Theory was propounded by-
a) Adam Smith b) Marshall c) P.A. Samuelson d) J.S. Mill
4. If two commodities are complements, then their cross-price elasticity is
a) Zero b) Positive c) Negative d) Imaginary Number
5. ‘Law of Demand’ implies that when there is excess demand for a commodity then─
a) Price of commodity falls
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b) Price of Commodity remains the same

c) Price of Commodity rises
d) Quantity demanded of the commodity falls
6. Which one of the following factors does not shift the demand curve for a product to
the right?
a) Successful advertising
b) A fall in the price of its complements
c) A rise in the price of its substitutes
d) A fall in the price of the product itself
7. A movement along the demand curve of a non-economic good?
a) Income of the consumer b) Its own Price c) Taste of the consumers
d) Expectations of the Consumer
8. The term optimum allocation on consumer’s expenditure on consumer’s expenditure
on various goods and services is used in-
a) Giffen paradox b) Law of demand c) Law of equi-marginal utility
d) Law of diminishing marginal utility
9. A high value of cross-elasticity indicates that the two commodities are-
a) Very good substitutes b) Good complements c) Poor substitutes d) Poor
complements
10. Marginal Utility has no place in an ordinal theory because it is-
a) Not observable b) Subjective c) Introspective d) Additive
11. Total Utility of a commodity can be found by-
a) Multiplying price by the number of units
b) Adding up the marginal utility of all units
c) Multiplying the number of units by marginal utility
d) None of these
12. In the case of an inferior commodity, the income elasticity of demand is
a) Infinity b) Unitary c) Negative d) Positive
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13. Income elasticity of demand will be zero when a given change in income brings
about-
a) The same proportionate change in demand
b) A more than proportionate change in quantity demanded
c) A less than proportionate change in quantity demanded
d) No change in demand
14. Indifference curve is downward sloping from left to right since more X and less Y
give
a) Less satisfaction b) More Satisfaction c) Equal Satisfaction d) Maximum
Satisfaction
15. The indifference curve which is ‘L’ shape represents
a) Perfect Complementarity b) Perfect Substitutability c) No Substitutability
d) Non-complementarity
Answers
1.b 2.b 3.c 4.c 5.c 6.b 7.b 8.c 9.a 10. d 11. b 12.c 13.d 14.c 15.a
Short Question
1. Retail out the types of demand.
2. Point out any two determinants of demand.
3. Write down the main assumption of law of demand
4. Explain the following: Marginal Utility, Initial utility, Total Utility
5. What do you mean by utility?
6. Briefly explain Revealed Preference hypothesis.
7. What do you mean by Income elasticity?
8. What do you know about cross elasticity of demand?
9. Describe the qualities of a good demand forecasting
10. Discuss the various methods of demand forecasting
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Long Question
1. State the law of demand. What are exceptions of it?
2. Define price elasticity of demand and distinguish its various types. Discuss the
role of price elasticity of demand in managerial decisions.
3. Why is demand analysis essential for successful production planning and capital
expansion?
4. What are the assumptions of the law of diminishing marginal utility?
5. Give the relationship between marginal utility and total utility.
6. Examine the law of diminishing Marginal Utility. What is its assumption,
expectations, and importance?
7. Explain the law of equi-marginal utility. What are its assumptions, limitations, and
usefulness?
8. What is the significance of demand forecasting? What are the steps involved in
forecasting demand?
9. Define the concept of Demand forecasting. Explaining its objectives in economic
theory.
10. Explain the Law of demand. Explain the exceptional situation when the demand
for a commodity may increase even when its price increases.
11. Discuss the various methods of demand forecasting.
12. Define the indifference curve and its assumption with income and substitution
effect.
13. What is the elasticity of demand? Draw the various degrees with diagrams.
14. The enrolment in 10 top business schools in India went up from 2200 in 1980 to
3800 in 2000, while the average tuition fee per year went up from Rs. 6000 to Rs.
72000 during the same period. Does this imply that the demand curve for quality
education is upward-sloping? Comment.
15. Distinguish between:
i) Derived demand and autonomous demand
ii) Demand schedule and demand function
iii) Superior and inferior goods
iv) Complementary goods and substitutes
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2.15 REFERENCES
1. Managerial Economics, Cengage Learning, New Delhi, 2005

2. Managerial Economics, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi Moyer &Harris.
3. Hicks, J.R., ‘A review of Demand Theory’, London: Oxford University Press.
4. Yogesh Maheshwari, Managerial Economics, Phi Learning, New Delhi, 2005 Gupta
G.S.,
5. Managerial Economics, Tata McGraw hill, New Delhi, 2011
6. Wilkinson, Nick, ‘Managerial Economics: A problem Solving Approach’, Cambridge
University Press, New York, 2005
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LESSON 3
THEORY OF PRODUCTION
Dr Sonal Katyal
Associate Professor and Programme Director
James Lind Institute, Switzerland
Sonal.katyal@jliedu.ch
sonalkatyal@gmail.com
STRUCTURE
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Production Function
3.3.1 Production and cost
3.3.2 Concepts of Production
3.3.3 Relationship between Average Product and Marginal Product
3.4 Production in the Short run
3.4.1 Law of variable Proportion
3.4.2 Economies of Scale of Production
3.5 Production in the Long run
3.5.1 Returns to Scale
3.5.2 Isoquants
3.5.3 Choice of Input Combination
3.6 Summary
3.7 Glossary
3.10 References
The objective of this lesson is to introduce students to the concept and working of
Production in both the short run and long run. This lesson will equip students with the
necessary theory and techniques and the ability to apply them to inform and enhance
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managerial decision-making along with the use of Economic tools to explain the optimal
allocation of resources within the firm and also use the tools of economic theory to obtain
optimal production.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
In previous lessons, we have looked at demand, supply and how the interaction of
demand and supply affects market price. According to the Law of Supply, firms are willing to
produce and sell more when the price is higher and hence the supply curve is upward-sloping.
This lesson will examine firm behaviour and supply-side decision-making.
We will understand firms and their profit-maximizing goals. we will identify the most
profitable level of production for a firm and how its costs vary with output. Firstly, we will
have a look at short-run production, when a firm can vary only one factor of production
which is called the law of diminishing returns. The second part deals with the long run when
all the factors of production are variable. We will also discuss how firms make decisions to
achieve maximum profits.
Many forms are operating in an economy at different scales, some are large-scale firms
operating within the country, some are multinational organizations, and some are small-scale
firms. Every firm uses a different proportion of factor of production according to the scale of
an operation like there might be several Pizza outlets like Domino, Pizza Hut etc. in your city
but there might be only one dry cleaner shop. Many firms in a particular area determine their
pricing and efficiency.
Managerial decision-making involves four types of production decisions:
Whether to produce or to
shut down
How much output to

produce
What input combination

to use
What type of technology

to use
Fig. 3.1 Production Decision-Making (Solman, 2006)
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3.3 PRODUCTION FUNCTION
3.3.1 Definition:
Production and Cost
Production is the total amount of goods and services produced in a given year and the cost
incurred to produce these goods and services is called costs of production.
Production Function
It is the relationship between inputs i.e. factors of production (Land, labour, capital and
entrepreneur) to produce a certain level of output.
Q= f (Land, Labour, Capital, Entrepreneurship)
Land
Capital
Output Labour
Entrepreneurship
Fig 3.2: Production Function

Figure 3.2 explains the four factors of production namely Land, Labour, Capital and
Entrepreneurship and their relationship with output.
Production Function in Long Run and Short Run
The Long Run is a period long enough for all inputs or factors of production to be variable as
far as an individual firm is concerned. The Output will be increased by changing both labour
and capital.
The Short Run is a period so brief that the amount of at least one input is fixed and others
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are variable say if capital is a fixed input and labour, is a variable. Hence, an increase in
production during this period is possible only by increasing the variable input.
The length of time necessary for all inputs to be variable may differ according to the nature of
the industry and the structure of a firm
Q = f (X1, X2, X n)
X
Figure 3.3 Production Function
Figure 3.3 depicts the production function. The X-axis represents the inputs and Y-axis
represents the output. The curve shows the relationship between input and output, given the
state of technology.
Q = f (X1, X2, X n)
where Q stands for the output of a good per unit of time, X1 for labour, X2 for land (or
natural resources), X3 for capital, X4 for a given technology, X5 for Entrepreneurship and F
refers to the functional relationship function with many inputs cannot be depicted on a
diagram.
Hence, economists use a two-input production function. If we take two inputs, labour and
capital, the production function assumes the form.
Q = F (L, K)
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Relevance to Business
Homogeneous Production Function helps businesses in deciding the optimal use of inputs,
given the input prices. For example, if he has to double the output, he knows by how much
proportion he needs to increase the input as the production function is linear homogeneous.
ACTIVITY
A Fisherman notices the relationship between number of hours spent catching the fish
and the number of fishes caught:
Hours No of Fishes
0 0
1 10
2 18
3 24
4 28
5 30
1. What is the marginal product of each hour spent fishing?
2. Draw Fisherman’s production function with the help of data and explain its shape.
3.3.2 Concepts of Production

Total Product: It refers to the maximum amount of output that can be produced by
combining one variable factor with a fixed factor of production.
Average Product: It refers to the ratio of the total product to the total units of the variable
factoremployed in producing a certain level of output.
AP = TP/L
Marginal Product: It refers to the change in total output while producing one additional unit
of a variable factor.
MP = Change in TP / Change in variable factor = ΔTP/ΔL
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Labour Total product Average product= Marginal product = ΔTP/ΔL

TP/L
1 10 10 -
2 24 12 14
3 39 13 15
4 52 13 13
5 61 12.2 9
6 66 11 5
7 66 9.4 0
8 64 8 -2
Table 3.1 – Total Product, Average Product and Marginal Product
Quantity
No of workers
Fig. 3.4 Total Product
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The total product (TP) curve represents the total amount of output that a firm can produce
with a given amount of labour. As the number of labour changes, total output changes. The
total product curve is a short-run curve, meaning that technology and all inputs except labour
are held constant. This assumption is keeping the other factors constant. In figure 1.4, X-axis
is the number of workers and the Y- axis is the quantity. The S-shaped total product curve has
an economic meaning. At the lower end, where the number of workers and quantity is low,
the curve is convex. Convexity means that when the number of workers is added, production
increases at an increasing rate. This happens as more workers are added at low production
levels, they can specialize in tasks and more can work more efficiently using the fixed inputs
as specialisation is possible. In the middle production range, the slope of the total product
curve gets flattered, and the shape of the curve becomes concave. Concavity means that
production increases but at a decreasing rate. The economic interpretation of concavity is that
as more workers are added, there is less and less specialization available and the workers are
less and less efficient in using the fixed inputs. Finally, the total product curve hits a
maximum point after which output decreases with each additional worker. After the
maximum is reached, additional employees don’t add anything valuable and are not
productive and unable to use the fixed inputs efficiently. This pattern can be observed in
figure 3.4 and Table 3.1.
Quantity
No of workers
Fig. 3.5 Average Product and Marginal Product
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Average Product
The average product (AP) is output per worker. It can be defined as the total product divided
by the quantity of the variable input (i.e., the number of workers) employed. In Table 1.1
different values of labour are given and they can be determined at different levels of input.
Thus, the average product of labour is maximum at 5 units of labour. Figure 1.5 graphically
illustrates the average product of labour. The average product of the labour shows the
efficiency of the input factor.
The first unit of labour produces 10 units of output and the second unit of labour (when
combined with the first unit and the fixed resources used) produces 24 units and so on. Thus,
the average product for one unit of labour is 10 and for two units of labour is 12. An
important point to note in this context is that when two units of labour are employed, the
average product of labour increases. This shows two units of labour are more efficient than
one unit. This does not necessarily mean that the second unit of labour is more efficient than
the first unit.
The increase in average labour productivity when the second unit of labour is employed in
the production process is a result of more efficient use of both the fixed factor of production
and the first unit of labour. The reason could be an increase in productivity and the
production process becoming more specialized. This can also help managers in measuring the
productivity of each labour and they can accordingly reward labour because of higher per
capita productivity.
Marginal Product
The marginal product may be defined as the rate of change in total output associated with the
employment of one additional unit of the variable factor. The marginal product of labour
(MPL) can be computed as
MPL=dQ/dL
The marginal product of labour is measured by the slope of the total product curve at a
particular point, dQ/dL. The slope of the total product curve is initially positive meaning
positive MPL, then zero MPL where the total product is constant and finally negative MPL.
Alternatively, marginal product per unit of labour input can be calculated over an input range
by simply relating the absolute change in output (∆Q) to the absolute change in the variable
(factor) input (∆L). Thus, when the second unit of labour is employed, MPL per unit is:
Average M/PL = ∆Q/∆L = (24-10)/ (2-1) = 14
Thus, over the range from one to two units of labour, the average marginal product is 14
units.
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This distinction between the marginal value at a single point on a curve and the marginal
value between the two points on a curve can play important role in making managerial
decisions related to cost and output.
3.3.3 Relationship between Marginal Product and Average Product
1. When Marginal Product > Average Product, Average Product rises.
Till the point the marginal product curve lies above the average product curve, the
average product curve will rise. The implication is that the average efficiency of the
variable factor is increasing.
2. When Marginal Product < Average Product, Average Product falls.
3. When marginal product must be equal to average product, they both are at their
maximum.
4. The point at which average product reaches its maximum is the point of maximum
production that can be achieved in the short run, but this may not necessarily be the
point at which profits will be maximized for that cost need to be considered as well.
3.4 PRODUCTION IN THE SHORT RUN
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Production theory can be divided into which of the below?
A. Short
B. Long
C. Intermediate
D. Both A&B
2. “The length of time necessary for all inputs to be variable may differ
according to the nature of the industry and the structure of a firm”. Is the
statement true or false?
A. True
B. False
3. Long-run production function is related to _________.
A. Law of Demand
B. Law of Increasing Returns
C. Laws of Returns to Scale
D. Elasticity of Demand
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4. Production function is expressed as ________.

A. Qx = Px
B. Qx = f (A, B, C, D)
C. Qx = Dx
D. None of these
5. Long-run production function is related to _________.
A. Law of Demand
B. Law of Increasing Returns
C. Laws of Returns to Scale
D. Elasticity of Demand
3.4.1 Law of Variable Proportion
Holding all factors constant except one, the law of diminishing returns says that:
As additional units of a variable input are combined with a fixed input, at some point the
additional output (i.e., marginal product) starts to diminish.
Assumptions
 A Production function is associated with a specific period.
 The level of technology is constant.
 The factors of production are divisible.
 There are only two factors of production namely labour and capital.
 The Supply of factors is inelastic in the short run.
The three stages of the law of variable proportions are as follows:
1. Increasing marginal returns- is the range of production for which increases in variable
input led to an increase in the average product.
2. Diminishing marginal returns - is the range of production for which increases in
variable input led to a decrease in the average product while the marginal product
remains non-negative.
3. Negative marginal returns – is the range for which the use of variable input
corresponds to negative values for its marginal product
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TP
Fig. 3.6 Law of Variable Proportion

In figure 1.6, the X- axis represents labour (Units of variable factor) and Y-axis represents
Output. TP is the total product curve. Up to point A, the total product is increasing at an
increasing rate. Between points A and B, it is increasing at a decreasing rate. Here marginal
product has started falling. At point B, the total product is maximum while, the marginal
product is zero. Thereafter, it begins to diminish correspondingly to a negative marginal
product. In the lower part of the figure, MP is the marginal product curve. Up to point D
marginal product increases and after that, the marginal product begins to decrease and then
the marginal product becomes zero and turns negative. AP curve represents the average
product. Before point E, the average product is less than the marginal product. At point E
average product is maximum and then the average product increases but after that, it starts to
diminish.
First Stage
The First stage starts from point O and ends up pointing A. At point E average product is the
maximum and is equal to the marginal product. In this stage, the total product increases
initially at an increasing rate up to point A. Between A and B it increases at a diminishing
rate. Similarly, the marginal product also increases initially and reaches its maximum at point
D. In this stage, the marginal product exceeds the average product (MP > AP).
Second Stage
It begins from point A. In this stage, the total product increases at a diminishing rate and is at
its maximum and the marginal product diminishes rapidly and becomes zero. The Average
product is maximum at point E and thereafter it begins to decrease. In this stage, the marginal
product is less than the average product (MP < AP).
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Third Stage
This stage begins beyond point B. Here total product starts diminishing. The average product
keeps on declining and the marginal product becomes negative. In this stage ideally, firms
will try to stop production. This happens because the marginal product of the labour becomes
negative implying that additional labour will give negative returns.
Causes of Increasing and Diminishing return:
Initially, due to the underutilization of resources and high efficiency, an increase in variable
factors adds more to output. As we keep on increasing variable factors and as factors of
production are imperfect substitutes for each other so they cannot be replaced with other
factors of production.
The Law of variable proportion can be applied universally in both primary and secondary
sectors.
Relevance for Business:
Businesses can increase productivity by employing skilled labour or more capital. If a nation
invests in modern technology and better infrastructure that can improve the productivity of all
the businesses and the nation as a whole. For example, China has invested its capital, and this
has resulted in growth in the average quantity of output per worker.
3.4.2 Economies of scale of Production:
When a firm increases the scale of production, they achieve economies of scale till a point
and then economies start to convert into diseconomies of scale.
Economies of Scale are two types:
Internal Economies of Scale- These economies are internal to the growth of a firm such as
technical, managerial, financial etc.
External Economies of Scale are external to the firm, and they happen as a result of changes
in the external environment such as localization, vertical disintegration etc.
Diseconomies of Scale When the firm over utilises the used machinery, labour, increased
plant size etc leading to an increase in cost of production and hence the efficiency declines.
This happens due to lack of coordination, depreciation of machinery etc. When the factors are
external to a firm such as an increase in prices of inputs, taxes, lack of funds etc then they are
called external diseconomies of scale.
External Economies and Diseconomies – Relevance to Industry:
The concept of external economies and diseconomies have been used to classify industries
into three types for determining the equilibrium. It can be shown by Decreasing cost industry
where costs decrease as the industry expands, the Constant cost industry has no change in
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average costs and the increasing cost industry where the costs rise due to demand for highly
skilled labour or better technology.
Case Study -1
Apple – Increasing or Diminishing Returns
In some industries, securing the adoption and new technology is favourable to one’s
own product. As the product market share grows, the companies start putting more
effort and money into marketing. Apple is an excellent example. The more customers
start using Apple products and more applications are developed for ios, the greater the
demand for the product. As apple introduces new products and upgrades every year, the
increasing returns persist and hence they are able to spend a proportionate amount of
money on marketing efforts and that is the reason that they are dominating the market.
According to experts, Apple has introduced so many models of all its products like the
iPhone, iPad, and Mac book. Each model represents a considerable advance over the
previous one and the demand goes up as people are willing to pay for upgrades.
However, there is limited scope for users to take advantage of these upgrades. Most of
the products have similar features and customers are unlikely to fully utilize the features
with each upgrade. In this respect, Apple is a victim of the law of diminishing returns.
The majority of the users may not be too impressed with the further capabilities of
Apple products. Given the enormous costs of developing upgrades of the products, the
question is where does Apple go from here? At the moment such products require a
considerable investment from the customers and also the company should be able to get
increasing returns.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Draw the TPP and MPP curves for the three sites in the table.
7. Rainfall and the amount of nitrogen occurring in the soil will cause
differences in the position of the TPP curve between sites. One will cause
vertical differences in the curves, and one will cause horizontal differences.
explain which causes which effect and why.
8. What other things farmer needs to know before deciding whether to use 600
kg/ha of nitrogen fertilizer?
9. Does the law of diminishing returns apply here and why?
10. Can this phenomenon be observed in short run or long run?
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3.5 PRODUCTION IN THE LONG RUN

3.5.1 Returns to Scale
The return to scale is a long-run concept. It shows the possibilities of different input
combinations. In the long run all factors of production are variable. No factor is fixed.
Accordingly, the scale of production can be changed by changing the quantity of all factors of
production.
Increasing Returns to Scale: a production function for which any given proportional change
in all inputs leads to a more than proportional change in output. Increasing returns to scale
refers to a situation when all factors of production increase but output increases at an
increasing rate. It means if all inputs are doubled, the increase in output will be more than
double. Hence, it is called increasing returns to scale. This increase is due to many reasons
like the division of external economies of scale.
Capital
600
00
200
100
Labour
Figure 3.7 Increasing Returns to Scale
In figure 3.7, the X- axis represents an increase in labour and Y-axis represents capital. The
combination of both the factors will produce more output as can be seen in the diagram from
point 100 to 200 to 600 units.
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Constant Returns to Scale: a production function for which a proportional change in all
inputs causes output to change by the same proportion. Constant returns to scale refer to the
production situation in which output increases exactly in the same proportion as the ratio of
inputs is increased meaning if inputs are doubled output will also be doubled.
In constant return to scale internal and external economies are exactly equal to internal and
external diseconomies. This situation arises when after reaching a certain level of production,
economies of scale are balanced by diseconomies of scale.
Capital
300
200
100
Labour
Fig. 3.8 Constant Return to Scale
In fig. 3.8, X-axis represents labour and Y-axis represents capital. Diagram suggests that an
increase in factors of production i.e., labour and capital are equal to the ratio of increase in
output. Hence, we get constant returns to scale.
Decreasing Returns to Scale: a production function for which a proportional change in all
inputs causes a less than proportional change in output. It means, that if inputs are doubled,
the output will be less than doubled. If inputs are increased by 20 per cent, the increase in
output is 10 per cent.
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The main cause of the decreasing returns to scale is that internal and external economies are
less than internal and external diseconomies.
Capital
180
150
100
Labour
Figure 3.9 Decreasing Returns to Scale
In this diagram 3.9, X-axis represents labour and Y-axis represents capital. When inputs
increase from 1 to 3 units, the increase in output is proportionately lesser from 100 to 150 to
180.
3.5.2 Isoquants
All inputs are now considered to be variable (both L and K in our case)
How to determine the optimal combination of inputs?
An isoquant is a curve showing all possible combinations of inputs physically capable of
producing a given fixed level of output.
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Units of capital
Units of Labour
Fig. 3.10 Isoquant Curve
In Fig. 3.10, X-axis represents labour, and the Y-axis represents capital. Different points
along the curve show combinations of labour and capital. As the usage of labour increases,
the usage of capital decreases to produce a certain level of output.
An Isoquant is a curve that shows the various combinations of two inputs that will produce a
given level of output
The slope of an isoquant indicates the rate at which factors K and L can be substituted for
each other while a constant level of production is maintained.
The slope is called Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTS)
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Fig. 3.11 Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution

Fig. 3.11 depicts the Marginal rate of technical substitution. The X-axis represents labour,
and the Y-axis represents capital. The changes in the ratio of capital to labour used to produce
a certain level of output are shown.
The absolute value of the slope of the isoquant is the marginal rate of technical substitution
between two factors.
Thus, the MRTS is the rate at which labour substitutes for capital without affecting output,
when more capital and less labour are used, the marginal productivity of labour is relatively
large and the marginal productivity of capital relatively small. Hence, one unit of labour will
substitute for a relatively large amount of capital.
Anywhere along the isoquant, the marginal rate of technical substitution of labour for capital
equals the marginal product of labour divided by the marginal product of capital, which also
equals the absolute value of the slope of the isoquant.
MRTS = MPL / MPC
Properties of Isoquant
 There is a different isoquant for every output level and farther from the origin
indicates higher rates of output.
 Isoquants have negative slopes indicating the quantity of labour employed is inversely
related to the quantity of capital employed.
 Isoquants do not intersect. Since each isoquant refers to a specific rate of output, an
intersection would indicate that the same combination of resources could, with equal
efficiency, produce two different amounts of output.
 Isoquants are usually convex to the origin. So, an isoquant gets flattered as we move
down along the curve.
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Exceptions to Isoquant Curve:

There are exceptions to the isoquant curve, and it can have three general types of shapes.
Perfect Complements -The isoquants are right angles, indicating that inputs a and b must be
used in fixed proportions and therefore are not substitutable.
For Example - The Left shoe and the Right Shoe.
Perfect Substitutes – Input a can be substituted for another input say b at a fixed rate as
indicated by the straight-line isoquants (which have a constant slope and MRS)
For Example - Jaggery and brown sugar are often nearly perfect substitutes
Figure 3.12 Perfect Substitutes Figure 3.13 Perfect Complements
Figure 3.12 depicts Perfect Substitutes. The X-axis represents Amoco gas and Y-axis
represents Texaco gas. As both as perfect substitutes for each other, so whether the consumer
uses Amoco or Texaco does not make a difference. Hence, the curves are straight lines.
Figure 3.13 depicts Perfect complements. The X-axis represents typists and Y-axis represents
Typewriters. Both inputs should be used in fixed proportions as they cannot be substituted.
Hence, the curve will be right angles.
Imperfect Substitutes –It is the rate at which input b can be given up in return for one more
unit of input a while maintaining the same level of output as the number of inputs increases.
For Example - In farming, harvesters and labour for harvesting grain provide an example of a
diminishing MRS considering capital and labour are imperfect substitutes.
3.5.3 Choice of Input Combination
The Input combination used can be shown with the help of Isocost lines.
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Isocost lines show different combinations of inputs which give the same cost. It shows the
various combinations of two inputs that can be bought for a given dollar cost.
The slope of the isocost line is given by
Slope of isocost line = -w/r
The equation for an isocost line is:
C =L. P +K. P
L K
MPL w
MRTS LK  
MPK r
A producer aims at either maximizing output for a given cost or minimizing cost subject to a
given output.
Fig. 3.14 Maximizing Output for a given cost

In fig. 3.14, the x-axis represents labour, and the y-axis represents capital. An isocost line
which is the budget line for the producer is drawn along with different isoquants representing
different levels of output. The Higher the isoquant, the higher the level of output but the
maximum output will be at a point where the isoquant intersects with the isocost line i.e., Q.
The producer will achieve maximum output at this point.
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Fig. 3.15: Minimizing Cost subject to given Output

In fig. 3.15, The x-axis represents labour, and the y-axis represents capital. An isoquant
which shows a different combination of factors by the producer is drawn along with different
isocost lines representing a different amount of costs. The point at which the producer will
minimise costs will be where isoquant is tangent to the isocost line i.e., Q.
The producer will choose the best input combination as per the costs and availability of
factors
Choosing the Economically Efficient Point of Production
The least cost combination of inputs for a given output occurs where the isocost curve is
tangent to the isoquant curve for that output and where the output is highest.
Fig. 3.16: Least Cost Combination of Production

In fig. 3.16, X-axis represents Labour and Y-axis represents capital. The Least Combination
is at Point A where the isoquant curve is tangent to the isocost line. Point B and C are on
higher isocost lines but are not tangent. Hence, the equilibrium can't be reached.
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Relevance to Business:
Applicability of Choice of combination for Production will be explained through an example.
Inputs used for Producing Cars
Technology Units of Capital Units of Labour
A 50 120
B 80 100
C 120 40
D 150 30
E 200 20
Consider the choices available for manufacturing cars is given in the table above. Five
different techniques are available. Technology A is the most labour-intensive requiring 120
hours of labour and 50 units of capital to produce 100 cars. E is the most capital-intensive
requiring maximum units of capital.
For choosing the best combination firms must look into input prices of labour and capital. If
the price of Labour and capital is $1 then forms will look at the minimum cost which will be
by using technology C. Now, suppose wages increase to $5 then Technology E will be cost-
minimising for the firm. The flexibility of a firm’s ability to change techniques of production
plays an important role in determining its costs.
CASE STUDY -2
Since the 2000’s, manufacturing firms in India have been relocated to places with
lower land rental rates and labour costs, mostly in the outskirts of the city and small
towns. At the same time, firms in service sectors like finance, insurance,
Information technology etc have been locating near the city centres and contributing
towards urbanisation like millennium city Gurgaon. One of the major reasons seems
to be that manufacturing firms find it difficult to substitute capital for land and
service sector firms do not require lot of space.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. What is the prime reason of shifting for the manufacturing firms?
12. Is it easy to substitute capital for land as a factor of production?
13. Why is it relatively easier for an IT firm to substitute capital for land?
14. Why is the demand for land likely to be high near the city centre?
15. Can land be substituted for capital near city centre? Discuss
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3.6 SUMMARY
1. A Production function shows the relationship between the number of inputs used and
the amount of output produced in a given period.
2. In the short run, one of the factors of production is fixed.
3. Production in the short run is subject to diminishing returns, as the quantity of
variable input or factor increases, the marginal product diminishes.
4. In the long run, all the factors are variable
5. An Isoquant curve shows the combination of different factors at a particular level of
output.
6. Isocost is the cost incurred or budget of the producer
7. For an efficient outcome, Isoquant should be tangent to the isocost line.
3.7 GLOSSARY
Diminishing marginal product is the property whereby the marginal product of an input
declines as the quantity of the input increases
An Efficient scale is the quantity of output that minimizes the average total cost
Equilibrium is a situation in which the market price has reached the level
at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded
The Equilibrium price is the price that balances the quantity supplied and the quantity
demanded
Equilibrium quantity is the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the
equilibrium price
Efficiency is the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources
Factors of production the inputs used to produce goods and services
Law of supply other things equal, the quantity supplied of good rises when the price of
the good rises
Marginal changes are small incremental adjustments to a plan of action
The Marginal rate of substitution i s the rate at which a consumer is willing to trade one
good for another
Quantity demanded the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase
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A Supply curve is a graph showing relationship between the price of a good and the
quantity supplied

1.D 9. Yes, diminishing returns
2. A 10. Short run
3. C 11. skyscrapers
4.
4. B 12. legal formalities and investment

5. C 13. easy capital
6. diagram as per data in a table 14. business purpose
7. Effect of grass yields 15. circle area
8. A similar pattern emerges from all the
sites. The total output of grass (total
physical product: TPP) rises at a roughly
constant rate (in other words, a marginal
physical product (MPP) is roughly
constant), with up to about 300 kg/ha of
fertiliser. These rises are substantial. Just
look at the Gleadthorpe figures! Above 300
kg/ha, however, diminishing returns set in.
Additional applications of fertiliser yield
less and less extra output: MPP falls.
Maximum yield is obtained at around 600
kg/ha of nitrogen level. Above that MPP is
negative. Why?
If the soil has a high natural level of
nitrogen, the effects of adding nitrogen
fertiliser will be more limited. Diminishing
returns will set in before the 300 kg/ha
level.

1. With the growth in the service sector, the number of people engaged in agriculture has
declined sharply, even if the agricultural output is growing. Given the production
technology and production functions, explain this inconsistency.
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2. Discuss the factors firms consider while choosing technique of production.
3.10 REFERENCES
 Salvatore. D Adapted by Ravikesh Srivastava, 2008. “Managerial Economics:

Principles and worldwide Application”, Sixth edition, Oxford University Press
 Robert S. Pindyck, Daniel L. Rubinfeld and Prem L. Mehta, 2008,
“Microeconomics”, Sixth edition, Pearson Education.
 Michael R. Baye,2006 Managerial Economics and Business Strategy McGraw-
Hill/Irwin, New York, USA, International edition, 5th edition
 Sloman, John, 2006, “Economics”, Sixth Edition, Pearson
 Case Karl E., Fair Ray C. and Oster, Sharon E. (2020) Principles of Microeconomics,
Pearson Education Limited, Twelfth Edition
 Truett L.J and Truett B Dale, 2008. “Managerial Economics: Analysis, problems,
cases”, eighth edition. Wiley India
 Edward T. Dowling, 2001.” Introduction to Mathematical Economics”, third edition,
Schaum’s outline series, Tata McGraw Hill.
 Keat, P., Young, P.K. and Erfle, S., Managerial Economics, 7th Edition, Prentice
Hall, 2013.
 Frank, R.H. & Cartwright, E. (2016). Microeconomics and behaviour. McGraw-Hill
Education
 Business News
 Research articles
 Market News
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LESSON 4
THEORY OF COST
Dr. Rajdeep Singh
Designation- Assistant Professor
Institute- Department of Commerce
University – University of Delhi
Email Id – Rajdeep.srcc@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Cost Concepts
4.3.1 Accounting Costs
4.3.2 Economic Costs
4.3.3 Opportunity Costs
4.3.4 Sunk Costs
4.3.5 Historical Costs
4.3.6 Replacement Costs
4.3.7 Incremental Costs
4.3.8 Book Costs
4.3.9 Out-of-Pocket Costs
4.3.10 Private Costs
4.3.11 Social Costs
4.3.12 Shut-down Costs
4.4 Traditional Theory of Costs
4.4.1 Cost-Output Relationship in the Short Run.
4.4.2 Cost-Output Relationship in the Long Run.
4.5 Modern Theory of Costs
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4.6 Summary
4.7 Glossary
After studying this lesson, you shall be able to

 Understand the cost of production and related cost concepts.
 Learn about the traditional and modern theories of costs.
 Plot various cost curves.
 Comprehend the relationship between different cost curves
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Cost of production refers to the expenses incurred when producing or obtaining items and
services that bring in money for a business. Costs incurred by a company during the
production of its goods and services are a crucial factor in decision-making. It includes both
direct and indirect costs. Direct costs are those that can be linked directly to the production
of a product, such as labour and material costs, whereas indirect costs are those that cannot be
linked directly to the product, such as overhead.
Profit is every business' ultimate goal, and a company's capacity to generate consistent profits
determines how prosperous it will be in the long run. The profit margin of a business concern
is determined by total cost and total revenue. A company works to raise revenue and cut
expenditures in order to maximise profits. The profit margin of a business concern is
determined by total cost and total revenue. A company works to raise revenue and cut
expenditures in order to maximise profits. While a corporation often has no influence over
the selling price, it does have control over a number of costs. Therefore, the business should
strive to minimise and control costs. Since costs are taken into account in every business
decision, it is essential to comprehend the meaning of various terms in order to think
strategically.
Significant cost estimates that are helpful for managerial choices can be obtained from an
analysis of economic costs when supplemented with information derived from the company's
accounting records. If management intends to arrive at cost estimates that are relevant for
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planning purposes, the reasons causing cost changes must be acknowledged and taken into
account. Cost concepts and classifications, and cost output relationships (traditional and
modern theories) are the main topics covered in cost analysis in this chapter.
4.3 COST CONCEPTS
Costs are very important in managerial decisions that involve choosing between alternative
courses of action. It aids in the quantitative specification of various alternatives. The type of
cost to be used in a specific situation is determined by the business decisions to be made.
Costs factor into almost every business decision, and it is critical to conduct a proper cost
analysis. As a result, it is critical to comprehend what these various cost concepts are, as well
as how they can be defined and operationalized.
Accounting Costs
Economic Costs
Opportunity Costs
Sunk Costs
Historical Costs
Replacement Costs
Incremental Costs
Book Costs
Out of Pocket Costs
Private Costs
Social Costs
Shut Down Costs
Fig. 2: Types of Costs

4.3.1: Accounting Costs
Accounting is a historical concept that records what happened in the post. Accounting costs
are the expenses that are recorded in the books of account such as the balance sheet and profit
and loss statements for the company's legal, financial, and taxation purposes. The accounting
cost concept encompasses actual cost. Actual or explicit costs are those incurred by the firm
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in payment for labour, materials, plant, building, machinery, equipment, travelling and
transportation, advertising, and so on. For all practical purposes, the total money expenses
recorded in the books of accounts are the actual costs.
4.3.2 Economic Costs:
There are some costs do not take the form of cash outlays and are not recorded in the
accounting system. These are referred to as implicit or imputed costs. An important example
of implicit cost is opportunity cost. Assume an entrepreneur does not use his services in his
own business and instead works as a manager in another firm on a salary. He foregoes his
salary as manager if he starts his own business. This salary loss represents the opportunity
cost of income from his own business. This is an unspoken cost of his own company. Thus,
implicit wages, rent, and interest are the wages, rent, and interest that an owner's labour,
building, and capital can earn from their second-best use, respectively. Implicit costs are not
considered when calculating the business's loss or gain, but they are an important
consideration when deciding whether or not to keep a factor in its current use. The economic
cost is the sum of the explicit and implicit costs.
Economic Cost = Accounting Cost (Explicit Cost) + Implicit

Cost
4.3.3 Opportunity Costs:

The concept of opportunity cost plays a critical role in modern economic analysis. The
opportunity costs or alternative costs are the returns from the firm's second-best use of
resources that it foregoes in order to reap the benefits of the best use of resources. For
example, a farmer who grows sugarcane can also grow wheat using the same factors. As a
result, the opportunity cost of a quintal of sugarcane is the amount of wheat output sacrificed.
As a result, the opportunity cost of anything is the next best alternative that could be
produced instead of the same or an equivalent group of factors at the same cost. This
definition must include two points. First, the opportunity cost of anything is simply the loss
of the next best alternative. The second important thing is the consideration of “an equivalent
group of factors costing the same amount of money" in the above definition. The concept of
opportunity cost is extremely important in economics –
a) Assists in determining relative prices of goods: The concept of opportunity cost is
useful in explaining how relative prices of different goods are determined.
b) Assists in determining a factor's normal remuneration: The opportunity cost
determines the value of a productive factor for its best alternative use. It implies that if
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a productive factor is to be retained in its next best alternative use, it must be

compensated for or paid at least as much as it can earn from that use.
c) Decision support and efficient resource allocation: The concept of opportunity cost
is critical in rational producer decision-making. Opportunity cost is a useful
economic tool for analysing optimal resource allocation and rational decision-making.
ACTIVITY
 Identify three imputed costs for the business concern.
 Mr. John has invested Rs. 10,00, 000 in his shoes manufacturing business
and has also bought a new land for setting up a factory apart from the
cash investments. Identify if there is any opportunity cost.
4.3.4 Sunk Costs:

Sunk costs are those that are not affected by changes in the level of production or nature of
the business activity. It will remain constant regardless of activity level. The most common
example of sunk cost is depreciation, and amortisation of past expenses. It will remain
constant regardless of the level of activity. Sunk Costs are also known as unavoidable costs.
Even if business activity is reduced, there will be no reduction in this cost. The cost of the
idle machine capacity, for example, is an unavoidable cost. Sunk costs are investments that
have no opportunity cost.
4.3.5 Historical Costs:
The historical cost of an asset is its original cost. Historical cost refers to the cost of acquiring
productive assets in the past, such as land, a building, machinery, and so on. The cost of an
asset is shown as the original price paid for the asset acquired in the past in historical cost
valuation. Financial accounts are based on historical valuation.
4.3.6 Replacement Costs:
A replacement cost is the amount of money that would have to be paid today to replace the
same asset. During periods of significant price change, historical valuation provides a poor
projection of future costs intended for managerial decisions. When financial statements have
to be adjusted for inflation, a replacement cost is an important thing to consider.
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4.3.7 Incremental Costs:

Incremental costs are defined as the change in overall costs caused by specific decisions.
Fixed and variable costs are both included in incremental costs. In the short term, incremental
cost will consist of variable costs — costs of fuel, power, additional labour, additional raw
materials, etc. — incurred as a result of the firm's new decision. Because these costs can be
avoided by not changing the scale of operations, they are also known as avoidable costs or
escapable costs.
Incremental costs are similar to the concept of marginal cost but have a broader connotation.
While marginal cost refers to the cost of the marginal unit of output (typically one unit),
incremental cost refers to the total additional cost associated with decisions to expand output
or add a new variety of products, etc.
4.3.8 Book Costs:
Certain actual business costs do not involve cash payments, but a provision is made in the
books of account, and they are taken into account when the profit and loss accounts are
finalised. These are referred to as book costs. Book costs include unpaid interest on the
owner's own funds and depreciation on assets.
4.3.9 Out-of-Pocket Costs:
Out-of-pocket costs, also known as explicit costs, are those that require immediate cash
payment. Out-of-pocket costs are items of expenditure that involve cash payments or cash
transfers, both recurring and non-recurring. This category includes all explicit costs (e.g.,
wages, rent, interest, material and maintenance costs, transportation expenses, electricity, and
telephone expenses, and so on). On the other hand, Book costs, also known as implicit costs,
do not require immediate cash payments. Book costs include the salary of the
owner, depreciation, unpaid interest on the owner's capital.
4.3.10 Private Costs:
Private costs are those that are actually incurred or provided for by an individual or a business
for its business activity. Private cost is the cost of production incurred and provided for by an
individual firm engaged in the production of a commodity.
This cost has nothing to do with society. It includes both explicit and implicit costs. A
company wishes to reduce its private.
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4.3.11 Social Costs:

The social cost, on the other hand, is the total cost to society of producing a good. As a result,
the economic costs include both private and public costs. The social cost of producing a
commodity is the cost to society as a whole. It takes into account all costs borne by society,
whether directly or indirectly. The firm bears no social cost. It is rather passed on to people
who are not directly involved in the activity. The concept of social cost is much broader than
private cost.
Social Cost = Private Cost + External Cost
4.3.12 Shut Down Costs:

Shut-down costs must be incurred when production operations are suspended. When a plant
is permanently shut down, some costs must be incurred to dispose of the fixed assets. These
are known as abandonment costs.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. _______________ costs do not take the form of cash outlays and are not
recorded in the accounting system.
2. The historical cost of an asset is its original cost. True / False
3. The addition to total cost associated with decisions to expand output are
called:
a) Books Costs b) Incremental Costs
c) Sunk Costs d) Out of Pocket Costs
4. The total cost to society of producing a good is called
____________________.
5. Out of Pocket Costs are also known as Implicit Costs. True/False
4.4 TRADITIONAL THEORY OF COST
The production function expresses a technological relationship between physical inputs and
physical outputs. Further, the cost function shows the relationship between the firm's cost and
firm output given the state of technology. The cost function combines the production
function's information with the prices of the factors of production. Cost functions are thus
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derived functions from production functions. Depending on the time period under
consideration, the firms have different production functions.
Time
Periods
Short Run Long Run

Time Period Time Period
Fig. 3: Different Time Periods
4.4.1 Cost-Output Relationship in the Short Run
A short run is a time period in which some factors remain constant while others change. As a
result, in the short run, the firm can only change its variable factors to change the output. The
short-run costs of a firm are the costs of employing variable units of production plus the costs
of fixed factors. Thus, the use of both fixed and variable factors incurs costs in the short run.
4.4.1.1 Total Fixed Costs
Fixed costs are those that are not affected by changes in output. Even if the output is zero, it
must be incurred. Fixed costs are also known as overhead costs. These include charges such
as depreciation on the asset, interest on debt, rent of premises, insurance, maintenance
costs, property taxes, interest on capital invested, and some administrative costs such as
salary of permanent employees, wages of permanent staff, etc. Thus, fixed costs are those
incurred in hiring fixed factors of production whose amounts cannot be changed in the short
run. These costs are also known as overhead costs, supplementary costs, and unavoidable
costs.
Fig. 4: Total Fixed Costs
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In the above fig. 3, TFC is a straight line parallel to the X-axis depicting that the fixed costs
do not vary with the change in the level of output.
4.4.1.2 Total Variable Costs
Variable costs are the costs associated with the use of variable factors of production, the
amount of which can be changed in the short run. As a result, in the short run, the total
variable costs vary with changes in output. When the output is zero, the total variable costs
are zero. These costs include payments such as labour wages, the cost of raw materials, fuel
and power used, transportation expenses, and so on. Variable costs are also referred to as
prime costs.
Fig. 5: Total Variable Costs

The TVC curve is an inverted S shape, it reflects the law of variable proportions, which
corresponds to a short run period only.
4.4.1.3 Total Costs
It is the actual cost that must be incurred to produce a given quantity of output in the short
run, using both fixed and variable inputs. It is the sum of total fixed costs and total variable
costs.
Total Cost = Total Fixed Cost + Total Variable Cost
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It is the actual cost of producing a given quantity of output in the short run using both fixed
and variable inputs. It is the total of fixed and variable costs.
Fig. 6: Total Costs

The difference between total cost and total variable cost is the total fixed cost.
Apart from total cost analysis, it is critical in managerial decision-making to have information
on per-unit costs in order to make objective decisions. As a result, average costs or per unit
costs are explained below.
4.4.1.4 Average Fixed Costs
The average fixed cost is calculated by dividing the total fixed cost by the number of units of
output produced. Therefore,
Where, TFC = Total Fixed Cost and Q= Units of Output

The total fixed cost is constant. Therefore, the average fixed cost per unit of output decreases
as output increases.
The AFC is represented graphically as a rectangular hyperbola. S since, the TFC is spread
over a large number of units, therefore, AFC decreases steadily as output increases. Because
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the AFC is a rectangular hyperbola, it approaches both axes asymptomatically, that is, it gets
closer and closer to the axes until it touches them at infinity.
Fig. 7: Average Fixed Costs

4.4.1.5 Average Variable Costs
The average variable cost is calculated by dividing the total variable cost by the number of
units of output produced. Therefore,
where TVC = Total Variable Cost and Q= Units of Output
Fig 8: Average Variable Costs
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The AVC curve initially falls as the variable factor's productivity rises, resulting in higher
returns. It then reaches a minimum at the point where the optimal combination of fixed and
variable factors is in place. As the output is increased further, the AVC begins to rise as the
variable factor's efficiency decreases from its maximum level, and the combination of fixed
and variable factors becomes sub-optimal.
4.4.1.6 Average Costs
The average total cost, or simply average cost, is the total cost divided by the number of
output units produced. Therefore,
where TC = Total Cost and Q= Units of Output
Since the total cost is the sum of total variable cost and total fixed cost, the average
cost is also the sum of average variable cost and average fixed cost.
Dividing both sides by Units of Output (Q)
= AFC + AVC
ACTIVITY
 Draw short-run average variable costs and average cost curves
according to traditional theory of costs.
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Fig. 9: Average Costs

Graphically, the shape of the AC curve is determined by the shape of the AFC and AVC
curves. AC initially falls, reaches a minimum at the plant's optimal utilisation level, and then
rises again.
4.4.1.7 Marginal Costs
The marginal cost is the cost added to the total cost of producing one more unit of output. In
other words, marginal cost is the cost of producing n units rather than n-1 units added to the
total cost.
If change in output is greater than one unit, then the marginal cost can be found over a range
of output as well.
The MC curve is a U-shaped curve. It initially falls with increasing output due to more
efficient use of the variable factor as output increases, and then it slopes upward as further
increase in output negatively impacts the variable factor's efficiency.
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Fig. 10: Short Run Marginal Costs

Example -: The following is the schedule of the cost of production an ABC Ltd. for a
better understanding of the cost concepts studied above.
Units Fixed Variable Total Marginal Average Average
Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Variable
(Rs.) Cost (Rs.)
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
0 55 - 55
10 55 28 83 2.8 8.30 2.80
20 55 48 103 2 5.15 2.40
30 55 64 119 1.6 3.97 2.13
40 55 82 137 1.8 3.43 2.05
50 55 104 159 2.2 3.18 2.08
60 55 130 185 2.6 3.08 2.17
70 55 162 217 3.2 3.10 2.31
80 55 202 257 4 3.21 2.53
90 55 262 317 6 3.52 2.91
100 55 342 397 8 3.97 3.42
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4.4.1.8 Relationship Between Average Cost and Average Variable Cost

• AC and AVC are both U-shaped, illustrating the law of variable proportions.
• The MC curve intersects the AVC and AC curves at their minimum points. The
minimum point of AC comes after the minimum point of AVC. The minimum point
of AC is to the right of the minimum point of AVC.
• The behaviour of the AC curve is determined by the behaviour of the AVC and AFC
curves.
• Initially, both AVC and AFC are falling, resulting in a precipitous drop in AC. The
AVC begins to rise after reaching its minimum point. The AFC is still in decline. The
rate of fall of AFC is greater than the rate of rise of AVC until the minimum point of
AC.
• Beyond that level of output, the rate of rising AVC offsets the rate of falling AFC,
causing the AC to rise. It is also possible to observe the AVC approaching the AC
asymptomatically. This is due to the AFC, which continues to decrease as output
increases, which in turn shrinks the distance between AC and AVC.
Fig. 11: Short Run Cost Curves
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4.4.1.9 Relationship Between Average Cost and Marginal Cost

 When AC falls, MC is less than AC and lies below AC.
 At the minimum point of the AC curve, the slope of AC is zero. At this minimum
point of the AC curve, AC = MC.
 When the slope of AC exceeds zero (AC is rising), MC will be greater than AC and
will lie above it.
CASE STUDY
Golden Tires Ltd. which produces rubber tubes for cycles has the following
production details:
Number of Units Produced 1600 units

Selling Price Per Unit Rs. 20 per unit
Fixed Costs Rs. 20,000
Variable Costs Per Unit Rs. 12 per unit
Total Revenue 1600 units * Rs. 20 per unit = Rs. 32000
Total Variable Costs 1600 units * Rs. 12 per unit = Rs. 19,200
Loss (7200)
Comment on whether Golden Tires Ltd. should continue or shut down its
operations in the short run.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. A short run is a time period in which some factors remain constant while
others change. True / False
12. _______________ is the total cost divided by the number of output units
produced.
13. The cost added to the total cost of producing one more unit of output is
known as:
a) Marginal Costs b) Average Costs
c) Fixed Costs d) Average Variable Costs
14. The combination of fixed and variable factors becomes optimal at the
minimum point of ____________________costs.
15. AC and AVC are both U-shaped, illustrating the law of variable proportions.
True/False
4.4.2 Cost-Output Relationship in the Long Run

The long run is a time period in which the firm can vary all of its inputs. None of the
variables are fixed and can be changed to increase output. Long run is a period of time long
enough to allow changes in the plant, such as capital equipment, machinery, land, and so on,
in order to expand or contract output. The long run cost of production is the lowest possible
cost of producing any given level of output when all inputs, including plant size, are variable.
There is no fixed factor of production and thus no fixed cost in the long run. Because the
scale of production may change during this period, the long run cost curves will be subject to
Returns to Scales.
4.4.2.1 Long Run Total Cost
The long run total cost curve shows us the cheapest way to produce any level of output. Each
point on the long run total cost curve is obtained by a point on the short run total cost curve
representing the most appropriate plant to produce that output (the plant that provides the
lowest possible cost to produce the specific level of output). The long run total cost curve is
the one that is tangent to the short run total cost curves. There can never be a portion of the
STC curve that is lower than the LTC curve derived from the STC curves. Because there are
no fixed costs in the long run, the LTC curve is S-shaped and begins at the origin.
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Fig. 12: Long Run Total Costs

4.4.2.2 Long Run Average Cost Curve
In the long run, all of the production factors are variable, and the firm has a number of
options for determining the size of the plants and the production factors to employ. Different
short run average cost curves represent the various plant sizes available to a firm. We can
obtain the long run average cost curve by combining all of the short run average cost curves.
The long run average cost curve encompasses all of the short run average cost curves
contained within it. It's also known as a ‘Envelope Curve’ or a ‘Planning Curve’.
The long run average cost curve is also a flat U-shaped curve, as illustrated in the diagram
below:
Fig. 13: Long Run Average Costs

Characteristics of LAC curve
(i) LAC is called the “envelope curve” as it envelops the SAC curve since LAC is
derived from the short run cost curves.
(ii) No portion of LAC can be above any portion of SAC’s

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(iii) Each point on the LAC is the point of tangency with the corresponding SAC
curve.
(iv) The firm chooses that short run plant which allows it to produce the expected
output at the minimum cost in the long run. Therefore, the LAC helps the firm in
decision making and is called the “planning curve”.
(v) Each point on the LAC curves shows the least cost for producing the
corresponding level of output. Any point above LAC curve is inefficient because
it represents higher per unit cost of production. Any point below the LAC is
desirable but unattainable.
(vi) The U shape of the LAC curve reflects the law of returns to scale.
(vii) The LAC touches the minimum of SAC only in the special case- where the
optimal plant size is reached.
(viii) The LAC is U shaped, but the sides are flatter than the U-shaped SACs.
4.4.2.3 Long Run Marginal Cost Curve

The LMC curves are derived from the SMC curves. The LMC is derived from the points of
intersection of SMC with vertical lines drawn from the points of tangency of the
corresponding SAC and LAC curves to the X axis.
When output is increased by one unit, the LMC shows the lowest additional long-run total
cost.
Fig. 14: Long Run Marginal Costs

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Relationship between LAC and LMC curves

(i) The U-shape of the LAC curve implies that LMC is also U-shaped.
(ii) The LMC curve cuts the LAC curve at the latter’s minimum point.
(iii) When LAC is falling, LMC is below it.
(iv) When LAC is rising, LMC is above it.
(v) When LAC is at its minimum point, then LMC = LAC
SHUT DOWN IN THE LONG RUN (EXITING THE INDUSTRY)

As a general rule, a decision to permanently close down, that is, leave the market,
should only be made if revenues are insufficient to pay for all costs. It implies that
a company incurring losses should eventually close its doors and leave the market.
The short run is defined as a period in which the business has at least one fixed
input or cost. Fixed costs like rentals must be paid even if the business has
undertaken production or not. However, in the long all inputs and costs fluctuate
over time.
Shutdown is a short-term temporary decision made to reduce losses when the firm
is not even able to recover its average variable cost. A business may temporarily
cease operations, but it may later restart operations if market conditions allow.
Even if the company decides to shut down in the short run, the investment in plant
and equipment will have resulted in sunk expenses. Therefore, a business may
decide to stop operating temporarily before starting up again later in the long run.
However, businesses will ultimately elect to leave the industry if conditions do
not change; this is a long-term choice. The losses will continue to grow, though,
until average revenue (AR) exceeds average total cost (AC), if the company is
unable to raise the selling price per unit (to increase overall revenue) to cover total
expenses (ATC). The decision to exit the industry is guided by the
relationship between the price (P) and the long-run average cost (LRAC). If P <
LRAC, businesses will leave the industry. If the company decides to continue
operating, it will do so where long-run marginal cost (LRMC) equals marginal
revenue (MR).
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4.4.3 Relationship Between Production and Cost Curves

This section describes the relationship between
(i) average variable cost (AVC) and average product (AP)
(ii) marginal cost and marginal product
(i) AVC is inversely related to AP, given the price of the variable factor
Suppose the variable factor is Labour (L) and price of the variable factor is the
wage rate (W).
Since we know that

Therefore, we can write
We know that (Q/L) = APL
Therefore AVC = W/ APL
Therefore, given the price of the variable factor (say wage rate of the labour), the
average variable cost (AVC) is inversely related to the Average product of labour (AP L).
(ii) MC is inversely related to MP, given the price of the variable factor
Since the marginal cost is only dependent on the variable cost, we can say
In case the variable factor is labour (L), and the price of variable factor is wage
rate (W), TVC can also be expressed as,
ΔL
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Therefore,
= W/(ΔQ/ΔL)
Thus, MC = W/MPL
Figure 15: Relationship Between Production and Cost Curves
4.5 MODERN THEORY OF COST
We have learnt about the traditional theory of costs in the previous section. In this section, we
will learn about the modern theory of costs. Unlike the traditional theory of cost, the modern
theory does not agree on the U-shaped cost curves. According to modern theory, the short-run
cost curve is saucer-shaped, while the long-run average cost curve is either L-shaped or
inverse J-shaped. This is due to the presence of built-in reserve capacity, which provides
flexibility and allows the plant to produce more output without increasing costs.
The Modern theory proposes the existence of "built-in reserve capacity," which provides
flexibility and allows the plant to produce more output without increasing costs. The short-
run cost curve is shaped like a saucer, whereas the long run cost curve is either L-shaped or
inverse J-shaped. The firm, according to the Modern theory of costs, can produce a range of
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output rather than a single level of output as in the traditional theory of cost. Firms construct
industrial plants with some degree of flexibility in their productive capacity, so that instead of
a single output level, a wide range of output can be produced optimally and at a low cost. The
'Built-in Reserve capacity' allows for flexibility in the manufacturing process. The 'Saucer -
shaped' short run average variable costs are explained by the planned reserve capacity. The
modern theory of cost emphasizes the role of economies of scale in allowing a firm to
continue production at the lowest point of average cost for an extended period of time. In
contrast to the traditional theory, where the average cost rises after the firm reaches the
optimal level of output, the firm checks diseconomies of scale by planning ahead of time and
enjoys production gains. The L-shaped and inverse J-shaped LAC curves are explained by
developments in managerial economies.
Modern
Theory
Short Run Long Run

Costs Costs
Average Fixed Average Long Run Long Run

Average Cost Marginal Cost
Cost Variable Cost Average cost Marginal Cost
Figure 16: Modern Theory of Costs

4.5.1 Short Run Average Fixed Cost
The average fixed costs in modern microeconomics plot as a rectangular hyperbola, just like
in traditional cost theory.
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Figure 17: Short Run Average Fixed Costs (Modern Theory)

4.5.2 Short Run Average Variable Cost
According to modern theory, average variable cost is saucer-shaped and has a flat stretch
over a range of output. This flat stretch represents the firm's reserve capacity to meet seasonal
and cyclical demand changes. The average variable cost curve looks like this:
Figure 18: Short Run Average Variable Costs (Modern Theory)

4.5.3 Short Run Average Cost
Average fixed costs and Average variable costs comprise the short-run Average costs. The
smooth and continuous fall in the average cost curve is caused by the AFC curve being a
rectangular hyperbola and the AVC curve falling and then becoming horizontal within the
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range of reserve capacity. Beyond that, it begins to climb steeply. The average cost curve
looks like this:
Figure 19: Short Run Average Costs (Modern Theory)

4.5.4 Short Run Marginal Cost
At its lowest point, the MC curve intersects the SAVC curve. Because the SAVC curve
reaches its minimum point not at a single point but over the entire flat stretch ee1, the SMC
coincides with the SAVC over the entire range of output corresponding to the flat stretch of
the SAVC Curve. The SMC curve will be below the Saucer-shaped SAVC curve for any
output less than Oq, and it will be above the SAVC curve for any output greater than Oq 1. As
a result, the short-run marginal cost curve coincides with the SAVC Curve over the flat
stretch pertaining to Reserve Capacity.
Figure 20: Short Run Marginal Costs (Modern Theory)

4.5.5 Long Run Average Cost
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Modern economists divide long run costs into production costs and managerial costs. In the
long run, all costs are variable, giving rise to an L-shaped long run average cost curve. This
curve initially slopes rapidly downwards but later remains flat or gently slopes downwards at
its right-hand. The long run average cost curve looks like this:
Figure 21: Long Run Average Costs (Modern Theory)

4.5.6 Long Run Marginal Cost
The shape of the long-run marginal cost curve corresponds to the shape of the long-run
average cost curve as per the modern theory of costs. The diagram shows that when LAC is
L-shaped and the LAC curve is falling, the LMC curve will also fall, and its falling portion
will be lower than the LAC curve's falling portion.
Fig. 22: Long Run Marginal Costs (Modern Theory)
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. According to modern theory, average variable cost is
______________shaped.
12. The flat stretch of short-run AVC in modern theory of costs represents the
firm's reserve capacity to meet seasonal and cyclical demand changes.
True/False
13. Long run average costs as per modern theory of costs is U shaped. True /
False
14. The average fixed costs plot as a rectangular hyperbola according to both
traditional and modern theory of costs. True/False
15. According to modern theory, average variable cost:
a) L shaped b) Saucer shaped
c) U Shaped d) M shaped
4.6 SUMMARY
 Both explicit and implicit costs are considered in the economic cost of production. The
actual sums paid to third parties for the acquisition of resources and services are referred
to as explicit costs. The opportunity cost connected with using one's own resources for
business purposes is one example of implicit costs.
 Economic profit: The difference between a company's total revenue and total costs,
where total costs include both explicit and implicit costs.
 Opportunity cost is the cost of the next best option that was skipped.
 Long run and short run costs are distinguished in the traditional theory of costs. In the
short run, certain variables are constant while others are subject to change.
 The short run costs of a corporation are the costs associated with using the variable units
of production along with the cost of the fixed elements. Total fixed cost (TFC) plus total
variable cost (TVC) is added to get the short run total cost (TC), which is denoted as
TC= TFC + TVC.
 Total fixed costs are those whose total amount does not fluctuate while the output varies.
The TC curve is a horizontal straight line.
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 The change in output level directly affects the variation in variable costs. The TVC
curve, which reflects the law of variable proportions, is an inverse S-shaped curve.
 Total fixed cost (TFC) divided by output level (Q) yields average fixed cost (AFC); AFC
= FC/Q. The AFC curve is a rectangular hyperbola.
 The average variable cost is calculated by dividing the total variable cost by the number
of units of output produced. Therefore, .
 Average cost (AC) is the total cost (TC) divided by thelevel of output (AC=TC/Q).
 Marginal cost (MC) is the change in total cost resulting from a unit change in output;
MCn = TCn – TCn-1. It is the first derivative of the total cost function. The MC curve is
also "U"- shaped. One should remember that MC is independent of fixed costs.
 AC and AVC are both U-shaped, illustrating the law of variable proportions.
 The MC curve intersects the AVC and AC curves at their minimum points. The
minimum point of AC comes after the minimum point of AVC. The minimum point of
AC is to the right of the minimum point of AVC.
 The behaviour of the AC curve is determined by the behaviour of the AVC and AFC
curves.
 Initially, both AVC and AFC are falling, resulting in a precipitous drop in AC. The AVC
begins to rise after reaching its minimum point. The AFC is still in decline. The rate of
fall of AFC is greater than the rate of rise of AVC until the minimum point of AC.
 Beyond that level of output, the rate of rising AVC offsets the rate of falling AFC,
causing the AC to rise. It is also possible to observe the AVC approaching the AC
asymptomatically. This is due to the AFC, which continues to decrease as output
increases, which in turn shrinks the distance between AC and AVC.
 When AC falls, MC is less than AC and lies below AC.
 At the minimum point of the AC curve, the slope of AC is zero. At this minimum point
of the AC curve, AC = MC.
 When the slope of AC exceeds zero (AC is rising), MC will be greater than AC and will
lie above it.
 LAC is called the “envelope curve” as it envelops the SAC curve since LAC is derived
from the short run cost curves.
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 The U-shape of the LAC curve implies that LMC is also U-shaped. The LMC curve cuts
the LAC curve at the latter’s minimum point. When LAC is falling, LMC is below it.
When LAC is rising, LMC is above it. When LAC is at its minimum point, then LMC =
LAC
4.7 GLOSSARY
Short Run- It is a time period in which some factors are fixed, while others are variable.
Long Run- It is a time period in which all factors are variable and none of the variables is
fixed.
Fixed Costs- Fixed costs are those that are not affected by changes in output.
Variable Costs- These are the costs associated with the use of variable factors of production,
the amount of which can be changed in the short run.
Marginal Costs –These are the costs added to the total cost of producing one more unit of
output.
Accounting Costs- These are the expenses that are recorded in the books of account such as
profit and loss statements and the balance sheet.
Economic Costs- It is the sum total of explicit and implicit cost.
Opportunity Costs- These are the returns from the firm's second-best use of resources that it
foregoes in order to reap the benefits of the best use of resources
Sunk Costs- These are investments that have no opportunity cost.
Historical Costs- The historical cost of an asset is its original cost.
Replacement Costs- A replacement cost is the amount of money that would have to be paid
today to replace the same asset.
Incremental Costs- Incremental costs are defined as the change in overall costs caused by
specific decisions.
Books Costs- These are costs that do not involve cash payments, but a provision is made in
the books of account, and they are taken into account when the profit and loss accounts are
finalised.
Out-of-Pocket Costs- These also known as explicit costs, are those that require immediate
cash payment.
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Private Costs- Private cost is the cost of production incurred and provided for by an
individual firm engaged in the production of a commodity.
Social Costs- The total cost to society of producing a good.
Shutdown Costs- Costs incurred when production operations are suspended.
1. Implicit 9. Average Costs

2. True 10. True
3. b 11. Saucer Shaped
4. Social Costs 12. True
5. False 13. False
6. True 14. True
7. Average Costs 15. b
8. a
Koutsoyiannis, A. (1975). Modern microeconomics. Springer.

Mankiw, N. G. (2021). Principles of Microeconomics 9e. Cengage Learning Asia Pte
Limited.
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LESSON 5
MARKET STRUCTURES
Dr. Minesh Kumar Srivastava
Assistant Professor
School of Business Studies
Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies
Technical Campus, New Delhi
minesh.srivastava@gmail.com
STRUCTURE
5.2 Market Structures
5.3 Perfect Competition
5.3.1 Characteristics
5.3.2 Equilibrium of Firm and Industry under Perfect Competition
5.3.3 Price Determination under Perfect Competition
5.3.4 Dynamic Changes under Perfect Competition
5.4 Monopoly
5.4.2 Equilibrium under Monopoly
5.4.3 Price Determination under Monopoly
5.4.4 Dynamic Changes under Monopoly
5.4.5 Multiplant Firm
5.4.6 Bilateral Monopoly
5.5 Pricing Strategies
5.6 Monopolistic Competition
5.6.2 Equilibrium of the Firm under Monopolistic Competition
5.6.3 Price Determination under Monopolistic Competition
5.7 Oligopoly
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5.7.2 Price Rigidity
5.7.3 Collusive vs Non-collusive Oligopoly
5.7.4 Game Theory
5.8 Summary
5.9 Glossary
5.12 References

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Describe the nature and types of markets and recognize the firms operating under
different market structure.
 Determine the short-run and long-run optimal output and price for firms and industry
under different market conditions.
 Examine the effect of dynamic changes happening in the market.
 Determine the implications of collusion among firms in the market.
5.2 MARKET STRUCTURES

Market structure is the classification and differentiation of various types of firms
based on their level competition, types of goods and services offered, number of buyers and
sellers, degree of information available, etc. Market structure basically characterizes the
marketplace “where buyers and sellers meet and exchange products and services” (Kotler,
2012). On the one hand, market structure influences seller’s behaviour and on the other it
determines the supply of different goods and services.
We can characterize market structures based on the number of buyers and sellers,
ability to set the prices, degree of product homogeneity and the autonomy of entry and exit
from the market. Based on above criteria markets are generally classified as:
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Perfect competition: there are unlimited number of sellers selling homogenous goods at
uniform price. The demand curve of a firm is perfectly elastic parallel to X-axis with freedom
of entry and exit from the market.
Fig 5.1: Types of Market Structures

Under imperfect competition different types of markets exists such as.
Monopolistic competition: with large number of firms, each having a small market share,
selling almost identical goods with slight difference. Each firm can influence the price of
their products up to a certain extend.
Monopoly: where only a single seller is operating in the market with strong barriers to entry.
The firm can set a price which is more than perfectly competitive market price.
Oligopoly: where few large firms capturing a larger share of the market. The product offered
by them can be homogenous or not, and they may form a cartel or compete with other firms
in the market.
Duopoly: as the name suggests, this type of market is like oligopoly with only two large
companies capturing a significant share of market.
Monopsony: is a special type of market with only a single buyer.
Oligopsony: is a market with only few buyers.
Table 5.1: Characteristics of Different Market Structures
Type of Sellers’ Entry Nature of
No. of firms No. of buyers Price
Market & Exit goods/services
Perfect
Free Identical Unlimited Unlimited Price-takers
Competition
Closely related
Monopolistic Partial control
Free but Unlimited Unlimited
competition over price
differentiated
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Differentiated
Monopoly Restricted (No Single Unlimited Price- maker
Substitute)
Price rigidity
Identical or
Duopoly Restricted Two Unlimited due to price
differentiated
war
Price rigidity
Identical or
Oligopoly Restricted Few Unlimited due to price
differentiated
war
Identical or
Monopsony Free Unlimited Single Price-taker
differentiated
Identical or
Oligopsony Free Unlimited Few Price-taker
differentiated
5.3 PERFECT COMPETITION

It is a type of market with unlimited number of small companies selling identical
goods at a uniform price. Firms under perfectly competitive market cannot fix the prices and
they are considered as ‘price takers. They are free to either enter or exit from the market and
the consumers have full knowledge about the goods sold in the market.
5.3.1 Characteristics:
 Unlimited producers and buyers
 No barrier in entry and exit from the market.
 Products are homogenous in nature
 Perfectly elastic demand curve horizontal to X-axis where, AR = MR
 Complete information about the product, price, quality and production methods
 Firms are price-takers
 Profit Maximization: firms aim is to maximize its profits
 No transaction costs
 Perfect factor mobility
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5.3.2 Equilibrium of Firm and Industry under Perfect Competition:

It is important to differentiate between firm and industry before analysing the two.
Lipsey & Chrystal (2011), have defined, “Firm is the unit that employs factors of production
to produce commodities that it sells to other firms, to households, or to the government”.
Industry on the other hand, is a group of firms that sells identical products. For example, Tata
Motors, Mahindra and Mahindra, Toyota, etc., are automobile producing firms, whereas a
group of such companies is called the automobile industry.
A. Short-Run Equilibrium of a Firm

A firm changes its output in the short-run by changing its variable factors of
production. No firm can enter or leave the market in the short run. There are two techniques
of determining the equilibrium position of a firm. These are.
(1) Marginal Cost-Marginal Revenue Approach

A firm under perfect competition is in equilibrium at a point where it produces
optimal level of output giving him maximum profit. The two conditions for achieving
equilibrium are.
(i) MC = MR (first order and necessary condition)
(ii) MC curve must cut the MR from below (second order condition)
A firm can have five possibilities in the short run which are given below.
(a) Supernormal Profits

When the prevailing market price is higher than the SAC, a firm earns super normal
profits. As shown in Fig 6.2 (A), the equilibrium point is E1 where SMC = MR and SMC
curve intersects the MR curve from below (i.e., slope of MC > slope of MR). The optimal
level of output is OQ, and price is OP. The area as TSE1P is the supernormal profits for the
firm.
(b) Normal Profits

At the equilibrium point E2, the price equals the SAC, giving only normal profits to
the firm (Fig 6.2 (B)).
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Fig 5.2: Short-Run Equilibrium of the Firm under Perfect Competition (Marginal Cost-
Marginal Revenue Approach)
(c) Minimum Loss

When the price is fixed below the SAC, a perfectly competitive firm incur losses
equal to the area PE3BA as shown in Fig 6.2 (C). Note that the firm will stay in the market as
long as it is covering its average variable cost plus some of its fixed cost.
(d) Maximum Loss
But when the price falls to the level of AVC, as shown in fig 6.2 (D), the firm
becomes indifferent whether to continue production or shutdown. At point E4, the firm will
just cover its average variable cost. Therefore, point E4 is the shutdown point for the firm.
(e) Shut Down Point
In Fig 6.2 (E), shut down point is depicted where a firm is unable to cover even its
AVC. Therefore, in short run a firm is in equilibrium in all the above explained situations.
(2) Total Cost-Total Revenue Approach

A firm under perfect competition prefers the point of production where the gap
between TC and TR is maximum (Fig 6.3). This is the point of equilibrium.
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Fig 5.3: Short-Run Equilibrium of the Firm under Perfect Competition (Total Cost-Total
Revenue Approach)
B. Short-Run Equilibrium of the Industry
A perfectly competitive industry must fulfil two conditions to reach the equilibrium
position in short run. These are.
(i) SAC = AR and
(ii) SMC = MR for all the firms.
This implies that all firms of a perfectly competitive industry must be earning only
normal profits. This is totally a coincidence, because we have seen that in short run a firm
may earn supernormal profits or incur losses. Even then, there is a possibility of industry to
achieve equilibrium when its quantity demanded equals to its quantities supplied at the price
which clears the market.
Fig 5.4 depicts the equilibrium of a perfectly competitive industry. At point E, the
total demand curve “D” and total supply curve “S” intersects giving equilibrium price OP and
output OQ. But one can see that at the prevailing market price OP, some firms are earning
supernormal profits PE1ST, while some other firms are incurring losses.
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Fig 5.4: Short-Run Equilibrium of the Industry under Perfect Competition

C. Long-Run Equilibrium of the Firm
In the long-run, all costs become variable. This means that the firm can change its
production-capacity based on the level of demand. There is an absence of fixed costs in the
long-run and optimal production point is at the lowest level of long-run AC curve.
Each firm in the long run is earning only normal profits. Since, free entry and exit are
allowed for firms from the market, if some firms are getting more than normal profits, new
companies will enter the market. Similarly, if some firms are incurring losses, they will leave
the industry.
Thus, each firm of the industry under perfect competition have to fulfil two conditions
to achieve the equilibrium point.
(i) LMC = SMC = AR = MR = P = SAC = LAC at its lowest point (first-order condition).
(ii) LMC curve must cut the MR curve from below (second-order condition)
Fig. 6.5 is showing both these conditions being satisfied at point E. Hence, the
optimal output is OQ, and equilibrium price is OP giving the firm normal profits.
Fig 5.5: Long-Run Equilibrium of the Firm under Perfect Competition

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D. Long-Run Equilibrium of the Industry

The long-run equilibrium condition for an industry operating under perfect
competition is when ‘LMC = MR = AR = LAC at its minimum level’. At this point industry’s
total demand is equal to its total supply (fig. 6.6). Note that the supply curve of the industry is
determined by the horizontal summation of the supply curves of the individual firms. This
can be upward sloping (increasing- cost industry), downward sloping (decreasing- cost
industry) or horizontal (constant- cost industry). On the other hand, the demand curve of the
industry is downward sloping.
Fig 5.6: Long-Run Equilibrium of the Industry under Perfect Competition

5.3.3 Price Determination under Perfect Competition:
Prices under perfect competition are fixed based on the level of demand and supply.
Products sold under perfect competition are homogenous with perfectly elastic demand curve
which is horizontal to X-axis. This implies that a firm cannot alter the prices and only accept
the prevailing market prices which are fixed by the industry based on interactions of total
demand and supply. Hence, the ‘law of one price’ prevails in this market.
5.3.4 Dynamic Changes under Perfect Competition:
This section will help us in examining the impact of dynamic changes happening in
real life on the perfect competition model.
A. A Shift in the Market Demand
First of all, we will examine the impact of shift in market demand on a perfectly
competitive firm as well as industry. In the fig. 6.7, let’s assume a rightward shift in the
demand curve due to rise in the income of consumers.
In the short run, the price will increase from P to P’ and the quantity supplied from Q
to Q and the firm will start producing more quantity from X to X’. The firm will earn excess
’
profits equal to the area ABCP’due to rise in market price.
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In the long run, this excess profit made by existing firms will attract newer firms into
the market. This incoming of newer firms will result in a rightward shift in the market supply
causing price to fall below the short-run equilibrium level P'. The new equilibrium price may
either remain above the original level, or it may return to the original price P, based on the
magnitude of the shift in the market supply curve. This shift in the market supply curve also
reflects the cost conditions prevailing in the industry which indicates the change in factor
costs as the industry expands.
Fig 5.7: Impact of Shift in the Market Demand on Perfect Competition

Let’s see three market scenarios, where the perfectly competitive industry is a
constant-cost industry, increasing cost industry and decreasing cost industry.
1. Constant Cost Industry
An industry is a constant cost industry if the factor prices remain constant as industry
output increases. Fig 5.8 depicts the long-run equilibrium of a constant cost industry. The
firm is in long-run equilibrium is at a point where the demand-curve price line P is tangent to
the long-run and the short-run average total cost curves at their minimum points.
Now we assume that the market demand curve shifts from DD to D1D1. This will shift
the price to P’ in the short-run and the firm will react to this by increasing their output beyond
full capacity (from OX to OX’). This will shift the market supply curve form SS to S 1S1. This
situation leads to excess profits to existing firms and attracts newer firms in the market. Since
we have assumed a constant-cost industry that means newer firms will also produce at the
same level of LAC. New firms will continue to enter until the resulting the supply curve
intersects the shifted-demand curve at the initial price P. This will result in the long-run
industry supply curve parallel to the X-axis.
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Fig 5.8: Impact of Shift in the Market Demand under Constant-cost Industry
2. Increasing-cost industry
In an increasing-cost industry the factor prices increase as the market expands. Under
an increasing-cost industry the long-run supply curve of the industry is positively sloped. In
the fig 5.9, we can see as the market demand shifts from DD to D1D1, the market price
increases giving excess profits to existing firms. This will attract newer firms in the market
resulting increasing demand for factors of production. Our assumption of an increasing-cost
industry will cause an upward shift in the production costs of existing as well as newer firms.
Hence, the newer market prices will be higher than the original market price giving an
upward sloping long-run supply curve.
Fig 5.9: Impact of Shift in the Market Demand under Increasing-cost Industry
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3. Decreasing-cost industry
A decreasing-cost industry means the prices of factors of production will go down as
the market expands. This gives the industry a negatively sloped long-run supply curve. The
situation has been depicted in the fig.5.10 where shift in the market demand DD to D1D1
attracts newer firms in the market. As the demand for factors of production increases their
price decreases. As a result, the cost of production shifts downwards decreasing the market
price. This also results in downward sloping long-run supply curve.
Fig 5.10: Impact of Shift in the Market Demand under Decreasing-cost Industry
B. A Shift in the Costs due to Changes in Factor Prices
The above shifts in the cost curves of the firms depend on whether the change relates
to the fixed or the variable factors. First, let’s see the effect of an increase in the fixed cost of
the firms.
1. An increase in the fixed cost
In the fig 5.11 we have assumed that the rent of the factory is increased. This leads to
an upward shift in both the AFC and the ATC curves, leaving the AVC and the MC curves
remains unaffected. Since the MC curve will remain unchanged, the equilibrium position of
the firm will remain at the same position in the short run. This means the market output and
price will remain at the original position (OQ and OP) respectively.
However, if we assume that the firm was just earning normal profits before the rise in
the fixed cost. Now it will not be able to cover its average costs and will go out of business in
the long run. Resulting a leftward shift in the market supply curve in the long run that
increases the market prices and decreases the market output due to lesser numbers of firms in
the industry.
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Fig 5.11: Impact of an Increase in the Fixed Cost under Perfect Competition
2. An increase in the variable costs
Now we assume that the labour wages have increased that shifting the AVC, ATC and
the MC curves to the left (fig.6.12). Since the MC curve is also the supply curve of the firm,
the rise in the variable costs will shift the market supply curve to the left at the going market
price.
Given the market demand curve, the price will rise to P’ due to the shift in the market
supply curve in the short run.
Fig 5.12: Impact of an Increase in the Variable Cost under Perfect Competition
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C Effects of Imposition of Taxes

The dynamic changes also include imposition of various taxes by the government.
Here, we will see the effect of individual taxes on competitive firms and industry.
1. Imposition of a Lump-sum Tax
The imposition of a lump-sum tax affects the firms and industry the same way as in
the case of an increase in the fixed cost that we have studied in the previous section. Thus, in
the short run it will not affect the MC curve and the firm will continue to produce the same
level of output as before. However, if we assume that the firm was earning just normal profits
prior to the tax, it will now not be able to cover its ATC at the going market price and will
close down in the long run. Thus, the market supply curve will shift leftwards lowering the
output and there will be a rise in the market price in the long run.
2. Imposition of a Profits Tax
It is a tax on net profit of the firm whose effects are same as lump-sum tax. It will
reduce the profits of the firm, but the MC curve will remain unaffected in the short run.
However, the firm will exit the market if it is not able to cover its ATC in the long run at the
going market price. Thus, the new equilibrium will reach at a higher price and lower output.
3. Imposition of a Specific Sales Tax
This tax is imposed on per unit of output produced by a firm. This tax affects the
variable costs of the firm, shifting the MC curve to the left and reducing the output. Increase
in variable costs also shifts the market supply curve to left which increases the market price.
It is to be noted here that by how much will the price rise is depends on who is going to bear
the specific tax. The burden of the tax is in turn depends on the price elasticity of supply.
The higher the price elasticity of supply the higher proportion of the tax borne by the
buyers. In contrast, the lesser the price elasticity of supply the higher proportion of tax borne
by the seller. As long as, the market supply curve is positively sloped the burden of tax will
fall partly on both buyers and sellers.
In the fig. 5.13, the demand curve is identical in both the graphs and the pre-tax price
P is also the same. But we can see that the supply curve is more elastic in section part II than
1 1). This
clearly shows that the burden of tax that falls on the buyer is greater in section II (where price
elasticity of supply is more).
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Fig 5.13: Impact of Imposition of Specific Sales tax on Perfect Competition
5.4 MONOPOLY
Under monopoly market a single firm represents the whole industry. It captures the
entire market and faces no competition. The firm set the prices for its products. This can be
due to sole access to resources, government licenses, Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) over
the product, or high initial setup costs. Under monopoly, the market forces become irrelevant
as the consumer lose all their power to negotiate and become price-takers. Although, a pure
monopoly is very rare but few examples that are close to monopoly are local electricity
supplier, supplier of Uranium and Thorium (raw materials for nuclear power plants), etc.
 Single firm with not rival or direct competition
 Entry of new firms is completely blocked due to technical, legal or economic reasons
 Firm decides its price, ‘price-maker’.
 Demand curve is downward sloping
 Monopolist can either set its prices or the quantity but not both
 The concept of supply curve is meaningless under monopoly
 Monopolist practices price discrimination to extract maximum profit
 Monopolist can earn super normal profits even in long-run
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5.4.2 Equilibrium under Monopoly:

Just like perfect competition, there are two approaches through which equilibrium
position can be determined in monopoly. These are.
A. Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost Approach
B. Total Revenue and Total Cost Approach
A. Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost Approach
There are two conditions that needs to be fulfilled to achieve under monopoly.
(i) MR = MC (first-order condition)
(ii) MC curve must cut MR curve from below (second-order condition)
a. Short Run Equilibrium
A monopolist in short-run cannot change its fixed factors of production like, plant and
machineries and can increase its production by increasing variable factors only. In short-run,
three situations can occur for a monopolist. These are.
Super Normal Profits
A monopolist can earn super normal profits when the price charged is more than the
SAC. The equilibrium point is at E, where the MC curve cuts the MR curve from below
giving equilibrium quantity (OQ1). At this point the price charged is (AO) which is more than
SAC giving super normal profit equal to the area ABDC (fig 6.14).
Fig 5.14: Super normal Profits of a Monopolistic Firm
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Normal Profits
A monopolist will earn only normal profit when the price charged is just equals to the
SAC (i.e., AR = SAC). In fig 6.15, the equilibrium point is at E where, MC = MR and the
optimal output is OM and price is OP.
Fig 5.15: Normal Profits of a Monopolistic Firm

Minimum Losses
When the monopolist fixes the price below the variable cost, it incurs losses. In fig
6.16, the price is fixed at P1 which is equal to the SAVC, which means the monopolist is able
to cover only the average variable cost. Below this point the monopolist will discontinue
production call the shutdown point.
Fig 5.16: Loss of a Monopolistic Firm
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b. Long Run Equilibrium

The long-run equilibrium condition for a monopolist is same as the short-run that is at
point where the LMC curve cuts the MR curve from below (i.e., slope of LMC > slope of
MR). In fig 5.17, the equilibrium point is at E where the optimal output is OM, and the
equilibrium price is OP, and the monopolist earns maximum profit equivalent to the area
PJHP1.
Fig 5.17: Long-run Equilibrium under Monopoly (Marginal Cost-Marginal Revenue

Approach)
B. Total Revenue and Total Cost Approach
The equilibrium is reached at a point where the distance between TR and TC is
maximum. A monopolist uses trial and error method to fix different prices to find out the
optimal level of output that gives maximum profits. In fig. 6.18, the equilibrium is achieved
at point E, here the gap (AB) between TC and TR is maximum.
Fig 5.18: Long-run Equilibrium under Monopoly (Total Cost-Total Revenue Approach)
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5.4.3 Price Determination under Monopoly

Under monopoly the price is determine by single firm. Generally, monopolists use
trial and error method to fix the prices which gives maximum profit. Monopolist also
practices price discrimination in order to extract maximum revenue for their products.
5.4.4 Dynamic Changes under Monopoly:
This section explains the effects of dynamic changes happening in real life on the
monopolist's equilibrium. We will first start with shift in the market demand under monopoly
model.
A. A Shift in the Market Demand
In the previous section, we saw that an upward shift in the market demand curve
results in a new market equilibrium with a higher price and a lower output in the short run.
This may not be true in the case of a monopoly market. An upward shift in the market
demand in the short run will result in a new market equilibrium with larger quantity and price
may be higher, lower or constant.
In the fig. 6.19, first possibility is depicted where the price remains constant while the
quantity supplied increases in the new equilibrium position. As the demand curve shifts from
D1 to D2, the MR curve also shifts to MR2. Given the MC curve, the new equilibrium position
results in larger quantity supplied (from OX1 to OX2) at the same price P.
Fig 5.19: Impact of Shift in the Market Demand on Monopoly

This shift in the demand curve will result in higher revenue (OPBX 2 > OPAX 1) as
well as higher profits for the monopolist firm (fig 6.20). Since, the SATC curve is decreasing
over the range between X 1 and X 2, the profits will be higher for the monopolist in the newer
equilibrium position than the initial profits (PK’MB > PKCA).
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Fig 5.20: Impact of Shift in the Market Demand on Monopoly (A)

Now we will see the second possibility, where both the quantity and price increases in
the new equilibrium position. In the fig 6.21, the demand curve shifts from D1 to D2 shifting
the newer equilibrium position to the right. This shift increases both the price (P <P1) as well
as quantity supplied (OX1 < OX2).
Fig 5.21: Impact of Shift in the Market Demand on Monopoly (B)

Fig 5.22 depicts third possibility where the price falls while the quantity supplied
increases at the new equilibrium position. As the demand curve shifts upwards from D1 to D2,
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the equilibrium position shifts rightwards resulting increase in quantity supplied (OX1 <
OX2). However, the price falls from P1 to P2 due to this shift in the demand curve.
Fig 5.22: Impact of Shift in the Market Demand on Monopoly (C)

B. A Shift in the Costs due to Changes in Factor Prices
Just like purely competitive market model, the effects of a change in costs are same in
case of a monopoly market.
1. An increase in fixed costs
The short-run equilibrium position is not affected by an increase in the fixed costs of
the monopolist firm. This is because the demand curve of the firm is given and increase in
fixed cost does not affects his SMC. This situation is same as pure completion. In the long
run also the equilibrium of the monopolist firm will not be affected as long as the rise in fixed
costs are covered by the excess profits earned by the firm. However, if the rise in fixed costs
is large that it shifts the SATC above the market demand, the firm will not be able to cover its
total costs and have to shut down.
2. An increase in the variable costs
An increase in the variable cost shifts the MC curve upwards to the left. This
increases the price and quantity supplied falls. This consequence is same as pure competition
with only one difference, that is the changes in price and output is lesser in monopoly than
pure competition. This is because the monopolist equates his MC to his MR (and not to price)
while a purely competitive firm equates his MC to price.
Fig 5.23 depicts the effect of an increase in the variable cost in both monopoly and
pure competition market model. Here we assumed that the market demand and increase in
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variable cost is identical in both the market shifting the MC curves identically. Since, the
slope of the MR curve is steeper than the AR curve in the monopoly market than pure
completion with MR = AR = P. Consequently, an identical shift of the MC curves in both the
markets results in a larger fall in the quantity and larger rise in the prices of the firm under
pure competition as compared to monopoly.
Fig 5.23: Comparison between Pure Competition and Monopoly

C Effects of Imposition of Taxes:
Dynamic changes also involve the imposition of taxes on a monopolist firm. In this
section we will examine the impact of the taxes on the equilibrium of the monopolist firm.
1. Imposition of a lump-sum Tax
We have already seen that a monopolist can earn super normal profit even in long-
run. So, it is not necessary to distinguish between the short-run and the long-run in a
monopoly market model to see the impact of imposition of a lump-sum tax. A lump-sum tax
increases the total fixed cost of the firm and reduces the excess profit without affecting the
MC curve. This means that the equilibrium position will remain unaffected as long as the tax
is not exceeding the excess profits earned by the firm.
2. Imposition of a Profits Tax
The effects of imposition of profit tax on monopoly is same as lump-sum taxes. The
tax reduces the excess profits without affecting the equilibrium position of the firm. So, the
firm will remain in business as long as the tax imposed is lower than the normal profits
earned by the firm, and it is covering its total costs.
3. Imposition of a Specific Sales Tax
The effects of a specific tax are broadly the same in both the markets. An imposition
of the specific tax shifts the MC curve upwards changing the equilibrium position. In the new
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equilibrium position, the price is higher, and the output is smaller. The change in the price
may be lower, equal or higher than the specific tax, as in the case of pure competition.
If the MC curve is positively sloped as shown in the part I of the fig 6.24, the increase
in the price for a monopoly will be smaller than the specific tax, as compared to pure
competition.
Fig 5.24: Impact of Imposition of Specific Sales tax on Monopoly

If the MC curve is horizontally sloped, the price will rise in a lesser proportion to the
tax as compared to pure competition. The monopolist in this case will bear some portion of
the tax.
5.4.6 Multiplant Firm:
A monopolist may have multiple plants where he produces homogenous goods. In this
section, we have assumed that the monopolist has two plants with different cost structures. In
this case, the monopolist has to make two decisions. Firstly, how much quantity to produce in
total and at what price to sell it so as to maximise profit. Secondly, how to allocate the
production of the optimal (profit-maximising) quantity between the two plants. The
monopolist is aware of his market demand and the corresponding MR curve and the cost
structure of the different plants he owns. The total MC curve of the monopolist is computed
from the horizontal summation of the MC curves of the individual plants
MC = MC1 + MC2
The monopolist maximises his profit at point of intersection of the MC and the MR
curves and marginalistic rule (MC1 = MC2 = MR) will be applied to allocate the production
between the plants (fig 6.25). This implies that the monopolist will allocate the production to
each plant up to the level at which MC1 = MC2 = MR.
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Fig 5.25: Equilibrium under Multi-plant Monopoly

5.4.7 Bilateral Monopoly:
Bilateral monopoly is a market situation in which there is a single seller (monopolist),
and a single buyer (monopsonist) operates. For instance, if a single mining firm extracting all
the coal in a country and if only a single thermal power plant consuming the entire coal, this
results in a bilateral monopoly situation. In such market conditions demand and supply alone
cannot determine the equilibrium level. It is determined based on the bargaining power, skill
and other strategies of the firms.
Taking forward the above example of coal mining firm and thermal power producing
firm. Since, both the firm wants to maximise their profits, the equilibrium of the mining firm
will reach at the intersection of his MR and MC curves (fig 6.26). The mining firm would
maximise his profit at OX1 level of output selling at OP1 price.
Fig 5.26: Equilibrium under Bilateral Monopoly

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However, this cannot be the market equilibrium position because the mining firm is
dealing with a monopsonist firm which possess some power to affect the market price.
Hence, the mining firm cannot attain the profit-maximising position. The monopsonist firm
also interested in maximising his profit by putting some terms and conditions to the
agreement. Since, the upward sloping MC curve of the mining firm is the supply curve to the
thermal power producing firm which indicates that the monopsonist has to pay higher price as
he purchases higher quantity. This is the marginal expenditure for the monopsonist, and the
firm will maximise its profit at a point of intersection between demand curve DD and ME
curve at point e. Thus, he would like to buy OX2 quantity at a price P2.
We clearly see a situation of indeterminacy in the market where the seller is offering
its product at a price P1, and the buyer is willing to pay only P2. In such situation, both the
firms will start negotiations and will settle at somewhere between P1 and P2 depending on the
bargaining skill and power of the firms.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The demand curve of a firm under perfect competition is unitary elastic.
(True/False)
2. A firm under perfect competition is a ‘price-taker’ because:
A. the firm’s management doesn’t know what price to set.
B. the output of the firm is too small to influence the market price.
C. the firm is following a price leader
D. the firm produces less output to set a higher price.
3. A perfectly competitive firm will accept a ________ price and also produce
_________ quantity than a monopolist.
4. There is no unique supply curve under monopoly. (True/False).
5.5 PRICING STRATEGIES

Every economic activity involves pricing decisions. From house rent to consultant
fee, insurance premium or salesman commission. There involve some kind of pricing
decisions. Similarly, every business firms adopts a certain type of pricing strategies based on
the type of products being sold, type of market structure, season in which business is being
carried, quantity in which products are being sold, etc.
There are various other factors that affects the pricing strategies of a firm. These are.
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 Pricing objective: whether the firm is pursuing survival, maximum profit, maximum
market penetration, pricing leadership, etc.
 Demand of the product: whether the product is highly price sensitive, just like in the
case of perfect competition, or the product is price inelastic in case of highly essential
commodities.
 Cost of production: every firm wants to cover its production cost and some
proportion of profit from sale of their products. If the firms are not able to recover its
AVC, its shutdowns its business.
 Competitors pricing strategies generally seen in imperfect competition like
oligopoly, where there are only few firms are operating in the market. Here,
competitors pricing strategies affects the firms pricing decisions.
 Other factors: like government regulations, number of substitutes, product life cycle,
method of production, brand value, etc.
Based on these the pricing strategies are broadly classified into four major categories.
These are.
A. Cost Based Pricing Strategies: As the name suggests the major factor is the cost of
production that decides the firms’ pricing policy. There are various pricing strategies under
cost-based pricing.
(i) Full Cost/ Cost plus Pricing: Here, the prices are set just equal to the average cost,
also called ‘break-even’ pricing (no profit no loss). Or prices include some share of
mark-up/ margin of profit. It is generally used for pricing public utilities.
(ii) Incremental Cost Pricing: Similar to full cost pricing, but here average variable cost is
used as a yardstick in place of average cost.
(iii) Marginal Cost Pricing: Here, marginal cost is used to determine the prices of the
products.
(iv) Target Pricing: Similar to cost plus pricing but here the firm fixes the mark-up based
on certain targets that it wants to achieve.
B. Competition Based Pricing Strategies: The competitors pricing strategies becomes the
dominating factor in deciding the prices.
(i) Going rate Pricing: under this pricing method firms fixes the prices that are prevailing
in the industry.
(ii) Sealed Bid Pricing: Very common in cases where some kind of bidding is involved.
Here, the prospective companies give their bids in a sealed cover. The firms must
have to stick to their pricing quotes, or they may lose their contracts.
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C. Demand Based Pricing Strategies: The pricing decision is based on the demand of the
products.
(i) Dual Pricing: As the name suggests, here two prices are set. Certain fixed price is
applied to part of the product and remaining product is sold at prevailing market price.
Sugar prices in India is fixed based on dual pricing strategy.
(ii) Price Lining: Prices are fixed on the size, quality, quantity, colour, flavour, etc. of a
same product. For example, in case of garments size XXL may be priced higher than
the size S or M.
(iii) Cyclical Pricing: Every firm goes through some kind of cyclical fluctuation also
called trade cycle. The prices are fixed based on the phase in which firms are in. For
example, prices are high during prosperity phase and vice-versa.
D. Strategy Based Pricing: Different businesses adopts different strategies for their products
based on the nature of the product.
(i) Penetration Pricing: When the firm wants to capture larger market share for their
products, they go for this type of pricing strategies. Here, the prices are fixed at a
lower side to cover larger customer segment and after establishing the product
credibility in the minds of the consumers prices are increased to recover the losses.
(ii) Skimming Pricing: Just opposite to the Penetrative pricing, here the prices are fixed
on the higher side in the beginning to attract elite customer segment. Firms spends
huge sum on Research and Development of their products and wants to recover the
cost as soon as possible. When they believe that the product that they are offering are
innovative and have no close substitute they go for such pricing strategy. This type of
pricing is also used in case of a products having high brand value. For example, Apple
company fixes the prices of their products very high whenever they launch an updated
version of their I-phones.
5.6 MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

It is a type of an imperfectly competitive market with the characteristics of both the
perfect competition and monopoly. Here, the firms sell identical but slightly differentiated
products in terms of quality, looks, taste, flavours, brands, etc. for example, shampoo, soap,
washing powder, etc. The products are close but not the perfect substitutes. Each company is
therefore the sole owner of a particular brand or commodity.
 Large number of firms selling closely related goods
 Downward sloping demand curve
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 Products are not the perfect substitutes: differentiation is created in terms of quality,
colour, packaging, taste, etc.
 Firms are free to enter and exit from the market
 Firms have a degree of control over price
 High advertisement cost: Chamberlin introduced U-shaped selling cost curve.
 Excess capacity in the long run
5.6.2 Equilibrium of the Firm under Monopolistic Competition
Short-run Equilibrium
In the short run, each firm under monopolistic competition act as monopolists. As
new firms are not allowed to enter the market in the short run, they can earn supernormal
profits or may incur losses. The equilibrium condition for a firm in the short run is at a point
where SMC = MR. Fig 6.27 depicts the equilibrium position E, where the optimal output and
price are OQ and OP respectively, and the firm earns profit equivalent to the area BPAR.
Fig 5.27: Short-run Equilibrium for a Firm under Monopolistic Competition

Note that in the short run, a firm may earn only normal profit if SMC = MR < AR =
SAC occurs and may incur loss if SMC = MR < AR < SAC happens.
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Long-run Equilibrium
A firm under monopolistic competition act as perfectly competitive firm and earns
only normal profit in the long run. This is due to the fact that in the long run they are free to
enter and leave the market.
Fig 5.28: Long-run Equilibrium of a Firm under Monopolistic Competition
The long-run equilibrium condition for a firm is at a point where LMC cuts the MR
from below (Fig 5.28). The equilibrium level of output and price are OQM and OPM. Note
that the price under monopolistic competition is higher and the output is lower than the
perfectly competitive price and output PP and QP respectively.
5.6.3 Price Determination under Monopolistic Competition:
Each firm under monopolistic competition have a slight control over the prices as they
ignore the market price and sets its own prices. Since the products offered are not perfect
substitutes a firm may increase its prices up to a certain extent without losing its market
share. Firms in order to create a differentiation in the minds of customers for their products
from the competitors incur heavy advertisement expenditure resulting higher costs. The
prices are fixed at the point where the MC curve cuts the MR curve from below both in short-
run and long-run.
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Hindustan Unilever Limited: Leading the Monopolistic Competition in India

When it comes to Monopolistic Competition, the Indian Fast Moving Consumer Goods
(FMCG) sector is a perfect example. It consists of large number of domestic and foreign
players competing with each other. Hindustan Unilever Limited (HUL) is one of the
leading firms in the FMCG sector.
It is a subsidiary of a British-Dutch company Unilever, which controls more than 50%
shareholdings in HUL. HUL was formed in the year 1956 and currently have more than
35 brands spread across 20 different categories such as detergents, shampoos, soaps, skin
care, toothpastes, coffee, tea, ice creams etc. It covers 6.3 million retail outlets reaching
the entire urban population and 250 million rural consumers. The mission statement of
HUL is, “add vitality to life”.
SWOT analysis of HUL
Strengths
 Established target audience in every segment: premium, mid-priced and popular
 Largest company in FMCG sector with global presence
 Top position in soap and detergent market share
 Wide range of products
 Continuously innovates to meet the expectations of the market by adding value to
its existing products
Weakness
 Few popular products appealing to the mass has been kept in premium pricing
range, due to which people prefer cheaper products offered by the rival
companies.
Opportunities
 Rising demand of premium and mid-priced products in the rural areas
 Soap sector’s growth is expected at 7% p.a
Threats
 Rising competition from other emerging companies
 ITC’s sudden growth in the soap market
Conclusion
HUL’s continuous innovation and close study of consumer behaviour has helped them to
achieve a market leader position in this competitive market. One of the most important
success criteria for any company is to seize the right opportunity at the right moment and
make the most use of the available resources.
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5.7 OLIGOPOLY
Oligopoly comes from the combinations of two Greek words ‘oligo’ and ‘pole’ which
means ‘few’ and ‘merchants’ respectively. Hence, oligopoly is a market structure with few
companies selling identical or differentiated goods and services. Given firms are few in
number, competitive strategies depend on the move of other firms. Firms in this market
either compete with another firm or collaborate together to form a cartel. In either case they
have significant control over the prices and can earn supernormal profits in the long-run as
well unlike in perfect competition where they are price-takers. Few examples of oligopoly
market are Steel industry, Film, mobile phone, natural gas, etc. Given below are the key
characteristics of oligopoly for your reference.
 Few large sellers
 Goods can be identical or differentiated in nature
 Profit maximization: at point where MC equals MR
 Firms are price setters: They have a strong influence over prices
 Barriers in entry and exit
 Companies can earn super normal profits even in long-run
 Firms having complete knowledge of their own cost and demand functions.
 Kinked-demand curve: because firms follow price reduction by the competitors but
not the price rise.
 Non-price competition among firms
 High selling costs: advertisements, promotions, loyalty schemes, etc.
5.7.2 Price Rigidity:
Paul Sweezy is an American economist who argued that the pricing decisions under
oligopoly are guided by competitors’ actions rather than by cost or demand objectives. He
introduced the ‘Kinked Demand curve’ for an oligopolist firm, where a price reduction by the
firm is followed by its rivals but not the price rise.
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In the fig 5. 29, we can see that, the upper portion of the demand curve is more price
elastic than the lower part. It is due to the price-rigidity among firms. Also, note that the MR
curve is discontinuous in shape and the equilibrium condition is at a point where, MC = MR.
Fig 5.29: Kinked Demand Curve under Oligopoly

Hence, the above situation leads to a never ending ‘price war’. In order to overcome
this problem, oligopolists generally form a cartel. Let’s understand the situation of a cartel.
5.7.3 Collusive vs Non-collusive Oligopoly:
In this section we will observe two types of oligopoly models, collusive oligopoly and
non-collusive oligopoly models. Under collusive oligopoly firms get into an agreement to act
jointly and share the market among themselves. They generally do this by forming a cartel or
by following a leader in the market. Another type of oligopoly model lacks such collusion
and firms act independently without considering the actions of their rivals.
First, we will start from two non-collusive oligopoly models given by Cournot and
other by Bertrand.
A. Cournot’s Duopoly Model
French economist Augustin Cournot had developed the earliest duopoly model in
1838. Cournot explained his model with the example of two firms each owning a spring of
mineral water, which is produced at zero costs. Hence, the basic assumption of his model was
that the duopolists have identical products and identical costs. The market demand curve is
downward sloping straight line, and both the firms assume that its rival will not change its
output. From the fig. 6.30, let’s assume that firm A starts producing and selling mineral
water. It will produce quantity A (where MC = MR), at price P where profits are at a
maximum. At point A, the elasticity of market demand is equal to unity and the total revenue
of the firm is highest. Since the firms are producing at zero costs, highest revenue implies
highest profits.
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Now the second firm B will assume that the firm A will keep its output fixed at OA
and considers its own demand curve is CD’. The firm B will produce the half the quantity
that has not been supplied by the first firms. With its output at AB, firm B will earn
maximum profit.
Fig 5.30: Cournot’s Duopoly Model

In the next period, firm A will assume that firm B will keep its output at AB will
produce half the quantity that has not been supplied by firm B. Since firm B is only
producing one-quarter of the total market demand, firm A will produce ½(1-¼) = 3/8 of the
total market demand.
Firm B will again produce one-half of the unsupplied portion of the market demand ½
(1-3/8) = 5/16. And again, this action-reaction pattern will continue in the next period by both
the firms until they both reach to an equilibrium. Each firm will eventually produce only one-
third of the total market demand and together they will supply only two-third of total market
demand. Both the firms will display a naïve behaviour of never learning from their past
experience of their competitors. Even though they manage to maximise their individual
profits, but industry profits are not maximised.
The firms would be better-off if they recognised their interdependence (open
collusion) and would have earned higher joint profits. Under the situation of open collusion,
they would have acted as monopolists by producing only one-half (¼+ ¼ = ½) of the total
market demand at price P and sharing profits equally.
If there would have three firms in the industry, each firm produce one-quarter of the
total market demand and together they will supply only ¾ of the total market demand.
Cournot model can be extended to n number of firms where each firm will produce 1/(n+1) of
the total market demand and together they will cover n/(n+1) of the total market demand.
Hence, the Cournot solution leads to stable equilibrium, where the market price is
lower than monopoly price but higher than pure competition and quantity supplied is higher
than monopoly but lower than pure competition. As the number of firms increases in the
industry, the price and quantity supplied will reach to pure competition level. Several
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unrealistic assumptions lead to the criticism of this model for example, the naïve behaviour of
firms, constant production of output by each firm, n number of adjustment periods and zero-
cost production.
Cournot equilibrium can also be determined with the help of reaction-curve approach
which is based on Stackelberg’s indifference-curve analysis. Under reaction-curve approach
we relax the assumption of identical costs and identical demands and uses iso-profit curves of
the rivals. An iso-profit curve for firm A is the locus points of different levels of output of
firm A and firm B, which gives firm A the same level of profit. Fig 6.31 depicts the reaction-
curves of both the firms along with the iso-profit maps.
Fig 5.31: Reaction Curves of Firm A and Firm B

Cournot's equilibrium is reached at the intersection of the two reaction curves (fig
6.32). At the equilibrium level each firm will maximises its profits, but the industry profits do
not maximise.
Fig 5.32: Equilibrium under Cournot’s Duopoly Model

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B. Bertrand’s Duopoly Model

Bertrand gave his duopoly model in 1883 which differs from Cournot's model. Here,
each firm assumes that the rivals will keep its price constant, irrespective of its own decision
about pricing.
This model uses convex shaped iso-profit curves and reaction curves to explain the
behaviour of rival firms (fig 6.33). An iso-profit curve for a firm gives the same level of
profit which would earn by the firm from various levels of prices charged by this firm and its
rival. The lower the isoprofit curve, the lower the level of profits for the firm because for any
price charged by firm B there will be a unique price of firm A which maximises its profit.
This unique profit-maximising price is determined at the lowest point on the highest
attainable isoprofit curve of A.
Fig 5.33: Reaction Curves of Firm A and Firm B
The Bertrand's model leads to a stable equilibrium, determined at a point of

intersection of the two reaction curves (fig 6.34). This point however does not result in joint
(industry) profit maximisation because of the naïve behaviour of the firms of not learning
from the past and assuming that their competitor will keep its price unchanged.
Fig 5.34: Equilibrium under Bertrand’s Duopoly Model

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C. Collusive Oligopoly
The uncertainty arising from interdependence in an oligopolistic model can be
avoided by entering into collusive agreements. Such collusion is mainly of two types, cartels
and price leadership.
1. Cartels
Cartels is a direct agreement among the rival firms to reduce the uncertainty arising
from their mutual interdependence. Firms generally join cartels to maximise their joint
profits. Taking example of a pure oligopoly model where firms selling homogenous goods.
These firm forms a cartel and appoint a central agency that decides total quantity to be
offered at what price along with allocation of production and sharing ratio of profits among
members.
The central agency has access to the production costs of each firm and by their
horizontal summation the MC curve for the industry is derived. The central agency act as a
multiplant monopolist and fix a price at the intersection of the industry MR and MC curves.
Fig 6.35 shows that total production is OX, and it is sold at a price P. The central agency
allocates the output and distributes the profits among two firms.
Fig 5.35: Impact of forming a Cartel

2. Price Leadership Model
Under oligopoly, firms generally form an imperfect collusion, where they follow one
leader. Price leadership could be of various forms; a) Low-cost Price Leadership, b)
Dominant Price Leadership and c) Barometric Price Leadership.
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a) Low-cost Price Leadership: Under this, a low-cost firm would charge a lower price and
this price is followed by other firms in the market. This may not be a profit-maximizing
situation for the followers but is a necessary step to avoid a price war between the firms
where the one with lowest price will easily win.
b) Dominant Price leadership: As the name suggests, under this model the dominant firm
(one with largest market share) act as a monopolist and fixes the prices at a point where his
MC = MR. This situation leads to a profit maximization for the leader but on the other hand,
the followers act as price-takers and supply the remaining share in the market at a prevailing
price.
c) Barometric Price Leadership: It is a formally/informally agreed market situation where
all the firms follow the prices set by a barometric (leader) firm. This leader firm may not have
the largest market share or lowest curve but have a good market knowledge and can better
forecast the market demands. It is interesting to note that a firm from other industry could be
chosen as the barometric leader. For instance, a firm in the semi-conductor industry may be
selected as a barometric leader for price changes in the Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) hardware industry like laptops, desktops, mobiles, etc.
5.7.4 Game Theory:
Traditional economic theories cannot answer the complexities and uncertainties of
oligopolistic market. Here, interdependence of firms and rivals’ reactions decides the suitable
strategies to be adopted by firms. Even the collusive models, limit-pricing models,
managerial models, and behavioural models, cannot explain the decision-making process of
oligopolist firms.
‘Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour’, published in 1944 by Von Neumann's
and Morgenstern provided a different approach to the study of the oligopoly market. At
present times, economists are using high-speed computers to conduct experiments to predict
oligopolistic behaviours based on game theory.
Firms generally uses various tools and instruments to achieve their desired goals.
These instruments could by production, pricing, costing, marketing, R&D, etc. also called
strategies. A strategy is a specific course of action with clearly defined objectives to achieve
specific aim. For example, a strategy could be setting a price below market price, selling
products using different channels, producing goods of better quality or at minimum price.
To each of these strategies the rival firms may react in different ways, that is, by
adopting different strategies. They may follow the same or different strategies adopted by the
first firm. Thus, different options available to each competing firm and they adopt the one
with maximum advantage. Hence, the payoff of a strategy is the 'net gain' it will give to the
firm considering the counterstrategy of the rivals. This payoff is measured in terms of the
objectives of the firm. For instance, if the aim of the firm is to earn maximum profits, then
the payoffs of a strategy will be measured in terms of profit levels that it gives. Therefore, for
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every strategy and counterstrategy there is a payoff associated. All this can be depicted in a
form of a payoff matrix.
In the table 6.2, we have assumed two firms where firm I can choose five strategies
(A1……A5) and firm II can react by using any one of six counterstrategies (B1…. B6). It
should be noted that the counterstrategies of the competitive firm are probable but not certain.
Thus, a total of 5 x 6 = 30 payoffs are possible (G11 ……. G56).
Table 5.2: Payoff Matrix
The Prisoner's Dilemma

A prisoner's dilemma is a situation that explains the behaviour of firms that are uncertain
about their rivals' action. It goes like, two suspects are arrested on the charge of bank robbery.
However, the evidence is not adequate enough to put them behind the bars unless one or both
suspects confess. Each suspect is interrogated in isolation from his mate so that no
communication is possible between them. The District Attorney promises no punishment for
the suspect who confesses and a heavy sentence of twenty years' imprisonment for the other
party. If both suspects do not confess, both will go free. If both confess, they will get the
sentence prescribed by the law for the crime of robbery, for example ten years' imprisonment.
Thus, each suspect has two 'strategies' open to himself, to confess or not to confess, and is
faced with the dilemma: to confess (and go free if the other does not confess or get the ten-
year sentence) or not to confess (and go free if the other does not confess or get the heavy
twenty-year sentence if he is betrayed by the other suspect).
The payoff matrix of the two prisoners is shown in table 6.3. Given the lack of
communication between the suspects and the uncertainty as to the 'loyalty' of the other
prisoner, each one of them prefers to adopt the second strategy, that is, to confess, so that
both get a ten-year sentence.
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Table 5.3: Payoff Matrix of Prisoner’s Dilemma
Clearly this is a worse situation as compared with the adoption of the 'no confession'
strategy by both robbers. The 'dominant' strategy, which implies the rule 'expect the worst
from the other’ leads to a worse position than the robbers need be in. If communication were
possible, or if from past experience the fellows had learned to trust each other, they would
both plead 'not guilty' and had gone free, thus maximising their 'gains'. This is the prisoner’s
dilemma which leads to a suboptimal solution for the competing firms.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. The basic difference between monopolistic competition and monopoly is the
barrier to entry. (True/False)
6. Cartels are very common in ____________ market structure.
7. Which of the following is the feature of monopolistic competition?
A. Product differentiation
B. Large number of sellers
C. Huge selling costs
D. All of the Above
8. Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an example of?
A. Monopolistic Competition
B. Cartel
C. Perfect Competition
D. Non-collusive Oligopoly
9. A Prisoner’s Dilemma explains the behaviour of firms operating under
A. Monopolistic Competition
B. Cartel
C. Monopoly
D. Oligopoly
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5.8 SUMMARY
We see different types of market structures that in real life. Some are specialized in a
particular goods, some offers products at uniform prices, and some have very limited number
of sellers and so on. In economics, we divide these markets into perfect competition,
imperfect competition and monopoly. In this chapter we have analysed each of these market
structures and defined them along with that determined their equilibrium conditions and
pricing strategies.
While companies in the short run in any market structure can earn super normal
profits. However, the level of competition and freedom of entry decides the long-run profits.
We studied that on the one hand, firms under perfect competition are price-takers and earns
normal profits, and on the other hand a monopolist using its monopoly power sets its prices to
earn super normal profits even in the long-run. We also saw how a monopolist firm segregate
its customers and practices price discrimination to extract entire consumer surplus.
Similarly, under monopolistic competition and oligopoly firms which are closer to
real world market uses different promotional tools to differentiate their products from the
competitors.
In the absence of collusion among oligopolist firms, the monopoly solution (i.e., the
point at which the joint industry profit is maximised) is hard to achieve. Generally, cartels are
formed either to maximise the industry profits or to share the market output. And lastly, the
Game theory approach is a useful tool to generalise the decision-making process of oligopoly
market in a controlled environment.
5.9 GLOSSARY
Bilateral Monopoly: a market situation where a single seller (monopolist) and a single buyer
(monopsonist) operates.
Consumer Surplus: It is “the difference between the maximum amount of money that the
consumers are willing to pay and the amount they actually pay”.
Collusion: It is an agreement between firms to share market output and profits. It is generally
seen in oligopolistic markets.
Firms: Individual unit selling products or services.
Game theory: It is a tool developed to generalise the oligopolistic market behaviour.
Industry: Group of firms selling identical products.
Marginal Revenue: is the addition to the total revenue by selling one additional unit of
output.
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Price Discrimination: Charging different prices to different customers for identical

products.
Total Revenue: Total amount of money/income received by the company from the sale of a
certain quantity of goods and services.
1. False 6. Oligopoly
2. B. 7. D All of the Above
3. Lower, Higher 8. B. Cartel
4. True 9. D. Oligopoly
5. True

1. Define market structure? Differentiate between perfect competition and monopolistic
competition.
2. Explain with the help of a diagram how a monopolist firm can earn super normal
profits even in the long run.
3. What is price discrimination? Why firms choose to practice price discrimination?
4. Absence of a unique supply curve is a unique feature of a monopoly market. Discuss
with the help of a diagram.
5. “Under monopolistic competition too many firms each producing too little.”
Comment.
6. What are the different types of pricing strategies adopted by firms?
7. What is Prisoner’s Dilemma? Why it leads to sub-optimal solution?
5.12 REFERENCES
Chamberlin, E. H. (1933). Theory of Monopolistic Competition. Harvard University Press.
Kotler, P. (2012). Kotler on marketing. Simon and Schuster.
Lipsey, R., & Chrystal, A. (2011). Economics. Oxford University Press.
Robinson, Joan (1961). The Economics of Imperfect Competition. Macmillan, London.
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Koutsoyiannis, A. (1975). Modern microeconomics. Springer.
Mankiw, N. G. (2021). Principles of Microeconomics 9e. Cengage Learning Asia Pte
Limited.
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LESSON 6
OLIGOPOLY
Subhash Manda
Assistant Professor
subhash.manda@rajguru.du.ac.in
University
Email Id
STRUCTURE
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Oligopoly
6.3.1 Meaning
6.3.2 Features of Oligopoly
6.4 Oligopoly Models
6.4.1 Cournot
6.4.2 Bertrand
6.4.3 Sweezy kinked demand
6.5 Game Theory
6.6 Summary
6.8 References

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
 Describe the oligopolistic market structure and characteristics.
 Identify those factors which are responsible for creating oligopolistic industries.
 Learn that there is a small group of dominating companies, strategic interaction is
important because one company’s sales are affected by what its rivals do.
 Understand oligopolistic models that explain the price and output determination in
oligopolistic market structure.
 Describe the cooperative and non-cooperative behaviour of oligopolistic firms.
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6.2 INTRODUCTION
Till now, we have learnt about different types of market structures, in which we have
discussed perfect competition, monopoly, and monopolistic competition, and their pricing
decisions and output decisions. Here we are going to learn about oligopoly market structure
in which we are trying to understand how oligopolistic firms take decisions regarding price
and output.
In this chapter, we are going to examine oligopoly market structure and begin
discussing the meaning, features and sources of oligopoly. Later on, we will examine
different models of oligopoly, like the Cournot model and the Bertrand model. An
oligopolistic market is one market structure where there are few sellers of a homogeneous or
differentiated product. All these few sellers are so interdependent that the actions of one
seller can have a large impact on the profits of all other sellers. This chapter's objective is to
examine how this interdependence affects the behaviour of the sellers or companies.
Whenever you are planning to buy a two-wheeler (petrol), it is likely that you will come
home with one of four companies' brands: Hero, TVS, Honda, or Bajaj. These four
companies manufacture nearly all the two-wheelers sold in India. Together, these companies
produce all the units of two-wheelers and given the market demand curve, the price at which
two-wheelers are sold. The two-wheeler market does not fit either the perfect competition,
monopolistic, or monopoly market structures. The extreme forms of market structure are
perfect competition and monopoly. We all know that perfect competition occurs when there
are many companies selling identical products, and a monopoly occurs when there is only
one seller who is going to sell the product in the entire market. When we talk about
monopolistic competition, there are a large number of sellers that are selling the same
category of products, but there is a slight difference in terms of price, quality, and promotion.
So, which market category would you put the two-wheeler market in (because there are few
sellers)? We can also take other industries like cement (Ultra tech, Birla, ACC, Ambuja),
steel (Tata Steel, Jindal Steel, JSW), and airlines (Air India, Indigo, AirAsia India, Vistara).
All these are examples of an oligopoly market structure. Oligopoly is the most interesting of
all the market structures. Although it is one of the most realistic market structure kinds, it is
also the most challenging to characterise as a theory. But when it comes to the application
part of it, or when it comes to the implementation of this form of market, it is generally the
most realistic as compared to any other kind of market structure like perfect competition,
monopoly, or monopolistic.
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6.3 OLIGOPOLY
6.3.1 Meaning:
Basically, word oligopoly derives from the Greek word’s oligo, which means few,
and polo, which means to sell. It follows that an oligopoly market is one where there are few
sellers. So, to put it simply, an oligopoly is a market with few sellers; either they produce a
differentiated product or a homogeneous product while constantly being aware of their
competitors' behaviour.
From the above definition, we can say that there are just a few dominating sellers, and
they are completely aware of their rivals' actions. This, in my opinion, is the most important
characteristic of an oligopoly. This means that regardless of whether they produce
differentiated products or homogeneous products, they always make a decision on price and
output based on how their competitors will react to those decisions. In an oligopoly market
structure, the firms depend on each other because they think about how their competitors will
react when they are making decisions. Due to this, there is intense competition, in which rival
companies spend a lot of money on advertising and promotions (such as discounts and cash
back incentives). This leads to pricing rigidity, in which a single price prevails in the market,
much like in a situation of perfect competition. However, the price is controlled by a
dominating company rather than by market forces.
The conclusion is that in an oligopolistic market structure dominated by a few
companies, in which they are selling differentiated products or homogeneous products, under
the continuous awareness or consciousness of rivals' actions.
Who is dominate company or firm in Oligopoly?
A dominating company is a company that has a large market share compared to rival
companies. This company is going to take decisions regarding the price of the product.
These dominating companies get this dominance power because of their efficiency in
production and large market share. And their rivals are going to follow their decisions.
In fact, in real life, you have seen these things on a daily basis, like Amul and Mother
Dairy, two dominating companies in dairy products (especially in Delhi NCR). Amul is
the first company that is going to increase the price, then Mother Dairy and other
companies will also increase their product prices. The same thing will be observed in
the telecom industry, where first Jio will raise the prices of various plans, followed by
other companies such as Airtel and VI (Vodafone -Idea Ltd.)
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6.3.2 Features of Oligopoly:

Characteristics of oligopolistic market structure are:
1. Few dominant sellers-
As we all know, in an oligopoly market structure, there are a few larger sellers who
dominate the market, although the word "few" is confusing and does not identify a
specific player count. But, when we see in the real world, a few large companies are
doing business and competing with each other, we call it an oligopoly market
structure.
In India, there are a lot of industries where we will find oligopoly market structure.
Like in the two-wheeler(petrol) industry, where we can count the number of
companies that are selling two-wheelers, Honda, Hero, Bajaj, and TVS are a few
leading companies in this industry. As well, we can also easily count the number of
players in the automobile industry (a few leading affordable car manufacturers are
Maruti, Hyundai, Honda, Mahindra, and Toyota). In both of these industries, each and
every company tries to differentiate their cars from those of their rival companies on
the basis of colour, shape, AI features, and other features, and we see these things on
our TV or phone through promotional videos or advertisements.
2. Products-
We have already established that in an oligopoly, firms sell either differentiated or
homogeneous (identical) products. When we talk about differentiated products, we
always think about the automobile, two-wheeler, and beverage industries (Pepsi and
Coke), the electronics appliance industry, and in these industries, companies are
continuously trying to differentiate their products from their rivals. On the other hand,
there are a lot of industries where companies are selling homogenous or identical
products, and in general, you would not be able to notice the difference in those
products. In real life, we are able to notice the difference between these products on
the basis of their company names or brands. Examples of these industries include
aluminium, gold, steel, and petroleum
3. Mutual inter-dependence
The oligopolistic firm is aware of its dependency and always takes the competitors'
response into account when determining prices, output targets, advertising
expenditures, and other business policies. Thus, as we discuss the interdependence of
firms, it is important to note that these firms are aware of this interdependence and
constantly take the competitors' reactions into account when setting their prices,
determining their output, allocating their advertising budget, and discussing their
policies and strategies. They do this by always keeping in mind how the competitors
will respond.
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4. Collusive and non-collusive oligopoly-

We can divide the oligopoly market into two categories: collusive and non-collusive.
Collusive oligopoly refers to a situation in which all of the firms or companies are
cooperating with each other rather than competing with one another. Therefore, there
is no competition, and in this case, the group dynamics or group behaviour is that
everyone colludes to maximise profit. This situation is known as a "collusive
oligopoly." Furthermore, we can divide collusive oligopoly into two categories:
oligopoly
Collusive oligopoly Non-Collusive oligopoly
cartel tacit collusion
Let's take the example of OPEC (Oil and Petroleum Exporting Countries),
which is a perfect example of an explicit collusive oligopoly (also known as cartels).
I hope you have heard about OPEC somewhere. Basically, it's an international group
or cartel of oil exporting or supplying countries. Under this cartel, they have publicly
decided to charge a single price for the product all over the world.
Now let's talk about another form of collusion oligopoly, which is tacit
collusion. Here we will see that there is no formal contract between the companies,
though indirectly they agree to sell products in separate markets or fix a uniform
price. An example could be the telecom industry in this situation if we keep other
things constant. Here you will see three different companies are selling the same
price plan for prepared users. It means they are selling identical products, but at the
same time, each and every company is providing some extra benefits, and that creates
a difference in the consumer's mind. Another thing you will notice here is that there is
no price competition among companies.
Airtel Jio Vi
Price Rs 479 Rs 479 Rs 479
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Data 1.5GB/day 1.5GB/day 1.5GB/day

Validity 56 days 56 days 56 days
Calls Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited
Benefits Three months Apollo 24|7 Jio apps suite Vi Movies and TV
Circle, Rs 100 cashback on premium
FASTag, Free Hellotunes,
Wynk Music Free
On the other hand, when we talk about a non-collusive oligopoly, it occurs

when there is competition among the oligopolistic firms. In this case, the firms are
still interdependent, but they are not colluding; instead, they are competing with one
another.
5. Barriers to entry-
Even though there is no legal barrier in an oligopolistic market like in a monopoly
market, there are still some things that can affect your decision to enter into an
oligopolistic market structure. These are:
There is a huge amount of money need for investment. So, if anybody wants to get
into the market, they need to arrange a lot of money to establish their business in an
oligopolistic market because they have to compete with their products and their
prices. So, it's quite difficult for individual people to arrange this amount of money.
And ultimately, it creates a barrier to entry. For example, if you want to set up a
cement factory, power plant, steel factory, or automobile factory, then you will need a
lot of money.
Strong consumer loyalty to the existing brands can be another barrier. Like, there
are many firms, but only a few firms have the most market share. This is because
customers are very loyal to those few companies. When customers are very loyal to
existing brands, it can be hard for new companies to get into the market and compete.
Another barrier can be economies of scale, as we all know that in an oligopolistic
market, only a few large sellers dominate the market. Existing sellers have already
achieved economies of scale. So, when you try to enter the market or operate in the
market, you have to compete with them with a high cost of production. This creates
an entry barrier for you (the new entrant), because you know that if you enter that
market, you will have to compete with a high cost of production.
Mergers can also create barriers in oligopolistic markets. A merger is the coming
together of two or more businesses into one. This is how we can reduce competition
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in the market. It led to the establishment of oligopolistic companies. The main reasons
for mergers are getting more market power; getting access to more resources; getting
economies of scale; and growing the market, among other things.
Sometimes, an oligopolistic market can also be created by legal restrictions,
licenses, or bidding processes, as you have seen in the Indian power sector, where
there are a few companies that have exclusive rights to produce and distribute
electricity and a few other industries, like the telecom industry through bidding for
spectrum and the coal mining industry through bidding for coal mines, and this
exclusivity is provided by the government through licenses, bidding, etc.
Causes or Reasons due to which oligopolistic market structures exist

 Huge amount of money need for investment
 Strong consumer loyalty to the existing brands
 Economies of scale
 Mergers
 Legal restrictions, licenses or bidding processes
6. Non-price competition-
In general, oligopoly firms avoid price wars because doing so will only benefit
consumers, not the firms. Instead of competing on price, they use other methods to
increase sales, such as aggressive advertising, product bundling, influencing the
consumer's perception of value, branding, and offering better service packages, which
are typically ways to increase sales rather than engaging in price competition.
Why don't companies engage in price competition in an oligopolistic market
structure?
Let's get the answer to this question through a diagram. Suppose there are two
companies in the market, P and Q. Both companies are selling or producing
homogeneous products. If we assume that the price is initially Price1. Q will always
believe that if I lower the price, I'll gain a sizable market share, and because they are
dependent on each other, since Q has lowered the price, P has lowered the price and
increased its market share. Q will now use that plan (as used by P by lowering prices)
and lower its prices to try to get a bigger share of the market. Now, again what will be
the reaction of P, knowing that Q has already reduced the price to get the market
share, also P will reduce again, and reduce the price in order to get the market share,
what will be the reaction of Q; P has already reduced again to gain the market share,
Q will also reduce, this will continue again this will continued by Q; this is the price2
now, at this point, the firms P and Q will feel that, if they are going beyond this, it is
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no longer profitable for them (If they go beyond this price2, then it will be beneficial
for the consumer, not for companies or producers).
Price price1
P price2 Q
Market share of P Market share of Q

Because of this, they won't compete on price alone or get into price wars.
Instead, they'll use other tactics, such as aggressive advertising, product bundling,
influencing the consumer's perception of value, branding, and better service packages.
6.4 OLIGOPOLY MODELS

Now we will talk about oligopoly models. First, we will discuss the Cournot model
and then the Paul Sweezy model, and both of these models we will explain by using the
duopoly. because it is quite easy when we make the assumption that there are only two
companies. If we take five, six, or a few companies, then it becomes difficult to explain price
and output determination in an oligopolistic market.
Oligopoly does not have fixed prices or output like other market structures. Due to
firm interdependence, market uncertainty is a constant. It is challenging to determine the
equilibrium pricing and output for oligopolistic companies in the market. An oligopolist
cannot presume that, if it changes the price or output, its rivals won't alter their prices and/or
output. Suppose one company is going to change the price, and other companies will also
follow the price shift, which will change the demand circumstances of the company. As a
result, unlike in other markets, the demand curve for any firm is not fixed. Therefore, it is
challenging to estimate the equilibrium price and output in the absence of a stable demand
(average revenue) curve. But economists have made some price-output models to help them
figure out how oligopolistic businesses work. So, let's discuss these models.
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What is duopoly?
It’s a form of oligopoly in which there are only two sellers or producers in the market.
There is no difference between oligopoly and duopoly except the number of players in
the market. For example, in the beverage industry, Coca-Cola and Pepsi, and India’s
telecom industry to some extent, you can consider it a duopoly if two companies
sustain in the market, either Jio and Airtel or Airtel and Vi or Vi and Jio.
6.4.1 Cournot Model:
6.4.1 Cournot Duopoly Model:
This model was developed by a French economist, Augustin Cournot, in 1838. This
model shows us that interdependence exists among oligopolistic firms.
This model is based on the following assumptions:
1. There are only two firms (P and Q) that are selling identical products, i.e., spring
water.
2. It is assumed that there are no production costs because the customers bring their own
containers to the springs.
3. One behavioural assumption is that each firm, while trying to maximise total profits,
assumes that the other firm will hold its output constant at the existing level.
4. Companies are not permitted to form cartels.
Suppose there are two firms, P and Q. Now we will try to figure out how firm P's
output decision is impacted when firm Q enters the market. As a result, the profitability of
firm P depends on how much it estimates the production level of firm Q.
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ddP- It's basically firm P’s demand curve, and right now, we can see that firm Q is producing
zero units, so that's why firm P's demand curve and the market demand curve are both the
same (ddp=D).
MC- There is no marginal cost; the MC curve coincides with the horizontal axis.
MRP – The marginal revenue curve, which corresponds to the D demand curve.
Point E- It is the point where firm P is earning a maximum profit because the MR curve and
MC are both equal at this point, and it is Firm P's equilibrium point (MR = MC). At present,
the firm P is producing 1,000 units.
dd1P- Here you can see the diagram, Firm P is assuming that firm Q will produce 1000 units,
so firm P cuts down on their production by 1000 units. And this is how firm P’s demand
curve shifts leftward.
MR1P- The marginal revenue curve, which corresponds to the dd1P demand curve.
Eq1- It is Firm P's equilibrium point (MR1P = MC). At present, the firm P is producing 500
units.
dd2P- You can see the diagram, Firm P is assuming that firm Q will produce 1500 units, so
firm P cuts down on their production by 1500 units. And this is how firm P’s demand curve
shifts leftward.
MR2P- The marginal revenue curve, which corresponds to the dd2P demand curve.
Eq2- It is Firm P's equilibrium point (MR2P = MC). At present, the firm P is producing 250
units.
Now let's take the extreme point where firm Q will produce 2000 units and firm P will
produce nothing.
What we have seen so far in this model is that firm P's production is decreasing as
firm Q's production is increasing. To define this relationship, we need one curve. That curve
is the reaction curve. It shows us the relationship between a firm's profit-maximising
level of output and the amount it assumes its rival firm will produce. If we want to draw
P's reaction curve from the above diagram, assuming that Q’s output level is 0 units, at that
time P’s profit-maximizing level output will be 1000 units. Further, assuming that Q’s output
level is 1000 units, at that time P’s profit-maximizing level output will be 500 units. If we
assume that Q’s output level is 1500 units, then at P’s profit-maximizing level, output will be
at 250 units. Finally, if we assume Q's output is 2000 units, at the time P's profit maximising
level output would be zero units. If we put all these points on a diagram, we call it firm P’s
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reaction curve PP’. Put all these combinations in tabular form so that it will be quite easy for
us to understand this firm P's reaction curve.
Assuming firm Q’s output Firm P’s Profit maximising level output
0 unit 1000 units
1000 units 500 units
1500 units 250 units
2000 units 0 unit
In a similar way, we can also obtain firm Q's reaction curve while assuming that the marginal
cost of firm P and the marginal cost of firm Q are the same.
Cournot Equilibrium-
The intersection of two reaction curves can be seen in this diagram at point E. At point E,
each company is producing at the output level that, given what the competitor is producing,
maximises its profit. Basically, Cournot equilibrium is a Nash equilibrium, which means that
in an equilibrium situation, each firm is doing as best it can give the actions of its rivals. Each
company chooses its own output under Cournot's equilibrium in order to maximise its profit
in view of what its rival company is producing.
Limitations of Cournot model-
1st – Cournot's duopoly is naive because he never learns from his mistakes. This shows that
his rival is aware of his own sales decisions.
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2nd - One of the first criticisms of Cournot's model was that it didn't take into account a firm's
desire to cut its price and increase sales.
3rd – This is a closed model – does not allow entry.
6.4.2 Bertrand Duopoly Model:
French mathematician Joseph Bertrand proposed a counter-question to the Cournot
model in 1883. Joseph Bertrand asked if the oligopolistic competition is based on price
charged rather than quantity produced. His proposition became the Bertrand model. Again, in
this model, we will consider only two firms, i.e., a duopoly.
If the duopoly company follows Bertrand's theory, it thinks that if it slightly lowers its
price (compared to other prices), it can get the whole market. The duopolist wants to increase
its sales as long as the price is higher than the marginal cost. This is because every extra unit
sold adds to its operating profits. The other company does the same thing, and a price war
starts. The process of cutting prices to win the market continues as long as the price is higher
than the firm's marginal cost at its current sales. Let's understand this model by making a
diagram.
The initial price P is more than firm A's and firm B's marginal costs. As a result, there
is intense price competition, which leads to ongoing price reductions. For example, when
MCR and MCS both equal P1, the output level has reached a point where it is higher than both
market demand and sales. As a result, there will be fewer sales than expected. It is likely that
the marginal costs of either R or S or both will be less than P1 when sales are at a level that is
lower than the desired level. They now have an incentive to increase their sales by lowering
their prices even further. As a result, the price battle will continue until a competitive price
point is achieved.
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The market’s demand corresponds with the combined supply of the two companies at
the competitive price, and the marginal costs of both companies are equivalent to the market
price. The price that can be considered competitive is denoted by the symbol P C. Given this
price, R supplies the g portion of the market, while S supplies the remaining portion, i.e., h.
On the other hand, Bertrand's model does not ensure that equilibrium will be reached at a
competitive price. If the price drops below pc, it is possible that it will stay there despite the
fact that there is an excess of demand. This is due to the fact that whoever raises the price in
response to excessive demand will have a part of the market taken away from them.
The Bertrand’s model can be criticised on the same grounds as the Cournot model-
1st – The behavioural pattern emerging from Bertrand’s assumption is naïve: firms
never learn from past experience.
2nd- Each firm maximizes its own profit, but the industry profit is not maximised.
3rd – This is a closed model – does not allow entry.
6.4.3 Sweezy Kinked Demand Model:
According to the sweezy kinked demand model, each and every company in an
oligopolistic market doesn't want to involve themselves in price war situation. That's why,
instead of a price war, they focus on other non-price competitive strategies like advertising,
sales promotion, and product differentiation. This is how they try to expand their market and
compete with rivals. As a result, in an oligopolistic market, price will remain stable or rigid.
So now we will discuss behavioural assumptions that explain why prices will remain stable or
rigid in an oligopolistic market.
The first one is that if one company reduces its price, other companies will also
reduce their price of the product. The reason is very simple: in an oligopolistic market,
products are very similar to each other (close substitutes), so other companies would worry
that the first or former company would get a large market share. Because of this, the company
that lowered its prices in the beginning doesn't get the benefit it was hoping for, and its
demand curve is very elastic. A price cut will give the company some initial gains, but
because competitors will do the same thing, this increase in demand will not last.
The next behavioural assumption is that if one company increases its price, other
companies will either not follow this strategy or not increase their price of the product. The
reason is very simple: in an oligopolistic market, products are very similar to each other
(close substitutes), so in this case, other companies would not increase their price of the
product, so the first or former company would lose a large number of its customers to other
companies or rivals due to the substitution effect. Because of this, in an oligopolistic market,
company has no other choice but to keep its pricing at the current market price.
Now let's discuss the diagram. If you see this diagram, you will notice that there is a
kink in the diagram at point K, and it divides the demand curve into two parts. When you
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observe this, you will see that DD1 to K is more elastic, and K to DD2 is a less elastic demand
curve. To put it another way, the demand curve above the kink is more elastic than the
demand curve below the kink (below the kink demand curve is less elastic). MP denotes the
current market price at which an oligopolistic firm can sell a product, and OQ denotes the
total quantity. If we see that DD1 to K is more elastic because if any company is going to
increase the price, i.e., if anyone sells a product above the market price, then other companies
will not respond. When we talk about K to DD2, why is it less elastic?
If an oligopolistic company reduces its price, then other companies will also respond
in the same manner (they will also reduce the price). The kink or discontinuity in the demand
curve creates a discontinuity in the MR curve as well. The reason for this discontinuity in the
MR curve between points P and Q is the discontinuity in the demand curve at point K. In this
diagram, the MR curve DD1PQR, so now DD1P is in correspondence with DD1K's demand
curve and QR's marginal revenue curve is in correspondence with KDD2.
At point K, the marginal revenue of any firm in an oligopolistic market will be

constant between points P and Q, so the company will produce a certain quantity of output,
i.e., OQ, irrespective of marginal cost, whether they are operating at MC, MC1, or MC2
because profit maximising quantity is OQ. It means we can say that if the marginal cost
fluctuates between MC and MC2, then the company will not change its output nor price.
Companies will change their output or price when marginal costs move above P or below Q.
Limitations of this model-
The model explains why prices in oligopolies remain constant. However, it falls short
of outlining how the industry-wide pricing was initially set. Although the concept explains
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why oligopolists are reluctant to alter their pricing, it offers no explanation for how the initial
price was established. It doesn't explain how businesses arrived at the starting pricing or why
they didn't set a different price.
Instead of being an explanation, it is more valuable as a description of pricing rigidity.
Price rigidity can be explained by the prisoner's dilemma and businesses' aim to prevent
harmful price competition.
Second, the model's predictions have not been supported by empirical study. Due to
this, the analysis provided by Sweezy's model has come under scrutiny. Numerous studies
have demonstrated that oligopoly enterprises frequently replicate one another's price
increases during an inflationary time. This goes directly contrary to what this model assumes.
6.5 GAME THEORY

As we've seen, oligopolistic businesses want monopolistic results, but to get there, they have
to work together, which can be hard to do at times. In this section, we go into more detail
about the problems people face when they want to work together but find it hard to do so. In
order to study the economics of cooperation, we need to learn about game theory.
So here comes game theory to figure out how this kind of strategic behaviour works. So,
game theory is a method that is often used to analyse this kind of strategic interaction or
behaviour. It looks at how people make choices when they know that their actions affect
each other and when they take this into account. So, when one firm makes a decision,
they know that it will affect not only their own firm but also the other firms. So, in this
case, game theory looks at how each firm acts when they know that their actions affect
not only their own company but also the other companies in the market. So, it is a
mathematical tool that is often used to study the situation or behaviour of a strategy. As we
all know, in an oligopolistic market, there are few sellers in the market, so each seller has to
act strategically. Every company knows that their profit depends not only on how much they
produce but also on how much is produced by other companies. As a result, in an oligopoly,
each company should think about how their decision will affect others.
What is strategic behaviour or decision?

"Strategic behaviour" is when what is best for A depends on what B does, and what is
best for B depends on what A does. So, strategic behaviour is when the end output or
profit price output decision or the strategy of one firm doesn't depend on its own price
and output decision or strategy decision. Rather, it depends on the other company's
strategy and how they are going to make decisions regarding price and output.
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Why do we discuss game theory only in an oligopolistic context and not in other
market structures?
The first point to mention is that game theory is not important for competitive markets or
monopoly market structure. When we look at the perfect competitive market, all firms are
just part of the whole market. They are insignificant, which means they can't impact the
price and output of the market or other firms in the market. It doesn't matter whether they
are cooperating or not with other firms in the market. And when we see a monopoly,
strategic interactions are absent because there is only one firm. But in an oligopoly
market, it is very useful for understanding the behaviour of oligopolistic firms.
Prisoners’ Dilemma-
The Prisoners' Dilemma emphasizes the value of cooperation. The two participants in the
game have two options: cooperate or defect. The concept is that both players benefit when
they cooperate, but if only one of them does, the other player, who defects, will benefit more.
If both parties cheat or defects, then both lose (or win very little), but not as much as the
cheated or deceived co-operator, whose cooperation is not returned. If both parties cheat, then
both parties lose.
So now let's discuss this prisoner's dilemma through an interesting story. The story begins
like this: The two suspects (Mr. P and Mr. Q) in an armed robbery have been arrested. They
are brought into prison and soon separated. The police believe they have sufficient evidence
to convict Mr. P and Mr. Q of armed robbery, which would result in each of them serving a
sentence of two years in prison. They were instantly separated, and there is no information or
communication between them. The police also believe these two guys are responsible for a
bank robbery in which a victim was seriously hurt. But until one or both of the suspects admit
to the robbery, the evidence isn't strong enough to prove that they did it. Separate
interrogation rooms are set up for Mr. P and Mr. Q, and the police make each of them the
following offer:
1st – If you both confess to a crime, your imprisonment will be for 7 years.
2nd – If one of you confesses to a crime, the other remains silent. In this case, the one who
confesses will get 1 year in jail, whereas the other will get 25 years in jail.
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3rd- We have sufficient evidence against both of you for armed robbery, for which you will
get 2 years of imprisonment.
Now we are going to make a payoff matrix table in which there are two players, Mr. P and
Mr. Q, and imprisonment years are the payoff or outcome. And each individual has two
strategies: confession or remaining silent. As we already discussed in the introduction of
game theory, here's the sentence of imprisonment each prisoner gets depending on their own
strategy and the strategy chosen by the other person. One more interesting point is that here,
neither player has any information regarding which strategy will be chosen by the other
player.
If we think from Q's perspective, he will think like this: if I confess and the other (P) remains
silent, I will get one year of imprisonment. Another thing is that the other person(P)
confesses. Still, my best strategy is to confess because I will get 7 years of imprisonment
rather than 25 years. So, regardless of what the other person (P) is going to do, my best
strategy is to confess. This is called dominating strategy in game theory. And confessing is
also a dominant strategy for Mr. P. Finally, both of the players will confess and get 7 years of
imprisonment.
What is Dominant strategy?

A strategy that is best for a particular player in a game, regardless of the strategies
chosen by the other players.
Oligopolies as a Prisoners’ Dilemma –

The prisoner's dilemma model in game theory is a good way to understand how to act
strategically in an oligopolistic market. When companies in an oligopoly depend on each
other, it's like when two people play the prisoner's dilemma game and run into trouble.
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Oligopolistic firms also choose their strategies when they are uncertain of how their
competitors will react.
Suppose there are only two companies in the market (P Ltd. and Q Ltd.), and both are
supplying water, so we can consider them to belong to a duopoly market. Following lengthy
negotiations, the two water suppliers agree to maintain production at 60 gallons in order to
maintain their high prices and maximise their combined profit. However, after they reach an
agreement on production levels, each of them must choose whether to work together and
stick to this agreement or to rebel against it and produce at a higher level. Let's make a
diagram in which we will try to show how the strategies used by the two producers affect
how much money they make.
Let's say you are P Ltd. You can think like this: As we had agreed, I could continue
producing at the current level of 60 gallons, or I could increase it and sell 80 gallons. If Q
Ltd. honours the deal and maintains her output at 60 gallons, I will make Rupees 4,000 with
high output and Rupees 3,600 with low output. In this instance, increased productivity is
preferable for me. In the event that Q Ltd. breaks the terms of the deal and produces 80
gallons, I will earn Rupees 3,200 for high output and Rupees 3,000 for low production. Once
again, high productivity is better for me. Therefore, I am better off breaking our agreement
and producing at a high level regardless of what Q Ltd. decides to do. For P Ltd., producing
40 gallons is a key strategy. Naturally, Q Ltd. comes to the same conclusion, and as a result,
both of them produce the greater amount of 80 gallons. The end result is an inferior outcome
(from P Ltd. and Q Ltd. perspectives), with little profit for each of the two producers. This
illustration shows why oligopolies struggle to sustain monopoly profits.
6.6 SUMMARY
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The oligopolistic market structure dominated by a few companies, in which they are
selling differentiated products or homogeneous products, under the continuous awareness or
consciousness of rivals' actions. Oligopolistic market characteristics are few dominant sellers;
products (differentiated or homogeneous); collusive and non-collusive oligopoly; mutual
interdependence; barriers to entry; non-price competition. The causes or reasons for the
existence of an oligopoly market structure are a huge amount of money required; strong
consumer loyalty to the existing brands; economies of scale; merger and legal restrictions;
licences or bidding processes.
In an oligopoly, we cannot determine price and output like we do in other forms of
market structure. Because in the oligopoly market, each and every company is dependent on
another, the price and output of one firm are affected by other firms in the market. There is no
general theory of oligopoly to determine price and output.
We have the Cournot model and the Bertrand model, which state that a firm can
maximise its profit assuming that a rival firm will hold its output constant. And in game
theory, when companies in an oligopoly depend on each other, it's like when two people play
the prisoner's dilemma game and run into trouble. Oligopolistic firms also choose their
strategies when they are uncertain of how their competitors will react.

Q1. What exactly is the prisoners' dilemma, and how does it relate to the concept of an
oligopolistic market?
Q2. Can we apply game theory to explain the behaviour of firms in perfect competition or
monopoly or monopolistic competition? Give logic to support your answer.
Q3. What is the distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly in relation to other forms of
market structure?
Q4. In which sector of the Indian economy is oligopoly most prevalent? why?
6.8 REFERENCES
1. Mankiw (2006), principles of Microeconomics, Cengage Learning, 4th edition (India
edition), chapter no. 16.
2. Salvatore, Rastogi, Managerial Economics: Principles and worldwide applications,
Oxford Publication, 8th edition, chapter no. 10.
3. Geetika, Ghosh, Choudhary (2018), Managerial economics, McGraw Hill, 3rd edition,
chapter no. 13.
4. Dr. Deepashree, Microeconomics, chapter no. 11.
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5. https://www.microeconomicsnotes.com/
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LESSON 7
MARKET FAILURE
Dr. Rajeev Kumar Upadhyay
Assistant Professor
Sri Aurobindo College (Evening)
University of Delhi
rajeevupadhyay@live.in
STRUCTURE

7.2 Introduction
7.3 Market Failure
7.3.1 Types of Market Failure
7.3.2 Causes of Market Failure
7.3.3 Externalities
7.3.4 Public Goods
7.3.5 Market Control
7.3.6 Asymmetric Information
7.3.7 Consequence of Market Failure
7.3.8 Remedies of Market Failure
7.4 Conclusion
7.5 Summary
7.8 References

This chapter aims to impart the following learning objectives:
L1: Introduction to cycle of economic activities.
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L2: Introduction to the concept of market failure and types of market failure.
L3: Introduction to causes of market failure.
L4: Introduction to consequences of market failure.
L5: Introduction to remedies of market failure.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
Economies witness simultaneous interplays of innumerable factors and stakeholders. This
simultaneous interplay of innumerable factors and stakeholders in the economic system
makes the economy a very complex system and a design to completely understand the actual
impacts of complex and cyclical economic activities and respond to. Moreover, the whole
economic system is arranged in a systematic hierarchy of horizontal and vertical structures. It
includes the governments, regulators, consumers, producers, global inter-governmental
organizations and specialists (think tanks)/lobbyists (interest groups) as the main
stakeholders. These stakeholders of the economy altogether act and react to create demand
and supply in any economic system while the market itself tries to bring the economic system
in equilibrium.
Product
Market
Financial
Households
Institution Firms
Factors
Market
In any economic system, there are millions of buyers, consumers, sellers, producers and other
commercial and non-commercial institutions along with many regulators. The flows of
economic activities are circular in nature. The economic activities undertaken by any
stakeholder have direct or indirect impact on that stakeholder as well as the economic
activities too. Because of the presence of a large number of stakeholders interacting
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simultaneously, the whole economic system and the impacts of the economic activities on the
stakeholders as well as the economic activities become very complex. These impacts are of
varying degrees and directions further increasing the complexities.
CASE STUDY
The Impact of Economic Activities in Circular Ways
Let’s take the example of interaction between a car buyer and a car
manufacturing company ABC Cars. In a car, there are thousands of small and big spare
parts which have to be assembled together to make a car. Normally a car manufacturer
doesn’t manufacture every part. Rather the car manufacturer sources those spare parts
from hundreds of other suppliers. Those suppliers may also be sourcing some of their
raw materials and spare parts from other suppliers. So, in this process many layers of
buyers and suppliers are involved. Similarly, ABC Cars sources spare parts and
equipment from hundreds of companies.
If a consumer buys a car from ABC Cars, the money that is paid by the buyer would go
in the hands of a large number of stakeholders in varying amounts who have directly or
indirectly contributed to the manufacturing of the car along with sales of the car.
However, the buyer is working for one of the suppliers of automotive microchips for
ABC Cars. This creates a very complex cycle of economic activities in which every
stakeholder plays a very important role and any disturbance with any of the stakeholders
in any ways would lead to a lot of problems for almost every stakeholder in the cycle.
Due to the Coronavirus pandemic, ABC Cars had to face shortage of automotive
microchips. As a result, the cost of microchips increased significantly leading to
increased car prices. This has adversely impacted ABC Cars as well as the automobile
industry as a whole. The adverse impact of automotive microchips was not limited to
only the ABC Cars and automobile industry but the whole economy also along with the
consumers and buyers.
In the economic decision sphere, the government has three fundamental functions such as
macroeconomic, microeconomic and distributive. This chapter focuses on the microeconomic
function of the government. In the context of the microeconomic functions, the government
has two main roles: (1) to regulate the private market by defining and enforcing rules and
intervening in case of market failures, and (2) to provide some certain goods and services
which are not or cannot be provided by the private market.
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Private markets can function efficiently only in an economic environment which is based on a
well-defined rule of law promulgated by the government, enforced by the police and courts.
A well-defined property right is the key instrument for the private market to function. It
should be noted that the nature of the property rights as well as the ethos of property rights
keep on changing over time along with the scope of the property rights. In India the right to
property was a fundamental right but after the 44 Constitution Amendment in 1978, the right
th
to property ceased to be a fundamental right however it still continues to be a constitutional

legal right.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Fill in the blanks.
16. Economic activities are ……………. in nature.

(a) Straight (b) Closed (c) Circular (d) Open
17. A well-regulated ……… is necessary for the private market to flourish.
(a) Economic System (b) Country (c) Government (d) Bank
18. Well-defined ………… are not the key instrument for the private market to
function.
(a) Fundamental Rights (b) Property Rights (c) Economic Rights
(d) Private Rights
7.3 MARKET FAILURE

It is a general assumption that the markets are capable of optimally allocating resources in an
economy. However, this is not always true. In certain circumstances, markets fail to
optimally allocate resources leading to inefficient economic outcomes for some. Every
stakeholder takes the most rational and correct decision in self-interest, but those decisions
together prove to be wrong as a whole in which a few stakeholders or individuals are left
worse-off than if they had not acted perfectly in rational self-interest.
Market failure refers to a situation in which the free market fails to efficiently distribute the
goods and services as a result of misallocation of scarce resources. In other words, there
exists a market distortion in form of difference in the quantities of goods and services
demanded and supplied and as a result, the true costs of the goods and services are not
reflected in the prices of the goods and services. Market failure does not imply that the
market is not working at all. Rather it means that the market is not functioning efficiently and
unable to produce the goods and services which are wanted by the consumers.
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In a typical free market economy, the prices of goods and services are determined by the
forces of demand and supply. Any change in the one force results in the price change and
corresponding change in the price of the other force. These changes lead to price equilibrium.
However, in a situation of misallocation of resources and resultant inefficient distribution of
the goods and services, a state of disequilibrium in the market comes into force and it is
known as the market failure.
Air pollution is caused by many economic activities undertaken by individuals and businesses
in an economy. These economic activities are undertaken by individuals and businesses in
their respective rational self-interest. However, this air pollution proves to be very costly for
the whole economy and society and millions of people across the globe are left worse-off
while the users and producers don’t pay any cost. A report by Lancet Commission on
Pollution and Health found that in 2019, 1.6 million people in India and nine million people
across the globe died due to air pollution. This is a classic example of market failure in which
the economic decisions of a group of individuals and businesses in rational self-interest are
resulting in inefficient economic outcomes for the economy and millions of people left
worse-off (died).
7.3.1 Types of Market Failures
Market failures can be categorized into two categories as follow:
Complete Market Failure
Complete market failure is a situation in the market in which there is no supply of some
specific goods and services at all even though there is some demand for those goods and
services. These goods and services can be public goods as well as profitable goods both. For
example, in late 1980s and early 1990s, India was in a state of complete market failure as far
as the mobile telecom services were concerned. It was a time when the mobile telecom
services in developed countries were becoming very popular and the rich of India also wanted
to use mobile telecom services but there was no supply at all. However, there is often very
little likelihood that profitable goods or services are not supplied at all in the market even
after some demand. Complete market failure is often an ideal situation in today’s modern
economic world. Possibly there are no goods and services which are not being supplied if
there is some demand for.
Partial Market Failure
Partial market failure is a situation in the market in which the market is functional, but the
supply of the goods and services are either inadequate in quantity or prices disproportional.
Basically, when the market for the particular goods or service is in its initial stage, it is
natural that there exists some form of partial market failure. This is a very common
phenomenon and most of the goods and services at one point of time in their life cycle have
to face such market failures. For example, the mobile telecom services in late 1990s in India
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were experiencing a state of partial market failure as the supply of mobile telecom services
were very limited and prices were disproportional.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
4. Market failure is
(a). Government Failure (b). Economic Failure (c). Constitutional Failure
(d). Free Market Failure to Efficiently Distribute Goods and Services
5. The types of market failure are
(a). Complete Market Failure (b). Partial Market Failure (c). Ambiguous
Market Failure (d). a & b both
6. Partial market failure is very common in case of new products markets during
(a). Introduction Phase (b). Growth Phase (c). Decline Phase (d). Stable Phase
7.3.2 Causes of Market Failure

There are several reasons due to which market failure occurs in the market. A few of those
reasons are as below:
Externalities
In economics, externality or the external cost refers to the indirect cost or benefit to an
involved third party who is not associated with the transaction. In other words, an externality
is the costs or benefits that result from a transaction and has impact on a third party who is
not associated with the transaction but has to be affected with the benefit or cost. Air
pollution caused by motor vehicles is an example of externalities. The cost of air pollution
caused by motor vehicles in an economy is neither paid by the users nor producers while the
society and the economy have to suffer from the air pollution as a whole and millions of
people become sick and die every year from the air pollution.
Types of Externalities
The impacts of externalities can be positive or negative. So, externalities are categorized as
positive externality and negative externality.
Positive Externality
A positive externality is an externality that impacts the third party positively. In positive
externality, the un-associated third party is benefited from transactions of other parties.
Education, motor insurance, green technologies and advertising about the welfare schemes
are some examples of the positive externalities.
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Sarva Siksha Abhiyan is a centrally sponsored scheme which is implemented across India
with the help of the state governments with the purpose to provide quality education to every
child. It is an example of positive externality. Access to quality public education to every
child directly educates the children but the benefits of the quality education to every child
spill over to the whole society and economy in the form of more informed citizens and
employable youth for the economy.
Negative Externality
A negative externality is an externality that impacts the third party negatively. In case of
negative externalities, the negative effects of a transaction are borne by the un-associated
third party. Cigarette smoking, air pollution, water pollution and noise are some examples of
the negative externalities.
Smoking of cigarettes is primarily harmful to the smoker. However, the negative impact of
cigarette smoking is not limited only to the smoker but the people around the smoker also
experience negative health impacts even though they don’t smoke. Here smoking is a
negative externality and the people around the smoker are the third parties who pay the cost
of being around the smoker. The cost of non-smokers being around the smoker does not
reflect in the prices of cigarettes and neither the producers nor the smokers bear the costs of
the third parties. This is a market failure.
Public Goods
Public goods are goods or services whose consumption or use by an individual does not
reduce the available quantity of goods or services to other individuals along with no impact
on prices of goods or services. Public goods are consumed or used by a large number of the
population and the prices of those public goods don’t increase even if the numbers of
consumers or users increases. Market failure occurs in case of public goods as the non-payers
keep consuming or using the goods. This problem is also known as the free rider problem.
The public goods can be allocated to everyone efficiently without any change in the price or
even at no cost. The public goods are accessible and available to everyone, and none can be
excluded from the access to the public goods. Even the non-payers have access to the public
goods. So basically, the public goods are non-rivalrous as well as non-excludable in nature.
The typical laws of demands and demands along with state of equilibrium don’t apply to the
public goods. Public goods create a situation of market failure if a section of consumers or
users keep on consuming or using the public goods without paying for it in the same ways as
the payer does. Police services, national defence, toll-free roads and highways are some
examples of public goods.
People keep on using the services of police without paying for the services irrespective of
whether they pay taxes to the government or not. Even if the service providers of police want
to exclude the non-payers from enjoying the services of police, it wouldn’t be possible and
non-payers would keep enjoying services as every citizen is entitled to enjoy these services.
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Same is true in the case of national defence, toll-free roads and highways. Every citizen uses
the toll-free roads and highways as per their needs without limiting the availability of these
services to other citizens.
Market Control
Market control is a situation in which either the buyer or seller has the power to determine the
prices of goods or services in the market. Because of this power to determine the prices of
goods or services, forces of demand and supply don’t apply in the market. Rather either the
buyer or the seller decides the prices of the goods and services. This situation of market
control leads to market distortion and inefficient distribution of goods and services and as
result, there occurs market failure in the market.
Market control can happen either from the supply side or from the demand side.
Market Failure Caused by Supply Side
In a market, market failure can be caused by the supply side. In a market where the sellers
control the prices of goods and services, they cause market distortion leading to market
failure. It is possible either in the case of a monopoly or oligopoly. A monopoly is a market
condition in the market in which there is one large seller along with many small sellers. An
oligopoly is a market condition in which there are a few large sellers along with many small
sellers.
Monopoly
In a monopoly, there is a single large seller in the market and the monopolist decides the
prices of the goods and services and the rest of the sellers in the market follow the
monopolist. To maximize profits, the monopolist may set the prices of goods and services
higher than what should be the prices of goods and services in a state of equilibrium. Apart
from the price decision, the monopolist can control the quantity of goods and services in the
market to create artificial scarcity to justify the increase in the prices. In such cases, the
natural forces of demand and supply fail to work, and a situation of market distortion occurs
that leads to market failure.
Oligopoly
In the case of oligopoly, the large sellers may collude to decide the prices of goods and
services with their profitability objectives and as a result prices of goods and services in the
market might be set higher than the state of equilibrium. Apart from the price decision, the
sellers in an oligopoly can collude to control the quantity to create an artificial scarcity of
goods and services to justify the increases in prices. In such cases, the natural forces of
demand and supply fail to work, and a situation of market distortion occurs that leads to
market failure.
Market Failure Caused by Demand Side
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In a market, market failure can also be caused by the demand side. In a market where the
buyers control the prices of goods and services, they cause market distortion leading to
market failure. It is possible either in the case of monopsony or oligopsony. Monopsony is a
market condition in which there is one large buyer along with many small buyers.
Oligopsony is a market condition in which there are a few large buyers along with many
small buyers.
Monopsony
In a monopsony, there is a single large buyer in the market and the monopsonist decides the
prices of the goods and services and the sellers in the market follow the monopsonist. To
maximize profits, the monopsonist may set the prices of goods and services lower than in a
state of equilibrium. In such cases, the natural forces of demand and supply fail to work, and
a situation of market distortion occurs that leads to market failure.
Oligopsony
In the case of oligopsony, the large buyers may collude to decide the prices of goods and
services with their profitability objectives and as a result price of goods and services in the
market might be set lower than the state of equilibrium. In such cases, the natural forces of
demand and supply fail to work, and a situation of market distortion occurs that leads to
market failure.
Asymmetric Information
In modern times, information is one of the most important pillars of businesses and lack of
information or information not in time can prove fatal to businesses as well as individuals.
Information asymmetry is a situation in which all the market players don’t have access to the
same information at the same time and as a result, their responses to the same events during
the same time span is different.
Market failure may occur due to asymmetric information available in the market. Due to
asymmetric information available to buyers and sellers, the responses of the buyers and
sellers in the market would not be rational. As a result, the prices of goods and services
would not follow the laws of demand and supply and the prices would not reflect all the
benefits or costs associated with the goods and services. In such circumstances, neither the
distribution of goods and services would be efficient, nor would the allocation of resources be
optimal. As a result, the economic output would not be efficient and market failure would
occur.
The lack of information or asymmetric information has different impacts on the buyers and
sellers. Lack of information about the actual benefits of the goods services on the buyer's side
may result in the willingness of the buyer to pay a higher price. This would lead to market
distortion as the laws of demand and supply would not apply. Similarly, the lack of
information on the seller’s side may result in the sellers’ selling goods and services at lower
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prices than the actual opportunity cost of the goods and services. This would again lead to
market distortion. As a result, in such a situation, there occurs market failure in the market.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
7. Externalities affect the

(a). First Party (b). Third Party (c). Second Party (d). Forth Party
8. Costs or benefits of externalities are reflected in the price of the
(a). Water (b). Education (c). Burger (d). Goods and Services
9. A situation of asymmetric information causes
(a). Government Failure (b). Economic Failure (c). Market Failure (d). Legal
Failure
7.3.3 Consequences of Market Failures

There are several consequences of market failures in an economy. The consequences of
market failures for any economy may vary from time to time and in magnitude and can be
felt over different time durations. In some cases, the consequences might be felt for a short
term with very low magnitude while in some cases; the consequences of market failure can
be felt in the long term with very high costs for the economy and the market. The
consequences of market failures are always grave for the economy in the general and the
affected group in particular. The cost of market failure is not just limited to the economy and
the affected groups, but it is self-inflicting also. In the long term, market failures, mainly
caused by monopolies, tend to harm the monopolies too.
It is not an easy task to map all the possible consequences of market failures. However, some
of the consequences of market failures are as follow:
Market Dominance by Monopolies
The market failure caused by monopolies in the market has an overreaching impact on the
markets. As a result of monopolies, the monopolists may affect the market from two sides,
i.e., the price side as well as the quantity side. It is quite possible that the monopolist may
charge higher prices for the goods and services than the associated benefits. Similarly, the
monopolist may create a situation of artificial scarcity of goods and services through under-
production. These conditions would have a negative impact on consumer welfare and the
interest of the consumers would be compromised as a result. However, in the long term,
market failures are self-inflicting for the monopolies too. BSNL, MTNL and VSNL are some
examples of market dominance by monopolies.
Factor Immobility
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Factor immobility refers to a situation in which the factors of production like capital and
labour are challenging to move between the various geography of an economy. Market
failures in the market often lead to a situation of factor immobility which results in increased
unemployment due to under-production and loss of productive efficiency in the market.
Geographical immobility is an example of factor immobility. Due to the high cost of living,
rent and other related expenses, it becomes unaffordable for people to move from one area to
another area. Another example of factor immobility is occupational immobility. Due to a lack
of skills or experience, it is difficult to move between different jobs.
Rising Inequality
In case of market failures, the market can cause a situation in which the distribution of
income is less unequal, and the income and wealth may concentrate in a few hands. As a
result of market failure, poverty in the economy may increase leading to more complex
problems in the economy such as malnourishment, lack of healthcare services, increasing gap
in the education level of the citizens and discrimination in different contexts.
Super-normal Profits
Another consequence of market failure is super-normal profits earned by the monopolist or
the firms in an oligopoly. This super-normal profit not only distorts the market but directly
impacts the consumers in form of high prices also as well as it becomes an instrument for
killing the competition in the market as well as unchecked and possibly unethical practices.
Lack of competition may result in underdeveloped markets and no incentives for new
inventions and processes as well as innovations. In today’s modern times when new
technologies, innovations, new knowledge, and processes are keys for economic growth, the
super-normal profits earned by the monopolist may lead to status-quo in the market and as a
result, the market may be left behind the developments taking place in the new world order.
In the telecom sector in India, before mobile communication took off in the late 1990s,
BSNL, MTNL and VSNL were the monopolies for voice and data services in India, but India
couldn’t catch up with the rest of the world as far as the technology was concerned. Not only
the technology but the telecom services were not accessible to most of the citizens and were
considered to be luxury.
Undersupply of Public Goods
Normally public goods are not economically profitable for businesses. So, these public goods
are often not on the lists of the profit and rent seeking businesses. However, these public
goods are very important for any economy for economic growth and development along with
the businesses in that particular market as well. As a result, there may be an undersupply of
public goods if there is no government intervention.
Pollution
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Pollution is another result of market failure. When the polluting industries and goods and
services that emit or increase pollution levels remain unchecked in an economy and the cost
of the pollution is not priced in those goods and services, the social and economic cost is
huge and very often unmanageable. The Lancet report clearly indicates that in 2019, 2.6
million individuals and more than 9 million individuals died due to air pollution and pollution
respectively in India alone.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
10 Undersupply of public goods is a consequence of

(a). Market Failure (b). Economic Failure (c). Government Failure (d).
Individual Failure
11 Which is not a consequence of the market failure?
(a). Flood (b). Immobility Factor (c). Super Normal Profits (d). Rising
Inequality
12 Which is an example of consequences of market failure?
(a). Smoking (b). Cars (c). Pollution (d). Rain
7.3.4 Remedies of Market Failures

It is very important for economies to eliminate failures. In order to eliminate market failures,
there are many remedies that can be implemented. Those are as follows:
Use of Legislation
Legislations are one of the tools that are used by the government to correct market failures.
Most legislation aimed at correcting market failures focuses on changing the behaviours of
the stakeholders. For this purpose, the government uses redistributive or punitive taxation to
reinforce the desired behaviour in individuals and businesses. Imposing high penalties on
vehicles without pollution certificates or banning cars with a life of more than 15 years in
some cities in India is an example of the use of legislation to correct market failures. These
punitive taxation or measures are aimed at bringing change in the behaviours of the citizens
and businesses.
Price Mechanism
Price mechanisms are some policy responses from the government designed to change the
behaviours of the producers as well as the consumers both with one single tool. With the help
of a price mechanism, the government aims to either discourage or encourage a habit. The
products that cause harm to consumers, the government increases the taxes on them with the
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purpose to decrease consumption by creating a barrier in the form of high prices. For
example, the government imposes very high taxes on cigarettes and alcohol to decrease the
consumption of these products to bring down the negative impact on third parties. The
products that are good for consumers or the ecosystem, the government provides subsidies or
decreases the taxes to reinforce a particular habit. For example, the government is providing
subsidies on electric vehicles so that people use electric vehicles more so that pollution can
be checked.
Price Floor and Price Ceiling
The government uses the strategy of the price floor and price ceiling to support a particular
group of industries or consumers to make their life better. By doing so the government
ensures that the interests of consumers or the producers are protected. The government uses
the strategy of price floor to ensure that a particular set of producers gets the minimum price
for their products. The minimum Support Price (MSP) for agriculture products in India is an
example of a price floor. Under the MSP, the farmers are entitled to sell their agricultural
products at MSP so that their financial well-being is taken care-off. The government uses the
strategy of a price ceiling to ensure that the prices of particular sets of goods and services
don’t breach the desired levels. The sale of grains using the Public Distribution System (PDS)
in India is an example of a price ceiling. The government of India sells different grains at
zero price or subsidized rates with a price ceiling with the purpose to provide food to
everyone in the country.
Advertising
Advertising can prove to be an important tool in the hands of governments and regulators in
dealing with market failures. An advertising campaign can discourage consumers from
consuming and using those goods and services that generate negative externalities. For
example, the advertising campaign against child labour is such an effort by the government to
make people aware about the harms of child labour in the society.
7.4 ECONOMICS OF INFORMATION

Markets operate in a very complex environment in which large numbers of buyers and sellers
interact with each other simultaneously. When many buyers or sellers are chasing the same
goods or customers, information becomes very vital and important for the businesses and
buyers. It is capable of changing the whole game. As a result, information economics or
economics of information has evolved over time as a branch of microeconomics.
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Information economics is formally related to game theory. The access to the information as
well as time taken in accessing the information is the most important factor in information
economics. Considering different games, access to the information may be perfect, complete
and incomplete with different results due to these pieces of information. Time lags in
accessing the information are another important aspect of information economics which
affects the results of the games.
Adverse Selection
Adverse selection is a situation in which the market participants have different levels of
information access and as a result, the choices of the market participants lead to one party
having an advantage over the other party. The adverse selection process may lead to market
failure and consequently market collapse. Basically, it is related to information asymmetry.
One the most famous and classical examples of adverse selection is illustrated by George
Akerlof in ‘The Market for Lemons’.
Moral Hazard
A moral Hazard is a situation in which an economic actor has an opportunity to get an
incentive by increasing its exposure to risk. This risk can be unusual, and the economic actor
does have to bear the cost of the increased risk. For example, a real estate management
company decides to not incur any additional cost to maintain the old but insured building and
allows an adverse situation so that it collapses. In such cases, the real estate management
company would have an incentive in allowing the collapse of the building.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
13 Adverse selection may lead to

(a). Market Failure (b). Economic Failure (c). Government Failure (d). Legal
Failure
14 Which is not an example of remedies of the market failure?
(a). Advertising (b). Legislation (c). Minimum Support Price (d). Rising
Inequality
15 One of the classical examples of adverse selection by George Akerlof is
(a). Market for Car (b). Education (c). Pollution (d). Market for Lemon
7.4 CONCLUSION
Markets always don’t lead to efficiency. In case of market failure, the economic outcomes are
inefficient, and the allocation of resources is not optimal. As a result, market failure leads to
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underproduction, inefficient skilling of labour, high unemployment, and income inequalities.

In such situations, government intervention can correct market failures leading to better
market conditions with lower negative externalities.
7.5 SUMMARY
 The flows of economic activities are circular in nature.

 India is a mixed economy with a private market in which buyers and sellers exchange
goods and services for money or other goods and services.
 In certain circumstances, markets fail to optimally allocate resources leading to inefficient
economic outcomes. Every stakeholder takes the most rational and correct decision in
self-interest for themselves, but those decisions together prove to be wrong as a whole in
which a few stakeholders or individuals are left worse off than if they had not acted
perfectly in rational self-interest.
 Market failure refers to a situation in which the free market fails to efficiently distribute
goods and services as a result of the misallocation of scarce resources.
 In a typical free market economy, the prices of goods and services are determined by the
forces of demand and supply.
 Market failures can be categorized as complete market failure and partial market failure.
 There are several reasons why market failure occurs in the market such as externalities,
public goods, market control and asymmetric information.
 There are several consequences of market failures in an economy such as market
dominance by monopolies, factor immobility, rising inequality, super-normal profits,
undersupply of public goods and pollution etc.
 There are many remedies that can be implemented to correct market failures such as the
use of legislation, the price mechanism and advertising etc.
7.6 GLOSSARY
Market Failure: Market failure refers to a situation in which the free market fails to
efficiently distribute the goods and services as a result of misallocation of scarce resources.
Externality: An externality is a cost of benefit experienced by the third party but caused by
producers and not financially incurred.
Public Goods: A public good refers to a commodity or service that is made available to all
members of society.
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Information Asymmetry: Information asymmetry is a situation in which all the market

players don’t have access to the same information at the same time.
Factor Immobility: Factor immobility refers to a situation in which the factors of production
like capital and labour are challenging to move between the various geography of an
economy.
1. c. Circular 8. (d). Goods and Services

2. a. Economic System 9. (c). Market Failure
3. b. Property Rights 10. (a). Market Failure
4. (d). Free Market Failure to Efficiently 11. (a). Flood
Distribute Goods and Services
12. (c). Pollution
5. (d). a & b both
13. (a). Market Failure
6. (a). Introduction Phase
14. (d). Rising Inequality
7. (c). Second Party
15. (d). Market for Lemon
1. What is market failure?

2. Differentiate between the private goods and public goods.
3. What are the causes of the market failure?
4. What are externalities? Discuss the positive and negative externalities.
5. What is the free rider problem? Discuss with examples.
6. Why is pollution considered to be the source of the market failure?
7. What are consequences of market failures on output and prices?
8. How price floor and price ceiling can be useful in correcting market failure?
7.9 REFERENCES
Samuelson, W.F. & Marks, S.G. (2012). Managerial Economics, 7e, John Wiley & Sons.
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Gramlich, E. M. A Guide to Benefit-Cost Analysis. New York: Waveland Press, 2000.

Samuelson, W.F. & Marks, S.G. (2012). Managerial Economics, 7e, John Wiley & Sons.
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University of Delhi

Semester - I
Course Credit - 4.5
Editorial Board
Dr. Kumar Bijoy
Dr. Rajdeep Singh
Content Writers
CA. Mannu Goyal, Ms. Priya Dahiya,
Dr. Ruchi Sharma, Dr. Pratibha Maurya

ISBN: .............................
1st edition: 2022
Published by:
Printed by:
Accounting for Managers
INDEX
LESSON Page No.
Lesson 1 Accounting Theory……………………………………………………… 1
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Objectives of Accounting
1.4 Merits/Advantages of Accounting
1.5 Limitations of Accounting
1.6 Book Keeping
1.7 Components of Accounting Information/ Statements
1.8 Branches of Accounting
1.9 Interested users of Accounting information and their needs
1.10 Qualitative Aspects of Accounting Information
1.11 Some important accounting terms
1.12 Accounting principles, concepts and conventions
1.13 Fundamental Accounting Assumptions
1.14 Accounting Principles and Concepts
1.15 Basis of Accounting
1.16 Accounting Standards
1.17 Objectives of Accounting Standards
1.18 International Financial Reporting Standards
1.19 Summary
1.20 Glossary
Lesson 2 Preparation of Financial Statements, Corporate Balance Sheet ……… 29

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Meaning and Components of Financial Statements
2.4 Users of Financial Information
2.5 Preparation of Financial Statement
2.6 Statement of Profit and Loss Account
2.7 Balance Sheet
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2.8 Cash Flow Statement

2.9 Summary
2.11 Abbreviations
2.13 References
Lesson 3 Depreciation………………………………………………………………. 54
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Meaning of Depreciation
3.4 Objectives for Providing Depreciation
3.5 Factors Influencing Depreciation
3.6 Methods of Depreciation
3.7 Fixed Instalment/Original Cost or Straight line Method
3.8 Reducing/Diminishing Balance/Written Down
3.9 Sum of Digits of Years Method
3.10 Machine Hour Method
3.11 Production Units Method
3.12 Depletion Method
3.13 Accounting Entries for Depreciation
3.14 Change in Cost and Residual Value/Life of Asset
3.15 Change in Method of Depreciation
3.16 Revaluation of Depreciable Assets
3.17 Cessation of Depreciation
3.18 Retirement
3.19 Sale / Disposal of Depreciable Assets
3.20 Summary
Lesson 4 Inventory Valuation……………………………………………………… 73

4.2 Introduction to Inventory
4.3 Objective of IND AS 2
4.4 Scope of IND AS 2
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4.5 Some important definitions as per IND AS 2

4.6 Measurement of Inventories
4.7 Measurement of Net Realisable Value
4.8 Writing inventories down to net realisable value
4.9 Reversals of write-downs
4.10 Recognition as an Expense
4.11 Disclosures
4.12 Summary
Lesson 5 Analysis of Accounting Information……………………………………….. 89

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Understanding Accounting Ratio and Analysis of Accounting Ratios
5.4 Expressing Accounting Ratios in different Forms
5.5 Objectives of Ratio Analysis
5.6 Significance of Ratio Analysis
5.7 Limitations of Ratio Analysis
5.8 Types of Ratios
5.9 Liquidity (Short-term Solvency) Ratios
5.10 Solvency Ratios
5.11 Activity Ratios
5.12 Profitability Ratios
5.13 Summary
5.14 Glossary
Lesson 6 Cash Flow Statement………………………………………………………… 120
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Meaning of Cash Flow Statement/ Statement of Cash Flows
6.4 Objective of Cash Flow Statement
6.5 Benefits of Cash Flow Statement
6.6 Scope of IND AS 7: Statement of Cash Flow
6.7 Some Important Definitions as per IND AS 7
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6.8 Cash and Cash Equivalents and Related Issues

6.9 Presentation of Statement of Cash Flows
6.10 Reporting of Cash Flows from Operating Activities
6.11 Cash Flows in Foreign Exchange or Currency
6.12 Non-Operating Inflows: Interest and Dividends
6.13 Taxes on Income and Gains
6.14 Investments in Subsidiaries, Associates and Joint Ventures
6.15 Changes in Ownerships Interests Held In Associates, Subsidiaries, Joint
Ventures and Other Businesses Arrangements
6.16 Non-Cash Transactions
6.17 Summary
Lesson 7 Responsibility Accounting And Divisional Performance Measurement….. 137

7.2 Introduction
7.3 Responsibility Accounting
7.4 Divisional Performance Measurements
7.5 Summary
7.6 Glossary
7.9 References
Lesson 8 Transfer Pricing……………………………………………………………… 163

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Significance of Transfer Pricing
8.4 Fair Value/ Arm’s Length Price
8.5 Transfer Pricing Methods
8.6 Transfer Pricing and Goal Congruence
8.7 Transfer Pricing under different circumstances
8.8 Proposals for Resolving Transfer Pricing Conflict
8.9 International Transfer Pricing
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8.10 International Transfer Pricing and Currency Management

8.11 Summary
8.12 Glossary
Lesson 9 Recent Development In The Field Of Accounting…………………………. 179

9.2 Introduction
9.3 Inflation Accounting
9.4 Human Resource Accounting
9.5 Social Accounting
9.6 Health Accounting
9.7 International Accounting
9.8 Creative Accounting
9.9 Project Accounting
9.10 Tax Accounting
9.11 IT Development in Accounting
9.12 Forensic Accounting
9.13 Summary
9.14 Glossary
9.17 References
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LESSON 1
ACCOUNTING THEORY
CA.Mannu Goyal
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
Mannugoyal@sol-du.ac.in
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Objectives of Accounting
1.4 Merits/Advantages of Accounting
1.5 Limitations of Accounting
1.6 Book Keeping
1.7 Components of Accounting Information/ Statements
1.8 Branches of Accounting
1.9 Interested users of Accounting information and their needs
1.10 Qualitative Aspects of Accounting Information
1.11 Some important accounting terms
1.12 Accounting principles, concepts and conventions
1.13 Fundamental Accounting Assumptions
1.14 Accounting Principles and Concepts
1.15 Basis of Accounting
1.16 Accounting Standards
1.17 Objectives of Accounting Standards
1.18 International Financial Reporting Standards
1.19 Summary
1.20 Glossary
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After reading this chapter, students will be able to understand:

 Basic concept of Financial Accounting, Accountancy and Book-keeping
 Relationship between Accountancy, Accounting and Book-keeping
 Difference between Book-keeping and Accounting
 Users of accounting information both Internal and External.
 Merits and Demerits of Accounting.
 Basic Accounting terms and concepts
 Double Entry System of Book-keeping
 Fundamental Accounting Assumptions and Accounting Principles.
 Accounting Standards and International Financial Reporting Standards and their
difference with each other.
 Basis of Accounting (Cash vs. Accrual).
1.2 INTRODUCTION
As per the definition of Accounting given by the AICPA:

Accounting is an art of recording, classifying and summarising the transactions and events
which are monetary and business related in a significant manner as per accounting rules and
principles and interpreting the financial results.
Accounting aims to provide quantitative financial information about economic and business
entities with respect to their financial position and performance so that users can use the
information in making prudent economic decisions.
It is a logical and sequential process of identifying, collecting, recording, classifying,
summarising and communicating financial information (monetary transaction and events
related to business) to the users for their own customised judgment, analysis and decision-
making.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF ACCOUNTING

Accounting is done to achieve the following objectives:
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1. Keeping systematic, accurate, structured and complete records of financial

transactions and events in the primary and secondary books of accounts such as
journal, ledger as per specified accounting principles, rules and standards to avoid
omission, error and fraud.
2. Calculation of the profit earned or loss incurred by a business during a particular
accounting period to assess the financial results and operating efficiency of business
activities.
3. Determination of the financial strength or position of the business through a
position statement known as balance sheet which shows the application of funds in
the form of current and non-current assets and sources of funds in the form of Equity
(Capital and Reserves and Surplus) and External Liabilities.
4. Providing useful accounting information to users of financial information such as
owners, prospective investors, suppliers, banks, employees and government
authorities, regulators, customers, etc. who analyse and interpret them as per their
own customised requirements such as investors use information for investment
decisions, bankers use for assessing creditworthiness to make lending decisions.
5. Providing financial information to the management to faceplate them to take
decisions regarding expansion, diversification, shutdown, to prepare budgets and
forecast the results and financial position so as to prepare projected financial
statements.
6. Safeguarding assets and detecting and preventing frauds by maintaining regular
and systematic accounting records of the business transaction and events relating to
the acquisition and disposal of assets, earning revenue and incurring expenses.
1.4 MERITS/ADVANTAGES OF ACCOUNTING

The significance and importance of accounting can be considered through following points:
1. Provides information to management, facilitating them to make prudent economic
decisions.
2. It help owners to compare results of current years with past year results and with the
results of other entities in same industry, it also helps to identify trends and the factors
which leads to changes and evaluate the competitive performance.
3. It provide information regarding financial position of the business enterprise through
balance sheet which shows the application of funds in the form of assets and sources
of funds in the form of capital and external liabilities.
4. It help in keeping accounting records in a structured, systematic, accurate and
complete manner of business related transactions and events in the books of accounts
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as per specified generally accepted accounting principles, which is accepted by the

regulators, authorities and courts as valid evidence to settle various litigations.
5. It helps in correct determination of tax liabilities under various taxes such as Income
tax, GST and Custom duties, etc.
6. It facilitates costing of products, job, activity and project so that proper pricing
decision can be taken.
1.5 LIMITATIONS OF ACCOUNTING

Inspite of many advantages, accounting suffers from many limitations discussed below:
1. Historical in nature: Accounting is concerned with transactions and events already
occurred in the past. It does not provide a tool for future decision making. Further it
does not shows the business assets and investments at their current market value as
per the demand and supply of securities in the market or as per the current value
prevailing for the assets in the relevant market because it does not take into account
the effects of changes in price level.
2. It ignores qualitative aspects: It accounts and recognises only transactions and
events which can be expressed in terms of money because of Money measurement
concept. It does not considers qualitative aspects such as efficiency with which the
management works, quality of operations, loyalty and sincerity of employees,
customer’s satisfaction level, etc.
3. It allows scope for window dressing: It might involve manipulation in accounts to
present a more favourable or unfavourable results and financial position than its actual
position to serve the vested interests of the insiders.
4. It is subjected to personal bias and judgment: Since different people hold different
opinions with respect to accounting estimates such as useful life of asset to determine
amount of depreciation, provision for doubtful debts on the basis of likelihood of the
default by the debtors, etc.
5. It is based on concepts and conventions: Since accounting is based on concepts and
conventions which sometimes distort the disclosure of true and realistic financial
position and results of a business enterprise. For example as per Historical Cost
Concept, Fixed assets in balance sheet are shown at their purchase cost less
depreciation and not at their current market value prevailing in the market if they are
sold in the relevant market.
1.6 BOOK KEEPING

Book keeping is identification and recording of business transactions and events only. It is
the recognition component of accounting system which involves the recording of monetary
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business transactions and events in a defined manner as per the standards and principles given
in the relevant Financial Reporting framework.
It is concerned with only the recording part whereas accounting covers both the recording,
summarizing, communicating and interpretation part of an accounting system.
The differences between Book keeping and Accounting can be described as under:
Basis Book keeping Accounting

Component It is much wider than book
It is the recording phase involving
keeping as it covers recording,
recording of business transactions
summarizing, communication,
and events in journal and other
and interpretation part of an
accounting books.
accounting system.
Stage of It is the secondary and
It is the first and primary stage and
accounting subsequent stage, cover the part
forms basis for accounting.
where the book keeping ends.
Nature/Skill or It involves activities which are It involves activities which are
Knowledge routine and clerical in nature and analytical in nature and requires
requirement does not require any specialised specialised skills or knowledge
skills or knowledge in their of accounting ratios and other
application. analytical tools.
Level of staff It is carried out by junior level It is carried out by senior level
required employees called book-keepers employees called accountants.
Depiction of It provides the complete and
Financial position and performance
Financial summarised blue print of the
cannot be determined on the basis
position financial position and
of journal entries.
performance of an entity.
1.7 COMPONENTS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION/

STATEMENTS
Accounting information comprises of following components:

1. Statement financial performance: The statement of profit or loss (in case of
companies)/ profit or loss account/ income statement (in case of non-corporates)
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shows the net profit earned or loss incurred from business operations during a
particular accounting period which is usually a financial year.
2. Information relating to financial position: Balance Sheet is a statement which
shows the application of funds in the form of assets and sources of funds in the form
of capital and external liabilities.
3. Schedules and Notes to Accounts: which forms the part of balance sheet and
statement of profit and loss to give detailed information of various line items shown in
balance sheet and income statement and significant accounting policies relating to
recognition, valuation, classification and disclosures, which are used in the
preparation and presentation of financial statements.
4. Cash Flow Statement: It shows the inflows and outflows of cash and cash
equivalents from three activities operating, investing and financing.
1.8 BRANCHES OF ACCOUNTING

Accounting can be classified into following sub fields:
1. Financial Accounting:- It is that subfield/branch of accounting which is aimed at
generating General Purpose Financial Statements covering identification and
recording of business transactions and events of financial nature (which can be
expressed in monetary terms) in a systematic and significant manner as per generally
accepted accounting principles, to ascertain the financial performance/results (profit
earned or loss incurred) during the accounting period and to depict the financial
position or health of the entity in the form of assets and liabilities.
2. Cost Accounting: - It is concerned with ascertainment or calculation of total cost or
per unit cost of object which can be goods produced or services rendered, job work
performed or project undertaken.
3. Management Accounting: - It involves obtaining financial information to help the
management in planning, organising and controlling the operations by setting
benchmarks and also facilitates in taking sound business decisions.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Select the correct answer for the following multiple choice questions:
(a) Accounting includes:
(i) Identifying the transactions and events;
(ii) Recording the transactions and events;
(iii) Classifying and summarizing the transactions and events;
(iv) All of the above
(v) None of the above
2. Please indicate if the following statement is true or false.
(a) Accounting and Book Keeping are same and there is no difference
between the two.
(b) There is no scope for window dressing in Accounting.
(c) Accounting is subject to personal bias and judgements.
3. Financial Accounting recognises only transactions and events which can
be expressed in terms of…………...
4. As per ………………..concept fixed assets in balance sheet are shown at
their purchase cost less depreciation and not at their current market value
prevailing in the relevant market if they are sold as such.
5. ……………….shows the inflows and outflows of cash and cash
equivalents from three activities operating, investing and financing
1.9 INTERESTED USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION AND

THEIR NEEDS
There are various categories of stakeholder or users of financial information which are
interested in determining the financial position and financial performance of the business.
Users Category of User Information need of the user
Owners/Proprietor/ Return on investment, Net profit, financial position of the
Shareholders company/business, growth rate.
Internal
Rate of return from different segments, products and
Management
investments.
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Profitability of the employer to bargain wages rates and

Employees
bonus, dues (PF, ESI, etc.) are being deposited regularly.
Business and financial risk, EPS, future prospects of the
Potential investors
business.
Short term liquidity: creditors are interested in knowing
Creditors/Suppliers financial capability and ability of the business to pay its
debts on time.
External Repaying capacity, credit worthiness, short term liquidity

Lenders
and long term solvency.
Assessment of income and expenses, tax dues, true and fair
Tax Authorities
disclosure of accounting information.
Customers, researchers seek different in-formation for
Others
different own customised interests and reasons.
1.10 QUALITATIVE ASPECTS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

Usefulness of accounting information for different interested users is determined on the basis
of the following attributes of accounting:
1. Reliability: Financial information must represent the actual facts and can be verified
through source documents (vouchers).
2. Relevance: Financial information must be readily available on the time when it is
required for decision making and must play an important role in the economic
decisions of users of information by helping them to form nearly correct prediction
about the future Income and financial position.
3. Understandability: Information should be presented in such a manner such that the
users can understand and interpret it with much ease and in a concise manner.
4. Comparability: Information should be presented and disclosed so that it can
compared with entity’s past year’s figures (intra firm comparison) and other
business’s in the same industry (Inter firm comparison).
1.11 SOME IMPORTANT ACCOUNTING TERMS

Business Transaction: It refers to a business activity which involves exchange of money or
money’s worth between parties (buyer and seller). It can be measured in terms of money and
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changes the financial position of an entity e.g. purchase of goods would involve inflow of
material and goods (asset) and outflow of cash (asset) or creating an obligation to pay
(liability) towards the supplier at a future date. Transaction can be:
1. Cash transaction: When the parties (buyer and seller) settle the transaction
immediately by making payment in cash or by bank.
2. Credit transaction: when the payment is to be settled at a future date as per
agreement or mutual consent between the parties.
Account: refers to a summarized record of all relevant transactions relating to a particular
item at one place. It has two sides debit side and credit side. The left side of the account is
known as debit side and the right side is known as credit side.
Capital: It is amount of resources invested by the owners into the business organisation
either in the form of cash or cash equivalents or in kind or assets. The amount can be invested
in the form of cash, goods, or any other asset. For Business Entity, capital is a liability
towards the owners which is to be settled only in the event of closure or transfer of the
business. In case of corporates it is called as share capital.
Drawings: It represents an amount of cash, goods or any other assets which the owner
withdraws from business for personal use. E.g. if the life insurance premium of proprietor is
paid from the business bank account, goods withdrawn for personal use. It will result in
reduction in the owners’ capital.
Asset: Asset is a resource controlled by the business entity from which probable future
economic assets will flow to the entity by using it for generating future profits. Assets can
be tangible and intangible.
Tangible Assets: are the assets which have some physical existence. They can be seen,
touched and felt such as:
• Plant and Machinery
• Furniture and Fittings
• Land and Building
• Books and periodicals
• Computers and laptops
• Vehicles
Intangible assets: Assets which have no physical existence (cannot be seen or felt although
they help to generate revenue in future) and whose value is determined and restricted by the
rights and expected future benefits that their possession confers upon the owner such as
• Goodwill
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• Patents
• Trade-marks
• Copyrights
• Brand equity
• Industrial designs
• Other intellectual property rights, etc.
Assets can also be classified into Current Assets and Non-Current Assets.
Current Assets – Asset which satisfies any of the following:
a. It is expected to be realised in, or is intended for sale or consumption in the
company’s normal operating cycle,
b. It is held primarily for the purpose of being traded ,
c. It is due to be realised within 12 months after the reporting date, or
d. It is cash or cash Equivalent unless it is restricted from being exchanged or used to
settle a liability for at least 12 months after the reporting date.
Current Asset includes:
• Inventory
• Trade receivables (sundry debtors and bill receivables)
• Prepaid expenses
• Current investments
• Cash and cash equivalents
• Short term loans and advances
Non-Current Assets – All other assets which are not classified as current assets are non-
current assets such as:
• Patent
• Trade-mark
• Copyright
Liability: It is the present obligation to be settled through outflow of economic resources. In
other words it is the amount of money that the business owes to the other parties. E.g. when
goods are purchased on credit, the entity will have an obligation to pay to the supplier the
price of goods on an agreed future date or when a loan is taken from bank, there is an
obligation to pay interest and principal amount at a future specified date.
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On the basis of the period of holding, liabilities or obligations can be further classified into
long term (non-current liabilities) and short term (current liabilities).
Current liabilities – A liability which satisfies any of the following:
a. It is expected to be settled in the normal operating cycle,
b. It is held primarily for the purpose of being traded,
c. It is due to be settled within 12 months after the reporting date, or
d. The entity does not have an unconditional right to defer settlement of the liability for
at least 12 months after the reporting date
Note: Terms of a liability that could, at the option of the counterparty, result in its settlement
by the issue of equity instruments do not affect its classification.
Non-Current Liabilities – All other liabilities not classified as current liabilities shall be
classified as Non-current liabilities such as:
• Debentures
• Public deposits
• Long term bank loan
• Inter corporate loans
• Long term loan from director
Internal Liability: It refers to owner’s equity, i.e. all the amounts which proprietors are
entitled such as:
• Capital
• General reserve
• Debenture redemption reserve
• Undistributed profits, etc.
Working capital: The assets which are held to maintain the flows of revenue from
operation in the form of current assets such as:
• Cash required to pay for expenses or to the creditors
• Inventories required to smoothen production and sale
• Accounts receivables (debtors and bills receivable) to increase the sales.
• Cash at bank
The total of current assets constitute the working capital of a firm which is termed as Gross
working capital.
Gross working capital = Total current assets = long term internal liabilities + long term
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debts + the current liabilities – Non-current assets.

Net working capital is the excess of current assets over current liabilities. It is the amount
of current assets that remain in a firm if all its current liabilities are paid. This aspect of
working capital is a more realistic concept.
Working capital (net) = Current assets – Currents liabilities.
Receipts: It is the gross inflow of cash and cash equivalents to the entity. It can be further
classified into:
1. Revenue receipts: these are the receipts which are occurred or received in the normal
course of operations of business like amount received through sale of goods and
services in the ordinary course of business.
2. Capital receipts: these are the receipts which are received from other than principle
business operations like proceeds from long term investments or sale of fixed assets.
Expenses: refers to costs incurred (the part of the expenditure whose benefit is already
expired during the accounting period) by a business for earning revenue such as:
• Rent
• Wages
• Salaries
• Interest
• Depreciation
• Carriage
Expenditure: It is the amount of outflow of monetary resources or money or incurring a
liability for acquiring any asset, goods or services. The expenditure can be further classified
into 3 categories:
1. Revenue Expenditure: If the benefit of expenditure incurred is utilised within the
accounting period in which they are incurred. For example: electricity, insurance,
rent, carriage, interest, salary, etc.
2. Capital Expenditure: If benefit of expenditure is received or lasts for more than one
accounting period, for example: construction of building, purchase of machinery,
furniture, etc.
3. Deferred Revenue Expenditure: There are the expenditures which are revenue in
nature but their benefit is utilised over a number of years. For example: huge
Advertisement Expenditure, preliminary expenses, etc.
Profit: It the amount by which revenues exceeds their related expenses during an accounting
period is called profit. Profit = Revenue - Expenses
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Gain: It is a profit of non-recurring nature arising from events or transactions which are
incidental to business but are not part of principle revenue generating activities of a business
enterprise such as sale of fixed assets at a value more than written down value, appreciation
in the value of an investment or asset, etc.
Loss: The excess of expenses incurred during an accounting period over its related revenues.
Loss = Expenses – Revenue.
Goods: The tangible items in which the business mainly deal in the ordinary course of
business. These are the items which are purchased for resale or for use as raw material in
further production and are not held or intended for use in the business for administration
purposes.
Purchases: procurement of goods by a business for the purpose of resale or for using them as
raw material in further production. For a trader of goods, it refers to purchase of stock is
trade and in case of manufacturing businesses it is purchase of raw materials and consumable
supplies. Purchases may further be classified into cash purchases and credit purchases.
Purchase Return: When goods which are purchased are returned back to the suppliers
because they are not as per specifications mentioned in the purchase order, are defective or
due to any other reason.
Sales: It is the amount of total revenues earned from customers through sale of goods or
rendering of services in the normal course of business. Sales may further be cash sales or
credit sales.
Sales Return: When customer return the goods to the business entity due to any reason
which can be defect in the goods, inappropriate quality, lack of attributes as specified by the
customer.
Debtors: refers to the entities to whom the entity has sold goods or render services on credit
and the amount is not completely paid and still to be received by the business entity. These
are considered assets of the business, usually current assets.
Creditors/ Sundry Creditors: If the business buys goods/services from the suppliers on
credit i.e. the amount is not paid to the suppliers at the time of purchase and payment is
deferred to a mutually agreed specified date in future. These are treated as financial
obligations/liabilities for the entity (trade payables under current liabilities) which is to be
paid usually within the normal operating cycle period.
Bill Receivable: It is a bill of exchange where by debtors (to whom goods are sold on credit)
of the business undertakes to pay a certain amount mentioned therein a specified date. These
are considered assets of the business, usually current assets.
Bill Payable: It is a bill of exchange where by the business undertakes to pay a certain
amount mentioned therein a specified date to suppliers from whom goods are purchased on
credit. These are considered liabilities for the business usually current liabilities.
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Discount: It is the amount of rebate given by the seller of goods or services to the purchaser.
It can be further classified into:
1. Trade Discount: This discount is given to persuade or encourage the buyer to buy
more quantity of goods. It is given in the form of agreed percentage of list price at the
time of sale of goods. This discount is not recognised in the books of accounts as it is
deducted in the invoice/cash memo and taxes like GST are imposed on after trade
discount amount.
2. Cash Discount: This discount is given to encourage the debtors to pay their dues
before the expiry of agreed credit period. This discount is recognised in the books of
account as finance cost and charged to statement of profit and loss. It is given as
percentage of the dues.
Account: It refers to a summarised record of all the transaction relating to particular head or
accounting item at one place.
Income: Income is a very wider term profit as it includes not only profit but also the gains
which are non-recurring in nature. Income refers to the increase in the net wealth of a
business enterprise over an accounting period.
Stock: It is the amount of total goods (raw material, work in progress, and finished goods)
available for sale on a particular date.
Cost: It refers to amount of expenditures incurred (the expired portion of benefits) in
manufacturing and processing goods to produce finished goods for sale in the ordinary course
of business.
Voucher: It is documentary evidence of a transaction. For example, if goods are purchased
for cash, the supplier provide a cash memo, if goods are purchased on credit, the supplier
issues an invoice, when the payment is made to creditors, receipt of payment is issued by the
creditors.
1.12 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS AND

CONVENTIONS
The first and foremost objective of accounting is to provide general purpose financial
information which is easily understandable, appropriate, relevant and reliable information
about the financial results and position of the business to various users or stakeholders so
that they can make sound and judicious financial and economic decisions. For this accounting
records are to be maintained on the basis of uniform standards, rules and principles.
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP): It is the collection of all the accounting
principles, policies, concepts and conventions. GAAP provides the very base of Accounting.
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GAAP refers to the rules, principles or guidelines with respect to recognition, valuation,
classification, disclosures which are used for recording, classifying, summarising and
reporting of business and financial transactions and events so as to bring standardisation,
consistency and comparability in the preparation and the presentation of financial statements.
These principles are evolved and developed over a long period of time based on the
accounting experiences of the accountants, business-customs and practices, legal decisions,
economic environment, etc. These are generally accepted and followed by the accounting
practitioners and professionals working over a large geographical area in preparation and
presentation of financial statements.
1.13 FUNDAMENTAL ACCOUNTING ASSUMPTIONS

Following are the assumptions used by default in preparation and presentation of financial
statements, if these are followed and valid then entity is not required to give any disclosure,
disclosure is to be given only if any of the below assumption is invalid:
1. Going Concern Assumption: It is assumed that a business enterprise has an indefinite life
or existence. Thus business will continue for long foreseeable period of time and there is
neither any intention to liquidate nor to scale down its operations or any of the undertakings
significantly.
Implication and Relevance:
1. Distinction between capital expenditure and revenue expenditure can be made.
2. Classification of both assets and liabilities into current and non-current based on this
assumption and definition of operating cycle.
3. Depreciation is charged on Property Plant and Equipment/fixed assets as on their
acquisition they are capitalised in the balance sheet at book value (after deducting
depreciation), irrespective of their current market value prevailing in the market.
2. Consistency Assumption: As per this assumption, accounting practices once selected and
applied should be followed and applied consistently year after year. If the accounting policies
are followed consistently then it will ensure meaningful analysis and comparison of the
financial position as well as performance of the same business for a number of years known
as intra-firm and inter-period comparison. It does not mean that practices and policies, once
adopted, cannot be changed in the future. When a change is required and desirable as per the
requirements of the changing circumstances, it can be changed but proper disclosures as per
the applicable accounting standards are given in the financial statements along with its effect
in statement of income (profit or loss) and Balance Sheet ( change in the value of asset or
liability). Any accounting policy may be changed if required by the change in governing law,
reporting framework requirements or accounting standard applicable so as to make the
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financial information more relevant and transparent or to give better true and fair view of
financial position and performance.
Implication and Relevance: Helps the management and other stakeholders of financial
information in decision-making by comparing the current year’ financial information with the
information of previous years.
3. Accrual Assumption: All revenues and related expenses are recorded/recognized as and
when they are earned or incurred irrespective of whether the cash and cash equivalents are
received or payment is made at the time of transaction or on a future date for example, if
good are sold on credit (with credit given for two months) for Rs. 2,00,000 on 15th march.
2023 and all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership are transferred to the buyer, then
the Sale is to be recorded on 15th march. 2023 and not on the date when cash is received after
two months from the debtors.
In case of revenue expenses such as salary or rent, if at the end of the accounting period (31st
march), salary for four months is due to the employees but not paid, such unpaid salary will
be recorded in the current year as outstanding salary and the salary expense account will be
debited and transferred to profit and loss statement for the year in which the salary is due, it is
not charged to profit and loss statement in the next year when it will be paid to the
employees.
Implication and Relevance: Earning of revenue and consumption of a resource (expenses)
can be accurately matched with each other relating to a particular accounting period
providing the accurate measurement of financial performance.
1.14 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS

1. Business Entity/Separate Legal Entity: A business entity has a separate existence
from its owners and management. According to this principle, business is treated as a
separate legal entity, distinct from its owners and managers. Thus, transactions are
recorded and analysed, and the accounting records and financial statements are
prepared and presented from the view point of business and not the owner or
proprietor. The Proprietor/businessman is treated as an inside creditor (Internal
liability) for his investment made in the business equal to the amount of capital in the
form of cash or other assets invested by him in the business. Interest on capital is
treated as an expense. If the private expenses of the owners are paid out of business’s
money, then it is treated as drawings leading to reductions in capital of the owners.
2. Money Measurement: As per this concept, only those transactions and events that
can be measured or expressed in monetary terms are recorded and accounted for in the
books of accounts of the business enterprise. Non-monetary events like hiring of a
loyal and intelligent employee, death of an efficient employee, strikes by workers,
disputes with customers etc., are not recognised and recorded because they cannot be
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quantified in terms of money, even though they affect the operations of the business
significantly.
Limitations of Money Measurement Concept:
1. It does not considers the qualitative aspect such as efficient and loyal human
employees (assets), loyal and satisfied customers (assets) and dishonest and
inefficient employees and workers (liabilities), strong and healthy
relationships with the suppliers.
2. Since the value of money (currency) is fluctuating on account of inflation. To
keep accounting records simple and understandable, transactions and events
are recorded using a fixed measurement unit therefore carrying value does not
matches with the changes in value of money over a period of time.
3. Accounting Period Concept: Even though we assume the business as Going
Concern, but the users of financial information are interested in knowing the financial
results at regular intervals, therefore as per this concept, the life of any business
organisation is split into smaller periods (accounting period) so that its performance
can be evaluated and financial position can be determined at regular intervals of time.
Accounting period refers to the interval of time, at the end of which financial
statements comprising profit and loss account/or statement of profit and loss and the
balance sheet with notes to accounts are prepared, so that the financial performance
can be measured and financial position can be determined at regular intervals and
decisions such as shutdown, continue, expansion can be taken to control the affairs on
timely basis.
Accounting period is generally a period of one year starting from 1st April and end on
31st march of next year.
Relevance of the concept:
1. Facilitates the classification of expenses into capital expenses and revenue
expenses.
2. Part of capital expenditure which is consumed during the current accounting
period is charged to the Statement of profit and loss and the remaining
unconsumed portion is recognised as an asset in the Balance Sheet.
3. Compliance with taxation laws: According to the income tax provisions,
income tax is computed on annual basis.
4. Prompt corrective action can be taken by the management to improve the
results and financials.
4. Full Disclosure: As per this concept, besides applicable legal provisions, all material
facts and information related to the economic activities of the entity should be
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properly disclosed in the financial statements and the accompanying notes to accounts
as per applicable financial reporting framework.
The financial statements should act as a means of communicating and not escaping
the material and relevant information. The objective of disclosure is to create better
understanding and the users may be able to take sound financial decisions. For
example following disclosures can be provided in the footnotes such as:
1. Disclosure of Contingent liabilities such as pending claims and litigations of a
very big amount against the business, Arrears of dividend on cumulative
preference shares, etc.
2. Change in the method of providing depreciation on fixed assets (Property
Plant and Equipment).
3. Market value of investment in securities and changes thereof.
5. Materiality Principle: Materiality is not defined in exact monetary limits but any
item which influences the economic decisions of the users is considered as material.
Disclosure of all material transactions and information is necessary but it does not
mean that even figures of big amount which are irrelevant are to be mandatorily
disclosed in the financial statements. Therefore, items having insignificant effect or
which are irrelevant to users is not required to be disclosed separately, it may be
merged with other items. Materiality is a subjective item as an item may be material
for one enterprise may not be material for another enterprise, e.g., an item of expense
of Rs. 50,000 may be immaterial for an organisation having a turnover of Rs. 10,000
crores but it may be material for an enterprise having a turnover of just Rs. 10,00,000.
6. Prudence/ Conservatism Principle: As per this principle, prospective or anticipated
future profit should not be recognised or recorded but all prospective future losses
should immediately be recorded by making a provision for them. The aim of this
principle is to protect overstatement of the profit and depiction of a realistic financial
picture of the organisation. Where different alternative methods or policies of
accounting on a particular subject matter or transaction are available, then the
alternative having the least favourable effect on profit should be adopted in
formulating and selection of accounting policies, for example:
1. Stock should be valued at lower of cost or net realizable value (as per AS-2).
2. Provision should be made for future liabilities or expenses such as provision
for doubtful debts and provision for taxation.
7. Cost Principle: The major concern is that at what value fixed assets should be
recorded. As per this principle, fixed assets are recorded in the books of accounts at
its original cost consisting of the cost of acquisition (purchase cost) and all the
expenditure incurred for making the assets ready to use and bringing the asset to
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present location and condition (freight, carriage, installation, commission on the

purchase of fixed assets).
For Example: A Machinery is purchased for Rs. 4,50,000 and Rs. 60,000 was spent
on the installation of machine and Rs 50,000 is paid as purchase commission, then
machine is recorded at Rs. 5,60,000 in the books of accounts and depreciation will be
charged on this amount. If the market value of the machine in the relevant market
increases to Rs. 6,00,000 due to price fluctuation, then the increased value due to
market fluctuation will not be accounted for in the books of account. This cost of Rs.
5,60,000 is systematically reduced year after year by charging depreciation in the
income statement and the assets are shown in the balance sheet at carrying value/book
value (cost – accumulated depreciation).
8. Matching Principle: Accounting information is relevant if it provides true and
accurate picture of financial performance, therefore as per this Matching concept, all
expenses incurred by an enterprise during an accounting period are matched with the
related incomes or revenues recognized during the same accounting period. It
facilitates the accurate calculation of profit earned or loss incurred in a particular
accounting period.
The following accounting treatment are done due to matching principle:
1. Calculation of Prepaid Expenses and recording them as assets.
2. Determination of Income received in advance from the customers as liabilities.
3. Determination of closing stock at the end of accounting period to reduce it
from the cost of goods sold.
4. Depreciation charged on fixed assets (Property, Plant and Equipment) in a
systematic manner as per their use in the business in earning revenue.
9. Dual Aspect Principle: Every business transaction has two aspects - a debit and a
credit of equal amount. In other words, for every debit in an account there is a credit
of equal amount in one or more accounts and vice-versa. This system of accounting is
also known as “Double Entry System”. This concept ensures that the two sides of the
Balance Sheet i.e. Assets (application of funds) side and Equity and Liability 9sources
of funds) side always match and thereby following accounting equation will always
holds true at any point of time.
Accounting Equation is expressed as follows:
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
For Example: Sohan started business with cash Rs. 5,00,000. This transaction
increases cash in assets side and capital in liabilities- side by Rs. 5,00,000.
Assets (Cash) Rs. 5,00,000 = Liabilities Rs. 0 + Capital Rs. 5,00,000
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1.15 BASIS OF ACCOUNTING
There are two basis of recording transactions and ascertaining profit or loss during the
accounting period:
1. Cash Basis and
2. Accrual Basis
Cash Basis of Accounting: as per this basis transactions are recorded in the books of
accounts by passing journal entries only on the receipt/ payment of cash and cash equivalents.
The Profit is calculated as the excess of actual cash receipts from sale of goods, services,
other non-operating incomes over actual cash payments or outflow of cash and cash
equivalents for purchase of goods, wages, expenses such rent, electricity, salaries, interest etc.
transactions like credit sale and credit purchases are not accounted for in the books of
accounts.
No transaction is recorded when a payment or receipt is merely due i.e., outstanding
expenses, accrued incomes are not recognised.
This method is in contravention to the matching principle.
Accrual Basis of Accounting: As per this accrual basis Revenue and expenses are recorded
as and when they are incurred or earned. Income is recorded as Income when it is accrued
(when transaction takes place, risk and reward incidental to ownership are transferred and
obligation are performed) irrespective of whether corresponding cash and cash equivalents
are received or not. Similarly, expenses are recorded when they are incurred or become due
(when the benefit of the resource or facility is expired) and not when the cash is paid for
them.
Items such as outstanding expenses, prepaid expenses, accrued income and income received
in advance are identified and taken into account as assets and liabilities.
As per Companies Act 2013, all companies are required to maintain their accounts on accrual
basis of accounting.
Basis Accrual Basis of Accounting Cash Basis of Accounting
Nature of Both cash and credit transactions Only cash transactions are
Transactions are recorded. recorded.
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Profit or Loss is ascertained Correct profit/loss is not

Assessment of
correctly due to complete record ascertained because it records only
Profit or Loss
of transactions. cash transactions.
Does not make a distinction
Capital vs. Makes a distinction between
between capital and revenue
Revenue items capital and revenue items.
items.
This basis is recognized under the This basis is not recognized under
Legal recognition
companies Act. the companies Act.
1.16 ACCOUNTING STANDARDS
The accounting principles or GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) have been
developed in the form of concepts and conventions to bring comparability and uniformity
preparation and presentation of financial statements. However they allow alternative
accounting treatments for the same items.
Different organizations may adopt different accounting policies depending upon their
requirements, industry, scale of operations for the same transaction or an entity may follow
different accounting policies for different accounting periods. As a result, the financial
statements become inconsistence and incomparable. So it was felt to prescribe minimum
standards universally applicable, so that the accounting statements possess qualitative
characteristics of reliability, relevance, understandability and comparability.
International Accounting Standard Committee (IASC) was set up in 1973 as a non-profit
international organisation to improve the financial reporting throughout the world (now
International financial Reporting Committee (IFRC)). The Institute of Chartered Accountants
of India (ICAI) and the Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of India are also
members of this committee.
ICAI set up the Accounting Standard Board (ASB) in 1977 to identify the areas in which
accounting standards are to be developed. ASB prepares and submits a draft accounting
standard to the Council of ICAI.
The Council of ICAI issues the draft AS for the comments by the Govt., industry,
academicians and professionals etc. After due consideration on the comments received, the
Council of ICAI notifies it for its use in the financial statements.
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Accounting standards are written statements, issued by autonomous professional accounting

bodies such as FASB, IASB, ICAI, etc. specifying standardised rules and practices for
preparing and presenting the financial statements.
1.17 OBJECTIVES OF ACCOUNTING STANDARDS

Accounting Standards are formulated and issued with the following objectives:
1. To ensure Uniformity/Consistency in selection and application of accounting
practices and policies in preparation and presentation of financial statements by
proposing standard accounting treatment.
2. To improve reliability of financial Information: Since the standards are of high
quality and received large scale acceptance which create a sense of confidence and
reliance among the users.
3. To safeguard assets, prevent frauds and manipulation by codifying the accounting
policies, methods and practices which limits the scope of fraud and manipulation.
4. To facilitate Auditors: It helps auditors by providing standardised accounting
procedure to audit the books of accounts.
1.18 INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS

(IFRS)
IFRS refers to the accounting and financial reporting standards issued by International
Accounting Standards Board (IASB), London. These standards are made to improve the
financial reporting at the international level to help users throughout the world to gain better
understanding of financial statements.
Financial Statements under IFRS framework: Following financial statements are prepared
and presented under IFRS framework:
1. Statement of financial position: Balance sheet which includes the following
components:
a. Assets
b. Liability
c. Equity (Shareholder’s fund)
2. Comprehensive Income statement including other comprehensive income: which
includes the following components:
a. Revenue
b. Expense
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3. Statement of changes in Equity showing transactions with the shareholders and

change in their claim over the entity.
4. Statement of Cash flow showing inflow and outflow of cash and cash equivalents
from operating, investing and financing activities
5. Notes to accounts and significant accounting policies showing details of the line
items in the Balance sheet and statement of comprehensive income.
Significant differences between IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards
issued by IASB) and AS (Accounting Standards issued by ICAI)
1. IFRS are principle based, they consider the substance over legal form in the
transaction while AS are rule based, they require inflexible accounting procedures to
be followed based on legal form.
2. IFRS are based on Fair Value in that they require valuations should be based on fair
value measures which ensure true realistic valuations while AS are based on
Historical Cost in that they require Assets should be recognised initially at their
historical cost.
1.19 SUMMARY
Accounting is a logical and systematic process of identifying, collecting, recording,

classifying, summarising, interpretation and communicating financial information to the
interested users.
Objectives of Accounting:
a) Keeping structured, systematic, accurate and complete records of business
transactions and events.
b) ascertain the profit earned or loss incurred
c) ascertain the financial position
d) provide useful accounting information to users
e) provide financial information to the management
f) safeguard assets and detect and prevent frauds
Limitations of Accounting:
a) Historical in nature
b) Ignores Qualitative Aspects
c) Scope for Window Dressing
d) Subject to personal bias and judgment
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e) Based on concepts and conventions

Subfields/Branches of Accounting
1. Financial Accounting
2. Cost Accounting
3. Management Accounting
Interested users of Accountings information:
Owners
Internal Management
Employees
Potential investors
External Creditors/Suppliers
Lenders
Tax Authorities
Others
Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information:

a) Reliability
b) Relevance
c) Understandability
d) Comparability
Accounting Principles, Concepts and Conventions
GAAP refers to the rules, principles or guidelines with respect to recognition, valuation,
classification, disclosures which are used for recording, classifying, summarising and
reporting of business and financial transactions and events so as to bring standardisation,
consistency and comparability in the preparation and the presentation of financial statements.
Fundamental Accounting Assumptions:
Going Concern Assumption: It is assumed that business will continue for long foreseeable
period of time and there is neither any intention to liquidate nor to scale down its operations
or any of the undertakings significantly.
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Consistency Assumption: Accounting practices once selected and applied should be

followed and applied consistently year after year.
Accrual Assumption: All revenues and related expenses are recorded/recognized as and
when they are earned or incurred irrespective of whether the cash and cash equivalents are
received or payment is made at the time of transaction or on a future date.
Accounting Concepts:
Business Entity/Separate Legal Entity: A business entity is treated as a separate legal
entity, distinct from its owners and managers.
Money Measurement: Only those transactions and events that can be measured or expressed
in monetary terms are recorded and accounted for in the books of accounts of the business
enterprise.
Accounting Period Concept: The life of any business organisation is split into smaller
periods (accounting period) so that its performance can be evaluated and financial position
can be determined at regular intervals of time.
Full Disclosure: All material facts and information related to the economic activities of the
entity should be properly disclosed in the financial statements and the accompanying notes to
accounts.
Materiality Principle: Disclosure of all material transactions and information is necessary
but it does not mean that even figures of big amount which are irrelevant are to be
mandatorily disclosed in the financial statements.
Prudence/ Conservatism Principle: Prospective or anticipated future profit should not be
recognised or recorded but all prospective future losses should immediately be recorded by
making a provision for them.
Cost Principle: Fixed assets are recorded in the books of accounts at its original cost
consisting of the cost of acquisition (purchase cost) and all the expenditure incurred for
making the assets ready to use and bringing the asset to present location and condition.
Matching Principle: All expenses incurred by an enterprise during an accounting period are
matched with the related incomes or revenues recognized during the same accounting period.
Dual Aspect Principle: Every business transaction has two aspects - a debit and a credit of
equal amount. For every debit in an account there is a credit of equal amount in one or more
accounts and vice-versa.
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1.20 GLOSSARY
Accounting: Process of identification, recording, classifying, summarising, interpreting and

communicating financial information.
Account: refers to a summarized record of all relevant transactions relating to a particular
item at one place.
Accounting Standard: written policy documents issued by professional accounting body for
preparation and presentation of financial statements.
economic assets will flow to the entity by using it for generating future profits.
Business Transaction: It refers to a business activity which involves exchange of money or
money’s worth between parties.
Expenses: amount of expenditure incurred (the benefit of which has already been expired) by
a business for earning revenue.
Profit: The excess of operating sales/revenues over its related revenue expenses during an
accounting year.
Liability: It is the present obligation to be settled through outflow of economic resources.
Working capital is the excess of current assets over current liabilities
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Select the correct answer for the following multiple choice questions: Accounting
includes:
(i) Identifying the transactions and events;
(ii) Recording the transactions and events;
(iii) Classifying and summarizing the transactions and events;
(iv) All of the above
2. Please indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a) Book Keeping and Accounting are one and the same thing.
b) There is no scope for Window Dressing in Accounting.
c) Accounting is subject to Personal bias and Judgements.
3. Financial Accounting recognises only transactions and events which can be
expressed in terms of…………...
4. As per ………………..Concept Fixed assets in balance sheet are shown at their
purchase cost less depreciation instead at current market value in the relevant which
could be realised on their immediate sale.
5. ……………….shows the inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents from
three activities operating, investing and financing
1. All of the above 3. Money

2. a) False 4. Historical Cost Concept
b) False 5. Cash Flow Statement
c) True
1. Define the Concept of Accounting

2. What is the difference between Accounting and Book Keeping?
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3. What are the Objectives of Accounting and explain its significance.

4. Discuss the interested users of Accounting Information with their customised areas of
interest?
5. What are the drawbacks of Accounting?
6. Discuss the different Branches of Accounting.
7. What essential characteristics Accounting Information must possess?
8. Write a short note on :
a) Money Measurement Principle
b) Accounting Period Principle
c) Dual Aspect Principle
d) Going Concern
e) Historical Cost
Latest editions of the following text books to be used:

1. Narayanaswamy R. Financial Accounting: A Managerial Perspective. PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
2. Robert N. Anthony, David F. Hawkins, Kenneth A. Merchant. Accountancy- text
and cases. McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi.
3. Garg CA Kamal, and Sehrawat Neeraj Kumar. Beginner`s Guide to Ind AS &
IFRS. Bharat Law House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
4. Maheshwari S. N., Maheshwari Sunil K., and Maheshwari Sharad K, An
Introduction to Accountancy, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
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LESSON 2
PREPARATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS,
CORPORATE BALANCE SHEET
Dr. Pratibha Maurya
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
pratibhamaurya@commerce.du.ac.in
CA.Mannu Goyal
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

2.2 Introduction
2.2.1. Maintenance of Book of Accounts
2.3 Meaning and Components of Financial Statements
2.3.1 Provisions Applicable
2.4 Users of Financial Information
2.5 Preparation of Financial Statement
2.6 Statement of Profit and Loss Account
2.7 Balance Sheet
2.7.1. Items necessarily required to be included the following items in Balance
Sheet
2.7.2. Current and Non-Current Assets and Liabilities distinction in Balance Sheet
2.7.3. Detailed disclosure of Share Capital
2.8 Cash Flow Statements
2.8.1 Classification of Cash Flow activities
2.8.2. Calculation of Cash Flow Statements
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2.9 Summary
2.11 Abbreviations
2.13 References
The objective of this lesson is to explain students with the mechanics and ways of preparing
financial statements of a company. This lesson will familiarize students with the basic
terminologies, methods, Accounting Standards, Indian Accounting Standards. After
preparation of financial statement this lesson will help the students to analyse it under
different conditions.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
A financial statement is collection of all the financial information of a Business. It provides
information about financial position and performance of an organization. While analyzing
and interpreting the financial statement of a company one can make important decisions and
draw conclusion about financial health of an organization. Assets, liabilities and equity are
the key components associated with the measurement of financial position. However, to
assess the financial performance of the business Revenue and Expenses are taken as essential
element.
2.2.1 Maintenance of Book of Account: Under section 128 of Companies Act 2013, every
single company should prepare and place all financial statements and other relevant books/
papers of the company for financial year at its registered office and its branches (if any) on
accrual basis and double entry system of accounting. These financial statements should
present a true and fair picture of the financial position and financial performance of the
company during the accounting period.
2.3 MEANING AND COMPONENTS OF FINANCIAL

STATEMENTS
As per Section 129 of Companies Act 2013, the Directors of the Company should lay
financial statements at the annual general meeting of the company. The financial statement
under Section 2(40) of Indian Companies Act 2013 includes the followings:
i) Balance Sheet reports the financial position of a business at a certain point in time.
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ii) Profit &Loss Account/ Income Expenditure Account shows the financial performance
throughout the time frame.
iii) Cash Flow Statement encapsulates the total cash inflow and outflow for the period
from operating, investing and financing activities.
iv) Statement of Changes in Equity summarizes how equity in the organization (if
applicable).
Along with the statements mentioned above it is necessary to give explanatory notes in
annexure for better understanding. There is an exception for mandatory requirement for
making Cash flow Statement of One Person, Dormant and Small Companies.
2.3.1 Provisions Applicable: While preparing final account of the company the following
point should be kept in mind:
a) As per Schedule III of Companies Act 2013 all necessary requirements,
b) Other statutory requirements
c) Accounting Standards by MCA from AS -1 to AS -29.
d) Statement and Guidance Notes issued by ICAI for understanding the rules related to
accounting treatments, valuation, disclosure for the following companies:
1. If any specific act is applicable e.g. for an insurance company, banking company,
company working in generation of electricity or any other company prescribed under
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Act for which a Form of Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account has been
prescribed.
2. All other companies.
As per Section 2(41) of Companies Act 2012 the financial year for making financial
statement should end on 31st March.
ACTIVITY 1
Go to the official website of the following companies and download the statement of
profit& loss and balance sheet of the companies and check the format of each
document downloaded.
i. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited,
ii. Reliance ltd.,
iii. Infosys ltd. and
iv. HDFC Bank ltd.
2.4 USERS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
The financial Statements provides financial position, performance and cash flows of the
organization which is helpful for various stake holders such as: investors, employees, lenders,
suppliers, creditors, customers, government and general public. The stake holders mentioned
above uses these summarized as per their requirement.
There are various categories of stakeholder or users of financial information which are
interested in determining the financial position and financial performance of the business.
Owners/Proprietor/ Return on investment, Net profit, financial position of the
Shareholders company/business, growth rate.
Internal
Rate of return from different segments, products and
Management
investments.
Profitability of the employer to bargain wages rates and
Employees
bonus, dues (PF, ESI, etc.) are being deposited regularly.
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Business and financial risk, EPS, future prospects of the

Potential investors
business.
Short term liquidity: creditors are interested in knowing
Creditors/Suppliers financial capability and ability of the business to pay its
debts on time.
External Repaying capacity, credit worthiness, short term liquidity

Lenders
and long term solvency.
Assessment of income and expenses, tax dues, true and fair
Tax Authorities
Customers, researchers seek different in-formation for
Others
different own customised interests and reasons.
2.5 PRESENTATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
MCA has laid down the roadmap for all companies (except banking companies, non-banking
finance companies, and insurance companies) for option of Ind-AS on February 2015. Under
presentation of financial statement Companies Act (Revised) 2016, IFRS conversed with
Indian Accounting Ind-AS from financial year 2016-17 is mandatory where the Finance
Ministry has taken various steps to simplify the implementation of Ind -AS. Ind -AS-1
provides appropriate guidelines related to presentation of Financial Statements. The basic
purpose is to ensure the compatibility of the business entity with its previous year’s
performance and with other business entities.
Structure of the Ind AS Schedule III
A. General Instructions for preparation of Company’s Financial Statements
B. Part I- Preparation of Balance Sheet and Statement Change in Equity (if any)
C. Part I Notes-Notes and general instruction related to point no B
D. Part II-Form of Statement of Profit and Loss account
E. Part II Notes- General Instructions for Point no D.
F. Part III-General Instruction for Preparation of Consolidated Financial Statements
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Under section 128 of Companies Act 2013 the financial statements of the
company should kept in_______________.
2. Which of the following is not a part of financial statements under section
2(40) of companies act 2013:
a) Statement of Profit and Loss A/c b) Balance Sheet
c) Cash Book d) Cash Flow Statements
3. Government and regulators uses the financial statements of various
companies to check its governance and tax related matters. (True/False)
2.6 STATEMENTS OF PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

The Statement of Profit and Loss account reports the financial performance of the business
during a specific period taking revenue and expenses as a key variable usually a fiscal quarter
or a year.
There are three major types of profits in an organization based on specific information: Gross
Profit, Operating profit and Net Profit. Gross Profit determines the business efficiency and
talks about the profit margin of the business, operating profit is net income of an organization
derived from its core operating activities. Net profit is representation of the amount company
takes for itself.
The main objective of profit and loss account are as follows:
i. Profit and Loss account is helpful in knowing the trading results i.e. gross profit/gross
loss and net profit/ net loss.
ii. It is helpful in analyzing the relationship between profit and turnover of a business.
Further, it is helpful in calculating and comparing profitability ratio of a company.
iii. It helps in identification and analysis of direct and indirect expense, and also helpful
in reducing the indirect expenses of the business for better performance of the
business.
As per Part II of Schedule III [u/s. 129(1)] of Companies Act 2013 Profit and loss account
should follow the vertical format given as follows:
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(Statement of Profit and Loss without stating EBITDA)

Name of the Company
Statement of Profit and Loss
for the year ended 31 March, 20XX
Particulars Note For the For the
No. year year
ended ended
31 31
March, March,
20X2 20X1
Rs. Rs.
A CONTINUING OPERATIONS
1 Revenue from operations (gross) XXX XXX
Less: Excise duty XXX XXX
Revenue from operations (net) XXX XXX
2 Other income XXX XXX
3 Total revenue (1+2) XXX XXX
4 Expenses
(a) Cost of materials consumed XXX XXX
(b) Purchases of stock-in-trade XXX XXX
(c) Changes in inventories of finished goods, work-in- XXX XXX

progress and stock-in-trade
(d) Employee benefits expense XXX XXX
(e) Finance costs XXX XXX
(f) Depreciation and amortisation expense XXX XXX
(g) Other expenses XXX XXX
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Total expenses XXX XXX
5 Profit / (Loss) before exceptional and extraordinary items XXX XXX

and tax (3 - 4)
6 Exceptional items XXX XXX
7 Profit / (Loss) before extraordinary items and tax (5 + 6) XXX XXX
8 Extraordinary items XXX XXX
9 Profit / (Loss) before tax (7 + 8) XXX XXX
10 Tax expense:
(a) Current tax expense for current year XXX XXX
(b) (Less): MAT credit (where applicable) XXX XXX
(c) Current tax expense relating to prior years XXX XXX
(d) Net current tax expense XXX XXX
(e) Deferred tax XXX XXX
11 Profit / (Loss) from continuing operations (9 +10) XXX XXX
B DISCONTINUING OPERATIONS
12.i Profit / (Loss) from discontinuing operations (before tax) XXX XXX
12.ii Gain / (Loss) on disposal of assets / settlement of liabilities XXX XXX

attributable to the discontinuing operations
12.iii Add / (Less): Tax expense of discontinuing operations

(a) on ordinary activities attributable to the discontinuing operations XXX XXX
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(b) on gain / (loss) on disposal of assets / settlement of liabilities XXX XXX
13 Profit / (Loss) from discontinuing operations (12.i + 12.ii + XXX XXX

12.iii)
C TOTAL OPERATIONS XXX XXX
14 Profit / (Loss) for the year (11 + 13) XXX XXX
` `
15.i Earnings per share (of ` ___/- each):
(a) Basic
(i) Continuing operations XXX XXX
(ii) Total operations XXX XXX
(b) Diluted
15.ii Earnings per share (excluding extraordinary items) (of `

___/- each):
(a) Basic
(b) Diluted
See accompanying notes forming part of the financial statements
Source: Guidance Note on Schedule VI to the Companies Act 2013

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
4. Under which main Head of Sub-Head of the balance sheet (Equity and
Liabilities) following items are shown?
a) Bills Payable b) Premium on Redemption of Debentures
c) Sundry Creditors d) Public Deposits
5. Give major Heads and Subheads shown in balance sheet as per Schedule III
of Companies Act 2013of the following:
a) Bills Receivable
b) Mortgage Loan
c) Goodwill
d) Patent Rights
e) Surplus i.e. Balance of Statement of Profit and Loss Account
2.7 BALANCE SHEET

The balance sheet of the company is a summarized statement of its financial position. It
represents assets, liabilities and other essential things of the company. The old format of
balance sheet was a represented in horizontal form also known as T-Shaped balance sheet.
However, the method of preparation of Balance Sheet and its format has been revised in
Companies Act 2013 and the new format is in statement form also known as vertical format
of balance sheet.
The balance sheet of the company has two sections i.e., the asset and liabilities where the
former shows what a company owns and the later reports what the company owes. Financial
statements report the information about entity’s:
i) Assets
ii) Liabilities
iii) Equity
iv) Income and Expenses, including loss and gain:
v) Contribution made by the Owner (Contribution/Distributions made by owner and
his/her capacity in the business as owner)
vi) Cash flow in the organization
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There is no separate format of Balance Sheet as per Ind-AS.
2.7.1 Items necessarily required to be included the following items in Balance Sheet: As
per Ind-AS asset is defined as follows:
“An asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from
which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity.”
Assets
a) Property, plant and equipment
b) Capital Work in progress
c) Investment Property
d) Goodwill
e) Other Intangible Assets
f) Intangible assets under development
g) biological assets other than Bearer Plants within the scope of Ind AS 41,
Agriculture;
h) Financial assets
i. Investments
ii. Trade Receivables
iii. Loans
iv. Others (to be specified)
i) Deferred Tax Liabilities
g) Other Non-Current Assets
Current Assets
a) Inventories
b) Financial Assets (i) Investments (ii) Trade receivables (iii) Cash and cash
equivalents (iv) Bank balances other than (iii) above (v) Loans (vi) Others
(to be specified)
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c) Current Tax Assets (net)

d) Other current assets
As per Ind-As Equity and Liabilities are defined as follows:

“Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its
liabilities.”
“A liability is a present obligation of the entity arising from past events, the settlement of
which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic
benefits.”
2.7.2 Current and Non-Current Assets and Liabilities distinction in Balance Sheet
Under Ind- AS 1 an entity should make clear distinction between current and non-current
assets and liabilities side of Balance Sheet.
For classification of current items the Ind-AS focuses on the following factors:
a) The asset is expected to realize/ consume/ sell in its normal operating cycle.
b) It should be for the purpose of trading.
c) Expected to realized within 12 month of reporting period
d) The asset is cash or a cash equivalent (as defined in Ind AS 7) unless the asset is
restricted from being exchanged or used to settle a liability for at least twelve months
after the reporting period.
For classification of current items the Ind-AS focuses on the following factors:
a) A liability which is expected to settle within its operating cycle
b) It is primarily held for the purpose of trading.
c) Liability which is due to be settled within 12 months after reporting period.
d) It does not have an unconditional right to defer settlement of the liability for at least
twelve months after the reporting period. Terms of a liability that could, at the option
of the counterparty, result in its settlement by the issue of equity instruments do not
affect its classification.
2.7.3 Detailed disclosure of Share Capital: The entity should disclose the following details
about share capital either in Balance Sheet or in the statement of change in equity or in the
notes to accounts:
a) The number of authorized shares
b) Number of fully paid and not fully paid issued shares
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c) Par value per shares

d) Reconciliation of number of outstanding shares at the beginning and end.
e) Preference Shares, right shares and any restriction on distribution of dividend of such
shares
f) shares in the entity held by the entity or by its subsidiaries or associates; and
g) shares reserved for issue under options and contracts for the sale of shares, including
terms and amounts; and
The format of balance sheet as per Guidance Note on Schedule III to the Companies Act
2013 is as follows:
PART I – Form of BALANCE SHEET
Name of the Company…………………….
Balance Sheet as at ………………………
(Rupees in…………)
Particulars As at 31 As at 31
Note March, March,
20XX 20XX
No.
(Current (Prev.
Year Fig) ` Year Fig) `
A EQUITY AND LIABILITIES
1 Shareholders’ funds
(a) Share capital XXX XXX
(b) Reserves and surplus XXX XXX
(c) Money received against share warrants XXX XXX
2 Share application money pending allotment XXX XXX
3 Non-current liabilities
(a) Long-term borrowings XXX XXX
(b) Deferred tax liabilities (net) XXX XXX
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(c) Other long-term liabilities XXX XXX
(d) Long-term provisions XXX XXX
4 Current liabilities
(a) Short-term borrowings XXX XXX
(b) Trade payables XXX XXX
(c) Other current liabilities XXX XXX
(d) Short-term provisions XXX XXX
TOTAL XXX XXX
B ASSETS
1 Non-current assets
(a) Fixed assets
(i) Tangible assets
(ii) Intangible assets XXX
(iii) Capital work-in-progress XXX
(iv) Intangible assets under XXX
development
(v) Fixed assets held for sale XXX
XXX XXX
(b) Non-current investments XXX XXX
(c) Deferred tax assets (net) XXX XXX
(d) Long-term loans and advances XXX XXX
(e) Other non-current assets XXX XXX
2 Current assets
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(a) Current investments XXX XXX
(b) Inventories XXX XXX
(c) Trade receivables XXX XXX
(d) Cash and cash equivalents XXX XXX
(e) Short-term loans and advances XXX XXX
(f) Other current assets XXX XXX
TOTAL XXX XXX

See accompanying notes forming part of the financial
statements
Source: Guidance Note on Schedule III to the Companies Act 2013.
Illustration 1. How will you explain the following items in the Balance Sheet of a Company?
i) 9% Debentures
ii) Proposed Dividend
iii)Loose Tools
iv) Capital Redemption Reserve
Answer1.
S Items Definition Main Head Sub-Head

No.
1 9% It is a long-term debt to the Non-Current Long-Term
Debentures business usually not secured by Liabilities Borrowings
any collateral. 9% is the coupon
rate for the long-term loan.
2. Proposed The Board of Directors have Current Short Term
Dividend approved the proposal of dividend Liabilities Provisions
to be distributed in future but not
distributed yet.
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3. Loose Tools These are the assets used in a Current Assets Inventories
company for various production
activities, hence it is helpful in
conversion of raw material to
finished goods.
4. Capital It is a reservation out of profit over Shareholders’ Reserve and
Redemption the years kept in company for Funds surplus
Reserve either redemption or purchase of
companies own shares.
2.8 CASH FLOW STATEMENT

Cash is the blood of business, proper circulation of blood is very important for human to
survive and in the similar way proper cash circulation is very important for a business to
sustain. Before we move further to understand cash flow lets understand what is cash and
cash equivalent.
Cash includes cash in hand, cash at bank, demand deposits with banks and cash equivalent
means liquid investments made by the company with a maturity period less than three
months.
Cash= Cash in Hand+ Cash at Bank+ Demand deposit at Bank
Cash Equivalent= Short Term Highly Liquid Investment (less than three months)
Cash Flow Statement: it is the periodic statement showing the inflows and outflows of Cash
and Cash equivalents from Operating, Investing and Financing activities during a particular
period which is usually a financial year.
Cash Flow Statement of a company exhibits the flow of incoming and outgoing cash in the
business during a specific period (usually a financial year). It helps in ascertaining the ability
of the business to generate cash and its utilization.
It is also helpful in determining the solvency of a business. According to guidelines of
Accounting Standard 3 issued by ICAI, a cash flow mandatory all companies with a turnover
of Rs 50 crore. Companies Act 2013 directs all companies to prepare cash flow statement
except One Person Company, dormant company and small company. However, Schedule III
of Companies Act 2013 do not prescribe any format for a Cash Flow Statement and hence it
should be prepared as per the AS-3 issued by ICAI under direct/indirect Method. The change
in position of cash for a specific period is calculated by considering the ‘source’ and
‘application’ of cash and cash equivalent.
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Sources of Cash: to identify the source of cash we check the inflow/increase in cash in the
business.
a) Issue of Shares (equity or preference), debentures, bonds and long term loan.
b) Operating Cash Profit of the Business
c) Sale of fixed asset.
d) Sale of Investments.
Application of Cash: to identify the source of cash we check the outflow/decrease in cash in
the business.
a) Repayment of Bank loan or redemption of Debentures
b) Payment of income tax, dividend, interest.
c) Operating Loss of the Business (Cash)
d) Purchase of any fixed asset.
Source of cash can be internal and external both. Internal sources usually cash from
operations of the business. So, it is important to identify operating and non-operating
activities in the business such.
Non-operating activities are one-time event in a business which may impact on revenue but
falls outside of daily routine of the business and hence, excluded while calculating cash flow
statements (loss/profit on sale of fixed asset, amortization of intangible asset).
The net profit calculated by the profit and loss account will have to be adjusted for non-
operating items. Also, all non-cash items (depreciation, creation of reserve, provision of bad
debts) already considered during computation of profit and loss account will have to be
adjusted for calculation of cash flow statements.
2.8.1 Classification of Cash Flow activities: As per As-3, the cash flow can be classified
into three broad categories: Cash Flow from Operating, Investing and Financing activities.
The Operating activity is principal revenue generating activity of the business, the Investing
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Activity is summary of acquisition and disposal of investments and fixed assets in the
business and financing activity summarizes change in the size of composition of owner’s
capital and borrowings in the business.
A. Operating Activity: Operating activities are daily activities related to producing and
selling of product for generation of revenue to the business (sales, direct expenses,
marketing expenses etc.) and it should be considered while calculating cash inflow
and outflow of the business. It records both inflow and outflow of cash. The Net cash
flow is reported as ‘Cash Flow from operating activities’. Examples:
a) Cash payment made to suppliers for goods and services.
b) Cash receipts from sales of goods/ services.
c) Cash received from royalties, fees and other revenue.
B. Investing Activities: Investing Activity is summary of acquisition and disposal of
investments and fixed assets in the business. Examples:
a) Cash paid for acquisition of fixed asset, investments, bonds, research and
development.
b) Cash received from sale of property.
c) Purchase of government securities
d) Interest/ dividend received from investment made.
e) Cash advances or loans given to other parties.
C. Financing Activity: financing activity summarizes change in the size of composition
of owner’s capital and borrowings in the business. Example:
a. Bank loan repayment
b. Cash proceeds from issue of shares/ debentures
c. Cash payment by lessee for outstanding liabilities related to finance lease.
2.8.2 Calculation of Cash Flow Statement: A businessmen can be calculated the cash flow
using direct/ indirect method.
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1. Direct Method: In the direct method of cash flow statement, we calculate operating
cash profit by taking all cash gross receipts and payment which are operating in
nature. All non- operating and non-cash items are ignored under direct method of cash
flow statement.
Format for assessment of ‘Cash Flow from Operating Activities’ using Direct
Method
Particulars Amount
Cash Receipts from: xxx
Cash sales
Recovery of cash from debtors for credit sales
Recovery of cash on account of Bills Receivables for credit sales
Sale of scrap
Less : Cash Payments for:
Salaries and Wages
Rent
Electricity expense
Suppliers
Cash Purchases (xxx)
Payment to Suppliers
Cash generated from Operations xxx
Less: Income Tax Paid during the current year (xxx)
Cash Flow before adjustment for Extra-ordinary Items xxx
Adjustments for Extra-ordinary items xxx
Net Cash utilised in/ generated from Operating Activities xxx
Source: ICAI Study Material
2. Indirect Method: Under indirect method of calculation of cash flows, the net profit is
taken as the base and starting point and exclude all non-operating and non-cash item.
The main motive remains same using both the method i.e. calculation of operating
cash profit from the business. Hence, non-operating items such as profit/loss on sale
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of fixed asset and investments, amortization of intangible asset and all non-cash items
such as deprecation, provision for tax, provision for Bad-debts, transfer to general
reserve is adjusted to net profit of the business.
Format for calculation of ‘Cash Flow from Operating Activities’ as per Indirect Method
Particulars Amount
Net Profit before Adjustments for Non-Cash items, Non-Operating items, Tax xxx
and Extra-ordinary items
Adjustments for Non Cash and Non-Operating Activities
Add: Depreciation provided during the year xxx
Add: Loss due to Foreign Exchange rate fluctuations xxx
Add: Loss on sale Investments xxx
Less: Gain due to Foreign Exchange rate fluctuations xxx
Less: Gain on sale Investments xxx
Less: Dividend Received xxx
Less: Interest Received xxx
Operating Profit before Working Capital Adjustments xxx
Adjustments for Working Capital Changes
Add: Decrease in the amount of Current Assets during the year xxx
Add: Increase in the amount of Current Liabilities during the year xxx
Less: Increase in the amount of Current Assets during the year xxx
Less: Decrease in the amount of Current Liabilities during the year
Cash generated from Operations xxx
Less: Interest Paid (xxx)
Less: Income Taxes paid (xxx)
Cash before Extra-Ordinary Items xxx
Adjustment for Extra-ordinary items xxx
Net Cash Flow from Operating Activities xxx
Source: ICAI Study Material
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2.9 SUMMARY
The Main objective of the financial statement is to evaluate the position and performance of
the business. As we know that a company has numerous stake holders and it is very important
to protect the interest of the stakeholders. The publication of such relevant financial statement
as per guidelines of Companies Act, MCA, and ICAI gives the power to these stakeholders to
interpret and take decisions accordingly.
A financial statement is collection of all the financial information about financial position and
performance of an organization.
The financial statement under Section 2(40) of Indian Companies Act 2013 includes the
followings:
v) Balance Sheet reports the financial position of a business at a certain point in time.
vi) Profit &Loss Account/ Income Expenditure Account shows the financial performance
throughout the time frame.
vii) Cash Flow Statement encapsulates the total cash inflow and outflow for the period
from operating, investing and financing activities.
viii) Statement of Changes in Equity summarizes how equity in the organization (if
applicable).
Users of Financial Statements
Internal Owners/Proprietor/ Return on investment, Net profit, financial position of the
company/business, growth rate.
Shareholders
Management Rate of return from different segments, products and
investments.
Employees Profitability of the employer to bargain wages rates and bonus,
dues (PF, ESI, etc.) are being deposited regularly.
External Potential investors Business and financial risk, EPS, future prospects of the
business.
Creditors/Suppliers Short term liquidity: creditors are interested in knowing
financial capability and ability of the business to pay its debts
on time.
Lenders Repaying capacity, credit worthiness, short term liquidity and
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long term solvency.
Tax Authorities Assessment of income and expenses, tax dues, true and fair
Others Customers, researchers seek different in-formation for different
own customised interests and reasons.
Financial Statements of companies are to be prepared as per the Schedule III of the
Companies Act 2013. Financial statements report the information about entity’s:
i) Assets
ii) Liabilities
iii) Equity
iv) Income and Expenses, including loss and gain:
v) Contribution made by the Owner (Contribution/Distributions made by owner and
his/her capacity in the business as owner)
vi) Cash flow in the organization
Statement of Profit and Loss account: The Statement of Profit and Loss account reports the
financial performance of the business during a specific period taking revenue and expenses as
a key variable usually a fiscal quarter or a year.
Balance Sheet: The balance sheet of the company is a summarized statement of its financial
position. It represents assets, liabilities and other essential things of the company. The old
format of balance sheet was a represented in horizontal form also known as T-Shaped balance
sheet. However, the method of preparation of Balance Sheet and its format has been revised
in Companies Act 2013 and the new format is in statement form also known as vertical
format of balance sheet.
The balance sheet of the company has two sections i.e., the asset and liabilities where the
former shows what a company owns and the later reports what the company owes.
Cash Flow Statement: it is the periodic statement showing the inflows and outflows of Cash
and Cash equivalents from Operating, Investing and Financing activities during a particular
period which is usually a financial year.
Sources of Cash: to identify the source of cash we check the inflow/increase in cash in the
business.
e) Issue of Shares (equity or preference), debentures, bonds and long term loan.
f) Operating Cash Profit of the Business
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g) Sale of fixed asset.

h) Sale of Investments.
Application of Cash: to identify the source of cash we check the outflow/decrease in cash in
the business.
e) Repayment of Bank loan or redemption of Debentures
f) Payment of income tax, dividend, interest.
g) Operating Loss of the Business (Cash)
Classification of Cash Flow activities: As per As-3, the cash flow can be classified into
three broad categories: Cash Flow from Operating, Investing and Financing activities.
Operating Activity: Operating activities are daily activities related to producing and selling
of product for generation of revenue to the business (sales, direct expenses, marketing
expenses etc.)
Investing Activities: Investing Activity is summary of acquisition and disposal of
investments and fixed assets in the business.
Financing Activity: financing activity summarizes change in the size of composition of
owner’s capital and borrowings in the business.
1. Registered Head Office and its Branches (if any)

2. Cash Book
3. True
4. Heads and Subheads under Equity and Liabilities:
a) Bills Payable-Current Liabilities-Trade Payables
b) Premium on Redemption of Debentures-Non-Current Liabilities- Long Term
Borrowings
c) Sundry creditors- Current Liabilities- Trade Payables
d) public Deposits-Non-Current Liabilities- Long term Borrowings
5. a)Bills Receivable-Current Assets-Trade Receivables
b)Mortgage Loan-Non-Current Liabilities – Long Term Borrowings
c) Goodwill- Non-Current Assets-Fixed Assets Intangible Assets
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d)Patent Rights-Non-Current Assets-Fixed Assets Intangible Assets

e)Surplus i.e. Balance of Statement of Profit and Loss Account- Shareholders
Funds-Reserves and Surplus
2.11 ABBREVIATIONS
 AS- Accounting Standards

 ICAI-Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.
 MCA- Ministry of Corporate Affairs
 Ind-AS-Indian Accounting Standards
1. What do you understand by the term Financial Statements and the method of
preparing the financial statements under Companies Act 2013?
2. What do you mean by statement of profit and loss account? How is it helpful in
ascertaining financial performance of the business, also explain the advantages of
profit and loss accounts to the business.
3. Explain the purpose of making cash flow statements. Also give details about direct
and indirect method of making Cash Flow Statement.
2.13 REFERENCES
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. (n.d.). Retrieved August 20, 2022, from
https://resource.cdn.icai.org/66495bos53751-cp4-u1.pdf
Maheshwari, S. N., Maheshwari, S. K., & Maheshwari, S. K. (2018). Paper back 1 (12th ed.,
Ser. e). Vikash Publishing House.
https://resource.cdn.icai.org/66494bos53751-cp4-annex.pdf
Dugar, P., & Tripathi, V. (2015). Convergence to IND AS 16: Changes and
Implications. IUP Journal of Accounting Research & Audit Practices, 14(3).
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Kavitha, D., Maheswari, B. U., & Nandagopal, R. (2016). Usefulness of Annual Report to
Professional Investors in India. Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences and
Humanities, 6(5), 179-188.
Tawiah, V., & Boolaky, P. (2020). Consequences and determinants of IFRS convergence in
India. International Journal of Accounting & Information Management.
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LESSON 3
DEPRECIATION
CA.Mannu Goyal
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Meaning of Depreciation
3.4 Objectives for Providing Depreciation
3.5 Factors Influencing Depreciation
3.6 Methods of Depreciation
3.7 Fixed Instalment/Original Cost or Straight line Method
3.8 Reducing/Diminishing Balance/Written Down
3.9 Sum of Digits of Years Method
3.10 Machine Hour Method
3.11 Production Units Method
3.12 Depletion Method
3.13 Accounting Entries for Depreciation
3.14 Change in Cost and Residual Value/Life of Asset
3.15 Change in Method of Depreciation
3.16 Revaluation of Depreciable Assets
3.17 Cessation of Depreciation
3.18 Retirement
3.19 Sale / Disposal of Depreciable Assets
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3.20 Summary
After reading this lesson, readers will be able to understand:

• Concept of Depreciation
• Objectives for Providing Depreciation
• Factors influencing Depreciation
• Methods of Depreciation
• Accounting Entries for Depreciation
• How to treat Change in Cost and Residual Value/Life of Asset
• Accounting Treatment for Change in Method of Depreciation
• Accounting Treatment for Revaluation of Depreciable Assets
• Accounting Treatment for Cessation of Depreciation
• Accounting Treatment for Retirement
• Accounting Treatment for Sale / Disposal of Depreciable Assets
3.2 INTRODUCTION
The Assets which are expected to give benefit over a long period of time are not charged to
expense at the time of their acquisition rather they are capitalised in the balance sheet as
Fixed Assets or Property Plant and Equipment and are charged to profit and loss account
through the medium of depreciation or amortisation.
As per IND AS 16 Property, plant and equipment are tangible assets that:
(a) are held for:
 use in the production or
 supply of goods or services,
 rental to others, or
 administrative purposes;
And
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(b) are expected to be used for at least 12 months.

Part of the acquisition cost of the fixed assets allocated as an expense in each of the
accounting period in which the asset is utilized. The amount of fixed assets allocated in such
manner to respective accounting period is called depreciation.
3.3 MEANING OF DEPRECIATION
Depreciation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its
useful life. It is the reduction in the value of fixed tangible assets due to wear and tear, up
gradation of technology and afflux of time
Depreciation commences from the day asset is available for use even if it is not put to use.
3.4 OBJECTIVES FOR PROVIDING DEPRECIATION
Depreciation is charged on property plant and equipment to serve the following objectives:
1. To calculate true cost of production of goods or services rendered which involve

usage of Fixed assets in their production
2. To correctly measure the income as per matching concept.
3. To depict true financial position by valuing the assets after deducting depreciation
4. To provide internal funds for replacement of fixed assets by charging depreciation
from profit and loss.
3.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING DEPRECIATION
Calculation of depreciation is based on the following three factors:

1. Historical Cost or other amount substituted for the Historical Cost of the Asset
when revalued. Historical cost is the amount which is paid by the entity
2. Estimated Useful Life
3. Estimated Residual Value
These factors are explained as follows -
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1. Historical Cost:
Purchase price XX
Add : Other Non-refundable taxes & duties XX
Add: Any directly attributable cost of bringing the asset to its working XX
condition for its intended use
Less: Trade discount & rebates (XX)
Cost of Asset XX
2. 'Useful Life' is either -
(a) The period over which a depreciable asset is expected to be used by the enterprise, or
(b) The number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the use of
theasset by the enterprise.
3. Residual/Scrap Value is the amount likely to be obtained by the disposal of the Fixed
Asset at the end of its Useful Life.
DEPRECIABLE AMOUNT
'Depreciable Amount' of a Depreciable Asset is determined as under:
Particulars Amount
Historical Cost, or other amount substituted for it in the Financial XX
Statements
(XX)
Less: Estimated Residual Value
Depreciable Amount XX
3.6 METHODS OF DEPRECIATION

The following methods are available for computing and allocating the depreciable amount of
an asset over its useful life -
• Fixed Instalment or Straight Line Method
• Reducing Balance or Written Down Value (WDV) Method
• Sum of Digits of Years Method
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• Machine Hour Method

• Production Units Method
• Depletion Method
3.7 FIXED INSTALMENT/ORIGINAL COST OR STRAIGHT LINE

METHOD (SLM)
• Under this method, an equal or constant amount of depreciation is written off from
Depreciable Asset every year.
• Suitable for assets which generates equal utility during every year of its useful life.
• At the end of the useful life of the asset, the cost of the asset will be NIL or equal to its
Residual Value / Scrap Value.
Straight Line Depreciation = Cost of Asset Less Residual Value
Useful Life
SLM Depreciation Rate = SLM Depreciation x 100
Cost of Asset
Example: X Ltd purchased a Machine costing Rs 10 Lakhs, having a useful life of 5 years. Its
estimated Residual Value is Rs 1 Lakh.
Straight Line Depreciation = 10,00,000-1,00,000
5
= Rs. 1,80,000 p.a
SLM Depreciation Rate = 1,80,000 x 100 = 18% p.a
10,00,000
3.8 REDUCING/DIMINISHING BALANCE/WRITTEN DOWN

VALUE (WDV) METHOD
• Depreciation Amount for each year is computed by applying a fixed % on the

Opening Balance of the Asset (i.e. Diminishing Balance of the Asset.)
• Reducing Balance refers to the Written down Value of the Asset, i.e. value of the
asset as reduced by the depreciation up to the previous year.
• The value of the asset will never be extinguished, as it happens in SLM Method.
• Depreciation Rate is computed such that at the end of the useful life of the asset, the cost
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of asset will be equal to its Residual Value / Scrap Value.

WDV Depreciation Rate = 1 –n√Residual Value
Cost of Asset
Where n = Useful Life.
X Ltd purchased a machine costing Rs 10 Lakhs with scrap value of Rs. 2,50,000 and useful
life of 10 years, and has ascertained its WDV rate as 10% p.a. Depreciation rate will be
calculated as follows:
WDV Depreciation Rate = 1 – [2,50,000/10,00,000]1/10 = 12.95% p.a (approx.)
3.9 SUM OF DIGITS OF YEARS METHOD

It is a variation of the WDV Method. Under this method, Depreciation amount for each year
is computed by applying the following formula –
Dep. = Depreciable Amount x No. of years of balance useful life (including current year)
Total of Digits of the Useful Life of the Asset (in years)
X Ltd purchased a machine costing Rs 78 Lakhs, having a useful life of 5 years, and
estimated Scrap Value Rs 3 Lakhs. Depreciation amounts for the five years will be –
Sum of digits of the year = 1+2+3+4+5 = 15
Depreciable amount = 78,00,000 – 3,00,000 = 75,00,000
Particulars Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Depreciation
Amount for 75,00,000 x 75,00,000 x 75,00,000 x 75,00,000 x 75,00,000 x
the year 1/15 2/15 3/15 4/15 5/15
= 5,00,000 = 10,00,000 = 15,00,000 = 20,00,000 = 25,00,000
Note: Depreciation is calculated on the Depreciable Amount, i.e. Cost less Residual
Value
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3.10 MACHINE HOUR METHOD
In this method, Depreciation is computed based on the number of Machine Hours (rather than
years).
Where it is practicable to keep a record of the actual running hours of each machine,
depreciation may be calculated on the basis of hours that the concerned machinery worked
for. Under machine hour rate method of calculating depreciation, the life of a machine is not
estimated in years but in hours. Thus depreciation is calculated after estimating the total
number of hours that machine would work during its whole life.
Depreciation= Depreciable Amount x No.of Machine Hours during the year
Total Machine Hours during the entire useful life
Example: X Ltd purchased a machine costing Rs 22,00,000, having a Scrap Value of Rs
1,30,000.
The machine has a useful life of 20,700 machine hours distributed as under –
 Years 1 to 3: 2,500 machine hours each,
 Years 4 to 6: 2,000 machine hours each, and
 Years 7 to 10: 1,800 machine hours each.
In this case, Depreciation Amounts will be computed as under –
Depreciable Amount = 22,00,000- 1,30,000 = 20,70,000
Depreciation per hour = 20,70,000/20,700 = 100 per hour
Year Machine Hours Depreciation amount

1 2500 2500 x100 = 2,50,000
2 2500 2500 x100 = 2,50,000
3 2500 2500 x100 = 2,50,000
4 2000 2000 x100 = 2,00,000
5 2000 2000 x100 = 2,00,000
6 2000 2000 x100 = 2,00,000
7 1800 1800 x100 = 1,80,000
8 1800 1800 x100 = 1,80,000
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9 1800 1800 x100 = 1,80,000

10 1800 1800 x100 = 1,80,000
Total 20700
3.11 PRODUCTION UNITS METHOD

In this method, Depreciation is computed based on the production / output quantity.
Depreciation = Depreciable Amount x Production Quantity for the current year
Total Estimated Production Quantity from the Machine
Question: X Ltd purchased a machine costing Rs 25,00,000, having a Scrap Value of Rs
5,00,000. The machine is expected to produce 10,00,000 units of output in the following
manner –
Years 1 & 2: 1,15,000 units each,
Years 3 to 7: 1,00,000 units each, and
Years 8 to 10: 90,000 units each.
Depreciation will be calculated as follows:
Depreciable Amount = 25,00,000- 5,00,000 = 20,00,000
Depreciation per unit = 20,00,000/10,00,000 = 2 per unit
Year Units of output Depreciation amount

1 1,15,000 1,15,000 x 2 = 3,30,000
2 1,15,000 1,15,000 x 2 = 3,30,000
3 1,00,000 1,00,000 x 2 = 2,00,000
4 1,00,000 1,00,000 x 2 = 2,00,000
5 1,00,000 1,00,000 x 2 = 2,00,000
6 1,00,000 1,00,000 x 2 = 2,00,000
7 1,00,000 1,00,000 x 2 = 2,00,000
8 90,000 90,000 x 2 = 1,80,0000
9 90,000 90,000 x 2 = 1,80,0000
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10 90,000 90,000 x 2 = 1,80,0000

Total 10,00,000
3.12 DEPLETION METHOD

 Depletion means reduction or exhaustion.
 This method is used in the case of Mines, Quarries, Oil Well, etc. containing only a
certain estimated quantity of resources / products.
Depreciation = Depreciable Amount x Quantity of Mineral / Oil extracted during current year
Total Estimated Quantity from the Mine / Quarry / Well
Question: X Ltd took a quarry on lease by paying Rs. 75,00,000. As per technical estimate,
the total quantity mineral deposit is 1,00,000 tonnes. The extraction pattern is given below –
 Year 1: 6,000 tonnes,
 Years 2 to 5: 15,000 tonnes each, and
 Years 6 & 7: 17,000 tonnes each.
Depreciation will be calculated as follows:
Depreciable Amount = 75,00,000
Depreciation per tonne = 75,00,000/1,00,000 = 75 per tonne
Year mineral deposit Depreciation amount

in tonnes
1 6,000 6,000 x 75 = 4,50,000
2 15,000 15,000 x 75 = 11,25,000
3 15,000 15,000 x 75 = 11,25,000
4 15,000 15,000 x 75 = 11,25,000
5 15,000 15,000 x 75 = 11,25,000
6 17,000 17,000 x 75 = 12,75,000
7 17,000 17,000 x 75 = 12,75,000
Total 1,00,000
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3.13 ACCOUNTING ENTRIES FOR DEPRECIATION
Depreciation can be recorded in the books of account, under 2 approaches, which are
described below:
Method Method 1 Method 2
Asset Credit Provision for Depreciation Method
Method
Journal Depreciation A/c Dr. Depreciation A/c Dr.
Entry To Fixed Asset A/c To Provision for Depreciation A/c
Profit and Loss A/cDr. Profit and Loss A/c Dr.
To Depreciation A/c To Depreciation A/c
Provision Depreciation for each year is credited to
for There is no Provision for Provision for Depreciation A/c, which
Depreciat Depreciation Account at all. shows the Accumulated Depreciation on
ion A/c the Asset.
Effect Asset A/c is shown at Historical Asset is shown in the books at Original
on Cost less Depreciation. So, balance Cost.
Asset in Asset A/c is reduced year after Net Book Value = Original Cost less
A/c year.
Accumulated Depreciation thereon.
Note: The above schemes are applicable to SLM and WDV Methods. The same treatment is
applicable under - (a) Sum of Digits, (b) Machine Hours, (c) Production Units, and (d)
Depletion Methods
3.14 CHANGE IN COST AND RESIDUAL VALUE/LIFE OF ASSET
CHANGE IN HISTORICAL COST.

The Historical Cost of a depreciable asset may undergo subsequent changes arising as a
result of increase or decrease in long term liability on account of —
(a) Exchange Rate Fluctuations,
(b) Price Adjustments,
(c) Changes in duties, or
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(d) Other similar factors.

When the Historical Cost of an asset has undergone a change due to the above circumstances
the depreciation on the revised unamortised depreciable amount is provided prospectively
over the residual useful life of the Asset.
CHANGE IN ESTIMATED USEFUL LIFE & SCRAP VALUE
The useful lives & scrap values of major depreciable assets or classes of depreciable assets
may be reviewed periodically. The change should be accounted for as a change in an
accounting estimate. Where there is a revision of the estimated useful life or scrap value of
an asset, the unamortised depreciable amount should be charged over the revised estimate.
Example: B Ltd. owns an asset with an original cost of Rs. 2,00,000. On acquisition,
management determined that the useful life was 10 years and the residual value would be Rs.
20,000. The asset is now 8 years old, and during this time there have been no revisions to the
assessed residual value. At the end of year 8, management has reviewed the useful life and
residual value and has determined that the useful life can be extended to 12 years in view of
the maintenance program adopted by the company. As a result, the residual value will reduce
to Rs. 10,000. How would the above changes in estimates be made by B Ltd.?
Solution
The changes in estimates would be effected in the following manner:
The asset has a carrying amount of Rs. 56,000 at the end of year 8 [Rs. 2,00,000 – Rs.
1,44,000] i.e. Accumulated Depreciation.
Accumulated depreciation is calculated as below:
Depreciable amount {Cost less residual value} = Rs. 2,00,000 – Rs. 20,000 = Rs. 1,80,000.
Annual depreciation = Depreciable amount / Useful life = 1,80,000 / 10 = Rs. 18,000.
Accumulated depreciation = 18,000 × No. of years (8) = Rs. 1,44,000.
Revision of the useful life to 12 years results in a remaining useful life of 4 years (12 – 8).
The revised depreciable amount is Rs. 46,000. (56,000 – 10,000)
Thus, depreciation should be charged in future at Rs. 11,500 per annum (Rs. 46,000/4 years).
3.15 CHANGE IN METHOD OF DEPRECIATION
The depreciation method applied to an asset should be reviewed at least at each financial
year-end and, if there has been a significant change in the expected pattern of consumption of
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the future economic benefits embodied in the asset, the method should be changed to reflect
the changed pattern.
Whenever any change in depreciation method is made such change in method is treated as
change in accounting estimate as per Accounting Standards.
Change in method of depreciation is applied with prospective effect. Hence, depreciation is
recalculated in accordance with the new method from the date method is changed.
3.16 REVALUATION OF DEPRECIABLE ASSETS
First Revaluation Upward Use Revaluation Surplus (R/S)
Subsequent Downward Use P & L A/c

Revaluation
Subsequent Revaluation:
Case 1st 2nd Ist 2nd
1   R/S R/S
2   P&L P&L
3   R/S Use R/S 1st
4   P&L Use P&L 1st
Example: A Plant & Machinery costing Rs. 10,00,000 is depreciated on straight line
assuming 10 year working life and zero residual value, for four years. At the end of fourth
year, the machinery was revalued upwards by Rs. 40,000. The remaining useful life was
reassessed at 8 years. Calculate depreciation for the fifth year.
Solution:
Depreciable amount {Cost less residual value} = Rs. 10,00,000 – Nil = Rs. 10,00,000.
Annual depreciation = Depreciable amount / Useful life = 10,00,000 / 10 = Rs. 1,00,000.
Accumulated depreciation = 1,00,000 × No. of years (4) = Rs. 4,00,000.
Carrying amount at the end of year 4 = Rs. 6,00,000 [Rs. 10,00,000 – Rs. 4,00,000]
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Revised carrying amount after revaluation = 6,00,000 + 40,000 = 6,40,000

Now remaining useful life 8 years.
The revised depreciable amount is Rs. 6,40,000.
Thus, depreciation for 5th year = Rs. 80,000 (Rs. 6,40,000/8 years).
3.17 CESSATION OF DEPRECIATION

Depreciation ceases to be charged:
A) When asset’s residual value exceeds its carrying amount
The residual value of an asset may increase to an amount equal to or greater than its
carrying amount. If it does, depreciation charge of the asset is zero unless and until its
residual value subsequently decreases to an amount below its carrying amount.
B) At the earlier of:
• The date that the asset is retired from active use and is held for disposal, or
• The date that the asset is derecognised
3.18 RETIREMENT
Asset is retired from active use & held for disposal
• It is to be recorded in the books at carrying amount or NRV, whichever is lower.
• Any expected loss is recognized immediately in the P&L statement.
3.19 SALE / DISPOSAL OF DEPRECIABLE ASSETS

Sale/Disposal of Depreciable Assets in dealt with in the following manner —
1. Ascertain Depreciation for the year (upto the date of disposal), and charge the same
for that year.
2. Determine Net Book Value" (or) Written Down Value of the Asset = Historical
Cost less Depreciation till date, including depreciation upto the date of disposal.
3. Compare Net Book Value of Asset with its Disposal Value and ascertain Profit /
(Loss) on disposal & thereafter transfer the Profit / (Loss) on disposal to the Profit
and Loss Account.
Example: The M/s LG Transport purchased 10 trucks at Rs. 45,00,000 each on 1st April
2018. On October 1st, 2020, one of the trucks is involved in an accident and is completely
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destroyed and Rs. 27,00,000 is received from the insurance in full settlement. On the same
date, another truck is purchased by the company for the sum of Rs. 50,00,000. The company
writes off 20% on the original cost per annum. The company observe the calendar year as
its financial year.
You are required to prepare the motor truck account for two year ending 31 Dec, 2021
Solution:
Machine A/c
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
2020 2020
1/1 To Balance b/d 2,92,50,000 1/10 By Bank A/c 27,00,000
1/10 To P&L A/c 4,50,000 1/10 By Depreciation on lost 6,75,000
(Profit on assets
Settlement of
Truck)
1/10 To Bank A/c 50,00,000 31/12 By Depreciation A/c 83,50,000
31/12 By Balance c/d 2,29,75,000
3,47,00,000 3,47,00,000
2021 2021
1/1 To Balance b/d 2,29,75,000 31/12 By Depreciation A/c 91,00,000
31/12 By Balance c/d 1,38,75,000
2,29,75,000 2,29,75,000
Working Note:
Opening balance on 01.01.2020
Original cost as on 1.4.2018 4,50,00,000

Less: Depreciation for 2018 (67,50,000)
3,82,50,000
2,92,50,000
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To find out Profit/Loss on settlement of truck

Original cost as on 1.4.2018 45,00,000
38,25,000
29,25,000
Less: Depreciation for 2020 (9 Months) (6,75,000)
22,50,000
Less: Amount received from Insurance company (27,00,000)
Profit 4,50,000
Example: A Firm purchased an old Machinery for Rs. 37,000 on 1st January, 2018 and
spent Rs. 3,000 on its overhauling. On 1st July 2019, another machine was purchased for
Rs. 10,000. On 1st July 2020, the machinery which was purchased on 1st January 2018,
was sold for Rs. 28,000 and the same day a new machinery costing Rs. 25,000 was
purchased. On 1st July, 2021, the machine which was purchased on 1st July, 2019 was
sold for Rs. 2,000.
Depreciation is charged @ 10% per annum on straight line method. The firm changed the
method and adopted diminishing balance method with effect from 1st January, 2019 and
the rate was increased to 15% per annum. The books are closed on 31st December every
year.
Prepare Machinery account for four years from 1st January, 2018.
Solution
Machine A/c
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
2018 2018
1/1 To Bank A/c 40,000 31/12 By Depreciation A/c 4,000
(37,000+3,000)
31/12 By Balance c/d 36,000
40,000 40,000
2019 2019
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1/1 To Balance b/d 36,000 31/12 By Depreciation A/c 6,150

(5,400+750)
1/7 To Bank A/c 10,000 31/12 By Balance c/d 39,850
(30,600+9,250)
46,000 46,000
2020 2020
1/1 To Balance b/d 39,850 1/7 By Bank A/c 28,000
1/7 To Bank A/c 25,000 1/7 By Depreciation A/c 2,295
1/7 By Profit & Loss A/c 305
(Loss on sale)
31/12 By Depreciation A/c 3,263
(1,388+1,875)
(7,862+23,125)
64,850 64,850
2021 2021
1/1 To Balance b/d 30,987 1/7 By Bank A/c 2,000
1/7 By Depreciation A/c 590
1/7 By Profit & Loss A/c 5,272
(Loss on sale)
31/12 By Depreciation A/c 3,469
30,987 30,987
Working Note:
Book Value of machines (Straight line method)
Machine 1 Machine 2 Machine 3
Cost of Machinery 40,000 10,000 25,000
Less: Depreciation for 2018 (4,000)
Written down value as on 31.12.2018 36,000
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Less: Depreciation for 2019 (5,400) (750)

[6 months]
Written down value as on 31.12.2019 30,600 9,250
Less: Depreciation for 2020 (2,295) (1,388) (1,875)

[6 months] [6 months]
Less: Sale Proceeds (28,000)
Loss on Sale 305
Written down value as on 31.12.2020 7,862 23,125
Depreciation for 6 months in 2021 (590)
Sale proceeds (2,000)
Loss on sale 5,272
Depreciation for 2021 (3,469)
3.20 SUMMARY
Property, plant and equipment are tangible assets that:

(c) are held for:
 use in the production or
 supply of goods or services,
 rental to others, or
 administrative purposes;
and
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(d) are expected to be used for at least 12 months.

Depreciation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its
useful life. It is the reduction in the value of fixed tangible assets due to wear and tear, up
gradation of technology and afflux of time.
Objectives for providing Depreciation:
5. To calculate True cost of production of goods or services rendered which
involve usage of Fixed assets in their production
6. To correctly measure the Income as per matching concept.
7. To depict True Financial Position by valuing the assets after deducting
depreciation
8. To provide internal funds for replacement of fixed assets by charging
depreciation from profit and loss.
Factors influencing Depreciation:
1. Historical Cost
2. Estimated Useful Life
3. Estimated Residual Value
Methods of Depreciation:
• Fixed Instalment or Straight Line Method
• Reducing Balance or Written Down Value (WDV) Method
• Sum of Digits of Years Method
• Machine Hour Method
• Production Units Method
• Depletion Method
Straight Line Method: an equal or constant amount of depreciation is written off from
Depreciable Asset every year.
Written down Value Method: Depreciation amount for each year is computed by applying a
fixed % on the Opening Balance of the Asset.
Sum of Digits of Years Method: Depreciation Amount for each year is computed by
applying the following formula –
Dep. = Depreciable Amount x No. of years of balance useful life (including current year)
Total of Digits of the Useful Life of the Asset (in years)
Machine Hour Method: Depreciation is computed based on the number of Machine Hours
(rather than years)
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Dep. = Depreciable Amount x No. of Machine Hours during the year

Total Machine Hours during the entire useful life
Production Units Methods: Depreciation is computed based on the production / output
quantity.
Dep. = Depreciable Amount x Production Quantity for the current year
Total Estimated Production Quantity from the Machine
Depletion Method: Depletion means reduction or exhaustion. This method is used in the
case of Mines, Quarries, Oil Well, etc. containing only a certain estimated quantity of
resources / products.
Dep. = Depreciable Amount x Quantity of Mineral / Oil extracted during current year
Total Estimated Quantity from the Mine / Quarry / Well

1. Explain the meaning of Depreciation and why depreciation is charged.
2. What are the factors influencing amount of depreciation.
3. Explain the Sum of digits of years and Machine hour method of depreciation.
4. Differentiate between Straight line method and Written down value method of
depreciation.
5. How change in estimated useful life, historical cost & scrap value is accounted.

5. Narayanaswamy R. Financial Accounting: A Managerial Perspective. PHI Learning
Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
6. Robert N. Anthony, David F. Hawkins, Kenneth A. Merchant. Accountancy- text and
cases. McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi.
7. Garg CA Kamal, and Sehrawat Neeraj Kumar. Beginner`s Guide to Ind AS & IFRS.
Bharat Law House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
8. Maheshwari S. N., Maheshwari Sunil K., and Maheshwari Sharad K, An Introduction
to Accountancy, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
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LESSON 4
INVENTORY VALUATION
CA.Mannu Goyal
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction to Inventory
4.3 Objective of IND AS 2
4.4 Scope of IND AS 2
4.5 Some important definitions as per IND AS 2
4.6 Measurement of Inventories
4.7 Measurement of Net Realisable Value
4.8 Writing inventories down to net realisable value
4.9 Reversals of write-downs
4.10 Recognition as an Expense
4.11 Disclosures
4.12 Summary
After reading this lesson, students will be able to understand:

• The concept of Inventory
• Scope of Ind AS-2
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• Concept of net realisable value and fair value

• Calculate the inventory cost
• Cost formula for valuation of inventory
• When and How to write-down inventory to net realisable value
• How to write down value as an expense
4.2 INTRODUCTION TO INVENTORY
Inventory refers to the goods which are acquired and held for the purpose of resale in the
ordinary course of business, or for further processing to make goods for sale. These are not
held for administrative purposes. These also includes the consumable supplies such as
lubricants, indirect material used in the production or manufacturing of goods for sale in the
ordinary course of business. For Companies following IND AS based Financial Reporting
Framework, IND AS 2 prescribes the accounting treatment for Inventory and related matters.
4.3 OBJECTIVE OF IND AS 2
The objective of IND AS 2 is as follows:

• To give the accounting treatment and definition of inventories.
• To provide the guidance on calculating the cost of inventories
• To provide guidance on both initial recognition and subsequent recognition as an
expense,
• To provide guidance on write-down of value of inventory to net realisable value.
• To provide guidance on the methods of valuation of inventory, such as
 Standard cost method
 Retail method.
• To provide acceptable methods of determining cost of inventory such as
 Specific identification method
 First-in-first-out method
 Weighted average cost method.
4.4 SCOPE OF IND AS-2

IND AS-2 prescribe accounting treatment for all inventories, except for:
1. Financial instruments (Ind AS 32 and 109 prescribe the accounting treatment)
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2. Biological assets (such as living animals and plants) related to operations of

agriculture including agricultural produce at the time of harvest (for these, Ind AS
41, Agriculture prescribes the accounting treatment). As per Ind AS 41 inventories
which are in the form of agricultural produce that is harvested from biological
assets is to be valued at fair value minus costs to sell on initial recognition.
Further IND AS-2 is not applicable to the valuation of following inventories:
1. Inventories of agriculturists and forest products, agricultural produce after harvest,
Minerals and products based on minerals, because they are valued at net realisable
value as per their own well-established industry practices. Any changes in their net
realisable value in recorded in statement of profit or loss in the period of the
change.
2. Inventories of Commodity broker-traders because they value their inventories at
fair value less costs to sell the commodities such as exchange commission, taxes
and other charges. Broker-traders are person or entities who buy or sell
commodities on behalf of their clients against commission or on their own account
or both. Any changes in the value of such commodities is recorded in statement of
profit or loss in the period of the change.
4.5 SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS AS PER IND AS 2
Let us understand some of the important terms used in understanding the guidance provided
by the Ind AS 2 which are as follows:
Inventories are tangible assets or items:
i. held for the purpose of resale in the ordinary course of business; (complete goods-
Finished Goods in case of manufacturer/ Stock in trade in case of trader)
ii. held in the process of further production for selling in the ordinary course of business
(incomplete goods-Work in progress)
iii. held as materials or supplies to be consumed in the further production process or in
the rendering of services. (Raw material or Consumable Supplies)
Note: Costs incurred to fulfill a contractual obligation under a contract with a customer is not
treated as inventories, Ind AS 115 Revenue from Contracts with Customers prescribe the
accounting for such costs.
Net realisable value (NRV): NRV can be expressed in the form of equation given below:
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Estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business - Estimated costs of completion
of work in progress or raw material- Estimated selling costs such as commission,
transportation, etc.
Therefore, NRV is the net proceeds that a business enterprise expects to receive from the
customer through sale of inventory in the ordinary course of business after recovering the
cost of completion and incidental selling expenses (if any).
Fair value is the selling price of inventory in an orderly transaction in the principal (or
most advantageous) market for the same or identical inventory on the date at which value
of inventory is measured.
Net Realisable Value differs from business to business as different business sell the same
item at different prices therefore NRV is entity-specific value while Fair Value is same for all
as it is determined by the free market forces of demand and supply for all the market
participants.
Note: NRV of inventories might not be equal fair value less costs to sell.
Fair value: As per Ind AS 113, fair value is the price in an orderly transaction between
market participants that would be either received on sale of an asset or paid to
transfer/discharge a liability at the date of valuation.
Example
X ltd holds inventories of 2,00,000 units and it could sell it in the market at Rs. 25 each. It
has received an order to sell the inventories at Rs. 28 each. The incidental selling cost per
unit is estimated to be Rs. 1 per unit.
Here, the Fair value is Rs 25 per unit, However, net realisable value is Rs. 27 (Expected
selling price (28) - expected selling expenses (1)) per unit
Difference between Net Realisable Value and Fair Value
Basis of Net Realisable Value Fair Value
distinction
Meaning It is the net amount that a business It refers to selling price of the
enterprise expects to receive from the same or identical inventory in
sale of inventory in the ordinary the principal (or most
course of business. advantageous) market in an
orderly transaction between
market participants at the date at
which inventory is valued.
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Base of differs from business to business as Is same for all as it is determined

measurement different business sell the same item by the free market forces of
at different prices therefore NRV is demand and supply for all the
entity-specific value market participants.
4.6 MEASUREMENT OF INVENTORIES
Inventories shall be measured at the lower of:

 cost of such inventory to the entity and
 net realisable value of such inventory.
Cost of Inventories- includes:
i. all costs of purchase;
ii. costs of conversion (direct wages, manufacturing expenses and other direct
expenses such as royalty per unit); and
iii. other costs incurred to bring the inventories to their present location and
condition such as transportation costs.
Cost of purchase- includes:
i. the purchase price,
ii. import duties and other indirect taxes such as GST (other than which are
recoverable subsequently from the taxing authorities such as input tax credit
in GST and duty drawbacks),
iii. transport, handling charges and
iv. other costs directly related to the purchase or acquisition of such inventory.
Note: trade discounts, rebates, subsidies if any are to be deducted from the costs of purchase.
Cash discount is not to be considered at all.
Example: ABC Ltd. buys goods from an overseas supplier. It has just purchased 2,000 units
of component X from the supplier. The quoted price of component X was Rs 1,600 per unit
but a trade discount of 10% was given. The supplier a cash discount of 2% for payment
within 45 days.
Import duties (basic custom duties) of Rs. 80 per unit to be paid at time of clearance from
customs department. Transportation cost of Rs. 25,000 to be paid to take the components to
the warehouse. Calculate the cost of Inventory.
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Solution
Particulars Amount in Rs
Purchase price (1,600x 2,000 x 90%) 28,80,000
Import duties (2,000 x 80) 1.60,000
Delivery cost 25,000
Cost of inventory 30,65,000
Cost of conversion: include costs which are directly related to the production of finished
goods, such as:
a) direct material,
b) direct labour
c) other direct costs; and
d) allocation of fixed and variable manufacturing overheads.
Fixed production overheads are indirect costs of production that remain constant in amount
in the short run regardless of the volume of production, such as
 Depreciation on Property Plant and Equipment
 Maintenance charges of factory buildings, Office equipment, Laptops,
Computers, etc.
 Cost of factory management and administration.
 Rent of the factory
 Allocation of fixed production overheads to the costs of conversion is to be done
on the basis of normal production capacity which is the average and expected
production over a number of past periods under normal circumstances after
adjusting the loss of capacity due to planned maintenance if any. The actual level
of production can also be used if it approximately equal to the normal capacity.
 If production levels are abnormally low, unallocated overheads are recognized as
an expense in the statement of profit or loss of the period in which they are
incurred.
 If there is abnormally high production, then we will take the actual production
levels so that the amount of fixed overhead allocated to each unit of production is
decreased so that inventories are not measured above the actual cost of production
to maintain the principle of prudence.
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 Variable production overheads are indirect costs of manufacturing the finished

goods varying directly, or nearly directly, with the volume of production, such as
 indirect materials such as lubricants
 indirect labour.
Variable production overheads are allocated to each unit of output on the basis of the
actual use of the inputs, production resources and facilities.
Note: Production overheads must be absorbed based on normal production capacity.
Note: The process of allocating costs to units of production is usually called absorption to
link the total production overhead to some production variable, for example, time, wages,
materials or simply the number of units expected to be manufactured.
Other costs: These are the costs which are incurred in bringing the inventories to their present
location and condition, so these are also included in the cost of inventory.
Following costs to be excluded from the cost of inventories and recognised as expense in
the Statement of Profit and Loss of the period in which they are incurred:
a) Abnormal wastage of materials, labour or other production resources and facilities;
b) Storage costs such as warehousing charges, cold storage charges,
c) Administrative overheads such as salary of permanent office staff, electricity and
other utility bill of office.
d) Selling costs such as carriage outward, sales commission, etc.
Ind AS 23 “requires that the borrowing costs shall be capitalised on qualifying assets but
excludes inventories manufactured in large quantities on a repetitive basis.
Inventories manufactured over a short period of time are not qualifying assets. However,
in case of producing small quantities over a long period of time, borrowing costs (interest
on borrowings for financing the purchase or acquisition of such inventories) are to be
added into cost of inventories.
An entity may acquire inventories on deferred payment terms (payment to be made to
suppliers in future in lump sum or in installments). If the price of inventory under such terms
is more than the price under cash payment mode, then such financing element is to be
accounted as interest expense over the period of the financing.
4.7 MEASUREMENT OF NET REALISABLE VALUE
Let us first understand the meaning of Net Realisable Value. Net Realisable Value (NRV)
refers to the estimated selling price of goods in the ordinary course of business minus the
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estimated costs of completion of work in progress minus the estimated selling expenses.
Net realisable value = estimated selling price of goods - estimated costs of completion -
estimated selling expenses.
If inventories are
1. Damaged
2. Become wholly or partially obsolete
3. Selling prices have declined due to fall in the demand
Then cost of such inventories may not be recoverable fully. In such cases, Estimates of net
realisable value on the basis of most reliable information available with respect to amount
expected to be realized from inventories. These estimates should be made after considering
price or cost fluctuations with respect to events occurring after reporting date or after the
end of the accounting period on the basis of conditions that exists on the reporting date.
Estimates should be made after considering the main purpose and objective of holding the
inventory. For example, the net realisable value of inventory which is held to supply
against firm sales or service contracts is to be determined on the basis of individual
contract price agreed with the customers. If the contracts for sale of inventory are for the
quantity which is lesser than the quantity of inventory held by the entity, then net realisable
value of such excess inventory to be supplied is determined on the basis of general selling
prices prevailing in the market or as per the recent sales contracts or transactions.
Inventories are usually written down to net realisable value item by item and not on the
basis of a classification of inventory into raw material, work in progress, finished goods.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Cost of Inventories- includes: all costs of purchase; costs of conversion
(direct wages, manufacturing expenses and other direct expenses such as
royalty per unit); and other costs incurred to bring the inventories to their
present location and condition such as transportation costs.
All of the above
7. Cost of purchase- includes: the purchase price, import duties and other
indirect taxes such as GST (other than which are recoverable subsequently
from the taxing authorities such as input tax credit in GST and duty
drawbacks), transport, handling charges and
a) All of the above
8. If production levels are abnormally low, unallocated overheads are
recognized as ______________.
9. If there is abnormally high production, then ______________is taken to
allocate fixed overhead allocated to each unit of production.
10. Variable production overheads are allocated to each unit of output on the
basis of the ____________.
11. Following costs to be excluded from the cost of inventories and
recognised as expense in the Statement of Profit and Loss of the period in
which they are incurred:
a) Abnormal wastage of materials, labour or other production resources
and facilities
b) Storage costs such as warehousing charges, cold storage charges
c) Administrative and selling overheads
d) All of the above.
e) None of the above
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4.8 WRITING INVENTORIES DOWN TO NET REALISABLE

VALUE
Only Work in Progress and Finished Goods are to be written down below the cost to their Net
Realisable Value.
Generally Raw Materials and Consumable Supplies held for use in the production of finished
goods are not to be written down below cost till the time the finished products in which they
will be used are expected to be sold at or above cost.
However, if due to fall in selling price below the net realizable value of the finished products
in which raw material or consumable supplies are to used, then materials and consumable
supplies are to be written down to net realisable value by taking replacement cost of such
materials as their NRV as these are considered the most reliable and best available measure
of their net realisable value.
4.9 REVERSALS OF WRITE-DOWNS
For instance, when an inventory is carried at net realisable value, because due to fall in
demand its selling price in the market has declined, but in the subsequent accounting period
and its selling price has increased. In such cases IND AS 2 provides the following guidance
which is as follows:
Net realisable value is determined in each subsequent accounting period.
If the earlier circumstances causing inventories to be valued at below cost does not exists or
there are changes in economic circumstances evidencing increase in net realisable value of
inventories, then the write-down amount is to be reversed upto the amount of the original
write-down so that the new carrying value is the lower of the cost and the net realisable value
(revised).
Question: Whether the following costs should be considered while determining the Net
Realisable Value (NRV) of the inventories?
(a) Costs of completion of work-in-progress;
(b) Trade discounts expected to be allowed on sale; and
(c) Cash discounts expected to be allowed for prompt payment
Question: ABC Ltd. manufactures and sells paper envelopes. The stock of envelopes was
included in the closing inventory as of 31st March, 20X1, at a cost of Rs. 50 per pack.
During the final audit, the auditors noted that the subsequent sale price for the inventory at
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15th April, 20X1, was Rs. 40 per pack. Furthermore, enquiry reveals that during the
physical stock take, a water leakage has created damages to the paper and the glue.
Accordingly, in the following week, ABC Ltd. has spent a total of Rs. 15 per pack for
repairing and reapplying glue to the envelopes.
Calculate the net realizable value and inventory write-down (loss) amount.
Question: At the end of its financial year, Company P has 100 units of inventory on hand
recorded at a carrying amount of Rs. 10 per unit. The current market price is Rs. 8 per unit
at which these units can be sold. Company P has a firm sales contract with Company Q to
sell 60 units at Rs. 11 per unit, which cannot be settled net. Estimated incremental selling
cost is Rs. 1 per unit.
Determine Net Realisable Value (NRV) of the inventory of Company P.
Question: A business has four items of inventory. A count of the inventory has established
that the amounts of inventory currently held, at cost, are as follows:
Cost Estimated Sales price Selling costs

Inventory item A1 8,000 7,800 500
Inventory item A2 14,000 18,000 200
Inventory item B1 16,000 17,000 200
Inventory item C1 6,000 7,500 150
Determine the value of closing inventory in the financial statements of a business.
Net realisable value for raw material
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Particulars Kg. Rs.

Opening Inventory: Finished Goods 1,000 25,000
Raw Materials 1,100 11,000
Purchases 10,000 1,00,000
Labour 76,500
Overheads (Fixed) 75,000
Sales 10,000 2,80,000
Closing Inventory: Raw Materials 900
Finished Goods 1200
The expected production for the year was 15,000 kg of the finished product. Due to fall in
market demand the sales price for the finished goods was Rs. 20 per kg and the replacement
cost for the raw material was Rs. 9.50 per kg on the closing day. You are required to
calculate the closing inventory as on that date.
Sun Pharma Limited, a renowned company in the field of pharmaceuticals has the following
four items in inventory: The Cost and Net realizable value is given as follows:
Item Cost Net Realisable Value
A 2,000 1,900
B 5,000 5,100
C 4,400 4,550
D 3,200 2,990
Total 14,600 14,540
Determine the value of Inventories:
a. On an item by item basis
b. On a group basis
4.10 RECOGNITION AS AN EXPENSE
The amount of inventories to be recorded or written off as an expense in the accounting

period will usually be:
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1) carrying amount of the inventories sold in the accounting period in which related
revenue is recognized in the statement of profit and loss or income statement; and
2) the amount of any write-down of inventories to their net realisable value and all
losses of inventories thereof shall be recorded as an expense in the accounting
period in which the write-down or loss occurs reduced by the amount of any
reversal in the same accounting period of any write-down of inventories due to
increase in net realisable value shall be recorded as a reduction in the amount of
inventories recognised as an expense in the period in which the reversal occurs.
Some inventories may be allocated to other asset accounts, for example, inventory used as a
component of self-constructed property, plant or equipment. Inventories allocated to another
asset in this way are recognised as an expense during the useful life of that asset through
charging of depreciation on that asset.
Example:
An item of inventory costing Rs.20,000 as covered under Ind AS 2 is consumed in the
construction of self-constructed property to be accounted as Property, plant and equipment
under Ind AS 16. The cost of such property, plant and equipment other than inventories is
Rs.80,000. Such Inventory needs to be capitalized in the cost of Property, plant and
equipment. The useful life of the property is 5 years. The depreciation on such property
charged to profit and loss account is Rs.20,000 per annum (i.e. 1,00,000/ 5)
4.11 DISCLOSURES
The financial statements shall make the following disclosures with respect to inventories:
1. Accounting Policies with respect to valuation of Inventory
2. Inventories pledged as security for raising funds
3. Detailed analysis of carrying amount of inventory, classified into its components or
categories
4. Amounts recognized in the Statement of profit or loss as expense during the current
year
5. Inventory carried at fair value less costs to sell
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Accounting policies
Inventories pledged Analysis of carrying

as security amount
Amounts Inventories carried

recognised in profit or at fair value less
loss
costs to sell
4.12 SUMMARY
Inventories are tangible items which are:

a) held for sale in the ordinary course of business (Finished Goods)
b) held in the process of production for further processing so that they can be sold as
finished goods (Work in progress)
c) in the form of raw materials or consumable supplies to be consumed or utilized in the
production process or rendering of services to customers.
Net realisable value is the estimated selling price of the goods in the ordinary course of
business - Estimated costs of completion (if the goods are not ready for sale as such) -
Estimated selling costs (such as distribution expenses, selling commission or transportation
expenses).
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Fair value is the selling price of same or identical inventory in the principal (or most
advantageous) market place between market participants (in an orderly transaction) at the
date of measurement.
Inventories or closing stock shall be valued (at the end of each accounting period) at the
lower of:
1. cost of inventory
2. Net realizable value
Disclosures to be made in financial statements with respect to Inventory:
1. Accounting Policies
2. Inventories pledged as Security
3. Detailed analysis of carrying amount into its components
4. Amounts recognized in the Statement of profit or loss
5. Inventory carried at fair value less costs to sell
1. Explain the meaning of Inventory.

2. What are the objectives and Scope of IND AS 2?
3. What are the different classification of Inventory?
4. Differentiate between Net Realisable Value and Fair value.
5. Explain the following term:
i. Net Realisable Value
ii. Fair Value.
6. Explain the situations when the Inventories are required to be written down to their
Net Realisable Value.
7. State the circumstances when the written down to Net Realisable Value is to be
reversed.
8. What are the disclosures to be made in the Financial Statements with respect to
Inventory?
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Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
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LESSON 5
ANALYSIS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION
CA.Mannu Goyal
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Understanding Accounting Ratio and Analysis of Accounting Ratios
5.4 Expressing Accounting Ratios in different Forms
5.5 Objectives of Ratio Analysis
5.6 Significance of Ratio Analysis
5.7 Limitations of Ratio Analysis
5.8 Types of Ratios
5.9 Liquidity (Short-term Solvency) Ratios
5.10 Solvency Ratios
5.11 Activity Ratios
5.12 Profitability Ratios
5.13 Summary
5.14 Glossary
After reading this lesson, students will be able to understand:

 The concept of Ratio and Ratio Analysis
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 Forms of expressing ratios

 Significance of Ratio Analysis
 Liquidity Ratios
 Long term Solvency Ratios
 Profitability ratios
 Activity ratios
5.2 INTRODUCTION
The users of financial statements (shareholders/owners/investors, management, employees,

lenders, competitors, government and regulatory agencies, auditors, etc.) are always
interested in understanding and interpreting the meaning of financial information contained in
the financial statements, which is possible only by understanding the relationships between
various financial variables contained in balance sheet and statement of profit and loss. Such
analysis is known as the Accounting Ratio Analysis.
Ratios analysis helps in identifying the patterns and trends in income, expenses, sales growth
and helps to predict the future financial position and results (profit or loss).
5.3 UNDERSTANDING ACCOUNTING RATIO AND ANALYSIS OF

ACCOUNTING RATIOS
Ratio: It is a mathematical expression of indicating relationship between two interdependent

quantities which can be financial items or variables in the financial statements or two
accounting figures.
Accounting Ratio: when ratio is calculated between two financial or accounting variables
on the basis of information given in the financial statements, balance sheet, profit and loss
account such as profit, sales, assets, liabilities, debtors, creditors, etc.
Accounting Ratio Analysis: it the mechanism of studying relationship among various
financial variables (such as profit, sales, assets, liabilities, debtors, creditors) with the help of
accounting ratios. It is a process of determining and interpreting relationships between
financial variables given in the financial statements to obtain an understanding of trends and
making future predictions of the financial performance and position of a business enterprise.
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5.4 EXPRESSING ACCOUNTING RATIOS IN DIFFERENT FORMS

Accounting ratios can be expressed in the following forms:
1. Pure: ratio is expressed as a quotient such as current ratio, quick ratio, etc.
2. Percentage: ratio is expressed in the form of percentage such as net profit ratio, gross
profit ratio, return on investment, etc.
3. Times: ratio is expressed in number of times a financial variable in terms of
another financial variable such as debtors turnover ratio, creditors turnover ratio,
inventory turnover ratio etc.
5.5 OBJECTIVES OF RATIO ANALYSIS

Ratio analysis is done with the following objectives:
1. Making understanding of financial information presented in the financial statement
very simple and precise.
2. Facilitating determination of both liquidity and long-term solvency of the business
enterprise.
3. Assists in determining the operating efficiency.
4. Facilitating analysis of profitability.
5. Comparative study which can be either intra-firm (of the same entity over different
periods) or inter firm (from one entity to another) comparisons.
5.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF RATIO ANALYSIS
Ratio Analysis offers the following advantages:

1. Determining Operating Efficiency: ratio analysis helps in assessing and evaluating
liquidity (short term solvency), solvency and profitability of a business enterprise.
2. Inter-firm comparison and Intra-firm comparison of performance: When
performance is compared with performance other business organisations in the same
industry, it is called Inter-firm Comparison. While, if the performance of same
organisation over different years is compared or performance of different divisions or
segments within the same organisation is compared, it is called Intra-firm
Comparison. Accounting ratios facilitates both inter firm and intra-firm comparisons.
3. Helps in Analysis of Financial position and performance: Through ratios users of
financial information can analyse the financial statements to know financial position
and performance of a business enterprises. There are many stakeholders such as
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bankers, regulators, investors, tax authorities, creditors, owners, management, etc.

who are interested in knowing the financial performance and position of the business
enterprise.
4. Helps in making Forecasts: Accounting ratios helps to identify the trends in
financial performance or activities of the organisation which helps in future planning
and forecasting.
5. Simplifies Accounting Information: Ratios summarises the results of detailed and
complicated information in a very precise manner.
6. Spotting/locate Weak Areas: Accounting ratios can be used to locate the weak areas
where the business is not performing well as compared to past years or others in the
industry. Therefore management can take prompt corrective actions to improve the
performance in those areas.
5.7 LIMITATIONS OF RATIO ANALYSIS
Besides many advantages, ratio analysis suffers from the following disadvantages
1. No Standard Ratio: There is no benchmark against which actual ratios can be
compared determine whether a ratio is favourable or adverse.
2. Reliability issues: Ratios are calculated on the basis of information given in the
financial statement which is not futuristic but relates to past only, further if the
information available is not then ratios will be incorrectly calculated. Therefore, one
cannot completely rely on ratios to make any future economic decisions.
3. Qualitative Aspects are ignored: Ratios considers only quantitative factors and all
the qualitative factors such as efficiency of management, customer satisfaction level,
etc. are ignored, which are also to be considered future decision making.
4. Incomparable in case of different Financial Reporting Framework: Different
entities within the same industry may follow different Financial Reporting Framework
having different policies and procedures for preparing and presenting financial
statements. Due to which amount of financial items such as sale, profit, current assets,
etc. would also differ. Thus, accounting ratios of different business organisation
cannot be compared as they based on information derived from different accounting
policies and methods.
5. Ignores changes in Price Level: Since accounting is based on the historical cost
concept, the assets are carried at historical cost minus accumulated depreciation and
not on their current market value prevailing in the relevant market.
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6. Scope for Manipulations and Window Dressing: Accounting cannot prevent the
inherent risk of window dressing by the internal management to modify the financial
performance and position to gain undue advantage at the cost of users, thus
manipulative information will make ratios inaccurate leading to incorrect calculation
of ratios affecting the economic decisions taken on the basis such incorrect ratios.
7. Personal Judgement: Since, recording of transactions and events, preparation of
financial statements is largely influenced by personal judgments of management.
Therefore, accounting ratios calculated on the basis of such information on
comparable and are biased.
5.8 TYPES OF RATIOS

Ratios are classified into the following types:
1. Liquidity or Short-term solvency ratios: These are the ratios which are
concerned with evaluating the ability of a business organisation to meet its short-
term financial obligations or current liabilities (which are to be settled within
normal operating cycle or 12 months from the reporting date) on time. It includes
the following ratios:
1. Current Ratio (which relationship between Current Assets and Current
Liabilities)
2. Liquid Asset/ Acid Test/ Quick Ratio (relationship between liquid or Quick
Assets and Current Liabilities)
2. Solvency or long-term solvency ratios: These are the ratios which are concerned
with evaluating the long-term financial leverage and solvency of the business
organisation. They depict the ability of business to repay the long-term financial
obligations such as debentures, long term bank loan, public deposits. It includes
the following ratios:
1. Debt to Equity or Debt Equity Ratio (DE) (relationship between shareholders’
funds and debt)
2. Total Assets to Debt Ratio (relationship between total assets and debt)
3. Proprietary Ratio (relationship between shareholders fund and total assets)
4. Interest Coverage Ratio (relationship between interest and earnings before
interest)
These ratios are concerned with assessment of capital structure, sources and application of
funds.
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3. Activity/Turnover ratios: These are the ratios which are concerned with
evaluating how efficiently the entity has utilised the resources in the business
operations. It includes the following ratios:
1. Inventory Turnover Ratio (relationship between cost of revenue from
operation and average inventory)
2. Debtor/Trade Receivables Turnover Ratio (relationship between net credit
sales or credit revenue from operations and Average Trade Receivables)
3. Creditor/Trade Payables Turnover Ratio (relationship between net credit
purchases and Average Trade Payables including creditors and bills payable)
4. Working Capital Turnover Ratio (relationship between net sales and working
capital)
4. Profitability: These are the ratios which are concerned with evaluating the earning
capacity of the business organisation as a return on the resources used. It includes the
following ratios:
1. Gross Profit Ratio (relationship between Gross profit and sales)
2. Operating Ratio (relationship between operating cost and sales)
3. Operating Profit Ratio (relationship between operating profit and sales)
4. Net Profit Ratio (relationship between net profit and sales)
5. Return on Investment (relationship between profit and capital employed)
5.9 LIQUIDITY (SHORT-TERM SOLVENCY) RATIOS

Liquidity ratios are concerned with determining the ability to meet its short-term financial
obligations or current liabilities (which are to be settled within normal operating cycle or 12
months from the reporting date) on time. It includes the following ratios:
1. Current Ratio: It is a ratio which is concerned with explaining the relationship
between the current assets and current liabilities.
It evaluates the ability of a business organisation to meet or settle its short-term financial
obligations or current liabilities on time from the realisation of current assets. It is expressed
in the form of pure ratio.
Current ratio can be expressed as follows:
Current Ratio = Current Assets
Current Liabilities
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Ideal or acceptable Current Ratio is 2: 1, current assets must be at least double the amount of
current liabilities so as to provide a sufficient cover for current liabilities.
High Current Ratio indicates better liquidity however very high current ratio indicates poor
credit worthiness among the suppliers and creditors and poor operational efficiency.
Current Assets: these are the assets which are expected to be utilised, realised or
converted into Cash and Cash Equivalents within normal operating cycle or within 12
months from the reporting date whichever is higher. It includes:
1. Short-term loans and advances
2. Current Investments (shares and securities of other entities)
3. Inventories (excluding Loose Tools and Stores and Spares) in the form of raw
material, work in progress, finished goods, stock in trade
4. Trade Receivables (sum of bill receivables and sundry debtors)
5. Cash and Cash Equivalents (credit balance in current account with bank, cash in hand,
time deposits of upto three months, cheques/drafts in hand and other marketable
securities)
6. Other Current Assets (advance given to suppliers of raw material, prepaid expenses,
accrued interest, etc.)
Current Liabilities: these are the liabilities which are expected to be settled or repayable
through outflow of economic resources within 12 months from the reporting date or
within the period of normal operating cycle. It includes:
1. Short-term borrowings (short term bank loans, cash credit, bank overdraft)
2. Short-term provisions (provision for discount on debtors, provision for income
taxation, provision for doubtful debts, etc.)
3. Trade Payables (sum of bills payable and sundry creditors)
4. Other Current Liabilities ( not included in the above categories)
Other Current Liabilities includes the following:
• Current maturities of long term loans or borrowings
• Accrued interest (earned) but not due and not received
• Interest accrued and due (earned but not received)
• Outstanding expenses (outstanding salary, outstanding rent, etc.)
• Unpaid dividend
• Calls-in- advance (advance received for call money on shares), etc.
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Operating Cycle: It is the time span between the acquisition of resources (raw material,
stock in trade, labour) for processing or production of goods and their conversion into
Cash and Cash Equivalents after sale and receipt of cash from debtors.
Note: If the normal operating cycle cannot be determined or not given in the question,
then take it as 12 months for classifying assets and liabilities as current and non-current.
Working Capital: The amount of capita which is used in meeting day to day expenses
and payment to suppliers. It refers to amount by which Current Assets exceeds Current
Liabilities.
Formula for Working Capital is given as:
Working Capital = Current Assets - Current Liabilities
Example: From the following information calculate Current Ratio:
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
Debtors 3,60,000 Bills Payable 40,000
Insurance (prepaid) 80,000 Creditors 2,00,000
Cash at bank 1,00,000 Long term bank loan 8,00,000
Treasury bills 1,00,000 Raw material 1,60,000
Plant and 10,00,000 Outstanding salary 1,60,000
machinery
Solution:
Current Assets = Debtors + Insurance (prepaid) + Cash at bank + Treasury bills + Raw
material
= 3,60,000 + 80,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,60,000
= 8, 00,000
Current Liabilities = Bills Payable + Creditors + Outstanding salary
= 40,000 + 2,00,000 + 1,60,000
= 4,00,000
Current ratio = Current assets/Current liabilities
=8,00,000/4,00,000
=2:1
Here current ratio is equal to the ideal current ratio
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2. Quick or Liquid ratio or Acid Test Ratio: This ratio is concerned with evaluating
the current ability of the business organisation to meet its short-term financial
obligations or current liabilities which arises within normal operating cycle or 12
months from the reporting date. It studies the relationship between liquid assets and
current liabilities. It a better, more prudent and strict indicator of liquidity or short
term solvency as compared to the current ratio because it does not takes into account
blocked assets such as prepaid expenses and inventory which cannot be used to pay
the current liabilities. It is expressed in the form of a pure ratio.
Liquid or Quick Ratio or Acid test Ratio
= Liquid or Quick Assets (Current Assets- Prepaid expenses- Inventory)
Current Liabilities
Idle Ratio: 1: 1, liquid assets must be at least equal to amount of current liabilities to
make their payment on time.
Liquid Assets: These assets are more liquid as compared to current assets and constitutes
mainly Cash and Cash Equivalents or assets which can be converted into Cash and Cash
Equivalent within the normal operating cycle or 12 months whichever is higher.
Liquid Assets or Quick Assets = Current Assets- Prepaid expenses- Inventory.
Prepaid expenses and inventory are deducted from current assets to obtain the amount of
liquid assets because inventories takes time in production and sale to convert in cash and
cash equivalents after recovery from trade receivables and prepaid expenses are already
been paid to outsiders and cannot be used to pay the outsiders and cannot be readily
converted into cash.
Liquid Assets includes the following assets:
• Short-term Loans and Advances,
• Current Investment (into the shares and securities of other entities),
• Trade Receivables ( sum of sundry debtors and trade receivables),
• Cash and Cash Equivalents (cash in hand, credit balance in current
account at bank, time deposits of up to three months, cheques/drafts in hand and other
marketable securities),
• Other Current Assets other than Prepaid Expenses.
Example:
Consider the following information:
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Current Assets 12,00,000; Inventories 2,40,000; Working Capital 10,08,000. Determine

Quick Ratio.
Solution:
We know that, Quick Assets = Current Assets- – Inventories (other than loose tools and
spares) - prepaid expenses
= 12,00,000 - 2,40,000- 0
= 9,60,000
Current Liabilities = Current Assets- Working Capital
= 12,00,000-10,08,000 = 1,92,000
Quick Ratio = Quick Assets or Liquid Assets / Current Liabilities
=9,60,000/1,92,000 = 5:1
Current Ratio vs. Quick Ratio:
Basis of Current Ratio Quick Ratio/Liquid Ratio/Acid

Distinction test Ratio
Relationship Between Current Assets and Between the Liquid Assets/Quick
Current Liabilities. Assets and Current Liabilities.
Evaluation Shows ability to pay current Ability to meet Current liabilities

liabilities out of current assets immediately out of liquid assets.
which are to be settled within a
period of 12 months from the
reporting date 931st March) or
within the period of normal
Operating Cycle whichever is
higher.
Ideal Ratio Ideal Ratio is 2:1. Ideal Ratio is 1:1.
Measure The short-term financial position Better and more prudent than
or liquidity. Current Ratio as it excludes
blocked current assets such as
inventory and prepaid expenses.
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5.10 SOLVENCY RATIOS
Solvency Ratios are also known as Long term liquidity ratios as these are concerned with
assessment of capital structure, sources and application of funds.
These are the ratios which are concerned with evaluating the long-term financial leverage
and solvency of the business organisation. They depict the ability of business to repay the
long-term financial obligations such as debentures, long term bank loan, and public
deposits. It includes the following ratios:
1. Debt to Equity or Debt Equity Ratio (DE) (relationship between shareholders’ funds
and debt)
2. Total Assets to Debt Ratio (relationship between total assets and debt)
3. Proprietary Ratio (relationship between shareholders fund and total assets)
4. Interest Coverage Ratio (relationship between interest and earnings before interest)
Debt-to Equity Ratio: This ratio is widely used in the industry and is concerned with
analysing the relationship between borrowed funds or long-term external debts (includes
long-term loans, debentures, public deposits and long-term provisions) and Owners’ fund or
Equity (Proprietary funds / Equity/Shareholders’ Funds consisting of share capital and
reserves and surplus).
It determines the capital structure-the mix of outside debts (borrowed funds) and owner’s
funds invested in the total resources of the organisation. It assesses long-term financial
soundness of the business enterprise and indicates dependency of business enterprise on
external borrowed funds for financing its resources. It is expressed in the form of Pure Ratio.
Debt to Equity Ratio = Debt (Non-current liabilities)
Equity (Shareholder's Funds)
Debt includes the following items:
1. Long term Borrowings (debentures, public deposits, loans from bank)
2. Long term Provisions (provision for Gratuity, leave encashment)
3. Deferred tax Liabilities
4. Other Non-Current liabilities
Long term Borrowings:
• These are the borrowings that are due to be settled beyond 12 months from the
reporting date (31st March) or after the operating cycle period whichever is higher.
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• Part of Long Term Borrowings payable within 12 months from the reporting date
or normal operating cycle period whichever is higher, then such borrowing is
termed as ‘Current Maturities of Long Term Debts’ shown under the head Current
Liabilities and will not be considered as Debt while calculating Debt to Equity
ratio.
Long term Provisions: These are the provisions for liabilities to be settled after 12
months from Balance Sheet date or normal Operating Cycle period whichever is higher.
These are shown as line item under the head Non-current liabilities in the balance sheet.
Debt = Long-term Borrowings + Long-term Provisions+ deferred tax liabilities + other long
term liabilities
Or
= Total of Equity and liabilities – Non current liabilities -Current Liabilities
Or
= Capital Employed – Equity (shareholders fund)
Equity = Share Capital + Reserves & Surplus
Capital Employed = Non-Current liabilities + Shareholder fund (Share Capital + Reserves
and Surplus)
Non-Current Assets = Tangible Fixed Assets (Property Plant Equipment) + Intangible
Fixed Assets + Non-Current Trade Investments + Deferred tax Assets + Long-term Loans
and Advances + Other Non-Currents Assets.
Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
Note: If there exists Negative Balance of profit in Statement of Profit & Loss under Reserves
and Surplus is deducted from Reserves and Surplus to calculate the Shareholders’ Funds.
Example: Consider the following information:
Particulars Amount
Property Plant and Equipment 16,80,000
Accumulated Depreciation on Property 2,80,000
Plant and Equipment
Non-current Investments in shares and 28,000
securities
Long-term Loans and Advances to related 1,12,000
parties
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Current Assets 7,00,000

Current Liabilities 5,60,000
16% Long-term Borrowings 8,40,000
Long-term Provision for gratuity 2,80,000
Determine Debt to Equity Ratio

Solution:
Debt = 16% Long-term Borrowings + Long-term Provision for gratuity
= 8,40,000+2,80,000 = 11,20,000
Equity = Total Assets - Total external Debts
= (16,80,000 -2,80,000+28,000+1,12,000+7,00,000) -(4,20,000-1,40,000 -2,80,000)
= 5,60,000
Debt /Equity Ratio = Debt (Non-Current Liabilities)/Equity (Shareholders Funds)
=11,20,000/5,60,000=2:1
Total Assets to Debt Ratio: It is the ratio which is concerned with explaining relationship
between total assets (Current as well as Non-Current) and Non-Current Liabilities of the
business enterprise.
It determines the proportion to which payment of Long term debt or borrowing is covered by
the total assets both current and non-current assets. It calculates the ‘Safety Margin or cover’
available to the lenders or outside debt holders to recover their debts.
A high total assets to debt ratio indicates higher safety margin for lenders and vice versa. It is
expressed in the form of a Pure Ratio.
Formula for Total Assets to Debt Ratio is given as follows:
Total Assets to Debt Ratio = Total Assets (Non-current Assets + Current Assets)
Debt (Long-term Debts)
Total Assets: These include both Non-current and Current assets which are as follows:
Non-Current Assets: This includes the following assets:
 Fixed assets or Property Plant and Equipment and Intangible Assets (tangible and
intangible fixed assets, capital work in progress, intangible assets under development)
 Non-Current Investments (in shares and securities of other entities)
 Deferred Tax Assets (net of Deferred Tax Assets and Deferred Tax Liabilities)
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 Long term Loans and Advances

 Other non-current assets (not included in above)
Current Assets: This includes the following assets:
1. Current Investments (in shares and securities of other entities)
2. Inventories (including spare parts and loose tools)
3. Trade Receivables (sum of sundry debtors and trade receivables)
4. Cash and Cash Equivalents (cash in hand, credit balance in current account with bank,
time deposits of up to three months, cheques/drafts in hand and other marketable
securities)
5. Short-term Loans and Advances (advance or loan given to directors, managers,
employees)
6. Other Current Assets (such as prepaid insurance, prepaid rent, etc.)
Debts: This will include:
1. Long-term Borrowings
2. Deferred Tax liabilities
3. Long-term Provisions
4. Other non-current liabilities
Proprietary Ratio: this ratio is concerned with explaining the relationship between
proprietor’s fund (Shareholders' Funds or Equity) and total assets of the business enterprise
showing the financial strength and financial risk or leverage of the business. It shows the
proportion of total assets funded by the shareholders’ money in the form of shareholders’
funds. Lenders and banks use it identify the portion of shareholders’ funds and external
borrowed funds in the total assets employed to measure safety margin or cover available to
them against their funds invested in the form of loans.
A very high Proprietary ratio indicates that management is not using the concept of trading
on equity and there is improper mix of owner’ funds and borrowed funds leading to lower
return on investment to equity owners. However it indicates the safety margin for creditors
and lenders while, lower ratio means inadequate cover for lenders of funds.
Proprietary Ratio = Proprietor's Funds or Shareholders' Funds or Equity
Total Assets (Current Assets + Non-Current Asset)
Proprietors’ Funds/ Shareholders' Funds: This can be calculated using two
approaches:
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1. Liabilities Approach: In this approach,

Proprietors’ funds = Share Capital (Equity Share Capital+ Preference Share Capital) +
Reserves and Surplus (General Reserve, Securities Premium reserve, credit balance of
Surplus).
2. Assets Approach: In this approach,
Proprietors’ funds = Non-current Assets + Working Capital (Current Assets –
Current Liabilities) – Non-current Liabilities.
Interest Coverage Ratio: This is the most popular ratio used in the industry by
professionals, credit rating agencies as it explains the relationship between Net Income before
Interest and Tax and Interest on Long Term borrowings or other fixed financial charges. It
evaluates profit available to provide as cover against fixed financial service obligations or
interest on long term debts including preference dividend. It is expressed in number of times.
A high Interest Coverage Ratio provides a signal of high cover of profit to meet the interest
payments, thereby creating a confidence among the lenders about the financial strength and
earning capacity of the entity.
Formula for Interest Coverage Ratio is given as:
Interest Coverage Ratio = Profit before Interest and Tax
Interest on Long-Term Debt + Preference Dividend
5.11 ACTIVITY RATIOS
Inventory Turnover Ratio (ITR):

a. It shows relationship between Cost of Goods Sold and Inventory.
b. It determines whether the investment in stock is efficiently utilised to generate
sales.
c. It depicts the number of times a business organisation sells and replaces its
inventory during a year.
d. A high ratio indicates more sales per rupee of investment in the inventories.
ITR = Cost of Revenue from Operations (Cost of Goods Sold)
Average Inventory (Opening Inventory + Closing Inventory)
Calculation of Cost of Revenue from Operations or Cost of Goods Sold:
In case of a trader:
Cost of Revenue from Operations = Opening Inventory+ Net Purchases (Purchases-Purchase
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return) + Direct Expenses (Carriage Inward + Wages) - Closing Inventory

In case of a Manufacturer:
Cost of Revenue from Operations = Cost of Raw Materials Consumed + Purchases of Stock-
in-Trade + Changes in Inventories of Finished Goods, Work in Progress & Stock- in-Trade +
Direct Expenses (Carriage Inward + Wages)
Direct Expenses: if no direct expenses are given in question, then assume it to be nil.
Average Inventory: (Opening Inventory + Closing Inventory) ÷ 2
Revenue from Operations: 32,00,000
Average Inventory: 4,40,000
Gross Loss Ratio 10%
From the above information, calculate Inventory Turnover Ratio
Solution:
Gross Loss = Cost of Revenue from Operations (Cost of Goods Sold) - Revenue from Operations
(sales)
Cost of Revenue from Operations = Sales +Gross Loss
= 32,00,000+1,60,000
= 33,60,000
Inventory Turnover Ratio = Cost of Goods Sold /Average Inventory
= 33,60,000/4,40,000 = 7.64 times
Particulars Amount in Rs.
Sales 8,00,000
Gross Profit 2,00,000
Closing stock 2, 40,000
Excess of Closing Inventory over Opening 80,000
Inventory
Calculate Inventory Turnover Ratio from the above information.

Solution:
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Sales = 8,00,000
Gross Profit = 2,00,000
= Sales − Gross Profit
= 8,00,000 − 2,00,000
Cost of Goods Sold = 6,00,000
Let Opening Inventory =x
Closing Inventory = x + 80,000
2,40,000 = x + 80,000
x = 1,60,000
Opening Inventory = 1,60,000
Average Inventory= (1, 60,000+2,40,000)/2
Average Inventory= 2,00,000
Cost of Goods Sold = Revenue - Gross Profit
Cost of Goods Sold = 8,00,000 - 2,00,000=6,00,000
Inventory turnover Ratio (ITR) = Cost of Goods Sold or Cost of revenue from
operation/Average inventory
ITR = 6,00,000/2,00,000
Inventory turnover Ratio = 3 Times
Example: Consider the following financial information of Abhishek limited:
Particulars 2021-22 2022-23
Closing Inventory on 31st 14,00,000 34,00,000
March
1,00,00,000 1,50,00,000
Sales during the year
Gross Profit is 25% on Cost of Goods Sold
In the year 2021-22, inventory increased by 4,00,000.
Calculate the Inventory Turnover Ratio for the years 2021-22 and 2022-23 from the above
information
Solution:
Gross Profit=1,00,00,000×25/125=20,00,000
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Cost of goods sold=1,00,00,000-20,00,000 =80,00,000

Opening Inventory=14,00,000-4,00,000=10,00,000
Average Inventory= (10,00,000+14,00,000)/2=12,00,000
Inventory turnover Ratio (2021-22) = 80,00,000/12,00,000
Inventory turnover Ratio (2021-22) = 6.67 Times
Gross Profit=1,50,00,000×25/125=30,00,000
Cost of goods sold=1,50,00,000-30,00,000 =1,20,00,000
Average Inventory= (14,00,000+34,00,000)/2=24,00,000
Inventory turnover Ratio (2022-23) = 1,20,00,000/24,00,000
Inventory turnover Ratio (2022-23) = 5 Times
Debtor/ Trade Receivables Turnover ratio: This is one of the most popular and widely
used ratio which is concerned with explaining the relationship between Credit Revenue from
Operations (Net Credit Sales) and Average Trade Receivables (Average debtors + Average
bills receivable).
It shows the number of times debtors are turned over or realized in a year with respect to
credit sales. I.e. how efficiently and readily trade receivables are realised or converted into
Cash and Cash Equivalents It indicates the efficiency in recovery and collection of cash from
debtors.
A higher ratio indicates that debts are collected more frequently and strict credit policy as less
credit period is involved or less investment in debtors is blocked.
Formula for Trade Receivable Turnover Ratio (DTR) is given as:
DTR = Credit Revenue from Operations (Credit Sales)
Average Trade Receivables (Average debtors + Average bills receivable)
It is expressed in Times
Note 1: Note: provision for doubtful debts is not to be deducted from sundry debtors.
Credit Revenue from Operations (Net Credit Sales) = Credit Sales – Sales Return
Or
= Revenue from Operations – Cash Revenue from Operations
Average Trade Receivables = (Opening Trade Receivables + Closing Trade Receivables)/2
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Average Trade Rec. = (Opening Debtors + Closing Debtors + Opening B/R + Closing B/R)/2
Closing Trade Receivables 8,00,000
Cash Sales being 25% of Credit Sales
Excess of Closing Trade Receivables over Opening Trade Receivables 4,00,000;
Revenue from Operations or Net Sales 30,00,000.
Calculate Trade Receivables Turnover Ratio from the above information.
Answer:
Let Credit Sales be =x
Cash Sales =25% of Credit Sale
=x×25/100
Cash Sales =25x/100
Total Sales = Cash Sales + Credit Sales
30,00,000 =25x/100+x
Or, 125x/100 =30,00,000
Or, x =30,00,000×100/125=24,00,000
Opening Trade Receivables = Closing Trade Receivables − 4,00,000
= 8,00,000 − 4,00,000 = 4,00,000
Average receivables = Opening Receivables +Closing Receivables/2
Average receivables = (4,00,000+8,00,000)/2=6,00,000
=Net Credit Sales/Average Trade Receivables
Trade Receivables Turnover Ratio =24,00,000/6,00,000
=4
Therefore, Trades Receivable Turnover Ratio is 4 Times
Debt Collection Period: It shows the average time taken in collection of cash from debtors.
Debt Collection Period = 365 Days/ 12 months
Trade Receivables Turnover Ratio
Lower Debt Collection Period is better. It is expressed in number of days or months.
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Trade Payables Turnover Ratio:

a. It explains the relationship between the net credit purchases and trade payables
b. It indicates the number of times the trade payables are turned over as compared to
credit purchases.
c. A high ratio implies that the enterprise has high credit worthiness among creditors and
high bargaining power with suppliers\
d. It is expressed in Times.
Trade Payables Turnover Ratio= Net Credit Purchases
Average Trade Payables
Average Trade Payables = (Opening Trade Payables + Closing Trade Payables)
2
Or
Average Trade Payables = (Opening Creditors + Closing Creditors + Opening B/P +
Closing B/P) ÷ 2
Average Payment Period or Average Age of Payables:
It shows the credit period enjoyed by the enterprise in paying creditors.
Average Payment Period= Average Trade Payables X Number of Months/Days
Net Credit Purchases
or
Months or Days in a Year (12/365)
Trade Payables Turnover Ratio
Opening Creditors 1,25,000

Opening Bills Payable 10,000
Closing Creditors 90,000
Closing bills Payable 5,000
Purchases 9,50,000
Cash Purchases 1,00,000
Purchases Return 45,000.
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Determine the Trade payables Turnover Ratio from the above information.
Solution:
Net Credit Purchases = Purchases – Cash Purchases – Purchase Return
= 19,00,000 -2,00,000-90,000 = 16,10,000
Average Trade Payables = (Opening Creditors & Bills payables + Closing Creditors & Bills
payables) / 2
= 2,50,000 + 20,000 + 1,80,000 + 10,000/2
= 2,30,000
Trade Payables turnover ratio = 16,10,000/2,30,000 = 7 times
Example: Closing Trade Payables 10,80,000, Net purchases `86,40,000, Cash purchases
`21,60,000. Calculate Trade Payables Turnover Ratio
Solution: Trade payable turnover ratio= credit purchases/ average trade payable
Trade payable turnover ratio =64,80,000 / 10,80,000= 6 Times
Credit purchases= net purchases - cash purchases
64,80,000 = 86,40,000- 21,60,000
Working Capital Turnover ratio:
a. It explains the relationship between working capital and net sales.
b. It shows the number of times a unit of rupee invested in working capital generates
sales.
c. It determines whether working capital is effectively used in generating sales.
d. A higher ratio implies overtrading with less use of current assets.
Working Capital Turnover Ratio = Revenue from Operations/COGS
Working Capital
It is expressed in number of times.
Revenue from Operations:
It is the revenue earned by the company from its Operating Activities.
If Revenue from Operations is not given, then take Cost of Goods Sold.
Working Capital: = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
Consider the following information:
Cost of Revenue from Operations (Cost of Goods Sold) 10,00,000
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Current Assets 500,000

Determine Working Capital Turnover Ratio from the above information:
Solution:
Working Capital = Current Assets - Current Liabilities
= 5,00,000 - 3,00,000
= 2,00,000
Therefore,
Working Capital Turnover ratio = Cost of Revenue from Operations (or Cost of goods sold)/
Working Capital
= 10,00,000/2,00,000
= 5 times
Example: Consider the following financial information:
Cash Sales 10,00,000
Credit Sales 12,00,000
Sales Return 2,00,000. Current Assets 6,00,000;
Current Liabilities 2,00,000.
Determine Working Capital Turnover Ratio from the above information.
Solution:
Net Sales = Cash Sales + Credit Sales − Sales Returns
= 10,00,000 + 12,00,000 − 2,00,000 = 20,00,000
Working Capital= Current Assets - Current Liabilities
Working Capital Turnover= Net sales/ Working Capital
=20,00,000/4,00,000
= 5 Times
5.12 PROFITABILITY RATIOS

Gross Profit Ratio: It shows the relationship between the Gross Profit and Revenue from
Operations (Net Sales). It shows the average gross margin on goods sold or the services
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rendered in the ordinary course of business. It indicates the efficiency with which
production and/or purchase operations and selling operations are carried on. It is used fixing
selling prices and determining the efficiency of trading activities.
Gross Profit Ratio= Gross Profit x 100
Revenue from Operations
It is expressed as percentage of net sales.
Gross Profit: It is calculated as follows:
Gross Profit = Revenue from Operations (i.e. Net Sales) – Cost of Revenue from Operations
(COGS)
Cost of Revenue from Operations: It is calculated using the following:
Cost of Revenue from Operations = Opening Inventory (excl. Spare parts & loose tools) +
Net Purchases + Direct Expenses – Closing Inventory (excl. Spare parts & loose tools)
Or
= Cost of Materials Consumed+ Purchases of Stock-in-Trade+ Change in Inventories of FG,
WIP & SIT + Direct Expenses
Or
Revenue from Operations-Gross Profit
Reasons for decline or increase in Gross Profit Ratio:
Increase: This ratio increases because of the following reasons:
a. If the selling price increases and the cost of revenue from operations is constant.
b. If the Cost of revenue from operations decreases and the selling price is constant.
c. If there exists a combination of above two situations.
Decrease: This ratio decreases if the above reasons are reversed.
Operating profit Ratio: It shows the relationship between Operating Costs incurred in
running the business and related Sales. It is the proportion of Cost of Revenue from
Operations and Operating Expenses to Sales. It helps in determining the operational
efficiency of the business. It is expressed as the percentage of Sales or Revenue from
Operations that is utilized in the Operating costs.
A low operating ratio indicates higher profit margin to meet non-operating expenses such as
dividend, etc. On the other hand, a high operating ratio indicates reduction in the efficiency of
business operations. It is expressed as percentage of sales or revenue from operations.
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Operating Ratio = Operating Cost X 100

Revenue from Operations (Net Sales)
Operating profit Ratio = Operating profit X 100
Revenue from Operations (Net Sales)
Operating Profit = Gross Profit + Other Operating Income-Other Operating Expenses

Or
Operating Profit = Net Profit before Tax + (Non-operating Expense/Losses) - (Non-Operating

Incomes)
Or
Operating Profit = Revenue from Operations -Operating Cost
Relationship between Operating Profit and Operating Ratio
Operating Ratio + Operating Profit Ratio = 100%
Net Profit Ratio: It shows the relationship between Net Profit and Revenue from Operations
i.e., Net Sales. It helps in determining the operating efficiency of the business operations. It
indicates the actual earnings performance of business activities.
A higher Net Profit Ratio indicates higher profitability. An increase in the ratio over the past
period shows improvement in the operational efficiency. It is expressed in percentage.
Net Profit Ratio = Net Profit after Tax X 100
Revenue from Operations i.e. Net Sales
Net Profit = Revenue from Operations or Net sales – Cost of Revenue from
Operations – Operating Expenses – Non-Operating Expenses + Non-Operating
Income – Tax.
Return on Investment or Capital Employed: It shows the relationship between Net
Profit/Earnings before interest and tax with capital employed. It measures the efficiency with
which the resources are being used. It is a measure of the profitability for comparison with
the other businesses in the same industry. It assesses the overall performance based on the
total long term fund employed in the business. It is expressed as percentage of capital
employed.
ROI = Net Profit before Interest, Tax and Dividend X 100
Capital Employed
Computation of Capital Employed: It can be computed through following two
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approaches:
1. Liabilities Approach: Under this approach, Capital employed is calculated by
adding the following:
i. Shareholders’ Funds/Equity (Share Capital + Reserves and Surplus) and
ii. Non-current Liabilities (Long-term Borrowings (debenture, public
deposits) + Long-term Provisions + Deferred Tax Liabilities + Other Non-
Current Liabilities)
Capital employed = Share Capital + Reserves and Surplus + Long-term Borrowings +
Long-term Provisions + Deferred Tax Liabilities + Other Non-Current Liabilities
Note: if balance of surplus in Statement of profit and loss is negative, it is deducted to
calculate Shareholders’ funds.
2. Assets Approach: Under this approach, Capital employed is calculated adding the
following:
iii. Non-current Assets (Fixed Assets (Tangible & Non-Tangible) + Deferred
Tax Asset + Non-current Trade Investments + Long-term Loans and
Advances +Other Non-Current Asset)
iv. Working Capital (Current Assets – Current Liabilities)
Capital employed = Non-current Assets+ Current Assets – Current Liabilities
5.13 SUMMARY
Accounting Ratio Analysis: It is concerned with studying relationship among various

financial variables in a business with the help of accounting ratios. It is a mechanism of
determining and interpreting relationships between financial variables given in the financial
statements to obtain an understanding of the financial performance and position of a
business enterprise.
Ratio: It is a mathematical expression of relationship between two interdependent quantities
which can be financial items or variables in the financial statements or two accounting
figures.
Accounting Ratio: It is a ratio which is calculated on the basis of accounting information
given in the financial statements, balance sheet, profit and loss account such as profit, sales,
assets, liabilities, debtors, creditors, etc.
Forms of Expressing Accounting Ratios:
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 Pure
 Percentage
 Times
Advantages of Ratio Analysis:
• Tool for analysis of Financial Statements
• Simplifies Accounting Data
• Assessment of Operating Efficiency of Business
• Assists in Forecasting
• Identifies Weak Areas
• Facilitates Inter-firm and Intra-firm Comparison
Limitations of Ratio Analysis:
• Reliability of Ratios
• Only Quantitative Factors considered
• No Standard Ratio
• Non Comparable
• Price Level Changes Ignored
• Window Dressing
• Personal Bias
Types of Ratios:
1. Liquidity (short-term solvency): show the ability of the enterprise to meet its short-
term financial obligations. It includes:
i. Current Ratio
ii. Quick Ratio
2. Solvency (long-term solvency): assess the long-term financial position of the
enterprise. They assess the ability to meet the long-term financial obligations of the
enterprise. It includes:
i. Debt to Equity Ratio
ii. Total Assets to Debt Ratio
iii. Proprietary Ratio
iv. Interest Coverage Ratio
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3. Activity/Turnover: shows how efficiently the enterprise resources are being used for
the business operations. It includes:
i. Inventory Turnover Ratio
ii. Trade Receivables Turnover Ratio
iii. Trade Payables Turnover Ratio
iv. Working Capital Turnover Ratio
4. Profitability: show the profitability of the enterprise. It includes:
i. Gross Profit Ratio
ii. Operating Ratio
iii. Operating Profit Ratio
iv. Net Profit Ratio
v. Return on Investment
5.14 GLOSSARY
Capital: It is amount of resources invested by the owners into the business organisation
either in the form of cash or cash equivalents or in kind or assets. The amount can be invested
in the form of cash, goods, or any other asset. For Business Entity, capital is a liability
towards the owners which is to be settled only in the event of closure or transfer of the
business. In case of corporates it is called as share capital.
Drawings: It represents an amount of cash, goods or any other assets which the owner
withdraws from business for personal use. E.g. if the life insurance premium of proprietor is
paid from the business bank account, goods withdrawn for personal use. It will result in
reduction in the owners’ capital.
economic assets will flow to the entity by using it for generating future profits. Assets can
be tangible and intangible.
Tangible Assets: are the assets which have some physical existence. They can be seen,
touched and felt such as:
• Books and periodicals
• Computers and laptops
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• Vehicles
Intangible assets: Assets which have no physical existence (cannot be seen or felt although
they help to generate revenue in future) and whose value is determined and restricted by the
rights and expected future benefits that their possession confers upon the owner such as
• Goodwill
• Patents
• Trade-marks
• Copyrights
• Brand equity
• Industrial designs
• Other intellectual property rights, etc.
Assets can also be classified into Current Assets and Non-Current Assets.
Current Assets – Asset which satisfies any of the following:
e. It is expected to be realised in, or is intended for sale or consumption in the
company’s normal operating cycle,
f. It is held primarily for the purpose of being traded ,
g. It is due to be realised within 12 months after the reporting date, or
h. It is cash or cash Equivalent unless it is restricted from being exchanged or
used to settle a liability for at least 12 months after the reporting date.
Current Asset includes:
• Inventory
• Trade receivables (sundry debtors and bill receivables)
• Current investments
• Cash and cash equivalents
• Short term loans and advances
Non-Current Assets – All other assets which are not classified as current assets are non-
current assets such as:
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• Patent
• Trade-mark
• Copyright
Non-Current Liabilities – All other liabilities not classified as current liabilities shall be
classified as Non-current liabilities such as:
• Debentures
• Public deposits
• Long term bank loan
• Inter corporate loans
• Long term loan from director
Internal Liability: It refers to owner’s equity, i.e. all the amounts which proprietors are
entitled such as:
• Capital
• General reserve
• Debenture redemption reserve
• Undistributed profits, etc.
Working capital: The assets which are held to maintain the flows of revenue from
operation in the form of current assets such as:
• Cash required to pay for expenses or to the creditors
• Inventories required to smoothen production and sale
• Accounts receivables (debtors and bills receivable) to increase the sales.
• Cash at bank
The total of current assets constitute the working capital of a firm which is termed as Gross
working capital.
Gross working capital = Total current assets = long term internal liabilities + long term
debts + the current liabilities – Non current assets.
Net working capital is the excess of current assets over current liabilities. It is the amount
of current assets that remain in a firm if all its current liabilities are paid. This aspect of
working capital is a more realistic concept.
Working capital (net) = Current assets – Currents liabilities.
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1. Explain the concept of Ratio and ratio Analysis
2. What are the Objectives of Ratio Analysis?
3. What is the significance of ratio Analysis?
4. Discuss the various types of Liquidity and Short term Solvency ratios
5. Write a Short Note on Debt Equity ratio, Creditors turnover Ratio and inventory
turnover ratio.
6. Consider the following information of ABC ltd:
Particulars Amount (in Rs)
Revenue from Operation 20,00,000
Sales Return 2,00,000
Gross Profit 3,60,000
Closing Stock 4,00,000
Excess of Closing Inventory over Opening 80,000
Inventory
Calculate Inventory Turnover Ratio from the above information

7. From the following information, calculate Revenue from operation:
Quick Ratio 2,
Current Ratio 3
Total Current Assets 40,00,000
Inventory Turnover Ratio 6 Times.
Goods are sold on 25% Profit on Sales
8. Consider the following information:
Fixed Assets: 1,50,00,000
Current Assets: 80,00,000
Current Liabilities: 54,00,000
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14% Debentures: 1,60,00,000

Net Profit before Interest, Tax and Dividend: 29,00,000.
From above information, calculate:
(a) Return on Investment and
(b) Total Assets to Debt Ratio
9. From the following information, calculate Return on Investment (or Return on Capital
Employed):
Particulars Amount
Share Capital 10,00,000
Reserves and Surplus 5,00,000
Property Plant and Equipment 45,00,000
Long term Investments in shares 5,00,000
Current Assets 22,00,000
16% Long-term Borrowings 40,00,000

Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
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LESSON 6
CASH FLOW STATEMENT
CA.Mannu Goyal
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Meaning of Cash Flow Statement/ Statement of Cash Flows
6.4 Objective of Cash Flow Statement
6.5 Benefits of Cash Flow Statement
6.6 Scope of IND AS 7: Statement of Cash Flow
6.7 Some Important Definitions as per IND AS 7
6.8 Cash and Cash Equivalents and Related Issues
6.9 Presentation of Statement of Cash Flows
6.10 Reporting of Cash Flows from Operating Activities
6.11 Cash Flows in Foreign Exchange or Currency
6.12 Non-Operating Inflows: Interest and Dividends
6.13 Taxes on Income and Gains
6.14 Investments in Subsidiaries, Associates and Joint Ventures
6.15 Changes in Ownerships Interests Held In Associates, Subsidiaries, Joint Ventures and
Other Businesses Arrangements
6.16 Non-Cash Transactions
6.17 Summary
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After reading this lessons, students will be able to understand:

 Concept of Cash Flow Statement
 Objective of Ind AS -2
 Significance of Cash Flow Statement and classification of activities
 Meaning of Cash and Cash Equivalents and its components
 How to prepare Statement of Cash Flows or Cash Flow Statement
 How to report Cash Flows from Operating, Investing and Financing activities
 How to treat Investments in Subsidiaries, Associates and Joint Ventures while
preparing Cash Flow Statement
6.2 INTRODUCTION
Financial Statement of any company as per the Companies Act 2013 includes Balance Sheet,
Statement of Profit and Loss, Cash Flow Statement and Notes to accounts. The balance sheet
is a blueprint or summarized sheet of entity’s financial position in the form of resources
(assets) equity (shareholder’s funds) and outside obligations (sources of financing resources)
at a particular point of time which is the end of accounting period or reporting date (31st
March of the Accounting year) and the income statement or statement of profit and loss
which reflects the financial performance/results (profit or loss) during the accounting period.
The financial statements as per provisions of The Companies Act 2013 are to be prepared on
accrual basis of accounting. Financial statements does not separately indicates the inflow and
outflows of Cash and Cash Equivalents. It is the Statement of Cash Flows which shows the
inflow and outflows of Cash and Cash Equivalents from three activities of any business
organization which are: operating, investing and financing activities separately and it does
not account for or considers transactions which do not involve cash receipts and payments.
Cash flow statement shows how much cash and cash equivalents are generated or used by a
particular activity which can be operating, investing and financing activities.
Every business organisation, whether small or big, manufacturing or trading concern or
service organization requires cash for financing the operational expenses and assets for
running its business and to provide funding investments in the form of mergers or
acquisitions. Cash is also required to pay dividends, interest and repay loans and borrowings.
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Therefore every business enterprise should generate the cash continuously to make payments.
Even Banks and Financial institutions deals with financial products, accept deposits and give
loans, therefore should also generate the cash profits to make payments on time and to
finance investments in new branches and launch of new products. Therefore statement of
cash flow is also essential for Banks and Financial Institutions.
6.3 MEANING OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT/ STATEMENT OF

CASH FLOWS
Cash flow statement or Statement of Cash Flows is a statement showing how the cash is
generated by an entity during a particular accounting period and how it is applied or used by
it in that period. It classifies the inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents in three
activities:
1. Operating Activity
2. Investing Activity
3. Financing Activity
6.4 OBJECTIVE OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT
Cash Flow Statements serves the following objectives:

 To provide information on changes in cash and cash equivalents from different
activities
 To evaluate the ability of the business organisation to obtain cash and cash
equivalents to make payments for financial obligations
 To show the timing and certainty when Cash and Cash Equivalents can be generated
or utilised in future to prepare cash budgets.
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6.5 BENEFITS OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT
Significance of Cash Flow Statement can be understand with the help of following points:
 Provides information about changes in net assets and financial structure (Liquidity
and solvency)
 Provide measure on the ability to manage the Cash and Cash Equivalents.
 Assess and compare the utilization and generation of future cash flows from different
activities.
 Act as a tool to compare the efficiency of different entities in the same industry.
6.6 SCOPE OF IND AS 7: STATEMENT OF CASH FLOW
Companies following IND AS based Financial Reporting Framework shall prepare

Statement of Cash Flows as per IND AS 7
IND AS 7 prescribes rules and provide guidance on preparation and presentation of
Statement of Cash Flow Statements showing the inflow and outflows of Cash and Cash
Equivalents from operating, investing and financing activities during a particular accounting
period
Statement of Cash Flows should also become an integral part of the financial statements.
6.7 SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS AS PER IND AS 7
Some of the definition which are important while preparing Statement of Cash Flows are as
follows:
Cash: refers to the sum cash in hand and demand deposits with banks and financial
institutions which are repayable on demand.
Cash Equivalents: These includes the marketable securities or are investments which are
short-term, highly liquid and can be readily converted into certain value of cash or money
and are subjected to an very low risk of changes in their value due to market price
fluctuations.
Cash flows: refers to both inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents from operating,
investing and financing activities during a particular accounting period.
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Operating activities: these activities are concerned with the principal and main revenue-
generating operations of the business organisation and have no relation with acquisition of
fixed assets or fund raising activities.
Investing activities: these are the activities which are concerned with the acquisition,
purchase or construction and sale of long-term tangible and intangible fixed assets and
investments and related earning from such investments such as dividend received, rental
income, and interest income.
Financing activities are activities that are concerned with raising funds, repayment of funds
raised and the payment of dividend and other fixed financial charges such as interest,
preference dividend, these activities are related to capital structure (size and composition of
equity and external borrowings).
6.8 CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS AND RELATED ISSUES
Now let us understand the meaning of Cash Equivalents.

Cash Equivalents: includes the marketable securities and are investments which are short-
term, highly liquid and can be easily converted into certain value of cash and are subjected to
an insignificant risk of changes in their value due to market price fluctuations. Some of the
point to be considered in relation to Cash equivalents are as follows:
a) Purpose: held for meeting short-term cash obligations rather than for long term
strategic investment purposes.
b) Liquid and insignificant price fluctuation risk: Investments to be considered as
Cash equivalents they must be readily convertible to certain amount of cash without
any significant risk of changes in their value and they must have short maturity (upto
three month from the date of their acquisition).
c) Not Equity investments: These are not considered as cash equivalents unless they
have very short maturity preference shares purchased having maturity of less than
three months from date of their acquisition.
d) Bank borrowings and Bank Overdraft: considered as outflows and inflows in
financing activities. Bank overdrafts repayable on demand are considered as negative
cash and cash equivalents.
e) Cash Management: Cash flows does not includes movements among cash or cash
equivalents as these are the part of cash management (investment of excess cash in
marketable securities to earn additional income) rather than operating, investing and
financing activities.
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6.9 PRESENTATION OF STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS

As per IND AS 7, the statement of cash flows shall present and report cash flows (both
inflows and outflows) of Cash and Cash equivalents during the accounting period into
following three categories:
i. Operating activities
ii. Investing activities
iii. Financing activities.
Let us understand each of the activities in detail:
Operating Activity: These are the principal and main revenue-generating activities of the
business organisation and are not related investing or financing activities such as sale of
goods in cash, receipt of cash from debtors, cash payment of salaries and rent, etc.
Some of the examples of Inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents from Operating
activities is given below:
Cash Inflows from Operating Activity Cash Outflows from Operating Activity
Proceeds from the sale of goods and provision Payments made to suppliers for purchase
of services in the ordinary course of business goods and or availing services from the
suppliers
Cash receipts from incomes such as royalties, Cash payment for revenue expenses such as
fee, interest income, commission and rent electricity, repairs, etc.
received. Cash payments to employees and workers in
the form of salary and wages.
Cash receipts from insurance claims, refund of Cash payments of income taxes unless they
income tax. belong to financing and investing activities,
cash payment of indirect taxes such GST and
customs duties
Some important Issues to be considered while determining Inflows and outflows of cash and
cash equivalents from Operating activities:
1. Profit / Loss on Sale of Fixed Assets or Property, Plant and Equipment: Profit /
Loss on Sale of Fixed Assets is transferred to statement of profit and loss of period in
which sale transaction took place. The cash flows from such sale transaction are
treated as cash flows from investing activities and not operating activities.
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2. Construction or acquisition of Investment Properties for let out purposes: Cash

payments for expenditure on Construction or acquisition of Investment Properties for
held for rental to others and for resale are treated as cash flows from investment
activities. However the cash receipts in the form of rent are treated also treated as cash
flows from investing activities.
3. Financial Institutions and Banks: Financial Institutions and Banks usually holds
securities and loans trading purposes same as inventory held by other business for
resale in the ordinary course of business. Thus, cash flows from the purchase and sale
such securities is treated as cash flows from operating activities. Similarly, cash
advances and loans by Financial Institutions and Banks are treated as cash outflows in
operating activities because they are considered as principle revenue generating
activities.
Investing Activity: these are the activities which are concerned with the acquisition and
disposal of long-term assets and investments and earning from such investments.
Some of the examples of Inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents from investing
activities is given below:
Cash Inflows from Investing Activities Investing Cash Outflows in Investing
Activities
Proceeds in cash from sale of fixed assets or Cash payments to acquire or construct fixed
property, plant and equipment, intangibles or assets or property, plant and equipment,
intellectual property rights and non-current intangibles or intellectual property rights and
assets other non-current assets.
Payment towards capitalised research and
development costs.
Cash proceeds from sales of investments in Cash payments to purchase or invest in equity
equity shares or debentures of other entities or debt instruments of other entities or to
and interests in subsidiaries, associates and invest in equity interests in subsidiaries,
joint ventures. associates and joint ventures
Cash proceeds from the repayment of Cash advances and loans given
advances and loans given to directors, inter-
corporate deposits.
Cash proceeds from derivative contracts such Cash payments for investment in derivative
as such as futures, forward, option and swaps. contracts such as futures, forward, option and
swaps.
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Financing Activity: are activities that are concerned with the changes acquisition and
disposal of funds and the payment of fixed financial charges, these activities are related to
capital structure (size and composition of equity and external borrowings).
Some of the examples of Inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents from financing
activities are given below:
Cash Inflows from Financing Activity Cash Outflows from Financing Activity
Cash proceeds from issuing shares, share Cash payments to buyback equity shares or
warrants, call money received, issue of Redeem preference shares;
preference shares, secured premium notes
Cash proceeds from issuing public Cash repayments of loans and advances
deposits, debentures, loans, notes, bonds, taken, redemption of debentures
mortgages, etc.
Cash proceed from short-term or long- Cash payment towards settlement of
term borrowings, loans from banks, loans liability under financial lease.
from related parties other corporates
6.10 REPORTING OF CASH FLOWS FROM OPERATING

ACTIVITIES
Cash Inflows and Outflows arising on account of operating activities can be reported and
accounted for in Statement of Cash Flows by applying one of the following two methods:
1. Direct method: In this method, broader groups of cash receipts and cash payments
are reported showing only cash payments and receipts. No adjustments are made for
increase or decrease in current assets and current liabilities, non-operating incomes
and expenses, financing nature.
2. Indirect method: In this method, profit or loss is adjusted to account for non-cash
transactions, working capital adjustments including increase or decrease in current
assets and current liabilities, non-operating incomes and expenses, financing nature
payments such as interest or dividend payments.
Question: Find out the cash from operations by direct method and indirect method from the
following information:
Operating statement of ABC Co for the year ended 31.3.2023
Particulars Rs
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Sales 500,000
Less: Cost of goods sold 350,000
Administration & Selling Overheads 55,000
Depreciation 7,000
Interest Paid 3,000
Loss on sale of fixed asset 2,000
Profit before income tax 83,000
Income Tax (30,000)
Profit After income tax 53,000
Balance Sheet as on 31st March
Equity and Liabilities 2023 2022
Shareholders’ Funds 60,000 50,000
Non-current Liabilities 25,000 30,000
Current Liabilities
Creditors 12,000 8,000
Creditors for Expenses 10,000 7,000
Provisions 8,000 5,000
Total 115000 1,00,000
Assets
Fixed Assets 75,000 65,000
Investment 12,000 10,000
Current Assets
Inventories 12,000 13,000
Debtors 10,000 7,000
Cash 6,000 5,000
Total 115,000 100,000
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6.11 CASH FLOWS IN FOREIGN EXCHANGE OR CURRENCY

IND AS 7 provides following guidance on Cash flows arising in a foreign currency:
• Cash flows arising in a foreign currency shall be accounted for by converting into in
functional currency of the business organization by using exchange rate between the
functional currency (currency in which entity present its financial statements) and
the foreign currency prevailing at the date of the inflow or outflow of cash as the
case may be.
For example: Cash received from export sales in US $ on 15th March 2023. The
company prepares the accounts in indian rupees. Exchange rate between USD and
Rupee as on 15th March 2023 will be taken for translation of exports proceeds into
indian rupees.
• Cash flows from foreign subsidiary (such as loan to or by subsidiary or repatriation
of profits from subsidiary in foreign country) shall be converted into functional
currency at the exchange rates prevailing at the date of the cash flows.
• If there is any gains and losses which are not realized and which occur due to
fluctuations in exchange rates are not considered as cash flows. However, the effect of
such exchange rate changes on balance of cash and cash equivalents held in a foreign
currency must be accounted for in the statement of cash flows so as to reconcile the
opening and closing balances of cash and cash equivalents. This amount of effect
must be reported and presented separately from cash flows from operating, investing
and financing activities.
6.12 NON OPERATING INFLOWS: INTEREST AND DIVIDENDS
Non-operating Cash flows such as cash flows from interest and dividends received or paid
shall each be disclosed separately in the Statement of Cash Flows.
Cash flows from interest and dividends received or paid shall be classified as follows
In case of Financing Company Other than financing company
Interest Paid Cash outflows uunder operating Cash outflows under financing
activities
activities
Interest and Dividend Cash inflows from Cash inflows from investing
Received operating activities activities
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Dividend Paid Cash outflows under financing Cash outflows under financing
activities activities
Question:
A firm invests in a five-year bond of another company with a face value of Rs.10,00,000 by
paying Rs.5,00,000. The effective rate is 15%. The firm recognises proportionate interest
income in its income statement throughout the period of bond. Based on the above
information answer the following question:
a) How the interest income will be treated in cash flow statement during the period of
bond?
b) On maturity, whether the receipt of Rs.10,00,000 should be split between
Interest income and receipts from investment activity.
6.13 TAXES ON INCOME AND GAINS
Cash flows on account of payment or refund of taxes on income shall be separately reported
and treated as cash flows from operating activities unless they can be specifically identified
and attributed to financing and investing activities. However, the related tax cash flows are
usually very difficult to identify and may occur in a subsequent accounting period different
from the accounting period in which the cash flows relating underlying transaction occurs.
Therefore, for the sake of ease taxes paid and refunds of income taxes are usually treated as
cash flows from operating activities.
Cash flows arising from payment and refund of Taxes on income are classified as cash
flows from operating, investing or financing activities in the statement of cash flows.
However, where it is feasible and easy to identify the taxes and refunds with individual
investing, operating or financing activities, then cash flows on account of tax payment or
refunds are treated as cash flows from investing or financing activity as the case may be.
For example: ABC ltd. paid an advance tax of Rs.10,60,000 during the current financial
year including Rs.30,000 as tax on long term capital gains. Outflow of Rs. 10,30,000 will be
treated under operating activity and outflow of Rs. 30,000 will be treated under investing
activity.
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6.14 INVESTMENTS IN SUBSIDIARIES, ASSOCIATES AND JOINT

VENTURES
If there is any transaction relating to investment in an associate company, joint venture or

subsidiary, which is accounted as per the equity or cost method and the business which
acquires interest restricts its accounting and reporting in the statement of cash flows by
considering the cash flows only between itself and the investee, for instance only
transactions relating to dividends and loan and advances between investor and investee are
accounted for in the statement of profit and loss.
6.15 CHANGES IN OWNERSHIPS INTERESTS HELD IN

ASSOCIATES, SUBSIDIARIES, JOINT VENTURES AND OTHER
BUSINESSES ARRANGEMENTS
Let us consider some of the issues relating to Changes in Ownerships Interests Held in
Associates, Subsidiaries, Joint Ventures and other Businesses Arrangements and how they
are be dealt while preparing Statement of Cash flows:
1. If there is any transaction relating to obtaining or losing control or equity interest in
Associates, Subsidiaries, Joint Ventures and other Businesses, the cash flows from
such transactions shall be reported separately and treated as cash flows from
investing activities.
2. Following disclosures shall be made with respect to transaction involving obtaining
or losing control or equity interest in Associates, Subsidiaries, Joint Ventures and
other Businesses:
a. Amount of total consideration paid or received;
b. Portion of the consideration paid in cash and cash equivalents;
c. The amount of cash and cash equivalents in Associate company,
Subsidiaries, Joint Ventures and other Businesses over which control is
obtained or lost;
d. Amount of the assets and liabilities other than cash or cash equivalents in
Associates, Subsidiaries, Joint Ventures and other Businesses over which
control is obtained or lost
3. Aggregate amount of Cash flows on account of obtaining or losing control or equity
interest in Associates, Subsidiaries, Joint Ventures and other Businesses shall be
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presented separately as a single line items along with separate disclosure with
respect to assets and liabilities acquired or disposed. The cash flow effects of losing
control are not deducted from those of obtaining control, therefore net cash flow
effect is to be reported.
4. If there is any transaction relating to changes in ownership interests in a subsidiary
that do not result in a loss of control, then Cash flows arising from such
transactions shall be treated as cash flows from financing activities, unless the
ownership interests is held by an investment entity, where ownership interests are
measured at fair value through profit or loss as per Ind AS 110.
6.16 NON-CASH TRANSACTIONS
Let us consider some of the issues relating to Non Cash transactions and how they are be
dealt while preparing Statement of Cash flows:
1. Investing and financing transactions that do not involve the usage of cash or cash
equivalents such as purchase of machinery by issuing shares to the vendor,
conversion of preference shares into equity shares on maturity shall be not be
considered while preparing a statement of cash flows as there is not inflow or
outflow of cash and cash equivalents.
2. However disclosures for non-cash transactions shall be made in the financial
statements so as to provide relevant information to the users.
3. Non Cash transactions do not affect cash flows however they can cast a significant
influence on the capital structure and asset composition of the business
4. Some of the examples of non-cash transactions are as follows:
a. Acquisition or purchase of assets against issue of Security instruments;
b. Conversion of one form of security instrument into the another;
c. Sale of goods against cancellation of a liability
6.17 SUMMARY
Cash flow statement is a statement, which shows how the cash and cash equivalents are
generated and how it is applied in different activities (operating, investing and financing) by
an entity during the particular accounting period.
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Cash: refers to the sum cash in hand and demand deposits with banks and financial
institutions which are repayable on demand.
Cash Equivalents: are the short-term, highly liquid investments which can be readily
converted into certain value of cash or money and are subjected to a very low risk of changes
in their value due to market price fluctuations.
Cash flows: refers to both inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents from operating,
investing and financing activities during a particular accounting period.
Operating activities: these activities are concerned with the principal and main revenue-
generating operations of the business organisation and have no relation with acquisition of
fixed assets or fund raising activities.
Investing activities: these are the activities which are concerned with the acquisition,
purchase or construction and sale of long-term tangible and intangible fixed assets and
investments and related earning from such investments such as dividend received, rental
income, and interest income.
Financing activities are activities that are concerned with raising funds, repayment of funds
raised and the payment of dividend and other fixed financial charges such as interest,
preference dividend, these activities are related to capital structure (size and composition of
equity and external borrowings).
1. Explain the concept of learning. Discuss personal factors that influence learning, with
suitable examples.
2. Discuss some effective methods of learning that you would like your students to
practice in class and at home. Illustrate your answer with relevant examples.
3. Company has provided the following information regarding the various assets held by
company on 31st March 2011. Find out, which of the following items will be part of
cash and cash equivalents for the purpose of preparation of cash flow statement as per
the guidance provided in Ind AS 7:
Name of Security Additional Information
Government Bonds 5%, open ended, main purpose was to park the
excess funds for temporary period
Fixed deposit with SBI 12%, 3 years maturity on 1st Jan 2014
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Fixed deposit with HDFC 10%, original term was for 2 years, but due for
maturity on 30.06.2011
Redeemable Preference shares in The redemption is due on 30th April 2011
ABC ltd
Cash balances at various banks All branches of all banks in India
Cash balances at various banks All international branches of Indian banks
Cash balances at various banks Branches of foreign banks outside India
Bank overdraft of SBI Fort branch Temporary overdraft, which is payable on demand
Treasury Bills 90 days maturity
4. From the following transactions, identify which transactions will be qualified for the
calculation of operating cash flows, if company is into the business of trading of
mobile phones
Nature of Transactions
Receipt from sale of mobile phones
Purchases of mobile phones from various companies
Employees expenses paid
Advertisement expenses paid
Credit sales of mobile
Misc. charges received from customers for repairs of mobiles
Warranty claims received from the companies
Loss due to decrease in market value of the closing stock of old mobile phones
Payment to suppliers of mobile phones
Depreciation on furniture of sales showrooms
Interest paid on cash credit facility of the bank
Profit on sale of old computers and printers, in exchange of new laptop and
printer
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Advance received from customers

Sales Tax and excise duty paid
Proposed dividend for the current financial year
5. From the following transactions taken from a private sector bank operating in India,
identify which transactions will be classified as operating and which would be
classified as Investing activity.
Nature of transaction paid
Interest received on loans
Interest paid on Deposits
Deposits accepted
Loans given to customers
Loans repaid by the customers
Deposits repaid
Commission received
Lease rentals paid for various branches
Service tax paid
Furniture purchased for new branches
Implementation of upgraded banking software
Purchase of shares in 100% subsidiary for opening a branch in Abu Dhabi
New cars purchased from Honda dealer, in exchange of old cars
Provident fund paid for the employees
Issued employee stock options
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6. From the following transactions taken from a parent company having multiple
businesses and multiple segments, identify which transactions will be classified as
operating Investing and Financing:
Nature of transaction
Issued Preference Shares
Purchased the shares of 100% subsidiary company
Dividend received from shares of subsidiaries
Dividend received from other companies
Bonus shares issued
Purchased license for manufacturing of special drugs
Royalty received from the goods patented by the company
Rent received from the let out building (letting out is not main business)
Interest received from the advances given
Dividend paid
Interest paid on security deposits
Purchased goodwill
Acquired the assets of a company by issue of equity shares (not parting any
cash)
Interim dividends paid
Dissolved the 100% subsidiary and received the amount in final settlement

1. Narayanaswamy R. Financial Accounting: A Managerial Perspective. PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
2. Robert N. Anthony, David F. Hawkins, Kenneth A. Merchant. Accountancy- text
and cases. McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi.
3. Garg CA Kamal, and Sehrawat Neeraj Kumar. Beginner`s Guide to Ind AS &
IFRS. Bharat Law House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
4. Maheshwari S. N., Maheshwari Sunil K., and Maheshwari Sharad K, An
Introduction to Accountancy, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
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LESSON 7
RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING AND DIVISIONAL

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
Priya Dahiya
Assistant Professor
Jesus and Mary College
University of Delhi
Email Id- priyadahiya102@gmail.com
STRUCTURE
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Responsibility Accounting
7.3.1 Centres of control in Responsibility Accounting
7.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Responsibility Accounting
7.4 Divisional Performance Measurements
7.4.1 Traditional Measures
(a) Return on Investment (ROI)
(b) Residual Income (RI)
7.4.2 Modern Measures
(a) Economic Value Added (EVA)
(b) Balanced Score Card (BSC)
7.5 Summary
7.6 Glossary
7.9 References
Structures with divisions are common in large organisations. Measuring the effectiveness of
the divisions and their divisional managers is a crucial aspect of the head office
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management's function in these organisations. Understanding the difference between

management performance and divisional performance is crucial in this situation.
This lesson discuss financial performance measurements, including how they are used to
evaluate performance and their benefits and drawbacks. The objectives of the lesson are:
1. To understand the idea of responsibility centres in an organisation.

2. The benefits and drawbacks of decentralisation in a big company.
3. Describe how to assess the effectiveness of the various responsibility centres.
4. To explain the application of ROI and RI and assess their applicability.
5. To describe recently created methods of performance measurements, such as EVA
and BSC.
6. Recognize how to utilise economic value added (EVA), residual income (RI), and
return on investment (ROI) (EVA).
7.2 INTRODUCTION
The majority of significant businesses today are decentralising as their operations get more
intricate and they expand internationally. Geographical and complex operations make
management more challenging to control, therefore managers of business units are in charge
of a variety of choices that the head office takes into account.
Numerous operations are carried out by large organisations in various regions. Such an
organisation may be divided into various units, each of which is in charge of planning and
controlling its own operations as well as some decision-making, in order to be managed
successfully. A division of the corporation is the term used to describe each individual unit.
The methods for evaluating and comparing divisional performance are described in this
chapter.
After studying this chapter, the learner will be able to explain the role of responsibility
accounting and divisional performance measurement in value creation, strategy
implementation and monitoring performance to improve strategies.
7.3 RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING

The term "responsibility accounting" refers to the accounting procedure that documents how
well managers of responsibility centres have carried out their duties. Responsibility
Accounting is an accounting system that acknowledges numerous responsibility centres and
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reflects each center's intentions and actions by allocating specific revenues and expenditures
to the one with the appropriate responsibility. Therefore, the gathering, summarising, and
reporting of financial data is known as responsibility accounting, and it places specific
expenses, revenues, or assets of the company under the accountability of each management.
The data relates to the organization's decision-making centres. It is also known as activity
accounting or profitability accounting.
Responsibility accounting as defined by (CIMA) is a system of accounting that segregates
revenue and costs into areas of personal responsibility in order to asses the performance
attained by persons to whom authority has been assigned. Responsibility accounting can also
be referred to as activity accounting. It is used to measures evaluate and monitor
decentralization process.
For the purpose of performance evaluation, responsibility accounting assesses the actual and
expected performance. Where decision-making authority has been delegated by senior
management, responsibility accounting is appropriate. According to responsibility
accounting, a manager's effectiveness should be assessed based on how successfully they
handle the matters that are within their sphere of influence.
The logic underpinning responsibility accounting is that a manager's effectiveness should be
assessed based on how successfully they handle the matters placed under their direct
authority by upper management.
“Responsibility accounting as a method of accounting in which cost are

identified with persons assigned to their control rather than with products or
functions” -Eric L. Kohler
“The basic idea behind responsibility accounting is that a manager should be held
responsible for those items - only those items - that the manager can actually
control to a significant extent.”- Garrison & Noreen
Responsibility Centres
The main focus of responsibility accounting lies on the responsibility centres. Responsibility
centre is a unit or function of an organization headed by a manager having direct
responsibility for its performance. It is a sub unit of an organization under the control of a
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manager who is held responsible for the activities of that centre. In other words, it is a
personalized group of cost centre under the control of a responsible individual.
Under this approach, the accounting system generates information on the basis of managerial
responsibility, allowing that information to be used directly in motivating and controlling
each manager’s actions incharge of Responsibility centre. It is like a small business to
achieve the objectives of a large organisation.
Based on cost allocation and profit measurement, managerial units are classified into the
following:
1) Cost Centre
2) Revenue Centre
3) Profit Centre
4) Investment Centre
7.3.1 Centres of control in Responsibility Accounting

1. Cost or Expense Centres
A cost centre, also known as an expenditure centre, is a division of an organisation where

managers are only accountable for the costs, not the profits. It refers to determining costs for
control reasons and serves as the foundation for constructing costs in-depth. So, the main
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focus of cost centre is on cost minimisation. According to CIMA’s official terminology “a

production or service, function, activity or item of equipment whose costs may be attributed
to cost units.”
A place, function, department, or division that allows for the estimation of costs and their
relation to cost units only for control purposes is referred to as a cost centre. The foundation
for creating cost records for cost monitoring, budgeting, and management is the cost centre.
Functional department managers may be made accountable for their expenses and considered
as cost centres, for example, the maintenance division's performance is tracked using
variance analysis.
Cost centres are prevalent varieties of responsibility centres. In functional organisation styles,
this degree of decentralisation is typical. The main features of the cost centres are:
• In charge of cost incurrence and control.
• Cost is used to gauge performance.
• Performance is assessed by contrasting actual and anticipated costs.
• The cost centre manager is exclusively in charge of controlled expenses.
2. Revenue Centres
Revenue Centers are areas of responsibility where the manager is only focused on increasing
revenue and has no accountability for costs. Actual revenue is contrasted with budgeted
revenue to assess performance. Monitoring sales deviations from the budget would be the
main metrics used to evaluate success. A revenue centre, such as a sales centre, is a centre
solely responsible for generating income.
It is a responsibility centre in which a management is only accountable for the monetary
outputs or amount of revenue of a centre, but not for the price of the products or services the
centre offers. In short, revenue centre is in charge of generating income. An individual sales
representative or the marketing manager for a particular product line are two examples of
revenue centres.
3. Profit Centres
Profit Centers are areas of responsibility where the management is in charge of both the
revenue and expenses associated with the assets assigned to the division. Performance is
therefore assessed as the difference between the expenses and revenues associated with a
profit centre. So, a profit center's primary goal is to make money.
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Profit centre managers should be in charge of both income and expenses, which implies that
there should be enough decentralisation of power within the organisation to allow managers
of profit centres to decide on selling prices and output levels at those prices. It requires the
existence of organisational units to which both income and costs may be assigned
individually.
A profit centre is any organisational component to which expenditures and revenues are
allocated so that the subunit's profitability may be calculated. The main features of the const
centres are:
• Has the power and duty to make decisions that impact a division's profitability.
• Accountable for both revenue and cost.
• Performance is evaluated by contrasting predicted and actual profits.
4. Investment Centres
Profit centres do not take into account the sum of money needed to invest in order to make a
profit. Investment centres act as a link between profit and the quantity of asset used to
generate such profits. Investment Centers are responsibility centres where the management is
in charge of making investment choices about the sale and purchase of assets, as well as the
assets that produce the expenses and revenues associated with the centre.
It is a division within an organisation where the divisional manager is given certain latitude
about the level of investment made by the division. Profit earned must be compared to capital
invested when evaluating the center's performance. Return on Investment and residual
income are two metrics used to assess an investment center's financial performance.
7.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Responsibility Accounting
To enable the lowest level of management in the organisational hierarchy to control revenue
and expenses, responsible accounting entails a collection of advantages realised through the
use of planning budgets, cost accounting, reporting, and management tools.
The following are some of the main benefits of responsibility:
1. It offers a system of closer control.
Responsibility accounting makes use of the market-specific expertise of divisional managers.
It assigns local managers the duty of deciding which trade-offs to make. It enhances and
regulates the business' operational operations to provide results that are both effective and
efficient.
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Through responsibility accounting, tighter cost and revenue management is made possible,
and planning and decision-making are aided. So, as a management technique, it fosters "cost
consciousness" among employees.
2. Delegation of power aids in establishing accountability.
Responsibility accounting exhorts management to recognise the organisational structure of
the business, determine who is responsible for what, and address issues. The managers' focus
and awareness are improved since they must explain the variances for which they are
accountable.
Each person is given a certain amount of responsibility and is held responsible for his actions.
No one can delegate their own obligation to another. This system fixes accountability on an
individual basis.
3. Help in measuring each individual performance.
Individual employees feel more efficient since their work and accomplishments are
evaluated. And information presentation is made possible through this mechanism. On that
foundation, a framework for management performance review systems may be built in
addition to inspiring managers to behave in the business' best interest.
Any fully established responsibility accounting system includes exception reporting. By
comparing the accomplishments between the intended objectives and the actual outcomes it
helps managers to focus on the pressing problems that require their attention.
4. Provide up to date information
Through responsibility accounting it is possible to get current and pertinent data that may be
utilised to forecast future expenses and/or revenues and establish benchmarks for
departmental budgets. It simplifies the form of the report and offers tips for timely reporting.
Responsibilty accounting directs management in structuring and planning the company's
future income and expenses. The best method is used to define and express both personal and
corporate goals. It measures performance at the divisional level and forces management to
create reasonable budgets and strategies.
5. Aids in the training of aspiring managers
Managers feel themselves vital members of the organisation when accountability is outlined
for each area. It enhances employees' motivation and fosters an entrepreneurial spirit. It
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encourages managers to work hard in the areas they are in charge of and promotes strong
employee motivational factor.
Disadvantages of Responsibility Accounting:
The primary tenet of the responsibility accounting concept is that managing a sizable, diverse
business may be effectively managed by segmenting a corporation into responsibility centres.
However, responsibility accounting has several issues like- it is difficult to introduce, it
confuses division’s results with manager’s performance and overemphasizes on short term
results.
Following are some of the main drawbacks of responsibility accounting:
1. In responsibility accounting goal congruence is challenging to organise. As separate
departmental pursuits may lead to inter-departmental rivalry and it may be prejudicial
to the interest of the enterprise as a whole. Managers may act in the best interest of
their own, but not in the best interest of the enterprise.So, instead of enhancing
organisational performance overall, more attention is paid to boosting divisional
performance.
2. For responsibility accounting to be effective, a proper classification between
controllable and non-controllable costs is a prime requisite. But practical difficulties
arise while doing so on account of the complex nature & variety of costs.
3. Responsibility accounting cannot be used exclusively as a management control tool. It
just focus management's attention on performance areas that need more inquiry.
4. In case of responsibility accounting, creating an organisational chart that clearly
shows responsibility hierarchies and exercising power is a challenging endeavour. The
accounting reports may be overloaded with all available information. And there is
always a risk that errors made by divisional managers that senior management may be
able to prevent.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Select the correct answer for the following multiple choice questions:
(a) When a manager of a division is given the responsibility for or
authority to make decisions that affect costs and revenues but no
responsibility for investments, the division is termed as:
(i) A Cost Centre; (ii) A Profit Centre;
(iii) An Investment Centre; (iv) Revenue centre;
2. Please indicate if each of the following assertions is true or false.
a. Personalization of expenses is emphasised in responsibility
accounting.
b. In a responsibility accounting, the amount of authority delegation
determines how much accountability a cost centre has.
c. Accounts for responsibility are exclusively based on previous
costs.
3. Responsibility accounting is applicable in situations where senior
management has the………………. power to make choices.
4. The fundamental tenet of responsibility accounting is that
enormous...................... businesses are challenging, if not impossible, to
operate as a single unit.
5. A........................ is a component of a group that raises operating
expenses for a business but does not result in immediate financial gain.
7.4 DIVISIONAL PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT

Performance measurement is a crucial tool that an organisation uses to assess the success of
goals and objectives. Utilizing metrics deemed acceptable for this type of review, an
evaluation is carried out to determine whether goals have been met. When evaluating
performance, one (usually) compares it to a standard, such as a past accomplishment, an
expectation, or the accomplishment of rivals.
It is common practise to divide an organisation into segments or divisions, which are
important business units. It assign divisional managers with duty and authority. This aids in
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enhancing information availability and timeliness, contribute to the long-term strategic

planning of the entire business, make decisions locally,boost the dedication and inspiration of
managers in charge of each unit.
An entity's performance measurement system often matches its organisational structure. In
other words, each department, group, or division recognises its contribution to the
organization's overarching aim and is assessed based on this contribution.
An entity adopts an organisational structure to assist guide and manage its resources in order
to accomplish its objective. It aids in defining a division's scope of power and duty. The
performance of the accountable manager is evaluated based on how well the division as a
whole contributes to the entity's objective. The controllable and non-controllable cost and
revenue should be clearly identified for analysing divisional performance.
A divisional performance report is created with the objective to evaluate each division's
performance and advice on how to price goods and services. And to determine how much is
being invested in each division.This help in analyzing the general efficacy and efficiency of
each division.
MEASURING DIVISIONAL PERFORMANCE
Finding out how well each section of an organisation is
performing is the main goal of a responsibility
accounting. The managers of the organization's various
cost centres are in charge of generating an appropriate
profit, which is determined by the profit center's divsion
or rate of return on sales. The divisional performance is a
measurement of the revenue generated by a certain
divsion.
The manager of an investment centre is in charge of
generating a rate of return on the assets that the division
has invested in. Different metrics, such as profit on
turnover, sales per employee, and sales growth, among
others, are used to assess divisional success.
The most often used standards are:
1) Return on Investment (ROI)
2) Residual Income (RI)
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3) Economic Value Added (EVA)

4) Balanced Score Card (BSC)
7.4.1 Traditional Measures
Return on Investment (ROI)
Most businesses concentrate on a division's return on investment (ROI) rather than just the
quantity of its earnings in absolute terms. Divisional profit is expressed as a percentage of the
assets used in the division by ROI. Total divisional assets, assets under the divisional
manager's management, or net assets can all be used to characterise assets employed. Since
ROI is a widely used metric, it is perfect for comparing business divisions of comparable size
and industry.
According to Kohler ROI is “an overall, ultimate, ratio measure of the profits achieved by a
firm through its basic operations. It is considered a useful indicator of management’s general
effectiveness and efficiency.”
Return on investment (ROI) is calculated as:
Divisional Income
Return on Investment = ———————
Divisional Investment
Or
Profit
Return on Investment = ——————— 100
Capital employed
Or
Profit Sales
ROI = ——— ———————
Sales Capital employed
For example, let’s say an entrepreneur sets up a company selling products through
department shop and disount outlet that it has established for operational sales.
Department shop Disount outlet
Divisonal Profit 28,000 40,000
Divisonal Investment 1,50,000 2,00,000
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From the above data, the ROIs of both businesses will be calculated as:
ROI (Department Shop) = ( Divisional Profit ÷ Divisional Investment ) × 100
= ( 28,000 ÷ 1,50,000 ) ×100
= 18.67 %
ROI (Disount outlet) = ( Divisional Profit ÷ Divisional Investment ) × 100
= ( 40,000 ÷ 2,00,000 ) ×100
= 20 %
The ROI is different for both the divisions. That implies that division with higher ROI is
more successful. The discount outlet ROI (20 %) is higher than department shop ROI (18.67
%).
If all other variables remain the same, any of the following acts will boost ROI:
1) A rise in sales volume or price;
2) A fall in operating expenses; and
3) A drop in divisional investment.
The benefits of return on investment are as follows:
(a) It provides a better gauge of divisional profitability by connecting net income to
investments made in the division.
(b) Other ratios that are helpful for analytical reasons can be derived from it.
(c) Because it is based on financial accounting measurement, it is simple to grasp.
(d) It is acceptable for use in interfirm comparisons as long as the businesses whose
results are being contrasted are similar in size and belong to the same sector.
Over many years, it has been recognised and acknowledged that using ROI to assess a
division manager's performance has limits and can lead to dysfunctional behaviours.The
limitations of return on investment are as follows:
(a) It is challenging to locate satisfactory definitions of profit and investment. PBIT,
PAIT, controlled profit, profit after deducting all assigned fixed expenses, and other
ideas fall under the umbrella of profit. In a similar vein, the phrase "investment" can
refer to a variety of concepts, including gross book value (GBV), net book value
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(NBV), historical cost of assets (HCA), current cost of assets (CCA), and assets
including or excluding intangible assets (IA).
(b) A divisional manager may be influenced by ROI to only choose investments with
high rates of return, that is, rates that are in line with or higher than his goal ROI.
Investments that might increase enterprise value but decreasing segment ROI may be
denied. Some sectors may use the available cash to sponsor initiatives that boost their
return on investment at the expense of the organisation as a whole.
(c) In order to compare the ROI of various segments, it is essential that they employ
comparable accounting rules and procedures for the valuation of stocks, fixed assets,
apportionment of overhead, handling of R&D expenses, etc.
Residual Income (RI)
Operating profit less an interest charge based on the assets used and held by the division is
known as residual income (RI). In other words, the profit that remains after deducting the
cost of capital on investment is known as residual income. It is the difference between net
income and the cost of capital. Profit for the business is any income received beyond the cost
of capital.
The Residual Income may be calculated as:
Residual Income = Profit – (Capital Charge x Investment Centre Asset)
Residual income is defined as controllable contribution less a cost of capital charge on the
investment that the divisional manager can control for the purposes of measuring the
performance of divisional managers. Each division will be charged capital costs at the same
rate that the company as a whole is subject to. The business will do better the more income it
generates over its cost of capital.
Managers wanted an absolute metric, such as residual income, to get beyond the limits of
return on Investment (ROI) measurements. The residual income strategy can be utilised to get
around some of the problematic effects of ROI. There is a higher likelihood that managers
will be encouraged to act in the company's best interests as well as their own if residual
income is utilised to gauge the managerial performance of investment centres.
Let us suppose, the information relating to operation of Division A of a manufacturing
concern is given:
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Sales : (25,000 units @ Rs. 4 each) 1,00,000

Less Variable costs @ Rs. 3 per unit 75,000
Contribution 25,000
Less Fixed costs 5,000
Divisional Profit 20,000
The amount of divisional investment is Rs. 1,00,000. Find out the Residual Income (RI), if
the cost of capial is 10%.
The Residual Income may be calculated as:
Residual Income = Divisional Profit – (Cost of Capital × Divisional Investment)
= 20,000 – ( 0.10 × 1,00,000)
= 20,000 – 10,000
= Rs. 10,000
So, the Residual Income of Division A is Rs. 10,000. The amount that a division's profit
exceeds its cost of capital is shown by residual income.
The benefits of the residual income metric are as follows:
(i) Accounting for each division's cost of capital guarantees that decisions made by
various divisions are in line with the objectives of the firm as a whole.
(ii) By embracing possibilities that provide returns beyond the cost of capital, it enhances
business development and boosts stockholder value.
(iii) It prevents making bad choices since investments aren't turned down only because
they reduce the divisional manager's ROI.
However, Residual Income measure is not free from the limitations. Similar to ROI, it might
be challenging to define "divisional profit" and "divisional investment" in a way that is
suitable. It could be challenging to determine what divisional-level issues are under your
control and what are not. Also, it could be challenging to determine the precise cost of
capital. Additionally, a choice must be made on whether to utilise the division's cost of
capital or the company's cost of capital. The former improves the alignment of divisional
goals, and the latter shows how risky each division is.
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It is challenging to compare a division's performance to that of other divisions or firms of a

different size since residual income has the drawbacks of being an absolute metric. For
instance, a big division is more likely than a small division to provide a higher residual
revenue. For each division, targeted or budgeted residual income levels that are in line with
asset size and market circumstances should be established in order to make up for this deficit.
7.4.2 MODERN MEASURES
As indicators of divisional success, return on investment (ROI) and residual income (RI) have
been under criticism for years. Many consulting companies and academics suggested
modifying the conventional metric, such as residual income, in order to address the
objections.
Economic Value Added (EVA)
The Stern Stewart consulting firm, based in the USA, invented the concept known as
economic value added. The acronym EVA™ has been listed as their trade mark. They
developed a slightly different measure of residual income and marketed the measure as
Economic Value Added (EVA). The concept of residual revenue is the foundation of
economic value added. Similar to residual income, economic value added charges an
investment centre or division for the cost of its working capital and long-term asset
investments. Instead of depending on the financial accounting rules within historical cost
accounting, the Stern Stewart technique applies accounting modifications to divisional
earnings to arrive at a result that reflects economic profit. It is only when operational revenue
after taxes is greater than the cost of capital investment does economic value emerge.
Economic Value Added (EVA) = after tax operating income- (weighted average cost of
capital x total capital employed)
Balanced Score Card (BSC)
Financial indicators like contribution margin, profit, ROI, and RI have the drawback of being
backward-looking, which makes them problematic for performance evaluation. In other
words, they pay more attention to previous financial results than to what management are
doing to increase future shareholder value.
The Balance Scorecard is a method created by consultant David Norton and Harvard
Professor Robert Kaplan that tackles this constraint.
Kaplan and Norton comment on balanced scorecard (BSC) as follows:
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“The Balanced Score-card (BSC) provides managers with the instrumentation they need to
navigate to future competitive success. Today, organizations are competing in complex
environments so that an accurate understanding of their goals and the methods for attaining
those goals is vital. The Balanced Scorecard translates an organization’s mission and strategy
into a comprehensive set of performance measures that provides the framework for a strategic
measurement and management system. The balanced scorecard retains an emphasis on
achieving financial objectives, but also include the performance drivers of these financial
objectives. The scorecard measures organizational performance across four balanced
perspectives: financial, customers, internal business processes and learning and growth. The
BSC enables companies to track financial results while simultaneously monitoring progress
in building the capabilities and acquiring the intangible assets they need for future growth.”
The balanced scorecard is a tool used by businesses to monitor their performance in relation
to their primary and secondary goals. In this sense, the planning and strategy of the business,
which specifies the relationships it must forge with its workers, suppliers, and the community
to succeed with its target consumers, determines the emphasis and scope of the balanced
scorecard.
Dimensions of Balancescore Card
A collection of performance goals and outcomes related to four performance dimensions—
financial, customer, internal process, and innovation—make up the balanced scorecard. A
management strategy that concentrates on accomplishing corporate goals is the balanced
scorecard. It acknowledges that businesses have obligations to a variety of stakeholder
groups, including consumers, suppliers, employees, and community members. The balanced
scorecard displays how well a company is doing at reaching its goals in relation to its
stakeholders. Sometimes, the desires of various stakeholders might vary. Employees, for
instance, rely on an organisation for their employment. Investors depend on a company to
protect their capital. These conflicting desires must be balanced by the organisation. As a
result, the purpose of a balanced scorecard is to assess how effectively a company is
performing in light of divergent stakeholder interests.
According to Hensen and Mowen, the balanced scorecard is a "strategicbased responsibility
accounting system" that translates an organization's mission and strategy into operational
goals and metrics for four distinct perspectives: the infrastructure (learning and growth), the
customer, the process, and the financial perspective.
So, Customers, internal business, learning and innovation, and finance are the four separate
views that make up the core framework that Kaplan and Norton developed.
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(a) Customer perspective (What customers experience and perceive)

Companies determine the markets and customer segments in which they compete as well as
the ways in which they add value to these markets and consumers during this stage.
Customers have a significant role in determining a company's performance, thus it is
important to understand how the consumer feels about the product. Companies place a great
deal of significance on the value they provide to customers. Managers can translate their
overarching purpose statement for providing excellent customer service into specific stages
using the balanced scorecard. Customers are concerned with time performance, quality, and
service. The amount of time needed by the business to meet consumer demands is measured
by lead time. Customers' perceptions of the goods or services they will offer are put to the
test for quality. For customers, performance and service are valuable. With the use of BSC,
organisations may define and decipher expectations in terms of time, cost, efficiency, and
product.
(Source: Kaplan and Norton 1996)

(b) Finance Perspective (The perspective of shareholders)
Financial performance indicators show if a company's execution of its strategy is generating
revenue and profits. Metrics under the financial perspective show if the creation and
execution of the business strategy boost the bottom line. Measures like operating income,
ROI, ROE, and market share will come from the financial perspective. Revenue and profit
are obvious objectives that any firm would include in this perspective. Many people have
attacked financial efforts for being valueless and having a retrograde direction. Many
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detractors take it a step further and claim that financial controls have no bearing on customer
satisfaction, but these claims are frequently untrue because a well-planned financial control
procedure can enhance a company's overall quality management programme.
(c) Internal business (The key processes that the company use to meet and exceed
customer and shareholder requirements)
Companies determine at this stage the procedures and actions required to accomplish the
goals identified at the stage of the financial and consumer perspectives. By reevaluating the
value chain and making the required adjustments to the current operating operations, these
goals may be accomplished. Companies must adapt in order to satisfy client expectations, yet
doing so requires them to improvise their internal operations. Managers must prioritise
crucial internal processes if they want to live up to customer expectations. The importance of
addressing cycle time, performance, expertise, and labour efficiency. The company's vision,
mission, and objectives should be understood by all employees, from the top down, so that
they may give their all and have a clear understanding of the decisions, actions, and changes
that need to be made in order to achieve the company's objectives. A significant part in
identifying the error in an organisation is played by information systems. When a problem
arises in BSC, it is simple to track it down, pinpoint the issue, and respond right away.
(d) Innovation and learning (How the company foster ongoing change and
continuous improvement)
The learning and growth viewpoint helps businesses identify the initiatives and support
systems needed to foster long-term success and meet the goals outlined in the first three
views. Organizations are adapting to match the global standards as the world is changing
quickly. The others will fail to meet the high standards and fall behind those who keep up
with the pace, improve themselves, and improvise themselves. The worth of a corporation is
correlated with its capacity for innovation, self-improvement, and learning. In other words,
the company must boost operational effectiveness, introduce new goods, and improvise to
gain market share before it can increase revenue and boost shareholder value.
Characteristics of good Balanced Scorecards
For balanced scorecards to be effective and helpful, they should exhibit the traits listed
below:
1. By converting the strategy into a logical and connected set of comprehensible and
quantifiable operational objectives, balanced scorecards should aid in conveying the
plan developed to all members of a business. Managers and staff then act in
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accordance with the scorecard to carry out the firm's plan. It is recommended to create
scorecards at the division and department levels in order to facilitate choices and
actions that are in compliance with scorecards.
2. The balanced scorecard places a lot of focus on financial goals and metrics in profit-
driven organisations. Managers occasionally place too much emphasis on innovation,
quality, and customer pleasure, even though these factors may not directly result in
financial gains. In order to achieve and enhance future financial success, a strong
balanced scorecard takes non-financial criteria into account. Many non-financial
performance variables act as leading indications of future financial performance when
they are correctly connected in balance scorecards.
3. In order to showcase a company's strategy, balanced scorecards should emphasise
cause-and-effect relationships. Let's say ABC Ltd. wants to produce goods at a low
cost and expand quickly. The balanced scorecards ought to provide goals and metrics
from a "learning and growth viewpoint," since this might enhance internal company
operations. These would then translate into increased levels of client satisfaction,
market share, operating revenue, and shareholder wealth.
4. The scorecard draws attention to poor trade-offs that managers could make if they
don't take operational and financial factors into account simultaneously. For instance,
a business where innovation is important might improve its short-term financial
performance by cutting back on R&D. A strong balanced scorecard would indicate
that the drop in R & D output and spending, a leading predictor of that performance,
may indicate that short-term financial performance was obtained at the expense of
future financial performance.
A company can better express its vision and strategy and put it into action with the aid of a
balanced scorecard. A company use it to promote efficient and reliable communication since
everyone speaks the same metrics language; drive attention to important requirements,
regularly facilitate evaluations and guarantee organisational alignment. The good thing about
the scorecard is that businesses can interact with it in accordance with the market's nature and
culture and add additional insight and KPI as they see fit. For this reason, businesses are
currently experimenting with various improvements to the scorecard. The scorecard has
drawn a lot of criticism, but it remains a popular performance management tool.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. State which of the following statements is ‘True’ or ‘False’.
(a) Both ROI and RI should be considered while evaluating performance.
(b) In assessing divisional performance, it is usually preferable to use a minimum
rate of return on investment.
7. ROI may be determined by multiplying the margin by

a) Average total assets b) Asset turnover
c) Inventory Turnover d) Net income
e) Net sales
ILLUSTRATION
Illustration 1. XYZ Ltd. Company has several divisons. Of these 4 divions are- Venus,
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Below are the data for these divisions.
Divisions
Venus Mars Jupiter Saturn
Sales 5,00,000 6,00,000 7,00,000 8,00,000
Income 50,000 1,00,000 1,50,000 2,00,000
Investment 5,00,000 5,00,000 5,00,000 5,00,000
You are required to calculate ROI of the four divisions and rank these divisions on the basis
of their performance.
Solution From the above data, the ROIs will be calculated as:
ROI = ( Divisional Profit ÷ Divisional Investment ) × 100
Divisions ROI Ranking
(Divisional Profit ÷ Divisional Investment) × 100
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Venus (50,0000 ÷ 5,00,000) ×100 = 10% 4
Mars (1,00,0000 ÷ 5,00,000) ×100 = 20% 3
Jupiter (1,50,0000 ÷ 5,00,000) ×100 = 30% 2
Saturn (2,00,0000 ÷ 5,00,000) ×100 = 40% 1
Illustration 2. The information relating to Xeros Ltd Company is given:

Sales : (80,000 units @ Rs. 5 each) 4,00,000
Less Variable costs @ Rs. 3 per unit 2,40,000
Contribution 1,60,000
Less Fixed costs 50,000
Divisional Profit 1,10,000
The amount of divisional investment is Rs. 5, 00,000), if the cost of capial is 10%. You are
required to calculate:
(i) Return on Investment (ROI)
(ii) Residual Income (RI)
(iii)Comment on the results of (i) and (ii)
Solution: (i) ROI = ( Divisional Profit ÷ Divisional Investment ) × 100
ROI = (1,10,000 ÷ 5,00,000) × 100
= 22%
(ii) Residual Income = Divisional Profit – (Cost of Capital × Divisional Investment)
= 1,10,000 – (0.10 × 5,00,000)
= 1,10,000 – 50,000
= Rs. 60,000
(iii) The performance of the division is encouraging. ROI is higher than the necessary rate of
return. And the residual income is also in the positive.
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Illustration 3 For an investment of Rs. 10,00,000, the division of a business makes a profit of
Rs. 4,00,000. There is an opportunity to make an additional investment of Rs.3,50,000, which
yields a Rs. 1,00,000 yearly return. If the company requires a minimum return of 12 per cent
on its investment. Calculate calculate residual income and comment.
Solution : First of all, We need to calualte the residual Income from existing investment as
well as from additional investment. And formula to calculate the Residual Income is:
Residual Income (RI) = Divisional Profit – (Cost of Capital × Divisional Investment).
Residual Income (Before the additional Investment):
RI = Rs.4,00,000 – (12% of Rs.10,00,000)
= Rs.4,00,000 – Rs.1,20,000
= Rs.2,80,000
Residual Income (From additional Investment):
RI = Rs.1,00,000 – (12% of 3,50,000)
= Rs.1,00,000 – Rs.42,000
= Rs. 58,000
An investment of Rs. 13,50,000 yields a total residual income of Rs. 3,38,000. The increased
investment boosts residual revenue and raises the performance indicator.
7.5 SUMMARY
One of the greatest cost management methods used in large organisations in the event of
decentralisation or divisionalization to lessen the burden of controlling the business is
responsibility accounting. Responsibility canters are distinct areas inside a corporation where
specific managers have agreed to take responsibility and authority. Responsibility canters
specify the specific resources and tasks that each manager is in charge of. To assess the
effectiveness of each responsibility centre, managers create a responsibility report. In this
report, individual deviations are measured and analysed in relation to the responsibility
center's budgeted and actual performance. In order to prevent managers from being held
accountable for actions they have no control over, responsibility reports should only contain
expenses that can be controlled.
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7.6 GLOSSARY
Responsibility Center (RC): A division or unit of the company where a particular manager
is given the power and duty to make decisions.
Cost centre: A is a division of a corporation that raises operating expenses while producing
no direct profit.
Investment Center: A section inside a company whose management oversees both earnings
and has some control over capital expenditures.
Profit Center: A division of a company where expenses, revenues, and profits are measured
independently.
Revenue Center: A division of an organisation called a revenue centre is in charge of raising
money.
Performance Report: A document created by each decision-making centre that details
budgeted and performance measures as well as deviations from the plan.
Return on Investment: The division's profit controllable as a proportion of the investment in
assets that generates that profit is used to determine return on investment.
Residual Income: Operating profit less an interest charge based on the assets used and
controlled by the division is known as residual income.
Economic value added: The concept of residual revenue is the foundation of economic value
added. The cost of capital charge based on the division's assets is subtracted from divisional
earnings to determine the EVA for each division.
1.Profit Centre
2. (a) True
(b) True
(c) False
3. Delegated
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4. Diversified
5. Cost center
6. (a) True
(b) False
7. Asset turnover
1. Explain what is Responisbility accounting. Describe various responsibility centres

that are essential to the system of responsibility accounting's effectiveness.
2. What distinguishes a profit centre from an investment centre?
3. How well-versed are you with responsibility accounting?
4. What benefits does the residual income method offer?
5. What circumstances might prevent a division manager from making decisions that are
in line with their goals while using ROI measures?
6. Calculate the return on investment for a company with average assets of Rs. 8,00,000
and a profit margin of Rs. 2,00,000.
7. Assets for XYZ Company are valued Rs. 2,80,000, operational income is Rs.
1,00,000, and capital costs are Rs. 20%. Calculate residual income and return on
investment.
8. The business is thinking about launching a new product. What is the product's new
return on investment and the firm's new return on investment if the company needs to
invest an extra asset worth Rs. 2,50,000 and the increased profit margin is anticipated
to be Rs. 80,000, respectively?
9. Describe Economic Value Added (EVA). What distinguishes it from ROI and RI?
10. Describe three ways a business might increase its economic value added (EVA).
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7.9 REFERENCES
Arora, M.N.(2022). Cost Accounting, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Davidson, Maher, Stickney, Weil. (1991). Managerial Accounting, Holt-Sounders
International Editions, New York.
J. Lewis Brown, Leslie R. Howard (1986). Managerial Accounting and Finance, Machonald
& Evans Ltd., London.
Lovata, L. and Costigan, M.L. (2002) ‘Empirical analysis of adopters of economic value
added’, Management Accounting Research, 13: 215–28.
Oyelere, P.B. and Turner, J.D. (2000) ‘A survey of transfer pricing practices in UK banks
and building societies’, European Business Review, 12(2): 93–9.
Nigam and Sharma. (1999). Advanced Cost Accounting, Himalaya Publishing House,
Bombay.
Perera, S., McKinnon, J.L. and Harrison, G. (2003) ‘Diffusion of transfer pricing innovation
in the context of commercialisation: a longitudinal case study of a government trading
enterprise’, Management Accounting Research, 14: 140–64.
Riceman, S.S., Cahan, S.F. and Lal, M. (2002) ‘Do managers perform better under EVA
bonus schemes?’, The European Accounting Review, 11(3): 537–72.
Francesco G.G Zingales & Kai Hockerts. (2003). Balanced score card& sustainability
examples from literature and practices, p.5.
Kaplan & Norton 1992, The Balanced Scorecard—Measures That Drive Performance.
Kaplan, Robert and Norton, David. (2001). Transforming the Balanced Scorecard from
Performance Measurement to Strategic Management. Accounting Horizons. pp. 87- 104.
Pandey, I.M (2004): Financial Management. (8th Ed.). Vikas Publishing House PVT, Ltd
New Delhi
Singh, Manjit and Kumar, Sanjeev. (2007). Balanced Scorecard Implementations Global and
Indian Experiences. Indian Management Studies Journal. Pp. 21-39.
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Thomas Bieker. (2002). Sustainability management with the Balanced Scorecard Using the
BSC for integrity management”, Paper presented at the “10th International Conference of the
Greening of Industry Network”, Göteborg/Sweden.
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LESSON 8
TRANSFER PRICING
CA.Mannu Goyal
Assistant Professor
University of Delhi
STRUCTURE

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Significance of Transfer Pricing
8.4 Fair Value/ Arm’s Length Price
8.5 Transfer Pricing Methods
8.6 Transfer Pricing and Goal Congruence
8.7 Transfer Pricing under different circumstances
8.8 Proposals for Resolving Transfer Pricing Conflict
8.9 International Transfer Pricing
8.10 International Transfer Pricing and Currency Management
8.11 Summary
8.12 Glossary
After studying this chapter, students will be able to understand:

 The basis for determining a transfer price
 Methods of determining Transfer Price
 Concept of Goal congruence
 How transfer prices can distort Goal Congruence
 How to compare Divisional performance and consider the problems in
comparisons
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8.2 INTRODUCTION
Most of business enterprises throughout the world are now following a decentralized form
of organizational structure whereby top management delegates daily routine nature
operations and responsibilities to their subordinates. This leads to creation of responsibility
centres or divisions within the organisation. Divisional managers are solely responsible for
their division’s operations, returns and profit and losses. Though each division aims
towards achieving its own individual goal of their profit maximisation, but their goals have
to be aligned with or in congruence with the organization’s overall objectives known as
Goal Congruence.
A divisional manager have the authority and responsibility to control either the division’s
cost (cost centre) or both cost and revenue (profit centre). Inter-divisional transactions could
involve:
 Sale purchase of goods and services
 Acquisition or sharing of intangibles and intellectual property rights such as
trademark, copyright, patent against royalty fee or license fee.
 Inter-divisional loans against interest payments.
Determining a value for inter-divisional transfer of goods and services is called Transfer
Pricing.
8.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSFER PRICING
Significance of Transfer Pricing is discussed as follows:

1. Helps in performance evaluation: Each division is accountable for the profit earned
which is used to evaluate its performance and motivating each divisional manager to
maximize the division’s profitability and improving company’s overall profitability.
2. Helps in employee engagement and compensation: Usually managers are given
incentives and promotion based on performance of their division. Since transfer
pricing influences profit of division, therefore it must be priced at a fair rate by all the
divisional managers to give a true and fair measurement of their performance.
3. Helps in resource allocation among divisions: Proper co-ordination among
divisions for purchase, production and sales helps in optimum allocation and
utilization of resources such as capacity of the machines, labour, land and building,
etc. On the basis of transfer price, decisions regarding operations can be taken such as
deciding either to produce component in -house or to purchase from outside, to
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expand operations or not etc. to maximize their individual profits, while also
promoting goal congruence.
4. Helps in taxation and profit remittance to the Head Office: Since transfer pricing
influence profits of MNCs having inter-divisional transfers which might affect the
over-all tax burden as well as the profits because some divisions might be operating in
high tax jurisdiction and some in low tax jurisdiction.
8.4 FAIR VALUE/ ARM’S LENGTH PRICE
The price for inter-divisional transfer should be fair, reasonable and competitive enough as if
divisions are dealing with an outside third party independently where both the parties are in
pursuit of their own individual goals of profit maximisation.
Transfer price would become revenue for the supplying division which the goods/services
and cost for the divisions which receives the goods/services. Where each division is profit
centre, any interdivisional transaction becomes more profit oriented where each division
strives to maximize its revenue and minimize its costs, same as to how customers and
businesses compete with each other using their bargaining power to set the price favourable
to them. To deal or transact at the fair price for the divisions becomes necessary because it
changes their profitability.
8.5 TRANSFER PRICING METHODS
Market Based Transfer Price

In this method Transfer price is determined on the basis of market price of goods or
services which are identical or similar to the goods or services transferred between the
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Market
Based
MBA
divisions. The interdivisional transfer is recorded at the market price, after adjusting or
deducting for any costs saved due to internal transfer such as selling and distribution
expenses, commission, packaging cost, etc.
Advantages
 It is unbiased: because demand and supply forces determine the market price.
 More clear and reliable compared to cost-based pricing because it cannot be
manipulated by the internal managers.
 Objective measurement of performance of the division: because the market based
pricing is competitive.
Disadvantages
 It might not be completely unbiased in the absence competitive environment such as
in case of distress sale or manipulative pricing strategies like price rigging which
distorts the fairness of the market price.
 Market prices might fluctuate quickly to lead the data irrelevant.
 Sometimes market price may not be readily available for intermediate goods due to
lack of active market for them.
Cost Based Transfer Price
It is based on the cost accounting records which are prepared by internal cost accounting
departments of the company. It is applied when the management wants to compare actual
performance with the standard costs set within the company or as an alternative method to
calculate the transfer price when market prices cannot be determined because of non-
existence of comparable and relevant market. It might consider:
 variable cost
 standard cost
 full cost and
 full cost plus profit mark-up.
Advantages
 Performance can be benchmarked on the basis of internal cost budgets which are
readily available within the entity.
 Information is comparatively more easily available to market price. Cost elements
can be divided further into more sub components, therefore basis for transfer pricing
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is more clearly defined as compared to market price, which is subjected to uncertain

fluctuations in demand and supply.
Disadvantages
 The cost basis used can be subjective as there can be multiple alternatives of
breaking and allocating the costs such as variable cost, full cost methods, etc.
Different divisional managers might not simultaneously agree on which basis to be
adopted to determine the transfer price as they will prefer to apply the method which
met their profit targets and is most beneficial to their division.
 Since in case of interdivisional transfers, cost is passed on to another division by
raising invoice on the receiving division, sometimes managers of the supplying
division find it beneficial for their division to minimise the cost of production by
applying cost efficient cost accounting methods to determine the transfer price.
Marginal Cost Based Transfer Price
Transfer price is the marginal cost which is the addition to the total cost required to produce
one more additional unit.
Advantage
 It is applied when supplying division has excess capacity in the form of idle
machinery, labour, land and factory space.
 It assumes that the supplying division will just recovers the cost of internal transfer
without any markup, while the purchasing division enjoys all the benefit of a lower
price as compared to the market.
Disadvantage
Since no fixed cost or mark-up can be charged from the purchasing division. Each unit of
internal sale will lead to a loss at fixed cost per unit at the supplying division.
Standard Cost Based Transfer Price
Transfer price is set on the basis of some predetermined costs based on budgets and
assumptions with respect to factors of productions such as capacity utilization, labour
hours, etc. Any variation between the cost absorbed on the basis of standard cost and the
actual cost incurred, is either absorbed by the supplying unit or it can be passed on to the
purchasing unit.
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Advantage
 Performance evaluation can go in contradiction to budgeted cost targets.
 It facilitates better understanding of costs through variance analysis so that measures
can be taken to improve performance.
Disadvantage
 Profit performance measurement is centralized and cannot be carried out for each
individual divisions.
Full Cost Based Transfer Price
Transfer price is determined on the basis of full product cost which includes cost of
production plus a share of other costs such as selling and distribution expenses,
administrative expenses, research and development costs, etc.
Advantage
 Supplying division recovers full cost of goods transferred from the receiving division.
Therefore supplying division will not incur any loss.
Disadvantage
 Since no mark-up can be charged on internal transfers by the supplying division
from the receiving division which discourages the supplying division to supply
internally.
Cost plus a Mark-up Based Transfer Price
Transfer price is based on full product cost plus a mark-up usually as a percentage of full
product cost or of capital employed.
Advantage
 Since the supplying division makes a profit by charging a desired markup, this
method encourages the supplying division to supply internally.
Disadvantage
Since the transfer price under this method is near to market price, the purchasing division
may bear a share of the selling expenses even though nothing is incurred for such internal
transfer which could distort the performance of purchasing division.
Negotiation Based Transfer Price
This is mid-way between market and cost methods. Divisional managers of the purchasing
and supplying divisions independently negotiate with each other to arrive at a mutually
agreed transfer price.
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Advantage
 Managers are given full autonomy to decide whether to purchase/acquire (or sell)
from its sister unit internally or source then from (or sell to) external market.
Disadvantage
It requires sufficient information with respect to external market price, terms of trade etc.
Internal cost must also be considered in order to negotiate a reasonable price.
8.6 TRANSFER PRICING AND GOAL CONGRUENCE

Transfer pricing creates a competitiveness among divisional managers whereby they
operate in the best interest of their individual performance which leads to sub-optimal
utilization of resources. In such cases, transfer pricing policy must be established to ensure
goal congruence.
Range of transfer price that promotes goal congruence:
Minimum Transfer Price (by the supplying division) = additional outlay cost per unit +
opportunity cost per unit.
Additional outlay cost = marginal cost + incidental costs incurred by the supplying division
e.g. storage, transportation, packaging cost etc.
Opportunity cost is the benefit that is foregone from selling internally to the division instead
of supplying externally.
Maximum Transfer Price (by the purchasing division) = lower of Net marginal revenue and
the External buy-in price
Net marginal revenue = Marginal revenue (selling price per unit) – Marginal cost to
purchasing division
8.7 TRANSFER PRICING UNDER DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES
Different Capacity Levels

1. When the supplying division has excess capacity, the range for transfer pricing would
be
Minimum Transfer Price = marginal cost per unit
This ensures that the supplying division is able to recover at least its additional cost
incurred due to interdivisional transfer. Fixed cost is a sunk cost therefore it is not
considered. The purchasing division gets the benefit of getting the goods at a lower
cost than market price.
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Maximum Transfer Price = lower of Net Marginal Revenue and the External Buy-in
Price
2. When the supplying division operates at full capacity, the range for transfer pricing
would be:
Minimum Transfer Price = Marginal cost per unit + Opportunity cost per unit
Since the supplying division is operating at full capacity, it has no incentive to sell
the goods to the purchasing division at a price lower than the market price. If the
internal order is accepted, capacity is to be diverted from external sale to internal
sale. Therefore the supplying division would additionally charge the lost
contribution that could have been earned from external sales which are sacrificed.
Maximum Transfer Price = Lower of Net Marginal Revenue and the External Buy-
in Price.
Different Demand Levels
A supplying division fulfills the demand from:
(i) internal divisions
(ii) external markets
(iii) any special orders.
Production level is subject to available capacity in the form of labour, number of
machineries, factory area, available raw material etc. Production cost is reduced due to
economies of scale. For example, a machinery has a normal capacity of producing 10,000
units. However, production beyond 10,000 units requires the purchase of another machine
requiring additional space, labour, supervisor, etc. This increases the fixed cost of the
production department. Hence, production cost is dependent on economies to scale.
Certain types of demand may also leads to cost savings. For example, internal sales require
lower packaging and transportation costs because the product may be transferred in bulk to
the purchasing division. Special orders saves selling expenses as it is the customer who
approaches the company to sell the product and no broker or agent is involved in the deal.
Therefore, in case of different demand categories, associated cost savings should be
considered to determine the transfer price subject to general rule for minimum and
maximum range of transfer price as discussed above.
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8.8 PROPOSALS FOR RESOLVING TRANSFER PRICING

CONFLICT
Following System of Transfer Pricing can be adopted resolve the conflict of interest
between interests of individual divisions and the company and to achieve goal congruence:
Dual Rate Transfer Pricing System
The supplying division records transfer price (inter-sale price) by including a normal profit
margin thereby showing reasonable profit. The purchasing division records transfer price
(inter-purchase price) at marginal cost thus recording purchases at minimum cost. This
allows for better performance evaluation of each division and improves co-operation
between divisions, promoting goal congruence and reduces sub-optimization of resources.
Drawbacks of Dual Pricing are:
1. It can complicate the records due to two transfer prices, thereby requires adjustments
and may result in errors in the overall records.
2. Profits reported by the divisions are only artificial and need to be used only for
internal evaluations.
Two Part Transfer Pricing System
This system also aimed at resolving problems of distortions caused by the full cost based
transfer pricing method. Therefore, transfer price should be as follows:
Transfer price = marginal cost of production + a lump-sum charge (two part to pricing).
Where marginal cost component ensures recovery of additional cost of production related to
the goods transferred, lump-sum charge helps in the recovery of some part of the fixed cost of
the supplying division. Therefore, it is beneficial for both the divisions as the supplying
division can report better profitability and the purchasing division is also benefited as it can
purchase at a lower rate compared to the market price.
8.9 INTERNATIONAL TRANSFER PRICING
Due to Globalisation, advancement in technology and dynamic business models, business

enterprises are spreading their operations across countries exploiting and reaping benefits
from multiple countries. Business have benefitted by following multi-national business
model. Multinationals considerations for these business models are driven by many factors:
 Demand for their product.
 Availability of raw materials. For example DeBeers Group sources diamonds from
Tata Group of companies in India.
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 Availability of low-cost labor with specialized skills. India and China are the most
lucrative sources for companies throughout the world.
The interdivisional transactions in multi-national companies could involve:
1. Buying and selling of goods
2. Provision of services
3. Providing or sharing intangibles such as patents, copyrights, trademarks or brands
against royalty payments.
4. Providing loans against interest payments.
Taxation, profit repatriation and transfer prices are major considerations for the senior
management of the multi-national organisations which try to maximize profits by using
transfer pricing as a tool to reduce the overall tax burden. If, the supplying division is
operating in a high tax jurisdiction such as USA, and purchasing division is operating in
zero or low tax jurisdiction such as Andora, Cayman Islands, then the transfer price will
be deliberately set lower reflect low revenue for supplying divisions (paying high tax rate
on small profits) and low cost for the purchasing division (paying low tax rate on large
income), thereby paying lower taxes in totality .Similarly, supply from divisions
operating in lower tax rate countries are priced higher to report higher earnings for
supplying division paying low tax rate.
Tax authorities of different countries check whether the interdivisional transfers between
the divisions of the MNCs operating in different countries are priced at Arm’s Length
Price, so as to evaluate whether transfer pricing is used as tool of base erosion and profit
shifting. For understanding this we can take the recent case of Starbucks UK subsidiary
vs. British authorities. Starbucks is known for their world famous coffee on which they
huge profit margins due their brand name and quality but their tax records and income tax
computations reported losses every year. Tax investigations revealed that the UK
subsidiary paid its Netherland unit (holding ownership of brand name and trade secrets)
6% of sales as royalty for intellectual property such as trademark and business processes.
The tax authorities raised question whether 6% royalty is at arms-length and whether it is
comparable with market terms for similar transactions between unrelated parties under
uncontrolled conditions.
In India, Tax authorities regulates such tax avoidance measures through section 92A to
92F of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
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8.10 INTERNATIONAL TRANSFER PRICING AND CURRENCY

MANAGEMENT
Multinational firms or companies are often exposed to foreign exchange rate fluctuation
risks which create uncertain cash flows in corporate currency and also can misrepresent and
misevaluate performance of subsidiaries operating in different countries. In case of inter-
divisional transfers between subsidiaries operating in different countries, when one
subsidiary makes a loss due to unfavorable exchange rate movement, the other might make
a profit if the movement is favorable for the later one. The organization therefore should
manage its exposures to currency risks. The treasury/finance department or mangers of
overall profit centre is responsible for managing the currency risk. A multinational
corporation which is fairly - certain about exchange rate movement in the future always try
to set transfer prices in a currency such that any currency losses arise to that subsidiary
which operates in the high-tax country or jurisdiction, and currency profits arise to
subsidiary in the country with the lower tax rate.
8.11 SUMMARY
Organisation having multinational operations or large scale organisations are usually
divided into departments or divisions which spread across countries in case of
multinational corporations.
Inter divisional transfers may be in form of following transactions:
 Sale/ purchase of goods and services
 Royalty fee payments for providing right to use in respect of intangibles or
intellectual property rights like brand name, patent, copyright, etc.
 Inter-divisional loans against periodic interest payments.
Pricing of transactions involving inter-divisional transfer of goods and services between
divisions or departments of the same organisation is known as Transfer Pricing.
1. Performance Evaluation of Divisions in the form of profitability of divisions.
2. Motivation and Compensation for Divisional managers and employees (fair profit
evaluation motivates employees and managers in improving their performance and
increasing divisional profits for earning bonus and promotions).
3. Resource Allocation (optimum allocation of resources and decisions such as make
or buy).
4. Compliance of Income Tax provisions and Profit Remittance by the divisions
(impact taxable profits of MNCs affecting the over-all tax burden and the profits
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transferred by the divisions or subsidiary to head office or parent company).

Fair Value – Transfer Pricing is mainly concerned with “arms-length” price which states
that the transfer price used for inter-divisional transfer between division or subsidiaries
should be fair and competent as if the divisions are transacting with a third party seeking
to maximize their own profits.
Transfer Pricing Methods and Transfer Pricing in different cases–
Market Price – Transfer price is determined on the basis of market price of goods or
services identical or similar to the ones transferred between the divisions after making
adjustments for any costs saved due to internal transfer between divisions such as,
commission, transportation, packaging cost, etc.
Advantages –
1. It is Unbiased
2. It is less–ambiguous
3. It more objectively evaluates divisional performances.
Disadvantages –
1. Market prices keeps on fluctuating
2. Non-availability of market prices intermediate goods
3. Manipulative pricing strategies in case of price rigging by business combinations.
Shared Profit Relative to Cost Method – It is based on the costs incurred by each
individual division thereby depicting its value addition to the product as a proportion of
total cost to determine the selling price of the product to be sold to customer. This method
distributes profit based on the amount of value addition by each division to the final
product in terms of cost incurred by it.
Cost Price Method – Transfer price is determined on the basis of cost records of the
organisation. This method is applied where management wants to compare actual
performance with the standard cost targets and also when market prices for the goods
cannot be determined due to lack of active, relevant and comparable market.
Advantages:
1. Comparison to standard cost or budget
2. Easy availability of cost records and information.
Disadvantages:
1. Multiple ways of analysing costs such as variable cost, standard cost, full cost, etc.
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2. Very low incentive to lower the cost of production.

Variable Cost – Transfer price is equal to the marginal cost required to produce one
additional unit.
Advantages –
1. Supplying division can use its excess capacity.
2. Purchasing division gets the benefit of a lower price as compared to the external
market price which is usually higher.
Disadvantages – No fixed cost or profit mark-up is allowed to be charged to the
purchasing division.
Standard Cost – Transfer price is set on the basis of some predetermined costs based on
budgets and assumptions with respect to factors of productions such as capacity
utilization, labour hours, etc.
Advantages –
1. Performance evaluation against budgeted costs
2. Proper variance analysis.
Disadvantages – Profit performance measurement is centralized.
Full Cost – Transfer price is determined on the basis of full product cost which includes
cost of production plus a share of other costs such as selling and distribution expenses,
administrative expenses, research and development costs, etc.
Advantages – Supplying division will not show a loss.
Disadvantages – Since mark-up cannot be charged on internal transfers, the
supplying division does not record any profit on these sales
Full cost plus Mark-up – Transfer price is based on full product cost plus a mark-up
usually as a percentage of full product cost or of capital employed.
Advantages – High incentive to supplying division.
Disadvantages – The purchasing division may bear a share of the selling expenses.
Bargained or Negotiated Pricing – Managers of the purchasing and supplying divisions
independently negotiate and arrive at a mutually agreeable transfer price for the inter
divisional transfer.
Advantages – Independent power to decide whether to purchase (or sell) from its
sister unit or source then from (or to) external market.
Disadvantages – Requires sufficient external information with respect to the
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external market price, terms of trade etc. Internal cost information is required to be
shared in order to negotiate a reasonable price which is fair for both the divisions.
Divisional Conflict–
Dual Pricing – The supplying division records transfer price by including a normal profit
margin thereby showing reasonable revenue. The purchasing division records transfer
price at marginal cost thereby recording purchases at minimum cost.
Advantages – Allows better evaluation of each division’s performance, improves
cooperation between divisions, promoting goal congruence and reduction of sub-
optimization of resources.
Disadvantages – Complicate the records, artificial profits can be used only for
internal evaluations
Two Part Pricing System –
Transfer Price = Marginal Cost of Production + a Lump-Sum Charge (two part to pricing).
Lump-Sum charge enables the recovery of some portion of the fixed cost of the supplying
division. Therefore, while the supplying division can show better profitability, the
purchasing division can purchase the goods a lower rate compared to the market price.
Transfer Pricing and Goal Congruence –
Minimum Transfer Price (from the supplying division)
= Additional Outlay Cost per unit + Opportunity Cost per unit.
Where Additional Outlay Cost = Marginal Cost + Incidental Costs such as storage,
transportation etc.
Maximum Transfer Price (from the purchasing division)
= Net Marginal Revenue and the External Buy-in Price whichever is lower
Where Net Marginal Revenue = Marginal Revenue (Selling Price per unit) – Marginal Cost
to Purchasing Division
Transfer Pricing Different Capacity Levels –
Excess capacity with supplying division
a) Minimum Transfer Price = Marginal Cost per unit.
b) Maximum Transfer Price = Net Marginal Revenue and the External Buy-in Price
whichever is lower
Supplying division operates at full capacity:
a) Minimum Transfer Price = Marginal Cost per unit + Opportunity Cost per unit
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b) Maximum Transfer Price = Net Marginal Revenue and the External Buy-in Price
whichever is lower
Transfer Pricing Decision – Different Demand Levels: while catering to different levels
of demand, any change in cost should also be accounted for to calculate transfer pricing.
The general rule for minimum and maximum range of transfer price applies here too.
International Transfer Pricing –Transfer pricing is also considered important in case of
Multinational companies to deal with important area such as:
1. Taxation
2. Profit repatriation to head office.
Multi-national companies try to reduce overall tax burden to maximize profits by using
manipulative transfer pricing tools.
If, the supplying division is operating in a high tax jurisdiction such as USA, and purchasing
division is operating in zero or low tax jurisdiction such as Andora, Cayman Islands, then the
transfer price will be deliberately set lower reflect low revenue for supplying divisions
(paying high tax rate on small profits) and low cost for the purchasing division (paying low
tax rate on large income), thereby paying lower taxes in totality .Similarly, supply from
divisions operating in lower tax rate countries are priced higher to report higher earnings for
supplying division paying low tax rate.
In case of inter-divisional transfers between subsidiaries operating in different countries,
MNCs try to set transfer prices in a currency such that any currency losses arise to that
subsidiary which operates in the high-tax country or jurisdiction, and currency profits arise to
subsidiary in the country with the lower tax rate.
8.12 GLOSSARY
Goal Congruence: Though each division aims towards achieving its own individual goal
of their profit maximisation, but their goals have to be aligned with or in congruence with
the organization’s overall objectives.
Transfer pricing: Determining a value for inter-divisional transfer of goods and services is
called
1. Explain the concept of Transfer Pricing. Discuss its Significance.
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2. What is Arm’s Length Price?

3. Explain in detail different Transfer Pricing Methods
4. Discuss the concept of Goal Congruency in Transfer pricing.
5. Explain the solutions for resolving Transfer pricing Conflicts.
6. Discuss the concept of International Transfer Pricing.

Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
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LESSON 9
RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIELD OF ACCOUNTING

Dr Ruchi Sharma
Assistant Professor
Aryabhatta College
University of Delhi
ruchiupcs@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

9.2 Introduction
9.3 Inflation Accounting
9.4 Human Resource Accounting
9.5 Social Accounting
9.5a Environmental Accounting
9.5b Sustainability Accounting
9.5c National Income Accounting
9.6 Health Accounting
9.7 International Accounting
9.8 Creative Accounting
9.9 Project Accounting
9.10 Tax Accounting
9.11 IT Development in Accounting
9.12 Forensic Accounting
9.13 Summary
9.14 Glossary
9.17 References
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 Explain some of the recent development in the field of financial and management
accounting
 Overview special issues of accounting like inflation accounting, historical accounting,
environmental accounting etc.
 Explain the recent development in the field of accounting in respect of technology
 Overview of health accounting based system.
9.2 INTRODUCTION
One of the prominent roles of accounting is the recording of financial transactions in a

summarized and presenting them in a meaningful form in the form of Profit and Loss
Account, Balance Sheet and Cash flow statement. These three statements are also used in
companies in preparing companies annual reports, but some statements are being prepared for
internal use also. A number of statements are being prepared by Cost Accountants and their
main motive of preparing these statements is to have knowledge about cost of production.
Due to globalisation and changes in the world, the accounting field is also witnessing many
changes.
The work of accountant is also being changed due to coming of new technology. Now the
image of accountants have also been changed as compared to traditional accountants sitting
with strained faces and a huge amount of files on their tables. Now a days our accountants
have become modern and are well updated with the latest information in the market. Modern
accountant are going with these changes and are aware about all the intrinsic details that are
needed to manage the business in a different manner. The tax laws are also being simplified
and due to this simplification the role of accountant is also declining. When machines are
playing a major role in industrial world then it is the responsibility of accountant to provide
materialistic based information of the company. Today in many companies knowledge have
became the greatest asset. Now social behaviour is coming in the corporate sector instead of
preparing statements of long nature. Now accountants have to provide additional information
also. Now a day’s special reports are being prepared by the accountants. The emerging trends
in the field of accounting have provided many opportunitites to business and and they can
challenges efficiently in this dynamic and globalised world. In this chapter some of the
reports which are being prepared now days is being discussed and also highlights the recent
developments that have taken place in the field of accounting. In the technological world it is
expected that accountants should be more intelligent as conventional accounting is
diminishing and computerised accounting is taking place.
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In this chapter an attempt has been made that the students will study the various
developments in varied branches of accounting like tax accounting, health accounting, social
accounting, international accounting etc.
9.3 INFLATION ACCOUNTING
Inflation can be defined as the percentage change in the price level from the current period.
The prominent role of inflation accounting is to check conventional historical cost accounts
which are being used in the understatement of inventory and plant and which are being used
in the production of goods, the cost of goods sold and depreciation in order to prevent erosion
of capital during inflation. Inflation accounting being used to give information that is
beneficial for the potential and present investors and also to creditors in making decisions and
also assessing the timing and uncertainty in cash receipts which can be in form of dividends
or proceeds from the sale of redemption of securities or loans. The main objectives of
inflation accounting is
 To show the real profit and loss for the period under consideration against the profit
or loss based on historical cost.
 To show the real value of assets and liabilities instead of showing on the basis of
historical cost.
 To see that sufficient amount of funds will be available when replacement of assets is
being done.
Inflation accounting can be calculated by two methods current purchasing power method and
current cost accounting method.
i. Current Purchasing Power: Under this method monetary and non monetary items
are shown separately. The accounting adjustments for monetary items are being
shown by recording of net gain or net loss. Non monetary items are being updated
into figures according to inflation conversion factor which is equivalent to the
consumer price index at the end of accounting period which is being divided by
consumer price index when the transaction is being done at a particular date.
ii. Current Cost Accounting: This method calculates assets at their fair market value
rather taking into consideration the historical cost, which is the price incurred when
the asset is being purchased. Under this method both monetary and non monetary
items are shown at their current values.
Inflation accounting can be better understood with the help of following practical examples.
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Practical Example 1
Inflation accounting is being used by a company for adjustment of its equipment value in
2022. The equipment was purchased for 20000 in 2006 when the price index was 116 and the
price index for 2022 is 180. The new value using the CPP method can be found out as
Current Index Price= Revaluation (2006 2022)
Historical Price*Conversion factor
2000*(180/116) = 60000. Now the new value of the equipment is Rs 60000 in 2022 based on
conversion factor of 3 and this new value would be recorded in the balance sheet as the
closing balance at the end of the period.
Practical Example 2 :
Calculate the net monetary value
Jan 2020 Dec 2020
Current Assets 30000 42000
Current Liabilties 35000 45000
250 350
Retail Price Index
Annual average 300
Calculate net monetary value

Monetary Liabilties= 35000*350/250=49000
Increase in liabilities= 10000*350/300=11667
End of Balance Current Liabilties= 45000
Gain on holding liabilities= 15667
Monetary Assets= 30000*350/250=42000

Increase in Assets= 12000*350/300=14000
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Balance at the end= 42000

Net gain= 14000
Net monetary value = 15667-14000=1667
ACTIVITY 1
A company provides inflation adjusted accounting, in your opinion who gains
the most by using such kind of accounting.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Inflation is measured by ___________.
2. The CPP method distinguishes between ___________and ___________ .
3. CPP is a mixed method in which ___________ are prepared on historical basis
4. The current purchasing power method is also known as ___________ .
9.4 HUMAN RESOURCEACCOUNTING
In manufacturing units most of the assets are in physical form and these assets can be easily
trace and valued. The value of the firm can be easily calculated without much difficulty.
Manufacturing firms have other assets also other than physical assets like intangible assets,
goodwill, brand value etc. Human capital is the most important factor in any organization and
they do things that ultimately lead the company to the path of success, and the importance of
human asset is mostly seen in software firms. Can it be made possible to assign value to
every individual working in the firm? It is an important question that human beings should be
valued as they form an important asset in the firm. Yes human valuation is considered very
necessary.. It can be said that HRA is a system which informs management about various
changes taking place in the human resources of the company. It is also engaged in the
accounting process of how investments are being done in people and what can be the
replacement costs of such human resources working in the organization. The present
accounting system is not in a position to provide the actual value of human resources working
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in the organization who are showing their knowledge and capabilities at different level. This
will indirectly affect the investments to be done in near future of the company as the cost
incurred on training and recruitment of human resources increases day by day.
The information which is being generated by HRA systems can be used in taking a variety of
managerial decisions like selection, recruitment, planning, analysis of turnover, and capital
budgeting and these kind of decision will save the company from any trouble arising in near
future. Most of the companies in India like BHEL, Reliance, and Infosys have implemented
the concept of HRA system and are also working on it. Infosys have started showing human
resources as an asset in its companies Balance Sheet and due to this Infosys is enjoying high
market valuations and earning good profits in the market. Thus human resource accounting
can be defined as the measurement of various costs and reporting those cost and value of
people as organizational resources. There are several kind of methods used in human resource
accounting are:
 Capitalization of Historical Cost Method: This method was developed by William
Pyle in 1967. Under this method the amount incurred on recruitment, training and
selection of the employee is capitalized and written off from the value expected from
human resources. Thus for this purpose a proper record is being maintained about the
expenses incurred in recruitment selection and training of employee. Some amount of
the expense is written off from next year so that some value might be left for the human
service provider in the next year.
 Replacement Cost method: This method was developed by Renis Likert and it tells
about the cost of replacing an existing human resource in an organization. It also
indicates the amount spent on training recruitment and selection of human resource in
an organization. This method is more realistic in nature as it reflects the current values
of human resources in an organization.
 Opportunity Cost method: This method was developed by Kiman and Jones for a
company who was engaged in bidding services. Thus opportunity cost means the cost of
an asset which can be use in a alternate way. The value of human resource is calculated
on the basis of the cost of the individual. If the employee is recruited from external
source then it has no opportunity cost.
 Economic Value Method: According to this method the value of human resource is
measured according to the contribution made by an individual in an organization. This
method estimated the total cash inflow generated by a person for his services in an
organization.
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 Standard Cost: The standard cost method reflects the total cost incurred in recruiting
and selection of human resource in an organization. According to this method the
economic value is the amount spent on the entire workforce and it is equivalent to the
money incurred on training and hiring of a human resource during the accounting
period.
 Cost benefit method: Under this method the estimated benefit is being calculated
which an employee gives to an organization. After estimation of benefits the value of
the benefits is being calculated which an employee gives to the organization and the
difference of the benefit is the real value of the human resource.
 Non monetary method: This method relies on ratings and indices. It is a kind of
behavioural assessment technique of an individual which gives rating to the individual
according to his performance. This method measures the skills of the employee and also
measures the attitude of the employee towards the job and tries to evaluate the
performance of the employees and also assess the capabilities of employees for
promotion purpose.
Human resource accounting also operates through various models. These models are
 Lev and Schwartz Model: This model was given by Lev and Schwartz and they
estimated the future earnings during the remaining service life of the employee which is
arrived by discounting the cost of capital. When quantifiable data is available then this
method is being applied for ascertainment of human resources. Under this method all
employees are classified according to their age groups and then the average is worked
out according to their ages and the total earnings are discounted at the cost of capital
and this is the value of human resources.
 Eric FalmHoltz Model: This model was developed in 1996 by Falm holtz and this
model is an improvement on the present and future value of earnings. This model
considers the movement of employee from one place to another or earlier death or
retirement. A five step approach is followed for calculation like forecasting the
expected service life of the individual and then identifying the role each one is having in
the organization and the position held by an individual and then estimating the future
probability and then discounting the value at a predetermined rate.
 Morse Model: This model says that the value of human resources is equivalent to the
total benefits derived by an organization from the service of its employees. In this
method gross value is calculated and then the value of direct and indirect future
payments is worked out and the excess value of human resources is worked out.
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 Likert Model: This model was developed by Likert in the year 1960 to start research in
the field of human resources. This model works on three variables like casual variable,
Interim Variable and End result Variable.
 Ogans Model: This model was given by Pekin Ogan in 1976 and this model was the
extension model of net benefit approach. According to this model the uncertainties that
are going to arise in the near future should also be taken into consideration and also the
net benefits which an employee will derive should also to be taken into account.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. ___________model was the extension model of net benefit approach

6. ___________model works on variables.
7. Ogan model was launched in the year ___________ .
9.5 SOCIAL ACCOUNTING
It can be defined as when a person or firm is answerable to other people for his action and
deeds in the society. Profitable and good organizations are now engaging stakeholders,
suppliers, consumers, regulators, Non Government organization and communities at large to
have a dialogue in open forum at all levels of the company which will affect the decision
making and various business activities in a firm. Companies are now volunteering
information from the stake holders so that their social performance can be measured and the
stakeholders become accountable for their social performance by giving such information to
the firm. In many developing countries social and ethical accounting and auditing practices is
still a new concept. Therefore it can be said that social accounting and auditing build such
kind of framework which helps the organization in building the existing documentation
practices followed by the company and such kind of reporting framework bounds the
company for its social performance. By building a social reporting framework the company
can frame up a action plan for the improvement of its performance and it will also help the
firm in understanding the impact on the community and the company will be accountable to
the society for its performance and to all its stakeholders also. If a company is engaged in
social accounting then it will enhance a image for the company. Some of the important
indicators which are to be included in social accounting framework is:
 Health and Safety of the employees.
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 Relationship with the stakeholders towards the company.

 What measures taken for employment equity
 What standards are being followed by the company regarding environmental
performance?
 How much a company is investing in social projects?
 What quality of products and service given to the society
 What kind of quality being opted by the management.
9.5a Environmental Accounting:
Environmental accounting can be defined as the accounting contribution of the accountants
towards the measures for environmental sensitivity taken in the organization. This concept
gained popularity in the 1990’s. Practical developments in the field of environmental
accounting witnessed a tremendous growth in the recent and this is also being highlighted in
the various research activities undertaken in the field of environmental accounting. It can be
concluded from the various research that environmental accounting plays a very important
role in operations of daily routine nature and not disturbing the environmental conditions in
the society. The accountant’s capability towards environment in firms can be reflected in
their accounting auditing and reporting skills. The work of the accountant while handling
environmental issues is not only applicable for internal purpose but also extends through
outside world. Accountants are also responsible for disclosing the environmental information
in the corporate reports and they can use any other medium of communication for disclosure
of information related with environment. It also reflects the accountability of the firm and
accountants towards the society at a larger scale regarding issues related with environmental
consciousness.
9.5b Sustainability Accounting:
Sustainability accounting is also known as social responsibility accounting and it also
provides information to regarding social and economic sustainability to various interested
parties. Sustainability accounting works on 3 dimensions economic, social and
environmental. Economic impact means that through organisation operations how much of
livelihood is generated in the country. The company is able to provide sufficient employment
opportunities also have an economic impact in the society. The company also manages the
social and environmental risks by identifying what kind of resources are hazardous and can
harm the society and disturb the environmental conditions in the society. Now a day’s most
of the companies are engaged in CSR activities for the benefit of the society. Recycling of
the waste paper and converting into a notebook is an example of Sustainability accounting.
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9.5c National Income Accounting:

This kind of accounting analyses the economic activities of the nation. It analyses the total
expenditure which is being incurred by a country while performing any business activity. It
can also be referred as a government system of book keeping which measures the economic
activity of a country. It also includes the total revenue earned by domestic corporations, how
much amount paid for the wages, and also collects the sales and income data of the
companies. It also helps in assessing the current standard of living of the people in the
country and also assesses how the income will be distributed within the population. The
formula for calculating National Income is Y= C+I+G+ (N-M) .
Y is National Income, C is Personal Consumption Expenditure, I is Private investment, G is
Government spending X is Export and M is Imports.
The concept of National Income Accounting can be better understood with the help of
following practical example:
Calculate National Income
Particular Amount( in lakhs)
Compensation of employees 2500
Rent 1300
Interest 750
Mixed Income of self employed 7500
Net current transfer to abroad 700
Net export -600
Net Indirect taxes 2000
Net factor income to abroad 560
Consumption of fixed capital 620
NDP at Factor Cost= Compensation of Employees+Mixed Income+Rent+Interest+Profit

= 2500+7500+800+750+1300=12850
NNP at Factor Cost= NDP at Factor Cost+NFIA = 12850-560= 12290.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
8. ____________analyze the economic activities of the nation
9. Recycling of waste paper is a part of ____________.
10. By building a____________ framework the company can frame up a plan of
action
11. Which accounting is also referred as government system of book keeping
____________.
9.6 HEALTH ACCOUNTING
The main motive of any health care industry is prevention and treatment of a disease. The
ultimate goal of any hospital is to help the patients in living a healthy and a longer life and
this can all be possible if a proper accounting system is practiced in hospitals and a proper
budget is being prepared by the hospitals, to have an idea how much money is coming in the
hospital and how much money is going out from the hospital. This will help the hospitals to
plan out their facilities offered in a better way.
Health accounting is that branch of accounting that lay emphasis on the collection and
reporting of financial information regarding with health care organizations. This kind of
accounting can be used by doctors, patients, nurses, lab technician etc. Certified Medical
Accountants and Health managers are responsible for the maintenance of all the accounting
records of the hospital. They keep a record of financial reports, balance sheet and other
financial information of a healthcare organization. There are two basic types of information
rendered by the hospitals Balance Sheet and Income Statement. The balance sheet of a
hospital depicts its assets and liabilities and income statement measures the revenue earned
and expenses incurred by a hospital. The income of the hospital includes donation, amount
received from trusts, grants received from government, patient fees and operation charges
also form part of hospital income. Special registers are being maintained by hospitals for the
income and it is to be incorporated on a daily basis. The expenses of a hospital include
charities, establishment expenses, purchase of surgical equipments etc.
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The income statement of a hospital is shown below

Actual Amount Budgeted Actual Amount Budgeted
Amount Amount
Daily Income: Monthly
Income from
routine service
Less: Reduction
of patient
income
Add: Non
operating
income
Grants from
government
donation
Less: Expenses
Dietary
Operating rooms
Professional
care of patients
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
12. Grants received from government is ____________ .
13. ____________ maintained by hospitals for incorporation of income.
14. Which accounting lay emphasis on collecting information of hospitals
__________.
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9.7 INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING
Most of the Indian companies especially in pharmaceutical and software industry are also
operating at overseas. Liberalisation in trade has compelled most of the Indian Companies to
become multinational firms in the near future. When firms starts operating at global level
then not only it affects the manufacturing activities but marketing activities of the firm are
also affected and it also affects the investor activities also who are engaged in different
business operations of the firm, and it becomes very difficult for a firm to locate all these
business operations under one roof. Accounting standards vary from country to country and
investors who are the stakeholders in the firm expects that the financial statements of the
company should be prepared according to the accounting standards followed in their country,
so that they find it easy for comparison purpose of one accounting standard with the other
accounting standard of other country. This can be explained with the help of an example, if
you are a shareholder of Reliance or Hindustan Lever you would like to prefer that the
accounts be prepared under the Indian GAAP. But if a investor of Reliance in USA has
majority stake in Reliance would demand to prepare the financial statements according to the
GAAP followed in their country. This consolidation of data of different countries should also
be reflected while preparing financial statements. This consolidation becomes more complex
if varied investors located in varied countries. Now a day’s most of the companies have
started giving financial statements using major countries GAAP so that the investors from
other countries are also satisfied.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
15. The account in which the financial statement of the company and its subsidiary
are added together is known as ______________.
16. Which concept motivated Indian Companies to become multinational
______________.
9.8 CREATIVE ACCOUNTING
According to Cambridge Dictionary” Creative accounting is the use of methods of recording

financial information about a company which are legal but which do not show the real
situation clearly, usually making the company seems more successful than it really is”. So
many means are available in accounting world for manipulation of figures but the most
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popular way of manipulating is profit and this is being done to avoid excessive taxation in the
near future. The tax figures calculated from various books of account are found to be
generally incorrect and the manipulation of figures is being done at the grass root level.
Manipulation of figures and data is being done by some companies to show that their
financial position of the company is in a sound condition and the investors would start
investing in their companies. The most popular methods of creative accounting are:
i. Companies showing a wrong estimation of inventory: A wrong estimation of the
inventory is being done by some companies to overstate the value of inventory. This
is being done to show that their cost of goods sold is good and when cost of goods
sold is good then the profits of the company will also increase in the current year and
which will reflect a good sound financial position for the company.
ii. Contingent liabilities not shown properly: This method is very technical in nature.
The contingent liability is not reflected in notes to accounts and thus it will give the
impression that the company is not having any contingent liability.
iii. Showing expenses at a lower value: Companies show expenses at a lower value and
this is being done when any client makes a payment in the form of cash or an outdated
cheque and this practice will help the management to book the expenses at a lower
rate every year and a fewer expenses will be reflected in the books of account which
will help in attracting investors.
iv. Manipulation in Depreciation methods: This technique is being used by companies
to have a good impression among the investor. Companies make a change in the
method of depreciation by sampling putting a disclaimer, but in reality no estimation
can increase the life of the asset. The company management sets up an imaginary life
span of the asset which is much higher than the expected level. This will show a lesser
depreciation value and due to this the salvage and asset value of the company will
increase.
v. Manipulation in revenue and sales figure: This manipulation is very common and
is being done by most of the companies. Sometimes the revenue will be lowered
down in order to evade taxes and sometimes revenue figures will be raised to show
that the company is earning profit and will attract the potential investors in the
company.
So many companies are following creative accounting techniques, but a very famous case
where fudging of assets, liabilities and profit has been done was the case of “Satyam
Computers” in 2008 which inflated its assets cash and bank balances of more than 1.5 billion
and also overstated its debtor position to 100 million.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
17. _____________ is a method of recording financial statement which are not real
18. Fudging of assets and liabilities is called _____________ .
19. Which scam regarding creative accounting occurred in 2008 _____________.
9.9 PROJECT ACCOUNTING
This kind of accounting focuses its attention on the transactions of financial nature related
with the management of the project which includes cost of the project, billing of the project
and revenue earned from that project. Project managers and accountants are being appointed
by the company to look after the working of the project and project managers mainly rely on
the advice of project accountants who gives them the data about the status of direct cost,
overhead cost, and any other revenue earned in a specified period of time. Project managers
prepare the reports on the data furnished by the project accountants, which helps in making a
project budget. Various revenue recognition methods are being used in a project but the most
common revenue recognition methods are:
i. Sales Basis: Accountant keep a record of the revenue when the sales take place or
sometimes when the goods are being billed which means when exchanges of goods
and services have taken place. For example If a customer pays for the RO service then
the company will record this service in its payment book when the service has been
delivered to the consumer.
ii. Instalment method: This customer is being taken into consideration when the
consumer pays the amount in instalments. The company will record the revenue when
the customer will pay the instalment amount. For example in construction linked
project plans the customer use to pay the amount in instalments as the work is being
done on step to step basis. When a customer will make a down payment on the
completion of the first floor then the company will record in its payment book as
revenue.
iii. Percentage of Completion Method: This method is being used when it is a long
term contract. The service providers will be able to generate revenue only when the
work is being completed on a percentage basis. This method is commonly used in
engineering and construction firms. For example 75 percent of the work is being done
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by the contractor then the cost of 75 percent work done will be calculated and
accordingly the payment will be made.
iv. Completed Contract: This method is being used when the requirement of percentage
completion method fails. When the project is being completed and all the deliverables
are handed over to the customer then the payment is being made and only when the
contract is completed then the service providers will generate revenue.
v. Cost recoverability: Under this method the gross revenue will not be recognized
until and unless the cost is fully recovered and after the recovery of the cost further
income will be shown in gross profit.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
20. ____________ looks after the work of the project
21. ____________ method is used in long term contract
22. Which method is being used when requirement of percentage completion
method fails ____________ .
9.10 TAX ACCOUNTING
Tax accounting can be defined as the collection of information for the calculation and
reporting of taxes instead of preparing this information in the form of financial statements.
This kind of accounting is being managed by Internal Revenue Code and not with the
provisions of GAAP. This code highlights certain rules and regulations to be followed while
filing of tax returns. There are four components in tax accounting which are being
represented with the help of following diagram.
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i. Deferred Tax Assets: This component occurs because of the difference in timings
book value of profits and profits which are being taxable. For example provision for
bad and doubtful debts is deducted from debtors in normal course of accounting but
when taxation point comes provision for doubtful debts can be allowed as bad debt if
it is being declared as bad debt in the current which may or mot be a possibility that it
will occur as bad debt in the current year. In such a scenario the taxable profit will
differ. So we can say that the extra amount of money which a business pays in the
form of taxes due to provision amount not eligible for deduction known as deferred
tax.
ii. Deferred tax liability: This kind of liability also arises when there is a difference in
timings and the taxable profit is less than the accounting profit. It can also be defined
as the amount of taxes which the company has underpaid but will be paying in the
near future. This can be explained with the help of following example ABC company
limited sells a wooden furniture for Rs 2000 plus a 20 percent sales tax payable in
monthly instalment. The customer will pay the tax 400+400 for 2 years. In financial
the records the company will show as a sale of Rs 2000 but for tax records it will be
recorded as 400 for 2 years. The deferred tax liability would be 400*20% =80.
iii. VAT Accounting: VAT and GST are not considered as an expense but these go by a
different tax procedure for payment and credit of taxes and also follow a procedure
regarding invoicing and registration of taxes.
iv. Transfer Pricing: When the world is becoming a globalised village most of the
companies are opening and operating in different parts of the country. The exchange
of goods and services takes place between different units of other country. Such kind
of transactions gives a rise to transfer pricing concept. The main idea behind such
concept that the main entity must not get the products and services at a lower cost if
same product is being sold to third party. For example if a company is opening an
office overseas than it has to pay a certain percentage of tax on the expenses the
company incurred in opening of the office overseas.
v. Income categorization: In normal accounting only a extract of receipts and payment
is being prepared and we consider all kind of receipts and payment while preparing
such a extract but for tax purposes all receipts and payment are not taken into
consideration this can be explained with the help of following example.
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TABLE 1 Profit and Loss Account of ABC LTD

Particular Amount Particular Amount
To Rent 6000 By Gross Profit 40000
To Salaries 13000 By Interest on 6000
Deposit
To other expenses 9000 By Profit on Sale of 7000
Land
To Net Profit 25000
TOTAL 53000 53000
TABLE 2 Statement of Profit and Loss for taxation purpose

Amount Amount
A Business Income
Gross Profit 40000
Less: All expense
Rent 6000
Salaries 13000
Others 9000 28000 12000
B Income from other sources 6000

C Long term Capital gain 7000
Total Income 25000
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In table 1 one can see the extract and in table 2 how categorization of all types of income
is being done.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
23. Collection of information for tax purpose is known as ___________ .
24. Full form of GST is ___________ .
25. When taxable profit is less than the accounting profit is known as __________.
9.11 IT DEVELOPMENT IN ACCOUNTING
Accounting is one of the earliest professions which have witnessed the early computerization
in the commercial world. Today we are on that phase where most of the accounting
operations are being done with the help of computers. Most of the companies now days are
using ERP system like SAP, People Soft etc. ERP helps in integrating all the functions of the
department with the help of software through a common database. For example if you are a
good planner and wants to operate through ERP system then it should be operated in such a
manner that if inventory level comes down to a certain level then the ERP system will
automatically generate all purchase order in electronic form on the same day the order is
being placed with the vendor. When the material is being supplied by the vendor then has to
make dual entries one at the store level when receipt of the order takes place and one at the
account level for data invoicing. The machine will compare both the data and pass the bill for
payment. When the due date will come automatically the cheques will be printed in electronic
mode.
One of the recent developments that have taken place in the field of accounting in respect to
information technology is Cloud Accounting, Block Chain Accounting, and Artificial
Intelligence Systems.
1. Cloud Accounting:
Cloud accounting has revolutionised the world of accounting which helps in
providing a real time solutions to varied problems. Before coming of cloud
technology the accounting software were desktop based and one has to access the
actual application from the hard drive of the computer and the major disadvantage
was the updatation of software which was very costly. Cloud accounting is a kind of
accounting which has same kind of functions but the whole process operates in cloud.
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There is no desktop application and all the data is saved in a cloud server. It gives
24*7 accesses from any location and thereby removing the need for accessing form
the central computer. It also helps in real time reporting and also helps in examination
of current financial position of the company on periodic basis.
2. Block chain Accounting:
Block chain accounting gained popularity in accounting field when the height of bit
coin was looking fancy and suddenly its value crashed in the year 2017. At that time a
decentralized database was built which helped in real time verification and
communication of information. This was linked to a Google accessible document to
network members. Different members were given different access levels and they can
access the network from different places and each level was having a cryptography
and other tools which help in providing information on various cryptographic
currency.
3. Artifical Intelligence Systems.
It helps in collecting and analysing voluminous amount of data which expects a lot
of exercise to be done by the accountants in traditional times. Data collection has become
very easy with the coming of artificial intelligence systems. It analyze a huge amount of data
with the help of algorithms. Now the work of audit has also become easy and data base can
be presented in the form of spreadsheets. Sales forecasting reporting and tracking has also
become easy due to coming of artificial intelligence system.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
26. _____________ analyze store data in cloud
27. _____________ is the study of crypto’s
28. Which system helps in collecting large voluminous amount of data
_____________ .
9.12 FORSENIC ACCOUNTING
Forensic accounting can be defined as the investigation of frauds and misrepresentation of

facts. In forensic accounting one conducts a in-depth analysis of financial data. Accountants
use to prepare a detailed report and submit the findings of the report for judicial proceedings.
So one can say that forensic accounting is being applied which use scientific techniques and
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helps in detection of various kind of fraudulent activities. Advances in technology and

increase of various scandals and scams have increased tremendously the need for forensic
accounting.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
29. ______________ analysis undertaken in foresenic accounting
30. ______________ reports are submitted in court of law.
31 What kind of techniques are being used in forsenic accounting _____________ .
9.13 SUMMARY
Accounting is a combination of various monetary transactions which takes place between the
company and the others who prepares the financial statements. Accounting information is
being used by various interested parties. Now days the information is being presented with
the help of various accounting software’s. As the world is also changing at a faster pace it is
the requirement on the part of accountants also that they should upgrade their knowledge and
skills. Top management of the companies also now expects that accountants should use
modern tools of accounting while preparing balance sheet and income statements. So it has
become a need of the hour that accountants should be computer savvy and should be familiar
to work in a computerised networking environment. Today the accounting process is
becoming centralised and shared service providers are coming to look after the reports of the
companies. So it is the duty of the accountant to have a thorough knowledge of all the
developments taking place in the current scenario.
9.14 GLOSSARY
1. Project Accounting: It focuses on the financial transaction related to managing a

project.
2. Tax Accounting: It refers to collection of information for reporting of taxes.
3. Foresenic Accounting: Collection of data and reporting fraudulent activities
4. Cloud Accounting: A online accounting in which data is stored in cloud
5. Block Chain Accounting: A decentralized database for verification of accounts.
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6. Transfer Pricing: . The exchange of goods and services takes place between different
units of other country.
7. Deferred tax liability: This kind of liability also arises when there is a difference in
timings and the taxable profit is less than the accounting profit.
1. Consumer Price Index 10. Social reporting framework

2. Monetary and non monetary assets 11 National Income Accounting
3. Financial statement 12. Income of hospital
4. General Price level accounting 13. Special registers
5. Ogans Model 14 Health accounting
6. Likert Model 15. Consolidation
7 1976 16 Liberalisation
8. National Income Accounting 17 Creative accounting
9. Sustanibility Accounting 18 Creative accounting
19 Satyam Computer case
20. Project Managers
21 Percentage Completion method
22 Completed Contract
23. Tax accounting
24 Goods and Services Tax
25 Defeered tax asset
26 Cloud Accounting
27 Block chain accounting
28 Artifical Intelligence
29. Indepth analysis
30. Detailed reports
31 Forsenic Accounting.
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Q1. Explain the recent development in the field of accounting in respect of technology.
Q2. Discuss the components of tax accounting.
Q3. Discuss the importance of accounting in a health care sector.
Q4. Discuss the important components of social accounting.
Q5. How creative accounting will affect business.
Q6. Discuss the components of Project Accounting.
9.17 REFERENCES
1. Jack Quarter, Lawrie Mook, Jane Richmond (2002) “What counts: Social Accounting
for non profits and cooperatives” Prentice Hall Publication.
2. Pramanik Kumar A (2002) “Environmental accounting and reporting” Deep and Deep
Publications New Delhi.
3. Rajni Sofat and Priti Hiro (2010) “Basic Accounting” Paperback publications.
4. Steven A Finkler (2018) “Accounting Fundamentals for Healthcare Management”
Jones and Barlett Publications.
5. Macmillan (2019) “Contemporary Issues in Accounting: The Current development in
Accounting beyond the numbers” Palgrave Publications.
The Chartered Accountancy Journal, Journal of Institute of Chartered Accountants of India:

Governance and sustainability.
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University of Delhi

Semester - I
Course Credit - 4.5
Editorial Board
Prof. Sheetal Kapoor
Mr. Ramesh Kumar
Content Writers
Mr. Saurabh Gupta, Dr. Vijay Prakesh,
Mr. Amit Rao, Mr. Abhimanyu Verma,
Dr. Deepti Gupta, Ms. Rableen Kaur Rao,
Mr. Anuj Jatav, Dr. Rohini Baghel,
Ms. Tanusha Jain

ISBN: .............................
1st edition: 2022
Published by:
Printed by:
MARKETING MANAGEMENT
INDEX
LESSON Page No.
Lesson-1: Introduction to marketing ………………………………………………… ...... 1
1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is marketing?
1.4 Philosophies of marketing
1.5 Marketing Mix Explained
1.6 Summary
1.9 References
Lesson-2: Marketing Environment& Consumer Behavior…………………………...... 29

2.2 Introduction: Marketing Environment
2.3 Components of Marketing Environment
2.4 Features of the Marketing Environment
2.5 Environmental Monitoring
2.6 Global marketing
2.7 Identifying Market Segments and Selecting Target Markets
2.8 Consumer Buying Behavior
2.9. Organizational Buying Behavior
2.10 Summary
2.12 References
Lesson-3: Market Segmentation……………………………………………… ................. 55

3.2 Introduction: STP Marketing Model
3.3 Components of S.T.P (Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning) Marketing
Model
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MASTER IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (MBA)
3.4 Segmentation.
3.5 Targeting
3.6 Positioning
3.7 Marketing Research
3.8 Steps in Marketing Research Process
3.9 Summary
3.11 References
Lesson-4: Strategic Marketing Planning Process…………………………....... .............. 83

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Strategic Marketing Planning
4.4 Strategic Marketing Planning Process & Competitor Analysis
4.5 Marketing Warfare Strategies
4.6 Summary
4.9 References
Lesson-5: Product Mix…………………………………………………………. ........... 109

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Product Meaning
5.4 Product Mix Meaning
5.5 Introduction to New Product Development
5.6 Product Lifecycle
5.7 Glossary
5.10 References
Lesson-6: Brands Packaging & Labeling………………………………………. ........... 125
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6.2 Introduction
6.3 Branding
6.4 Packaging
6.5 Labelling
6.6 Summary
6.9 References
Lesson-7: Pricing Strategies…………………………………………………. ................. 144
7.2 Introduction
7.3 How Companies Price
7.4 Setting the Price
7.5 Factors Involved in Pricing Decisions
7.6 Summary
7.8 References
Lesson-8: Channels of Distribution ……………………………………….. ................... 174
8.1 Learning objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Defining a channel of distribution
8.4 Retailing
8.5 Wholesaling
8.6 Logistics
8.7 Summary
8.8 Answers to in-text questions
8.10 References
8.11 Suggested readings
Lesson-9: Promotion………………………………………………………….. ................ 202
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Promotion
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9.4 Integrated Marketing

9.5 Summary
9.8 References
Lesson – 10 Trends in Marketing: …………………………………………… ............... 221
10.1 Learning Outcomes
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Service Marketing
10.4 Social Media marketing
10.5 Green Marketing
10.6. Relationship Marketing
10.7 Rural Marketing
10.8. Some other concepts in Marketing
10.9 Summary
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LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING
STRUCTURE
1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is marketing?
1.3.1 Some important definitions
1.3.2 Nature and scope of marketing
1.3.3 Marketing and its importance
1.4 Philosophies of marketing
1.5 Marketing Mix Explained
1.6 Summary
1.9 References

After going through this chapter, you are expected to:
 Define marketing and discuss its central concepts.
 Understand marketing management as well as how marketers manage to develop
healthy customer relationships by satisfying customer demand.
 Think about five marketing philosophies and be able to explain management of
demand as well as customer value creation and customer satisfaction.
 Understand the marketing mix elements
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 Have an idea about the key marketing difficulties to be faced by marketers in the
fourth coming times.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
All small and big businesses strive for one thing i.e., success in achieving its goals,
Numerous factors all together help the business to achieve what they strive for- various factor
endowments like hard-working employees, free flow of information, planning, resource
utilization, strategies, execution of plan, control mechanism etc. But modern businesses have
one thing in common, they prioritize customers and heavily invest in marketing, they
understand the fact that customer is king and accordingly they predict the needs and wants of
customers way in advance by analysing the market, serve to those needs and wants and
ultimately satisfying (delighting) their customers in a manner that it leaves a positive impact
on the target market.
Marketing has different meaning to different people, further in the chapter we will
discuss various definitions of marketing given by eminent authors and institutions, So,
marketing can be considered a lifestyle, marketing is getting the right product (goods,
services, people, places, experience, event etc.) to the right people (target market, customers)
at the right places at the right time at the right price with the right communication and
promotion to deliver more than the perceived value to the customer which will make them
delighted. Businesses now a days know it well that if they take good care of their customers,
every other goal will fall in place including profitability, customer base and an edge over
competitors.
In any business, there are several functional departments, marketing is one such
departmental function which directly deals with customers. Delivering the right value or
sometimes more than perceived value keeps the customers delighted enough to become
another medium of promotion for the business as well as it retains the customer for a longer
period of time.
It is normally perceived that only large businesses having huge profits, practice
marketing or invest in it, but if we pay attention to the environment or markets, we are in, we
will notice that some sort of marketing is being used by all businesses around us, for example
a small vendor on the road side, if you analyze you will find that the vendor has its own
pricing strategy, an unique product mix, the place where this vendor sells is by choice on the
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basis of footfall to that place. So, you consider any business small or big, local or global,
marketing has a role to play in the success story of that business.
Marketing has its own history as well, if you search the term marketing in the
dictionaries of before 1910, you would not find this term in it, but for the first time this term
was propounded in 1910 and was also instilled in dictionaries as well with a clear meaning,
but that meaning has evolved a lot from the era of industrial revolution to the era of digital
revolution. Marketing firstly was brought in use by consumer packaged-goods, consumer
durable and industrial equipment companies and all sort of industries saw the magic of
marketing unfold and then the world saw the evolution of marketing, we will discuss more
about history and evolution of marketing as we move further in this chapter.
Marketing is not confined to core product business only, organization’s working for
welfare of society and providing services have started marketing in modern world like
hospitals, educational institutions, NGOs, police departments etc. Even service providers like
advocates and chartered accountants also market their services.
Source-https://www.advertgallery.com
You already have an in-depth understanding of marketing; you see it happening around
you on a daily basis:
 You see and experience marketing through various mails and messages pouring in
your mailbox and inbox.
 While surfing the internet various pop-ups make you curious about attaining more
information of the marketer.
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 Knowingly or unknowingly, you are hammered through television, radio, newspaper

and social media etc. in the form of advertisement again and again.
 On a regular basis your eye balls capture hundreds of brands, even while travelling
you see bombardment of advertisement through different modes like transit
advertising, hoardings, pamphlets etc.
But marketing is more than what your eyes see on a regular basis, behind what your eyes see
or your mind experience as marketing is a huge number of people working tirelessly to
withdraw your attention and extract money out of your pocket by promising to deliver you
some value. Most of us are confused and assume marketing and advertising as one and the
same thing, but it is not, we will have much better understanding about what marketing
actually is further in this chapter.
Core marketing concepts: Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/5689557/
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1.3 WHAT IS MARKETING?

What marketing is all about? It will make you realize after you conduct proper
research over this topic that it’s more than what you thought it to be. In simple language, if
we define marketing as per our understanding it is analyzing the perceived value,
expectations or preferences of customers for their money about a product (it includes
everything like services, person, idea or experience etc.), and approaching those customers to
deliver the expected value to delight them, it is nothing but exchange of value for the
satisfaction of human needs and wants.
It is not to be assumed as mere selling like old times, but it is more than selling and
delivering value to the customer for satisfaction (delightedness) in modern times like now. In
introduction as we discussed that marketing and advertising is confused to be the same thing,
but it is not, advertising is just one out of many ways of marketing, it is not the innocent
people’s mistake to assume marketing or advertising or selling the same thing, as we see a lot
of advertisements on a daily basis on television, newspapers, magazines, transport mediums
trying to persuade us to buy a new thing every now and then, our minds has been approached
by these marketers through advertising so many times in a day that we clearly assume
marketing and advertising to be the same thing. If any marketer focuses well on customer’s
needs and develop a product which gives the customer more than the expected value, also
makes that product reach to every customer in demand as well as promotes it well, product
will sell off without putting much efforts, in today’s world if you have the right combination
of quality and quantity of a particular product it will sell with minimum efforts.
1.3.1 Some important definitions:
A platform or a place that facilitates marketing is known as market in simple
language. If you have watched a movie named “Mohenjo-Daro” starred by Hritik Roshan and
if you can recollect there is a place in that movie where our hero went to sell indigo
cultivation in exchange of some grains, Whole point of bringing out this example in this
discussion is giving you a view of how traditional markets used to be in the ages of barter
exchange, in narrow sense where ever seller and buyer meets in order to exchange their
products or something of value to each other is a market. In modern world a virtual space can
be a market, for example during covid days there were many home kitchens delivering food
through swingy or Zomato without having any physical presence in the market. So, market
can facilitate marketing to bring more ease to buyers and sellers and whenever or wherever
seller and buyers are ready to exchange value to each other, marketing occurs.
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Human needs and wants are the main things to be satisfied by any marketer offering a
product in exchange of monetary value. If we talk about needs, they arise out of deprivation
state, for example food, shelter, clothing, safety etc. and wants are desires which arises when
basic needs are fulfilled, and they keep on changing time to time as and when your social
status changes, your wants also are reshaped, basically stressing upon a specific need is a
want, for example- need is having bread to meet hunger state of body, want is deciding what
exactly to eat out of many choices available. North Indian households would want chapattis
as their main food but South Indians might want rice etc. Human needs might be very few but
wants can be numerous. Once wants are backed by purchasing power it becomes demand, in
other words, demand is willingness and ability to buy a wanted product. So, to understand
marketing we must have a clear understanding of needs, wants and demand as marketing
exist because of these terms. Marketers stress much on demand creation; they would always
want to stimulate demand by attracting the customers through offering better quality product
or through packaging or sometimes through advertising heavily.
Products are the medium to satisfy the needs and wants of customers. Anything
which is offered to market for satisfaction of need and want is called product. In marketing
terminology product is not just physical object like television, fan, table or chair, services,
experience, events, places, ideas and even people come in the category of product. A
customer would buy a product for satisfying their need and want, they might buy it up till it
serves some value to them as expected, otherwise product is of no use to them. Different
customers might choose different product for the same need as per their purchasing power or
taste and preferences or sometimes various other factors play a role in product buying
decision. For example, any one might require mobile phone for communication as its core
feature but some might go for a smart phone, some might choose a simple table phone for
communication, some might choose an advanced version of top class smart phone, core
function of all these devices is communication but people showcase different choices and
behavior while buying a product as per the purchasing power capacity or because of various
other variables.
You must be embezzled many a times while choosing from alternatives available to
buy a product or service? Questions starts creeping in your mind about choosing the best
alternative and you start creating perception-based value for each alternative product by
processing thoughts in your mind as well as by seeking opinion from your close friends,
relatives and near and dear ones. So, Value is your perception about a product’s ability to
satisfy your needs. If customer’s expectation from a product delivering value is met a
customer feels satisfied, satisfaction is that state of mind when a customer judges the
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product’s actual value in comparison to expected value, the customer experiences satisfaction
when actual value meets expected value.
Marketing exchange takes place when two or more parties are involved in the activity
of exchange of something valuable by both the parties, there are certain conditions to be
fulfilled to name it as exchange, which are as follows: -
● There must be two or more parties willing to exchange.
● Both the parties must possess something of value to each other.
● They must communicate well with each other as well as can take delivery of
valuable item being exchanged.
● There must be consent from and rights with both the parties to accept or reject
the exchange being done.
● There should be trustworthiness amongst both the parties dealing with each
other.
According to (Philip Kotler, Gary Armstrong, J. Saunders, V. Wong, 1999) marketing
is “A social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need
and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others”.
According to AMA (American Marketing Association,) (American Marketing
Association, 2017) “Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating,
communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients,
partners, and society at large”.
If you break this definition intently and try to understand it, you see that there are four
exercises, or parts, of marketing:
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● Creating. The most common way of teaming up with providers and customers
to make contributions that have value.
● Communicating. Comprehensively, portraying those offerings, as well as
gaining from customers.
● Delivering. Getting those offerings to the shopper in a manner that enhances
value.
● Exchanging. Exchanging value for those offerings.
ACTIVITY
Find out people near you who are still at need fulfilling stage or want
fulfilling stage or are they demanding in the market?
Also list 5 products each which will fall in category of needs, wants
and demands respectively.
1.3.2 Nature and scope of marketing:

Global world is full of marketing phenomena, if we observe on a regular basis from
waking up in the morning till, we sleep in night and even after our sleep there is a lot of
marketing involved to which we usually do not pay attention to.
For example after you wake up in the morning and you directly pick up your phone
which is sold to you by a specific brand, while surfing through the internet and social media
there are numerous brands which pass by through your eyeballs and then you use a particular
toothpaste and tooth brush provided by various brands but you choose a specific one to keep
your oral hygiene, then getting ready and wearing clothes and shoes of a specific brand, the
car through which you commute is again a result of marketing because of which you choose
that car, then your eyes see a lot of advertisements outside while you commute, the food you
eat, the water you drink, the bed in which you sleep, everything around you is a result of
tireless marketing done by companies. For this very reason marketing is considered as:
 Fulfilling needs and wants: The very basic feature of marketing is to understand the
changing needs and wants of customers, for that marketers will have to keep a track
on the customers changing taste and preferences, marketing not only satisfy current
needs and wants but also predicts future needs of customer by analyzing through the
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feedback or information provided by customers and takes up all the necessary

ventures to meet the upcoming needs of customer.
 Satisfied customers: Any marketing campaign can be considered successful only
when marketing activities have provided satisfaction to customers by delivering them
the value, they expected their chosen product or brand to deliver. Sometimes
companies try to offer more than customer satisfaction which is called customer
delightedness. For example, if you visit a restaurant in search of good food only and
you are offered a nice ambience in addition to good food, you will be more than
satisfied and you will be delighted to visit that restaurant as it exceeded your
expectation.
 Exchange of value is the result of marketing: Any transaction made by seller in
order to serve to the needs of buyer is communicated to the buyer once product or
service is delivered and after that buyer provides some value in exchange either
through money or through some other product which is of value to seller.
 Plays a critical role in business: Any start-up in modern world would require
analyzing the market for the needs and wants and then requirements to start a
business, all the business owners take a close look at the process of marketing. They
check if the market is unexplored or not, analyses the adaptability of the product they
are going to offer, and various other decisions are taken with the help of marketing
only.
 It is a process: Marketing takes place when a buyer and seller agrees to exchange
something of value, as transactions go on it leads to building relationships as well,
these relationships gives something of value or benefit to customers in every
transaction and reaps benefits for the organization from customers. Also, marketing is
the process of environmental scanning and dealing with uncontrollable factors of
environment by using its marketing mix variables.
 Complex, pervasive and ever changing: There can be different point of views of
looking at marketing, it can be of business’, suppliers’, customers’ and other
stakeholders. Also, it is not easy to control all the internal and external factors of
business environment, which might impact business in positive or negative way. It is
a continuous process through different departments of a business which makes it a
wholesome activity known as “marketing”. It keeps on changing with time as it is
evident from past 100 years of evolution of marketing.
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Marketing has developed as a significant business capability and is a pervasive

activity and its scope can be grasped concerning application of marketing (I) in
different horizons, as non-profit organizations, service organizations, and public
service organizations like power, education, medical, (ii) with respect to what is being
promoted, and (iii) as to customer market.
Marketing idea now a days is applied to non-profit organizations as marketing is done
for business organizations. A wide range of public and private non-profit association
going from government organizations, medical care organizations, educational
foundations, and religious organizations to charities and political groups apply
marketing ideas to have the option to reach out to their target audiences more readily.
Very much like business firm, a non-profit association needs assets and support to
make do and accomplish its goals. They additionally face competition for the assets
they need. An educational institution might fail if supporters focus on something else
than education.
Marketing give recognition to four major customer markets, first one is known as
consumer market, these markets offer consumer goods like food items, clothes,
transport facility etc. second one is business markets where raw material to process
finish products is offered to sale or sometimes business buy products to resell for an
additional profit. Third one is known as global market, where in there is integration of
economies, there is no restriction by the company’s management to sell product in a
specific boundary, companies decide about entering other countries and make strategy
accordingly, here in company’s product must be customized as per the requirements
and standards of that country where the company enters for marketing. The fourth and
the last type of customer market is non-for- profit or governmental market, here in
these markets’ companies dealing with non-profit organizations and government
agencies must be very cautious while making marketing strategy, marketing mix is
used in different proportion as compared to normal products, especially prices has to
be set very cautiously for such markets.
As discussed earlier, not only physical products are being marketed, but Product also
has different meaning for different type of companies, some companies for example
might be offering services as their core product such as doctor services, education by
private institutes, banking, hotel and legal services etc. some might be facilitating
events such as trade shows, concerts, sports event etc. Some businesses might be
offering experiences such as water parks, amusement parks, movies etc., business also
do marketing for people for example public relation agencies for celebrities, or
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sometimes single individuals also become managers for such people, ultimately called
person or people marketing. Similarly, marketing can be done for places as in tourism
destination marketing, organizations are also marketed and even ideas can be
marketed for example “Swach Bharat Abhiyan”. So, Marketing has a huge scope and
is still unexplored, it has got potential to tap the untapped, untouched markets, also it
can influence the attitude of customer by making them aware by providing cognitive
learning and ultimately motivating them to buy a product offering.
1.3.3 Importance of Marketing:
⮚ Marketing helps in engaging consumer effectively: Organizations should
engage customers, and thus, marketing ends up being a successful instrument.
Customers can be engaged by letting them know what they don't have and
creating great substance around your products and services. Customers like to
have as much information as they can access for the product they are searching,
marketing just let them get that information with a lot of engagement.
⮚ Creates goodwill: Goodwill of a company or a business is built gradually with
the kind of product and services they have offered for a long period of time, also it
depends on how your business has grown with the time, the better you serve to the
market with the most effective quality of your product, the better will be the
goodwill of the business.
⮚ Helps in creation of customer relationship and its management: Marketing
helps you access the information about the needs and wants of customers and
when you serve to those needs and wants by developing and creating a product
which is customer centric, it will give a sense of attachment to customers with the
business, and once the customer feels an attachment with the business due to the
activities a customer relationship is formed and such customers stay for longer
duration with the business, longer they stay maximum will be the customer equity.
There are various factors like demographic, psychographic and consumer behavior
which gives marketing management a sense of how to deal with those customers,
which will last in fruitful and long-lasting relationship with customers.
⮚ Helps in increasing sales: Since marketing uses various ways of promoting
products or services, it helps in improving the probability of better sales. Cheerful
customers convert into an organization's brand endorsers naturally.
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⮚ Expands reach globally: Many of the big brands like TATA, Reliance, BOAT,
Apple, Tesla, Mc Donald’s etc. can reach their customer now in any country,
earlier these were mainly domestic brands in their home country, but if you
observe the current scenario, these brands are available globally now, with the
help of technology upgradation, digitization has helped many brands to reach their
potential customers. Through internet and social media like Facebook, Instagram
and twitter even customers can share their choices or preferences, with the help of
marketing only companies now can observe these feedbacks and customize the
products according to country’s specification where company is about to operate
or is operational.
⮚ Helps in management of supply chain: Any business does not work separately
from their other stakeholders like suppliers, creditors, logistic companies which
delivers the product etc. with the help of customer requirement analysis business
order raw material from their supplier to process and make finished products
which are ultimately sent to retailers through logistics to make goods available to
needy customers, and timely delivery of goods means better serving to customers
which leads to long term fruitful relationships. And happy customers mean better
revenues and ultimately better profits, all the stakeholders also enjoy fruitful
business.
⮚ Helps customers in ease of life: Today’s customers are rationale customers, and
they search for information which helps them take purchase decisions, marketing
provides that information through various platforms, also, customers like to have
better choices available for their needs, marketing helps them provide better
choices as well. Even pricing is done in such a manner which is friendly to the
pockets of customer so that it does not hinder purchase decision due to pricing,
various assurances in the form of guarantee and warranty are also provided to
customer to create reliability of a product and ultimately customers can withdraw
some value due to these factors.
⮚ Helps in economic growth: Marketing has the potential to uplift an economy and
take it to the path of growth, marketing creates better revenues and even creates
global presence of firm, ultimately leading to creation of big brands, these big
brands create value for nation by providing employment, has major share in GDP
formation, helps in growth of the firms and business leading to growth of
economy.
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⮚ Helps in making society better: companies now a days promotes their

employees to be involved in societal activities, which impacts society at large,
major big brands have recognized that the more they remain society friendly,
better will be the brand image and brand value as it attracts more customer to a
business if it is socially responsible, for example big eating joints have started
using green marketing by using eco-friendly packaging, restaurants like Mc
Donald’s have gone this far that they started giving paper straw pipes instead of
plastic ones to their customers, which clearly portrays a message to the society
that they are eco-friendly. Activities done by companies socially inspires people
of society as well to grow in a socially responsible manner.
⮚ Raises living standard: Imagine the world without marketing and think would
you be able to know about brands specific to clothing or availability of platforms
which provides you your consumables or supplies on a daily basis? Answer would
be a big ‘NO’. It is because of marketing that we as customers are provided with
quicker delivery services, we rely on brands which are communicated to us
through advertising, we feel informed because we are bombarded with lot of
information, so when we need a product or service we clearly know from where to
get it, how to get it and at what price maximum value will be delivered, all thanks
to marketing.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Which of the following is defined as a state of felt deprivation of some basic
satisfaction?
a. Need b. Want c. Demand d. Utility
1.4 PHILOSOPHIES OF MARKETING

We depict marketing as completing tasks to accomplish wanted business results with target
markets. What philosophy ought to direct these marketing strategies framed by marketers?
What weight ought to be given to the interests of the business, customers, and society?
Regularly these interests sometimes are to be addressed simultaneously. Perpetually, the
businesses ‘marketing philosophy impacts the manner in which it moves toward its
customers. There are five philosophies which have evolved with the time under which
organizations lead their marketing exercises: the production, the product, selling, marketing
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and societal marketing concepts. Companies can use these concepts individually or they can
use more than one concept to make marketing strategy or sometimes all concepts can be used
to make a strategy, pertaining to the situation, product, brand etc.
Source- https://www.invitereferrals.com/blog/marketing-concepts/
The Production Concept
The production concept holds that shoppers will incline toward items that are accessible and
exceptionally reasonable, and that administration should pay attention further on increasing
production and efficiency of distribution. This concept is one of the most reliable and oldest
philosophy of reasoning that guides sellers.
It will prompt economies of scale and decrease in cost per unit. The philosophy holds that
high production proficiency and wide distribution inclusion would sell the item offered to the
market. This direction of the business is generally rehearsed in circumstances where demand
surpasses supply or item cost is high that can be reduced by large scale manufacturing. The
market circumstance in most of the developing nations is that while demand for product
exists, they are not accessible in the market.
The Product Concept
The organizations following this philosophy trust that by making enhanced products and
working on their quality after some time, they will actually be able to bring in more
customers. The hidden supposition is that customer favours quality, execution, quick
delivery, new elements, and so forth the purchaser will respect such products and brands
which works regularly on their quality. Given the product concept, better products always
create excitement amongst customers are consistently invited by the customer. However,
product is just a single component of the aggregate marketing-mix. In this manner even if
customer is offered better product even at high price, they won't consider it expensive as such
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products deliver greater value (since progress in quality maybe at an expense). Nonetheless,
as we will see, pricing is one of the factors of segmentation. The division of segment on
monetary grounds, would come in that approach to executing such better-quality products at
high prices.
For example, some marketers believe that if they can develop a better mosquito replant, all
the customers would reach them in search for a solution." But they are mostly surprised by
the fact that. Customers might be searching for a better solution to a mosquito problem, but
not necessarily for a better smoky coil. The solution may be a body lotion which is harmless,
an oil or spray, a service or something that works better than a coil. Also, an improvised
fragrance-based coil will not sell unless the marketer uses the right product mix to create a
better-quality product, designs, packages and prices it attractively; places it in accessible
distribution channels; and communicate it to people who need it and motivates them that it is
a better product. According to (Theodore Levitt, 1960) giving much emphasis on product
only and not being aware about customer needs and wants might land marketer in trouble, it
is called marketing myopia, he also stated this as short sightedness of business.
The Selling Concept
Many businesses have a practice of putting all their efforts in selling as their management’s
perception is that the customers won’t buy their product until and unless we reach and try to
sell our product to customers, they even bring on plate everything and anything and do not
consider if customer wants certain product or not, sometimes customers feel offended and
even breach to their privacy when sellers barge into their homes, cars or even at private
places. The problem with this strategy is that the seller is not concerned about the customer
satisfaction but are worried about selling only, which in normal scenario makes a customer
offended at times.
For example, credit card sellers, they just find out the contact details by buying data of people
unethically and then cold call them to offer credit card, the selling executives are trained so
well that they will try their level best to sell the card, but now customers also mark these calls
as spam and report these calls as well. Another example if you consider is of politician trying
to sell themselves just before the election, they work so very hard for selling themselves,
even their associated party boast a lot about them and even lie about them that their candidate
is the most deserving person for the seat they are contesting the election, and later they are
not even concerned if people who voted for them are satisfied or not. There is a lot of
expenditure made on advertising through television, radio and newspapers in this concept.
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There are hidden facts about the product as well while making a sale which are not usually
disclosed by the seller at the time of sale.
Most firms practice the selling idea when they have overcapacity. Their point is to sell what
they make as opposed to make what the market needs. Along these lines showcasing in light
of hard selling conveys high risk. It canters around momentary outcomes -making sales - as
opposed to on building long, productive relationship with customers. It expects that
customers who are persuaded to buying the item will like it. Or on the other hand, on the off
chance that they could do without it, they might fail to remember their mistake and get it once
more at a later time. These are normally unfortunate presumptions to make about purchasers.
Most examinations show that disappointed customers don't buy once more.
The Marketing Concept
The marketing concept holds that accomplishing business objectives relies upon deciding the
needs and wants of target markets and conveying the ideal satisfaction more effectively and
proficiently than competitors do. Shockingly, this concept is a somewhat very recent business
philosophy. The selling concept and the marketing concept are often misunderstood as one
thing only. An inside-out approach is followed for selling, it starts from factory and ends on
profit making through sales volume by selling and promoting heavily, whereas, marketing
concept follows outside-in approach, it usually starts with market analysis through knowing
the needs and wants of customers and then designing and developing something of value to
those customers, here marketers earn profit through customer satisfaction. Many established
brands like Tata, Jio, P&G, Patanjali, Kalyan jewellers etc. have built the brand image
following this very concept, they put their customer first always.
Before we go ahead with societal marketing concept, please have a look at key differences
between marketing and selling in table 1.1 given on the next page.
The Societal Marketing Concept
Humanistic or societal marketing concept holds that the businesses' objective is to decide the
requirements, needs and interests of target markets and to address wanted value satisfaction
in such a way that sustains or improves the purchaser's and the general public's prosperity.
Subsequently, each firm ought to deal with social and moral contemplations while fostering
their marketing strategies. This would assist the business in developing a nice public image. It
is one of the latest and trending marketing philosophy to strategies upon.
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Source- https://www.invitereferrals.com/blog/societal-marketing-concept/
The societal marketing concept questions whether the core marketing concept is sufficient
during a time of resource scarcity, environmental degradation age, slogging economies and
ignored social services. It inquires as to whether the firm that detects, serves and fulfils
individual needs is continuously giving what's required and best for customers and society
over the long period of time. As per the societal marketing concept, the core marketing
concept ignores potential dissents between short-run customer needs and long-run customer
welfare. Businesses have realized that they have taken a lot from society in the form of
natural hazard they are causing to environment, and they know if there is a positive image
about them in society that they are concerned about society too, it will create a good image
amongst people of society, also a business gets competitive edge over its rivals when they
work for society because society supports back the business in that scenario.
Table 1.1: Comparison of Selling and Marketing concept
Basis Selling Concept Marketing Concept
Definition ● The selling concept ● The marketing concept is a
considers that in the strategy, which certifies that
event that organizations the firm's benefit lies in
and customers are developing more proficient
isolated, the customers than the competitors, in
won't buy an adequate manufacturing, delivering
number of products and giving remarkable value
created by the business. to the customer in target
marketplace.
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● Positively impacting ● Customizing the products

Related to... customers’ mind and services according to
regarding the product the customers’ needs, wants
attributes and giving and specifications and
them the motivation to leading the product towards
buy the product even if customers’ perception.
they do not have the
need.
Starting point ● Starting point is market

● Starting point is factory
from where customer
where manufacturing
feedback is withdrawn to
takes place for the
customize product
purpose of selling.
according to customer need.
Perspective ● Inside-out ● Outside-in
Longevity of ● Short-term ● Long-term

planning
Objective ● Is revenue generation ● Profit maximization through

through selling volume long term relationship
building.
Cost involved ● Cost of production is ● Market feedback is

ascertained, and profit ascertained and that’s how
margin is finalized product is developed, and
profit is earned through
making long-lasting
relationship
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Marketers do have found out and are working on new marketing concepts as well in 21st
century to gain market share as well as public attention. In totality it is called holistic
marketing concept. Explanation to the same is as follows:
Source- https://www.marketing91.com/holistic-marketing-concept/
Holistic Marketing Concept
Holistic marketing concept is a piece of the series on concepts of marketing and it tends to be
characterized as a marketing methodology which thinks about the business in general and not
as an element with different various parts.
As per holistic marketing concept, regardless of whether a business is made of different
divisions, the offices need to meet up to project a positive and joined business picture in the
perception of customers. Holistic marketing concept includes interconnected marketing
exercises to guarantee that the customer is probably going to buy their product as opposed to
competitor's product.
For example, A business will have various departments like marketing, sales, accounting and
finance, R&D and product development lastly HR and operations. In this manner, if you need
to carry out a holistic marketing concept in your business, you really want to guarantee that
R&D and product development take the inputs from marketing and sales to bring the product
to market which is probably going to draw in customers.
Then again, they need to work intimately with accounting and finance to figure out the
specific spending plan for the project. Sales and marketing need to impart to the HR the right
sort of individuals that they need, lastly, administrator and operations need to devise an
arrangement to hold these individuals.
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Major elements which are important for holistic marketing approach

Internal marketing - Marketing between every one of the divisions in an association.
Relationship marketing - Building a superior relationship with your customers, internal as
well as end customers is helpful for holistic marketing.
Performance marketing - Driving the sales and income development of a business
holistically by lessening costs and expanding sales.
Integrated marketing - Products, services and marketing ought to work connected towards
the development of business.
In this manner Holistic marketing is a concept which is pervasive to whole of business
functions and assists the development of the enterprise with the right marketing of the
product. With the increase in competition and the limitations put on customers with limited
monetary assets, decisions will be rational and as an enterprise we need to execute holistic
marketing, so choices are made by customers in support of ourselves.
In text question
2. The concept holds that consumers and businesses, if left alone, will ordinarily
not by enough of an organization’s products. The organization must, therefore,
undertake aggressive selling and promotion. Which concept is discussed above?
a. Production concept
b. Product concept
c. marketing concept
d. Selling concept
1.5 MARKETING MIX EXPLAINED

The marketing mix is characterized by the utilization of a marketing elements that joins
various factors to become what it takes to be a marketing strategy, also to build a product's
image and to help in selling the product or service. Product based businesses need to make
good marketing strategies to sell their products and thinking of a marketing mix is one of
them.
Any business in the market will always want to become market leader if they have
sufficient resources, major objective of any business is to earn profit by delivering value,
businesses need to create a good mix of ingredients of marketing to develop a good
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marketing strategy to achieve their primary as well as secondary goals. According to (Kotler.
P, Armstrong, G, Agnihotri, P.Y, and Haque, E., 2010) “Marketing mix is the set of
controllable, tactical marketing tools that the firm blends to produce the response it wants in
the target market”. (Mc Carthy, J. William, P.Jr., Joseph, C.E., 2006) explained the term
marketing mix for the first time in terms of 4 Ps. The 4 Ps stands for Product, Place, price and
Promotion. Marketers should know and it is their duty to use these 4 Ps like ingredients and
make an effective marketing mix strategy. Customers withdraw value out of all the 4 Ps, as if
product’s value is not up to the mark customer won’t buy it again, if price is marked too high
or too low which may make a customer switch to some other brand, if product is not available
easily and not accessible to customers then there is no point in having a good pricing or
product mix, and promotion is the only medium which creates buzz in the market, it helps in
increasing sale as well provides information to potential customers.
Source- https://www.business2community.com/marketing/the-marketing-mix-is-it-still-
relevant-today-02298017
A brief introduction about marketing mix’s 4 Ps as well as the additional 3 Ps and its multiple
factors are explained below, detailed explanation you will study in forthcoming chapters: -
Product in Marketing Mix
A product is a good, manufactured or resold to satisfy the need of an individual or a
gathering. The product can be touched or felt sometimes for example, idea, service,
experience, place etc. It is critical to do broad examination prior to developing and offering a
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product as it has various life cycle stages, from the growth stage to the development stage to
the decline stage.
Marketers really must re-examine their products to stimulate more demand once it arrives at
the decline stage. It ought to make an effect in the psyche of the customers, which is selective
and not the same as the competitor's product. There is a well-known saying about marketers,
"how might I offer a superior product to this target market than my rivals". This procedure
likewise assists the organization with building brand value.
Product mix strategy also consider about the right product or service to be offered and
marketed by a business, factors relevant to product mix like quality, quantity, packaging,
choices, design, size, features etc. can be manipulated as per the customization and
specification of customers or target market. Decisions relevant to packaging and labelling,
branding and customer care services are matters of product regulation and are to be dealt by
marketing administration.
Price in Marketing Mix
The money worth, time and energy given by a customer in search of a value-based product is
all together price of that product. Marketers need to certainly find out perception about the
product’s value in target customer’s mind and then move ahead for pricing the product
carefully so that it balances with the perception of customer, while pricing marketer also need
to consider about the life cycle stage of particular product, they also need to look into the
competitive pricing done by other players in the market. There is an issue regarding cost of
other marketing mix elements which is very important to consider, or marketer might run out
of budget as well with low generation of revenue due to wrong pricing. There are variables
like interest on credit, payment period, promotional discounts, basic pricing, transportation
and logistics charges etc. are to be considered while pricing, which will ultimately lead the
marketer to nearly price accurately.
Place in Marketing Mix
The place is where your product or service is sold, and how it is sold. It could be a physical
location or online. If you have a physical location, then it needs to be well thought out to be
as convenient as possible for customers. If your business is based online, then your website
and sales process should be professional, well-structured and easy. You want to make the
process as pleasant as possible, to increase your chance of a sale. There are so many
alternatives online, you do not want frustrated customers going elsewhere. For example, in
current scenario car selling companies have long waiting periods for the delivery of cars and
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in many cases after a customer books a car, wait for a while, say for a month or two and if
their mind changes or their choice shift to some other brand, they might cancel the booking
and go to some other brand.
The sales channels your company uses is another aspect of the place. Are you using
salespeople, intermediaries or selling directly to the customer? Wholesale or retail? Are you
selling through Facebook ads, telemarketing or catalogues? Your business should try
different methods to work out what really works best for customers. An effective channel of
distribution is required to reach to customers on time, in this distribution channel, there are
number of parties involved those helps the product to get delivered on time from
manufacturer to customer. A channel of distribution might be short or sometime might be
long depending on the criteria of the market and there are numerous factors to decide about
number of parties to be involved in channel of distribution by marketers. Also, marketers
need to keep a focus on cost reduction as well because budgets for each department in an
organization are limited, so while choosing logistic partners or warehousing partners
marketers need to keep an eye over the cost of such procurements.
Promotion in Marketing Mix
Promotion is all the way that you communicate with your target audience/customers about
your products/services. It is important to use different forms of promotion and
communication channels to find the best way to reach your customers and make sales.
Promotion includes advertising, content marketing, sponsorship, sales staff, product
placement, direct mail, social media, and influencers. The way we promote our brands in
2020 has changed drastically in just ten to twenty years. What is working today will not
necessarily work next week. Businesses need to update their marketing communication
consistently and stay up to date with what is relevant and the most cost-effective way to reach
and convert prospects into customers.
The major variables of promotion strategy are advertising to inform, personal selling, sales
promotion for example discounts, direct marketing and customer relationship management
etc. In the good old days, just huge companies could profit of the emotional impact of TV
advertisements, boards, and magazines. However, with current opportunity arrives present
day measures and digital marketing is assuming control over the stage. This doesn't mean,
however, that advertisers ought to consequently forego the advantages of traditional
advertising. Twenty-to-thirty-year old's might be assuming control over the commercial
center yet the purchasing force of the gen X-errs actually counts. Furthermore, the quickest
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method for arriving at the non-educated people is through the traditional method for
publicizing.
Thus, with regards to the promotional part of the business, marketers need to compare the
advantages and disadvantages of their modes. Whether it's starting a viral marketing effort or
facilitating a business show; these will all have an impact in the organization's publicity.
4 Ps gives you a marketer’s view point not the customers’, and whole of the marketing now a
days revolve around customers only, value delivery to them etc. 4 Cs suggested by (Coster,
H., 2007), which are Customer solution, Customer cost, Convenience, communication
explains marketing decisions that hover around 4 Ps. While a marketer is selling a product a
customer is seeking a solution to a need or a problem, customers not only consider the price
of the product alone, they also see the cost of keeping the product for a time period which
includes buying, selling and maintaining cost, 4 Cs are important to build 4 Ps of marketing
strategy as it will give an idea about customer’s perspective.
The other 3 Ps explained
The 7Ps model is a marketing model that changes the 4Ps model. As Marketing mix 4P is
turning into an old pattern, and these days, marketing business needs profound
comprehension of the ascent in new innovation and concept. In this way, 3 all the newer Ps
were included in the old 4Ps model to give a profound comprehension of the concept of the
marketing mix. The 4Ps were designed at a time where businesses were more likely to sell
products, rather than services and the role of customer service in helping brand development
wasn’t so well known.
Source- https://www.ventureharbour.com/marketing-mix/
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People
The organization's representatives are significant in marketing since they are the ones who
provides service to the customers. It means a lot to recruit and prepare the right individuals to
serve better, whether they run a help desk, client support, publicists, software engineers…
and so forth. It is vital to find individuals who really trust in your products or services that the
specific business makes, as there is an enormous possibility giving their best performance.
Adding to it, the association ought to acknowledge the legit criticism from the workers about
the business and ought to enter their own considerations and interests which can scale and
develop the business. Customers prefer those brands whose employees are well behaved and
talk nicely and humbly. Training is an important part as in training only they will learn
customer or people skills. And ultimately employees are the representative of your business.
Process
We should always make sure that the business process is well structured and verified
regularly to avoid mistakes and minimize costs. To maximize the profit, it is important to
tighten up the enhancement process. A complete guide or process should be available to
customer before buying any product from a marketer, they should know how a product is
made and then sold to customers, the delivery process and if there is any grievance then
redressal process should also be known to customer, customers rely on any brand when they
know about the quality and hygiene maintained to manufacture a product. Customer needs to
know the complete schedule from manufacturer to them and vice versa in case of any
problem with the product.
Physical evidence
Physical evidence incorporates aspects that demonstrates your brand exists and that a
purchase occurred.
Examples of confirmation that your brand exists can incorporate things like a physical store
or office for your business, a site assuming that your business operates exclusively on the
web, and printed business cards that you exchange while meeting individuals. Examples of
confirmation of purchases can incorporate physical or digital receipts, invoices, or follow-up
email that you wrote to customers as a retaining activity.
Your marketing mix should also take into consideration all the things your client sees, hears -
once in a while even smells - in relation to your product or service. This, obviously,
incorporates packaging and branding, however ought to also acquire the ways products are
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displayed in stores, where they are placed, and the setting wherein they sit, as well as digital
placement, remembering for your site and social media.
In the above explained 7 Ps of marketing mix, the marketer has to choose wisely amongst the
7 Ps in ratio as per the market conditions prevailing and as per the brand you are, life cycle
stage also will impact the way you formulate your marketing mix using these 7 Ps or
sometimes 4 Ps. Marketing department’s only task is to develop an effective marketing
strategy which suits businesses’ current needs, actually it is not just marketing task, it is the
complete marketing, the planning, the framing of marketing mix plan and then effectively
utilizing it.
Marketers sometimes might find contradicting themselves against the profit motive in order
to serve the customer better, some decisions might shun the profit margin, but still it is the
duty of marketer and marketing both to satisfy customer in all the ways they can, marketers
need to choose the right combination in the right ratio to suit to the situation their business is
in, which will ultimately satisfy and delight customers as well as help to achieve greater
market share with businesses’ and marketing objectives.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. Which of these is not a part of 4 Cs?
a. Customer b. Customer solution c. communication d. customer cost
1.6 SUMMARY
Marketing is the process of creating, pricing, distribution, promoting goods, services,

individuals, places or ideas. It facilitates exchange, that is exchanging a product in return for
something of value. Marketing creates utilities like from utility, place utility, time utility and
possession utility. Marketing has developed through four stages, namely the product era, the
sales era, the marketing era and the societal marketing era. In most of the business the major
purpose of marketing department is to generate revenue for the business by selling want
satisfying goods and services to the customers.
Importance of marketing
The product satisfy customer needs and wants and also remove hindrances between the
marketers and customers by creating utilities for them by adding value to the product. By
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removing these hindrances, marketing ensures free and smooth exchange of goods and
services from marketers to customers. Some of them are –
Marketing helps in engaging consumer effectively
Creates goodwill
Helps in creation of customer relationship and its management
Helps in increasing sales
MARKETING Philosophies There are various concepts and philosophies which acts as a
guideline and holds good when the various decision is to be made in marketing. According to
Phillip Kottler there are five concepts in marketing. The production concepts. The product
Concept. The selling Concept. The marketing concepts. The societal Marketing Concept.
At last, but not the least we discussed about 4 Ps- Product, price, place and Promotion, with 4
Ps we discussed 4 Cs and after that we discussed the other 3 Ps- People, process and Physical
evidence.
1. a 3. a
2. d
1. “Marketing is customer-driven”. Elucidate this statement and discuss the

characteristics and scope for future of marketing?
2. How marketing has evolved during the last few years, please explain with the help of
philosophies of marketing?
3. What are the core concepts of marketing?
4. Discuss at least five differences between selling and marketing?
5. What is holistic marketing? What are the elements of holistic marketing?
6. How marketers use marketing mix? When does extension of marketing mix helps
marketers?
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1. American Marketing Association. (2017). AMA. Retrieved from

https://www.ama.org/: https://www.ama.org/the-definition-of-marketing-what-is-
marketing/
2. Coster, H. (2007, November). Crowd Control. Forbes, pp. 38-39 and 4.
3. Kotler. P, Armstrong, G, Agnihotri, P.Y, and Haque, E. (2010). Principles of

Marketing. India: Prentice Hall of India.
4. Mc Carthy, J. William, P.Jr., Joseph, C.E. (2006). Basics of Marketing. USA: Mcgraw
Hill Higher Education.
5. Philip Kotler, Gary Armstrong, J. Saunders, V. Wong. (1999). Principles of

Marketing. New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hal! Europe.
6. Theodore Levitt. (1960). Marketing Myopia. Harvard Business Review.

7. (Kotler. P, Armstrong, G, Agnihotri, P.Y, and Haque, E., 2010)
8. (Mc Carthy, J. William, P.Jr., Joseph, C.E., 2006)
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LESSON 2
MARKETING ENVIRONMENT
STRUCTURE

2.2 Introduction: Marketing Environment
2.3 Components of Marketing Environment
2.3.1 Internal Environment
2.3.2 External Environment
a. Microenvironment
b. Macro Environment
2.3.3 Difference between Micro & Macro Environment.
2.4 Features of the Marketing Environment
2.6 Global marketing
2.6.1 Elements (4Ps) of the Global Marketing
2.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Global Marketing
2.7.1 Factors affecting Market Segmentation and Target Market.
2.8 Consumer Buying Behavior
2.8.1 Type of consumer buying behavior.
2.8.2 Consumer Buying Process
2.8.3 Factors affecting consumer behavior.
2.9. Organizational Buying Behavior
2.9.1 Nature of Organizational Buying
2.9.2 Features of Organizational Buying
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2.9.3 Factors affecting Organizational Buyers Decision

2.9.4 Process or stages of Organizational Buying Behavior.
2.10 Summary
2.12 References

 Explain the marketing environment.
 State the meaning of marketing environment.
 Gain knowledge about Environmental Monitoring
 Classify both microenvironment and macro environment.
 Understand new marketing scenario in Global Marketing.
 Explain the influences on organizational buying behaviour.
 Differentiate between organizational and consumer buying behaviour.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
The environment is considered as the internal and external surroundings, circumstances, or

factors that influence any individual, business, or economy.
Understanding the environment for any individual or business helps to plan, formulate and
apply strategies and plans of action. The environment includes both micro & macro forces
that influence the business or organization. So, understanding the environment is one of the
important aspects, and it influences any business or organization in many ways.
The marketing environment is the sum of both internal factors (customers, shareholders,
retailers, employees, and distributors) and external factors (demographic, cultural, social,
legal, economic, natural, and technological environment) as well as forces outside marketing
that affect top-level management's capacity to establish and uphold successful relationships
with its target customers.
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Fig 1.1: (Source: https://businessjargons.com/marketing-environment.html)
2.3 COMPONENTS OF MARKETING ENVIRONMENT
The marketing environment is made up of the internal and external environments of the
company. The corporation has some control over its own environment (internal
environment), but little to no control over the external environment (external environment).
There are two components of the Marketing Environment:
2.3.1 Internal Environment
a. Micro Environment.
b. Marco Environment.
2.31 Internal Environment
The internal environment of a firm includes all internal forces and components that have an
impact on its marketing operations. These elements can be categorized using the following:
Men: All of the company's workers, both skilled and unskilled.
Machines: The tools a company uses to speed up or complete processes are referred to as
machines.
Materials: The supplies or manufacturing parts that the business needs to complete the
production procedures.
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The factors and influences in the organization's external environment are those over which
the marketer has little or no control. The external environment can be divided into two
categories: Macro Environment and Microenvironment.
A. Micro environment.
The value delivery system of the company is made up of the forces and elements that are
close to it and that affect its ability to serve its consumers, such as the firm, market channel
companies, client marketplaces, competitors, and the general public.
 Corporate: When establishing a marketing plan, the marketing division must take
into account the needs of other company divisions.
 Suppliers: Companies that supply the raw materials needed by a company or its
competitors to produce goods or deliver services are known as suppliers.
 Marketing intermediaries: Organizations that help a company market, sell and
distribute its goods to customers. These corporations include companies that do
physical distribution, marketing service providers, and financial intermediaries.
 Customers: The target market for the business is consumers. An organization should
be aware of the constantly changing needs of its customers and should keep on top of
these needs by developing and implementing an effective information gathering
system.
 Competition: The marketing theory states that in order to succeed, a business must
outperform its competitors in terms of customer value and satisfaction.
 Public: The organization's microenvironment has a range of publics. The public is
defined as any group that could really or hypothetically have an impact on how well a
corporation can achieve its objectives.
B. Macro environment:
The larger social trends that affect the organization as a whole, in addition to its competitors
and specific micro environmental elements. It is also known as the environment in general.
Since a marketing manager has no real control over these external, unpredictable effects,
decisions are made with the macro environment in mind. He must therefore monitor the
outside environment and make efforts to reduce the impact of these other events on his
business.
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The following macro environment variables are categorized:

● Demographical
● Social and Cultural
● Legal
● Political
● Economic
● Technological
● Demographic Environment
● Demographic Environment: It is the study of human populations in terms of size,
density, location, age, gender, race, occupation, and other statistics and
characteristics. Marketers are always interested in population-related growth indices
because the eventual market growth rate in the long run largely depends on the growth
of the population.
● Social and Cultural Environment: The social and cultural environment factors may
be the most challenging for the marketing organization to assess out of all the
components of the macro environment because these consumer preferences, buying
habits, and priorities alter as a result of social and cultural development, and
marketers need to comprehend and spot these shifting patterns.
● Legal Environment
The legal climate has an impact on marketing choices as well. The legal system and
how current laws are applied change frequently as a result of changes in the political
climate. The legal setting determines how a company must behave in accordance with
the law.
● Political Environment
Political Environment is one of the aspects of the marketing environment that is less
predictable is the political climate. Political change can have an impact on a
company's marketing; thus organizations need to regularly examine the shifting
political landscape.
The laws, institutions of government, etc. that have an impact on, constrain and
restrict various groups and individuals within a given society make up the political
environment.
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● Economic Environment
The economic environment, which primarily refers to the level of demand in the
economy and is the most obvious feature in the macro environment, has the greatest
impact on marketing decisions. It comprises factors that influence consumer
purchasing power and spending patterns.
● Technological Environment
The forces that produce new technologies, opening new markets and potential for
products, are probably most spectacular in the technological environment.
Two processes influence technological change. It takes time for certain changes to
develop. But certain technical developments are so significant and upsetting that they
create a new pattern of consumption.
2.3.3. Macro and Microenvironment on Marketing
COMPONEN MICRO ENVIRONMENT MACRO ENVIRONMENT
T
Definition The microenvironment of a The macro-environment is regarded
corporation is essentially its as the company's external or
immediate surroundings or internal general environment that has the
environment. potential to have an impact on how
its entire operation is conducted.
Elements of Customers, suppliers, media, or the Demographic, economic, natural,
factors general public, employees, social-cultural, technical, political,
shareholders, and competitors make and legal elements are the key
up the microenvironment's primary macro environmental influences.
components.
Element’s The microenvironment's component There is a greater emphasis on
nature has a simpler, more specialised regional, national, and international
nature. Usually factors that are elements.
industry specific.
Influence on Direct and regular impact on Influence marketing choices
Organization marketing decisions and also directly and frequently while
remains independent. maintaining independence.
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Activities of Interaction of marketer with Interaction between marketers and

Marketers different functions within the other departments inside the
organization. company.
Marketing Controllable factors by the Variables that the marketers can
Control marketers. control.
Functioning A factor may affect an Factors may function in the form of
organization's strengths and opportunities and threats to the
weaknesses. external market.
2.4 Features of the Marketing Environment:

There are several features that define the marketing environment of today. These features are
as follows:
 Specific and General Forces: It refers to several elements affecting the marketing
landscape. There are certain factors, such as those that directly affect the operations of
an organization. Customers and investors are two examples of specialized forces. The
forces that have an organization-wide impact are referred to as general forces.
Technology, social, political, and legal issues are some examples of common forces.
 Complexity: It suggests that there are a variety of factors, circumstances, and
implications in the marketing environment. The interaction between each of these
components makes the marketing environment.
 Vibrancy: Liveliness indicates that the marketing environment is dynamic. The
marketing environment is defined by a multitude of forces that are dynamic and
change over time. While marketers may be able to influence some forces, they are
unable to influence all. However, understanding the dynamic nature of the marketing
environment can give marketers a chance to outperform competitors.
 Uncertainty: It suggests that market dynamics are inherently unpredictable. In order
to strategize and update their plans, every marketer strives to anticipate market forces.
Because changes are common, it might be difficult to predict some of them. To
illustrate, shoppers' fashion preferences are constantly changing. The fashion industry
is very insecure as a result. Depending on the trend, it can take a few days or years
 Relativity: It explains the causes of the differences in demand between nations.
Depending on the nation, location, or culture, the demand for a particular industry,
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organization, or product can change. For example, sarees are in high demand because
they are the traditional women's clothing of India. However, the demand for saris can
be nil in any other western nation.
The marketing landscape is dynamic and constantly changing. The dynamics that shape the
marketing environment, whether changing gradually or rapidly, create uncertainty,
challenges, and opportunities. To be ready to seize opportunities and mitigate adverse
circumstances, marketers must constantly monitor the marketing environment. Marketing
managers need to conduct environmental scans and analyses to efficiently track changes in
the marketing environment.
The endeavor to monitor changes in external variables that may affect markets and demand
for a company's goods and services. Economic, social, demographic, political, legal, cultural,
and technological pressures are some of the external forces typically considered. The
fundamental objective of environmental monitoring is to control and reduce the impact of an
organization's actions on the environment, either to ensure compliance with laws and
regulations or to limit risks of adverse impacts on the natural environment and to preserve
human health.
2.6 Global Marketing
“The capacity of a company to market to nearly every nation on the earth is known as
global marketing”.
A company's products or services are in high demand throughout a wide range of markets.
The international corporation still has the capacity, reach, expertise, personnel, staff, skills,
and knowledge to offer value to clients everywhere. The business understands the necessity
of providing global standard solutions or products to local customers and localizes those
products as required to maintain an ideal balance between cost, effectiveness, versatility, and
localization in a regulated full spectrum in order to best satisfy the community, national, and
global requirements to position itself against or with competitors, partners, alliances,
substitutes, and defend against new global and local market entrants per country.
2.6.1 Elements (4 Ps) of the Global Marketing
Global marketing is associated with global competitiveness, exporting, joint ventures, foreign
direct investments, government relations, global human capital management, resource
allocation, distributed technology development and management, global business logic, as
well as the standard marketing approaches, strategies, tactics, and processes.
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The standard “Four P’s” of marketing: product, price, placement, and promotion are all
affected as a company moves through the five evolutionary phases to become a global
company.
The Four P’s” of Global Marketing
❖ Product: A worldwide corporation can develop a single product and just need to
make minor adjustments for several regions. Coca-Cola, as an illustration, employs
two formulas—one with sugar and the other with corn syrup—for all markets. Every
nation uses the dynamic ribbon and contour bottle design in some capacity in their
product packaging. The bottle is the same size as other beverage bottles or cans in that
nation, but it may also incorporate the native tongue of that nation.
❖ Price: Markets will always have different prices. The cost of product development
(whether domestically manufactured or imported), the cost of ingredients, the cost of
delivery (due to transportation, customs, etc.), and many other factors all have an
impact on price. The final profit margin is also influenced by the product's position in
comparison to the competitors. The price point of a product is influenced by whether
it is viewed as the high-end, pricey option, the cheap, affordable option, or something
in-between.
❖ Place: The target market's access to the competition affects each country's decision on
the distribution of the product. Not all cultures employ vending machines, to use
Coca-Cola as an example once more. Beverages are offered for sale by the pallet in
warehouse stores in the US. This is not a choice in India. The position of the product
in the market must be taken into account when making placement selections.
❖ Promotion: In a multinational company's marketing budget, promotion is typically
the biggest line item after product research, development, and production. A
company's goal at this point in its development is integrated marketing. The
multinational corporation aims to cut expenses, minimize work and human
duplication, accelerate implementation, and speak with a single voice. If a
multinational corporation wants to communicate the same message to all of its
customers, the problem is to do it in a way that is timely, interesting, and economical.
2.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Global Marketing
❖ Advantages:
 Global Marketers has reduced marketing expenses
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 Global Marketing companies are more strength and range in their products.
 Global market includes the ability to use advertising to introduce its product.
 Global Marketing companies have consistent marketing techniques and brands.
 Global Marketers have Economies of Scale in the manufacturing and distribution of
its product.
 Global Marketing encourages the establishment of ancillary industries to meet the
needs of the global player.
❖ Disadvantages
 Variations in consumer reaction to marketing mix components.
 Product placement varies depending on administrative practices.
 Global Marketing policies may contradict domestic market laws.
 There may be variations in the administrative processes and product placement.
 Differences in product usage patterns and consumer demands wants, and needs
 Differences in the competitive environment, brand and product development, and
legal climate.
The size and diversity of the product market make it challenging for businesses to please
every customer. Companies must define a specific consumer base within a market and
endeavor to fulfil them. Market segment identification is this collection. Additionally,
companies must comprehend the complexity of how this market behaves and functions.
Target marketing is a strategy that is gaining popularity in which businesses identify market
segments with comparable needs and wants, choose one of the market segments, and then
concentrate on developing products and marketing strategies.
The market segmentation task has to follow a scientific process.
1. The first task is to classify customers based on the goods and services they desire.
2. To define a market segment, the second stage is to assess the client by summarising
their demographic, lifestyle, and usage patterns.
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3. The third duty is to do market research to assess growth potential, competition, and
other elements.
4. Assessing the profitability of a market segment is the fourth task.
5. Positioning work for pricing and marketing initiatives is the fifth task.
6. To investigate various positioning and marketing tactics to fully examine the market.
2.7.1. Factors affecting Market Segmentation and Target Market.
Market segmentation and target market are affected by a number of variables.
● Location factors: One such aspect is geography, which divides a nation into regions
based on city, urban, rural, and climate.
● Population Factor: Age, family size, gender, household income, life stage,
occupation, education, religion, race, generation, and social class are used to segment
the market demographically.
● Lifestyle and personality. Markets can be divided at the individual level according to
attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of products, as well as product awareness and
consumption patterns.
● Operational segmentation: It is based on the type of technology, consumer
preferences, and customer needs.
2.8 CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOR
Consumer buying behavior is the popular term, it is the actions and behaviors of the
consumers when he/she engage when making purchases and consuming goods. It is the
term for the ultimate consumer's purchasing habits.
Marketers must examine consumer behavior -
▪ To develop the marketing concept (marketing mix).
▪ To anticipate consumer reactions to marketing tactics.
▪ To influenced by how customers respond to its marketing approach
▪ To examine the what, where, when, and how consumers make purchases.
2.8.1 Type of consumer buying behavior.
Consumer behavior largely depends on what type of goods the consumer would like to buy.
As a result, of the bigger risk, customers are more inclined to go and do research on luxury
items.
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However, when buying a cheap item, consumers behave very differently but it's often a more
hands-off purchase. Businesses should carry out consumer research to discover the
purchasing habits of their customer.
Fig 2.8.1 (Source: https://www.clootrack.com/knowledge_base/types-of-consumer-behavior)

Fig.1 Type of consumer buying behavior.
Type of consumer buying behavior.
a) Complex Buying Behavior
b) Dissonance Reducing Buying Behavior
c) Variety Seeking Buying Behavior
d) Habitual Buying Behavior
a) Complex Buying Behavior: Complex buying alludes to a purchase situation in which
the consumer is extensively involved in decision - making process and needs to weigh a
number of different factors before taking a good selection. These factors include price,
investment return, longevity, usefulness, reviews, and referrals. Customers must display
complex buying behavior while making a highly involved purchase of a good for which
there are numerous alternatives, alternatives with different features, and high differences
in the market. It is difficult since there is a great deal of risk. Additionally, the stark
distinctions across brands necessitate a high level of customer interaction. Giving
customer knowledge is the key to assisting them in this type of purchasing.
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Consider purchasing a home or a car; these are examples of complex purchasing

behaviors.
For instance, purchasing a home can include a considerable financial risk for the buyer.
As a result, they will do the extensive market study before making a decision.
To have an impact on consumers' purchasing behavior, marketers must assist in
educating them throughout the discovery phase.
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b) Dissonance-Reducing Buying Behavior: Dissonance is defined as "a disagreement of

people's beliefs, acts, or characters" in the dictionary. When a consumer makes a
purchase, they are heavily involved in the decision-making process and are unable to
distinguish between the various options and brands on the market that can meet their
needs.
In a similar vein, worry after purchases can be understood as dissonance-reducing
buying. When there are little variations between brands and the purchase involves
significant levels of involvement, this typically occurs. This sets it apart from
complicated purchasing scenarios where there are several variations in the available
options.
The buyer is confused of the similarities between the various brands on the market that
seem to be available for the same demand in this purchase situation. Even if the marketer
chooses to differentiate on the basis of positioning, brand perception, consumer trust, or
pricing, it is crucial to do so. Even after a purchase, the dissonance may persist, which is
bad for the brand's reputation and its ability to elicit feedback or repeat business
c) Variety Seeking Buying Behavior: Even when consumers say they are happy with their
current brand, they nevertheless switch. Variety seeking is the motivation, and it is most
prevalent when there are lots of options that are similar, when brand loyalty is
significant, and when purchases are made frequently. It can happen purely out of
boredom with one's current brand of choice, or it can be sparked by outside cues like
retail running out of stock or discounts that promote switching. Take chocolates as an
example. The consumer selects a brand of chocolates without giving it much thought and
reviews it as they eat it based on their beliefs about chocolate. The customer may choose
a different brand the next time in an attempt to satisfy a different taste.
In this scenario, brand switching is undertaken for variety's benefit instead of out of
disappointment.
d) Habitual Buying Behavior: The term "habitual buying" refers to a customer's tendency
to make several repeat purchases of a well-known brand without exerting much thought
or effort. The product is viewed as a commodity and offers little differentiation from its
competitors. Customers who engage in habitual purchasing behavior choose items they
frequently purchase and don't give much thought to.
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Consumer's buying behaviors may also be explained by the fact that customers stick with the
goods they use the most and also don't search for alternatives. And it doesn't imply that the
customer has fewer options and must make a decision regardless. Because the product doesn't
differ much from others, the buyer consistently chooses it without thinking about it. Habit
purchasing is the term for repeated purchases. Additionally, the things they buy are
inexpensive and safe to acquire.
2.8.2 Consumer Buying Process
Fig 2.8.2 (Source: https://www.professionalacademy.com/blogs/marketing-theories-

explaining-the-consumer-decision-making-process/)
In the standard consumer buying process, the buyer goes through five separate stages:
i. Stage of Recognition of Need: (Emphasizes the necessity for a goods and services):
Understanding the need for a service or product is the first stage in the decision-
making process for consumers. Whether motivated internally or externally, need
recognition yields the same outcome: a want. Consumers must first identify their
wants before they can learn how to satisfy them, which brings us to step two.
But how can you inspire customers at this point? Focus your sales and marketing
efforts on outward stimuli instead of internal stimulus, which originates from within
and includes basic urges like hunger or a change in lifestyle.
ii. Stage of Information Search :( Collecting information about the product): Following
the arousal of a need, the consumer's behavior directs them to gather information
about various stimuli, or in this example, items and services, from a variety of sources
(individual, community, professional, interpersonal) for later processing and decision-
making.
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Consumers once more rely on internal and external influences, as well as previous
contacts with a product or brand, both favorable and unfavorable, while evaluating
their options. They may explore possibilities in person or check online sources like
Google or customer reviews during the information stage.
iii. Stage of Evaluation of Alternative: (Compares choices to equivalent alternatives): A
consumer moves on to the next step of evaluating alternatives once their interest in a
product or products has been stimulated.
Cognitive evaluation: When a customer makes a decision based on facts.
Affective evaluation: Using affective factors to evaluate the options is known as
affective assessment
iv. Stage of Purchase Decision: (Makes final purchase decision): The consumer
ultimately decides to make a purchase. Purchase decisions can fall into one of three
categories: don't buy, buy later, or buy now.
Consumers who choose not to purchase reach the stage of problem recognition.
Purchases may be delayed because of diminished motivation or changes in one's
personal and financial circumstances. The consumer will buy if favorable sentiments
are developed toward the selected option.
v. Stage of Post Purchase Evaluation: (Observes the purchase they had made): After
committing to a product, a consumer's behavior is referred to as post-purchase
behavior. Customer satisfaction, customer joy, and customer dissatisfaction are the
three outcomes of post-purchase behavior. Buyer discomfort brought on by post-
purchase conflict is known as cognitive dissonance.
2.8.3 Factors affecting consumer behavior.
a. Advertising & Marketing Initiatives: Purchase decisions are significantly
influenced by marketing initiatives. They can even encourage customers to switch
brands or choose more expensive alternatives if done well, consistently, and with the
right marketing message.
b. Economic Situation: Economic situations play a significant role, especially when it
comes to pricey goods (like houses or cars). Regardless of their financial obligations,
customers are known to become more self-assured and prepared to indulge in
purchases in a healthy economic environment.
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c. Individual Choice and Preferences: Personal characteristics, like as preferences,

values, morals, and priorities, can also have an impact on how consumers behave.
Personal views are extremely potent in sectors like fashion or food.
d. Group influence: Additionally, peer pressure affects customer behavior. Our
decisions may be significantly influenced by what our friends, neighbors, immediate
family members, classmates, and acquaintances believe or do.
e. Purchasing Power: Not to mention, our ability to buy things has a big impact on how
we behave. You will think about your budget before making a purchase decision
unless you are a billionaire.
2.9 ORGANIZATIONAL BUYING BEHAVIOR.
According to Pette D. Bennett: “Organizational buying behavior is a process by
which a buying group evaluates the needs for products and services and identifies,
evaluates, and selects among alternative brands and suppliers.”
According to W. M. Pride and O. C. Ferrel, “The term "organisational buying
behavior" refers to how producers, institutions, and government agencies buy things.
Organization buying is the process through which formal organisations determine the
demand for acquired goods and services, as well as the identification, assessment, and
selection of alternative suppliers and brands. It is a series of intricate occurrences that are
dependent on the firm's level of purchasing expertise
Organizational behavior describes the purchasing habits of businesses that purchase
goods for internal use, resale, or to create additional goods. Businesses, industries, retailers,
governmental bodies, and non-governmental groups are examples of organizations.
Organizational buying behavior is also called business or industrial behavior or B2B buying
behavior.
Some Examples of Organizational Buying:
 Flour by the bakery.
 Chip by computer manufacturers.
 Large grocery chains routinely purchase goods directly from producers and resell
them to final customers.
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2.9.1 Nature of Organizational Buying

Every organization is unique – Organizational structures, cultures, beliefs, and resources
vary among various organizations, as do their goals and resources. They consequently
possess a different set of requirements and desires, as well as different purchasing behavior.
There is a long-time lag between efforts and results – Individual purchases require less
time than commercial purchases to complete from the point of decision to the point of sale.
This is a result of the additional formalities and procedures required during the organizational
purchase decision. For instance, requesting quotes, assessing bids, creating bulk orders, etc.
It is a rational as well as emotional activity – The involvement of humans in the purchasing
process causes the emotional component of purchasing to arise. The amount and quality of a
product may be chosen by an industrial buyer based on established organizational rules, but
the dealer may be chosen based on the buyer's political or personal connection or prior
interactions with the dealer.
It is a formal activity – When purchasing from an organization, there is a formal contract
between the parties. Making a purchase choice is a formal activity that calls for the buyer to
adhere to policies and guidelines established by the business regarding the type, quality,
quantity, conditions of payment, delivery date, etc.
It is a multi-person activity – In a company, purchasing choices are typically made by a
group of qualified employees, sometimes known as a buying center, where each person has a
certain duty to play.
2.9.2 Features of Organizational Buying Behavior
The primary characteristics of organizational buying behavior are few buyers, close
relationships between buyers and suppliers, rational buyers, direct channels, the adaption of
specific purchase policies created by business organizations, etc.
1. Few buyers: Organizational buyers are limited in number because they are the
organization themselves. However, they make massive purchases. Buyers from
organizations are dispersed throughout the country.
2. Close relationship: Suppliers and buyers within organizations interact frequently. It
might last for a while. Future purchases will benefit from such a relationship. In general,
buyers and suppliers in organizations maintain close relationships.
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3. Rational buyers: When buying for an organization, the buyer rationalizes. The buying
process involves trained and experienced buyers. Thus, making a purchase becomes
logical.
4. Direct channel: Organizational purchasers purchase items from producers directly
because they purchase in large quantities. Thus, the marketing route is now direct. But
some businesses use middlemen or agencies to purchase their items.
5. Purchase policy: Both organizations and individuals now use different purchasing
strategies. An organization creates a certain purchasing policy and purchases products in
accordance with the policy. The main purchasing strategies used by businesses include
purchasing by quotation, buying through tender, buying through contract, etc.
2.9.3 Factors affecting Organizational Buyers Decision
Factors affecting institutional buying decision are as follows:
❖ Environmental factors
❖ Organizational factors
❖ Interpersonal factors
❖ Personal factors
❖ Environmental Factors
 Environmental Factors: Environmental factors have a direct or indirect impact on the
institutional elements that influence purchasing decisions. This covers obligations in the
areas of economics, technology, politics, and the law, among others.
● Economic Factors: Demand intensity, the state of the economy, competitiveness,
technological advancements, the trade cycle, etc. are all included. The demand for
organizational products, which is linked to the demand for consumer goods, is
impacted by changes in a market's overall economic conditions. Consequently, the
demand for organizational products is likely to be impacted by any change in the
economic situation of a nation that affects consumer demand.
● Technological factors: Institutional purchasing and inventory management, the
production process, distribution management, and other areas have changed as a result
of technological factors including the development of e-commerce, the development
of information, and the development of the internet.
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● Political and legal factors: Political and legal variables may have an impact on
institutions. Every corporation must function in accordance with national laws and
regulations, therefore before purchasing goods and services, businesses should
research the political system, political climate, political ideologies, and government
policies.
● Social responsibilities: Social responsibility influences organisational purchasing
decisions as well. Institutions must take into account issues like environmental
protection and addressing community needs. The business must take social welfare
into account while purchasing goods and services.
❖ Organizational factors: Organizational purchasing behavior is also influenced by
organizational characteristics. The organizational buying is significantly influenced by the
buying aim, policies, procedure, and organization.
● Buying Objective: Different organizations have various purchasing goals. Some
businesses priorities cheap prices above great quality and other businesses priorities
high prices over high quality.
● Buying Policies: Some organizations have centralized purchasing policies, while
others have decentralized purchasing policies. The selection of suppliers will be
limited by the organization's purchasing practices that promote the fairness principle.
● Buying process: Each organisation has a different organisational market purchasing
method. Every major acquisition in the government market is subject to sealed bids
and tenders. The majority of commercial purchasing is guided by previous
interactions with suppliers.
● Buying organizations: The organisational buying can vary greatly as a result of
centralized and decentralized buying methods. The purchasing process will become
complicated if sizable purchase committees are engaged.
❖ Interpersonal Factors: Various persons take part in organisational purchasing. They
have an impact on the purchasing process because so many people are involved.
Authority, interest, and prestige are examples of interpersonal factors.
● Authority: There are various levels of authority among the organization's staff. The
manner in which the organization's staff exercises their authority affects the purchase
process and determines whether it is simple, quick, or difficult.
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● Interest: The interests of the individuals participating in the organisational

purchasing process vary. While the finance manager may be interested in cheaper
prices, the production manager may be more concerned with the quality and
consistency of the supply of production input.
● Status: The interests of the individuals participating in the organisational purchasing
process vary. While the finance manager may be interested in cheaper prices, the
production manager may be more concerned with the quality and consistency of the
supply of production input.
❖ Personal factors: Individual characteristics including age, education, employment status,
risk-taking, and personality can have an impact on the purchasing behavior of
organizations.
● Age: Age has a direct impact on an organization's purchasing decisions. Younger
buyers appreciate establishing relationships with new suppliers, whereas older buyers
value keeping those relationships with long-standing suppliers.
● Education: The informed consumer may assess the available options and maintain
the buying process. However, an inexperienced buyer is unable to carefully choose
the source. As a result, organisational buying is also influenced by buyer education.
● Job position: How much a person is likely to have an impact on the choice of
suppliers depends on where they are in the organisational hierarchy. Both high-level
and low-level buyers may be involved in the transaction.
● Risk-taking: Each person approaches risk differently. In this situation, low-risk
consumers favours working with reputable suppliers whereas high-risk consumers are
continuously looking for new sources of supply.
● Personality: The degree of impact in purchasing decisions is determined by the
buyer's personality. It is expected of those with difficult personalities to adapt their
brand over time. Some of the consumers also show a lot of brand loyalty.
2.9.4. PROCESS OR STAGES OF ORGANIZATIONAL BUYING BEHAVIOR.
Stage 1 - Problem Recognition: The first step, problem recognition, begins with the
identification or recognition of a need that can be satisfied by the purchase of an item or
service. During this phase of the business purchasing process, a team member identifies a
problem that could be solved by purchasing goods or services.
Stage 2 - General Need Description: The processing organisation defines the general
characteristics and quantity of the important items required in this stage of the organisational
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procurement process after determining a demand. After determining the necessity, buyers
should explain it. Once the needs are agreed upon, the buying team develops a detailed
specification that describes the quantity, performance, and technical specifications for a
product.
Stage 3 - Supplier Search: The buyer is currently attempting to locate the ideal supplier
(also called the vendor). To choose providers who meet their needs and have a solid
reputation for high quality, dependable partnerships, and reasonable prices, the buyer does a
conventional search. The phase of the purchasing process for businesses during which the
buyer attempts to identify the best suppliers or providers.
Stage 4 - Proposal Solution: The buyer asks suitable suppliers to submit proposals at this
stage of the business procurement process. The fifth stage of the organisational purchasing
process is the proposal solution. The buyer now contacts the top providers to get a proposal.
Some people respond by sending the organisation records or agents. The buyer requires a
comprehensive proposal for expensive and sophisticated goods, and the business organisation
mandates presenting the product itself for technical goods.
Stage 5 - Supplier Selection: The buyer evaluates the proposals at this point and makes a
decision. This selection process includes analysing the vendors under consideration as a
crucial component. The selection procedure entails a careful examination of the presented
proposals as well as taking into account vendor capabilities, reputation, client references,
warranties, and other factors. A standard set of criteria may be used by various decision
makers to evaluate proposals. The buyer evaluates the proposal at this step of the business
procurement process before choosing a provider or suppliers.
Stage 6 - Order-Routine Specification: At this point in the company purchasing process,
the buyer writes a final order to one or more chosen suppliers, outlining technical
requirements, quantity needed, anticipated delivery date, return policies, and warranties. The
client makes the decisive purchase after choosing the best suppliers. All of the items, such as
the qualities of the goods, the specification, the guarantee, the quantity, the time for supply,
the mode of payment, the after-sale service, etc., should be clearly specified in this order.
Stage 7 - Performance Review: The buyer evaluates his satisfaction with suppliers in this
final step of the organisational buying process before deciding whether to keep working with
them or find a new one. The buyer assesses suppliers' performance at this point. Making a
decision about whether to change, maintain, or end the relationship with the supplier is aided
by this kind of analysis. The partnership may continue if the supplier's performance is
adequate; if it is only moderately subpar, the relationship may still be maintained with a
partial rectification. However, it is flawed if the performance is offensive.
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2.10 SUMMARY
In any business or marketing activity all internal and external elements that directly or
indirectly affect any business organization. While external influences are out of an
organization's control, internal elements are under its control. The external elements include
government, technological, economic, social, and competitive forces; however, an
organization’s strengths, shortcomings, and abilities form the component of internal factors.
So, the combination of all components that directly or indirectly, internally or externally
affect any business organization is called a Marketing Environment.
Whereas, by keeping an eye on the marketing environment, marketers attempt to
foresee potential future developments. Marketers are continuing to adjust their strategies and
plans in response to these changes.
In this chapter, we also discussed about consumer buying behavior and organizational
buying behaviors, where consumer buying behaviors are influenced by many factors
like Individual Choice and Preferences, economic conditions, group influence, Advertising &
Marketing Initiatives, and purchasing power, etc.
Although there may be some similarities to household buying when more than one
individual is involved in the decision-making process. Organisational buying differs from
consumer buying since the context in which the decisions are made is considerably different.
The buying process at an organization might be more formal and drawn out depending on the
sort of purchase being made.
The decision-making process typically incorporates more rational than emotional
considerations, but because decision-makers are human, not all decisions are as reasonable as
they may seem. Due to the interdependence of buyers and sellers, long-term relationships that
are both advantageous and strategically significant might form.
● What do you mean by marketing environment?

● Explain the various components of marketing environment that any businessman
analyse.
● How do environmental factors affect marketing policies and strategies?
● What is marketing mix? Explain the 4 Ps of Global Marketing.
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● Discuss the importance of Marketing Environmental Analysis.

● Differentiate between Micro and Macro environment of Marketing
● What do you understand by Dissonance Reducing Buying Behavior?
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following doesn't fall within the umbrella of the external marketing
environment?
a) Economical b) Political
c) Personal d) Legal
2. The gathering and analysis of data regarding the forces, occasions, and
connections that could have an impact on the organisation is known as --
a) Environmental Analysis b) Environmental Scanning
c) Environmental Monitoring d Environmental Searching
3. The environmental factors that affect how people's values, lifestyles, and family
structures change are known as ___ factors.
a) Economic b) Political
c) Demographic d) Socio-cultural
4. The purchase process begins when a customer recognises a ----------
a) Economic Condition b) Money Availability
c) Need or Problem d) Product or Services
5. What are the ideal flow of the consumer purchase process?
Information Search-Recognition of Need-Evaluation of Alternative- Purchase
Decision- Post Purchase Evaluation
Recognition of Need- Information Search-Evaluation of Alternative- Purchase
Information Search-Recognition of Need-Purchase Decision-Evaluation of
Alternative-Post Purchase Evaluation
Information Search- Purchase Decision- Recognition of Need- Evaluation of
Alternative- Post Purchase Evaluation.
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Answers:
1-C-Personal
2-B- Environmental Scanning
3-D-Socio-cultural
4-C- Need or Problem
5-B- Recognition of Need- Information Search- Evaluation of Alternative- Purchase
2.13 REFERENCES
1. MBA (Master of Business Administration) Skool - Business & Strategy Knowledge

Resource for Management Students, Aspirants & Professionals. (n.d.). MBA Skool -
Business & Strategy Knowledge Resource for Management Students, Aspirants &
Professionals; www.mbaskool.com. Retrieved August 14, 2022, from
https://www.mbaskool.com/
2. Team, M. S. (n.d.). Dissonance Reducing Buying - Meaning, Importance & Example |
MBA Skool. Dissonance Reducing Buying - Meaning, Importance & Example | MBA
Skool; www.mbaskool.com. Retrieved August 14, 2022, from
https://www.mbaskool.com/business-concepts/marketing-and-strategy-terms/1561-
dissonance-reducing-buying.html
3. Consumer behavior in marketing - patterns, types, segmentation - Omniconvert Blog.
(2019, November 26). Omniconvert Ecommerce Growth Blog;
www.omniconvert.com. https://www.omniconvert.com/blog/consumer-behavior-in-
marketing-patterns-types-
segmentation/#:~:text=There%20are%20four%20types%20of,differences%20that%2
0exist%20between%20brands
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4. What Is Consumer Behaviour? Definition, Importance, Types, Stages, Participant.

(2019, August 7). Geektonight; www.geektonight.com.
https://www.geektonight.com/consumer-behaviour-definition-importance-types/
5. What are the 4 types of customer buying behavior? - Clootrack. (n.d.). What Are the 4
Types of Customer Buying Behavior? - Clootrack; www.clootrack.com. Retrieved
August 14, 2022, from https://www.clootrack.com/knowledge_base/types-of-
consumer-behavior
6. bbamantra. (2016, September 27). Organizational Buying Behaviour Introduction -
BBA|mantra. BBA|mantra; bbamantra.com. https://bbamantra.com/organizational-
buying-behaviour/
a. Kotler, Philip, Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, New Delhi.

b. 2. Stanton, Etzel, Walker, Fundamentals of Marketing, Tata-McGraw Hill, New
Delhi.
c. Ramesh Kumar S., Schiffman Leon, Kanuk, Leslie Lazar; Consumer Behaviour;
Pearson 2. Loudon, David L. and Della, Bitta Albert J.; Consumer Behaviour;
McGraw Hill
d. Engel, James F., Roser, D. Blackwell, and Paul, W. Miniard; Consumer Behaviour;
Dryden Press.
e. Hawkins, Dal., Roger, J. Best and Kenneth, A. Coney; Consumer Behavior
Implication for Marketing Strategy; McGrawHill
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LESSON 3
SEGMENTATION, TARGETING & POSITIONING
STRUCTURE

3.2 Introduction: STP Marketing Model
3.3 Components of S.T.P (Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning) Marketing Model
3.4 Segmentation.
3.4.1 Meaning of Segmentation.
3.4.2 Need of Segmentation.
3.4.3 Characteristics of Market Segmentation.
3.4.4 Bases for Segmentation.
3.4.5 Advantages & Limitations of Segmenting Markets
3.5 Targeting
3.5.1 Meaning & Definition of Targeting
3.5.2 Approaches of Targeting
3.5.3 Advantages & Limitations of Targeting
3.6 Positioning
3.6.1 Meaning & Definition of Positioning
3.6.2 Variables of Positioning in Market
3.6.3 Types of Positioning
3.6.4 Types of Positioning Strategies
3.6.5 Factors of Positioning Strategy
3.6.6 Benefits of Positioning Strategies.
3.7 Marketing Research
3.7.1 Definition of Marketing Research
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3.7.2 Aims and Objectives of Marketing Research

3.7.3 Application of Marketing Research
3.7.4 Methods of marketing research
3.8.1 Marketing Information
3.8.2 Components of Marketing Information System
3.8.3 Benefits of Marketing Information System (MIS)
3.8.4 Case Study on Segmentation.
3.9 Summary
3.11 References
After reading this chapter, student will be able to:

 Why is the market segmentation needed?
 Describe the market segmentation in detail.
 Bases of market segmentation done by company.
 Explain the major reasons of market segmentation.
 Understand requirement of the market segmentation?
 Understand the Marketing Research Process.
 Know about the market information.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
The segmentation, targeting, and positioning (STP) marketing model is a well-known

strategic marketing method today. It is one of the marketing models that is used in practice
the most frequently, and marketing leaders credit it for effective, streamlined
communications.
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With an emphasis on commercial effectiveness, STP marketing identifies a company's most

lucrative market segments before creating a marketing mix and product positioning strategy
for each one.
Figure 1: STP Marketing Model (Segmentation, Targeting, Positioning)

(Source: https://www.smartinsights.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/STP-marketing-funnel.png)
(This Picture is copied, request to change it by graphic designer to avoid copyright.)
3.3 COMPONENTS OF S.T.P. MARKETING MODEL
When designing marketing communications plans, the STP model is helpful since it enables
marketers to prioritise propositions before developing and delivering individualised and
pertinent messages to engage with various audiences. Market segmentation, market targeting,
and product positioning make up the three steps of the funnel.
 Segmentation: The process of employing one or more attributes to divide the
heterogeneous market into homogenous segments.
 Targeting: Selecting the number of market categories to target.
 Positioning: Giving customers a memorable impression of a product or brand.
Figure 2: Components of S.T.P. Marketing Model

https://www.smartinsights.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/STP-model.png
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3.4 SEGMENTATION
Segmentation is the process of assembling people into groups based on how closely they
resemble one or more product categories. To segment a market, one must first identify the
various consumer types and their varying needs. The selection of the segments to be kept in a
target is the marketer's next step after market segmentation is complete.
3.4.1 Meaning of Segmentation
Market segmentation is the practice of breaking a market into discrete subgroups of
consumers with various demands, features, or behaviors who may require separate products
or marketing mixes. "Market segmentation" is the process of breaking down large,
diverse markets into smaller, more homogeneous groups of customers that the company
can serve. According to the definitions given above, market segmentation is a marketing
approach that divides consumers into a number of homogeneous groups based on factors like
income, age, sex, education, profession, religion, and location. In order to satisfy the clients,
the primary goal of marketing segmentation is to create unique marketing strategies for each
category.
3.4.2 Need for Segmentation
Market segmentation was required to persuade target customers to purchase the goods. In the
past, before market segmentation, businesses used to sell their products independently. It was
accomplished by mass marketing, in which the product was promoted uniformly to all
consumers. Henry Ford was the first to see the necessity for market segmentation when he
offered the public the Ford Motor Company Model T in any colour they chose, as opposed to
the model T's previous availability in only one colour, black.
In the same manner when the Coca-Cola Company used to sell its product only in one
standard size of bottle, then they used to sell its product through mass marketing only.
Similar to how the Coca-Cola Company only ever sold its product through mass marketing
when it was packaged in a single standard size bottle. Nokia has a large selection of phones
for both men and women. When compared to male, durable handsets, the female counterpart
would be slimmer and more colourful. In general, men do not favour fashionable phones. The
businesses cannot offer identical things to everyone. Whereas female deodorants and
perfumes have a sweet scent, whilst male fragrances have a powerful scent. So, a marketer
cannot employ the same tactics with every buyer.
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Let's go over the following instances:

⮚ Market segmentation enables marketers to create promotional plans and marketing
tactics that are fit for the tastes of members of a certain market segment.
⮚ Market segmentation enables advertisers to comprehend the requirements of their
target market and develop targeted marketing strategies appropriately.
⮚ Additionally, market segmentation helps clients make informed decisions about what
to buy and what not to buy.
⮚ Market segmentation enables businesses to deliver the ideal product to the ideal
clientele at the ideal moment.
⮚ Organizations can better know and understand their clients with the use of
segmentation. Businesses may now reach a larger audience and market their goods
more successfully.
3.4.3 Characteristics of Market Segmentation
Figure 3: Characteristics of Market Segmentation

Source: https://www.geektonight.com/segmentation-targeting-positioning/
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● Identifiable: Marketers divide the market into discrete segments based on shared
demands using demographic, lifestyle, and other characteristics. Segmentation
bases are the name given to these components.
● Sizeable: A profitable market should have a sufficient number of customers. A piece
can still be identified even if it is small.
● Stable and growing: Marketers look for sectors that are both consistent and
growing.
● Reachable: A segment is not a target segment if it cannot be reached, regardless of
how recognizable, substantial, stable, or growing it may be. Reachable describes a
marketer's ability to communicate with customers in an effective and economical
manner.
● Congruent with marketer objective and resources: Even if a sector meets the
aforementioned criteria, marketers might not be willing to target it.
3.4.4 Bases for Segmentation
The marketer must choose the format for market segmentation, in which different market
bases or market variables are taken into accounts, or even a combination of both.
Market segmentation is done using a variety of bases.
● Professor Cundiff and Still provided a very straightforward assessment of the product
market i.e., Consumer Market & Industrial Market.
Whereas Philip Kotler has categorized the market into different categories based on:
Geographical basis, Demographic base, psychological foundation, Marketing basis, Profit
basis, Quantitative basis, Loyalty basis, etc.
As well as the market for industrial products can be segmented on the basis of:
Business type, Customary purchasing practices, User population and Geographical market
segmentation
The following constitute the main pillars of market segmentation:
Geographic Segmentation: Market division into various geographical units, such as
countries, regions, states, and cities.
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Demographic Segmentation: Using factors like age, gender, family size, family life cycle,
income, occupation, education, race, generation, and nationality, the market is segmented into
groups.
Income: Since it is a privacy issue to disclose one's income, marketers typically segment the
market based on social class.
Sex: The division of the gender market into male and female is another obvious basis for
market segmentation because it makes it very simple to segment the market for personal
products.
Age: Age-based market segmentation aids in accurate market segmentation. This is typically
done in the apparel industry, when clothing is separated based on age.
Social class: In India, social class is recognized as the most important segmentation factor.
Upper middle class, middle class, lower middle class, skilled workers, and working class
make up the majority of the population.
Family size: Family size is a segmentation-based variable that aids marketers in
understanding the volume and scale of purchases that customers will make.
Family life cycle: A family goes through several stages, including the bachelor stage,
newlywed stage, full nest stage, where a married couple has children under their care at
home, and the empty nest stage.
Occupation: White collar and blue-collar groups are the two fundamental divisions of
occupation groups.
Psychographic Segmentation: This method divides the market into various categories based
on socioeconomic status, way of life, and personality traits.
3.4.5 Advantages & Limitations of Segmenting Markets
Advantages:
● Increases sales volume
● Improved growth rate
● Greater return and profit
● Build a new clientele base
● Give sellers a competitive edge.
● Helps with finding and targeting
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● Market share and market expansion

● Provide the necessary marketing advice for the goods.
● Helping marketers choose the best marketing channels and building sales strategies
Limitations
● Costs rise when a corporation enters many market niches.
Spending on marketing when the business utilized several initiatives.
3.5 TARGETING
After segmentation, you have to do target marketing. We can say that target marketing is
niche-specific marketing. The niche is not based on products but customers. You have to
identify your potential customers who will purchase your product based on their needs. There
are around billions of people on earth. You can’t sell your product to all people because they
are not interested in purchasing from you. That’s where target marketing works. So Targeting
the Second step of STP Marketing.
Targeting, also known as multisegmented marketing is a marketing strategy that involves
identifying specific personas or markets for specific content. Companies use target marketing
to learn more about their consumers and thus create advertisements for specified groups to
maximize response.
This strategy is much more effective than mass marketing, as it targets the consumers most
likely to interact with the brand or product, based on a buyer persona. There are many key
targets, these are the most common.
3.5.1 Meaning & Definition of Targeting
Meaning:
Targeting is considered as Second Step of STP Model. Target marketing must come after
segmentation. Target marketing can be referred to as niche marketing. The focus of the
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specialty is on consumers rather than items. You must determine which potential clients,
depending on their requirements, will buy your product. On earth, there are a few billion
individuals. Because they are not interested in buying from you, you cannot market your
goods to everyone. That is how target marketing functions.
Definition: A marketing approach that divides a market into segments before focusing your
marketing efforts on one or a small number of important segments made up of people whose
wants and preferences most closely match your product or service offerings.
3.5.2 Approaches of Targeting
The firm must decide which strategy for target marketing it will use. Basically, there are four
differing approaches for it.
I. Undifferentiated
II. Differentiated
III. Concentrated
IV. Customized Target Marketing
Figure 4: Approaches of Targeting

https://www.geektonight.com/segmentation-targeting-positioning/
(This Picture is copied, request to change it by graphic designer to avoid copyright)
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I. Undifferentiated
An undifferentiated approach treats the market as a single mass market with a single
marketing plan, with no distinction made between the various market groups.
II. Differentiated
A differentiated targeting strategy acknowledges that there are various market segments to
target, each of which the marketing organization finds appealing. As a result, marketing
strategies are created for each market group in order to capitalize on them.
III. Concentrated
Market segments are acknowledged in a concentrated or niche-marketing strategy, which still
implements a concentrated strategy by concentrating on a small number of market segments.
These are frequently used by businesses that either have few means to fund their marketing
strategies or are using a very restricted marketing approach.
IV. Customized Target Marketing
The final strategy is a targeted marketing plan that is specifically created for each customer
rather than a market segment. This strategy is more common in consumer markets with high-
value, highly tailored items or B2B industries (such as marketing research or advertising
services). E.g. Purchase of a custom-made car.
3.5.3 Advantages & Limitations of Target Marketing
Advantages
● The target market is promoted for business.
● Understanding current customers is useful.
● It raises brand recognition among the various target demographics.
● Customizing products to satisfy the needs of specific consumer groups.
● The sale of goods in locations best suited for attracting the targeted markets.
● Pricing will be determined based on what a target market is willing to spend on a
given good or service.
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Limitations
● The incorrect target. When you just concentrate on a target market, you must ensure
that it is appropriate for your good or service.
● Comparatively small Market Share.
● Ethical considerations.
Having a shared market with rivals.
3.6 POSITIONING
Positioning is the process of establishing a unique mental position or picture of a good or

service in the eyes of the consumer in comparison to other brands on the market. When
compared to other brands or items that are currently on the market, positioning aids in
helping consumers form a distinctive impression of the brand and the product.
Product positioning refers to how customers view the product in comparison to rival products
based on a variety of criteria. Therefore, in order to gain a competitive advantage throughout
the life of a product or offer, every organisation must be able to distinguish between bids and
evaluate their position effectively (Kotler et. al: 2003).
3.6.1 Meaning & Definition of Positioning
Meaning: Product positioning refers to how customers view the product in comparison to
rival products based on a variety of criteria. Therefore, in order to gain a competitive
advantage throughout the life of a product or offer, every organisation must be able to
distinguish between bids and evaluate their position effectively (Kotler et. al: 2003).
A successful positioning strategy distinguishes a product and encourages customers to see the
clear advantages of utilising it. A strong location provides the item a USP (Unique selling
proposition). A strong positioning distinguishes a brand or product from the competition in a
crowded market. A good position is one that gives the brand or product flexibility in
additions, modifications, distribution, and promotion.
Definition: Every marketer view brand positioning as one of the most crucial elements of
brand creation overall. Depending on how a brand was positioned in the market, various
people may have varying perceptions of the brand. Positioning describes how your product
(item or service) compares to competing goods and services on the market as well as in the
minds of customers.
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Positioning is the process of choosing a suitable market niche for a brand, product, or
service and establishing it there.
Examples of marketing positioning:
● Starbucks offers itself as a reliable supplier of high-end coffee and beverages.
● Tesla and Audi pitch themselves as luxury status symbols.
● McDonald's positions itself as a location to acquire quick and inexpensive meals.
● Both Microsoft and Apple present themselves as cutting-edge IT companies with
user-friendly products.
3.6.2 Variables of Positioning in Market
i. Pricing
Most buyers base their selections in part on pricing. In many product categories, companies
with the lowest prices and acceptable levels of quality typically prevail.
ii. Quality
Most price wars can be stopped by quality. Quality can determine who the rivals are in some
industries, such as those for high-end cosmetics or automobiles.
iii. Differentiation
What distinguishes your products or service from the competition is differentiation.
Competitors may not be as dangerous if your product or service is very different from theirs.
Take the Toyota vs. Tesla comparison. Tesla quickly overcame entry-level vehicles like the
Toyota Prius by entering the electric vehicle industry with a high-end sports variant. With the
Model S, Tesla genuinely went for the high-end market.
iv. Convenience
Customers' lives are made simpler through convenience. Convenience might include anything
from accessibility to location, including easy returns and online shopping.
v. Customer service
Customer service places a strong emphasis on developing positive, cordial relationships. This
can be especially important in some sectors of the economy, including the restaurant and
banking sectors.
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vi. User group

This kind of positioning focuses on a certain user demographic and explains why the
company's products are pertinent and directly related to this demographic.
Take the Johnson's vs. Axe comparison. Axe body spray targets men, but Johnson's baby
shampoo pitches itself as being kind for kids.
3.6.3 Types of Positioning
Figure 5: Types of Positioning

Source: https://www.mbaskool.com/business-concepts/marketing-and-strategy-terms/2762-
positioning.html
(This Picture is copied, request to change it by graphic designer to avoid copyright)
Positioning is broadly classified into three types:
1. Functional: This is utilized when a company's name or products offer clients benefits and
answers to difficulties. It emphasizes the role, advantage, or value that it serves the client.
2. Symbolic: This is beneficial for developing a brand image that contributes to the
development of brand equity, a sense of social affiliation, and ego-identification. It occurs
when a customer feels a connection to the product on a personal, social, or ego level.
3. Experiential: In the customer's head, this generates sensory and cognitive simulation. It
forms the foundation of the experiences that a client can identify with. Companies employ
a positioning process, which is a step-by-step approach, to position the good or service in
the consumer's mind in the appropriate way. A corporation will redesign a brand's logo,
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tagline, etc. if it decides to alter how consumers perceive it. Repositioning the brand is the
process involved in changing how people perceive it.
3.6.4 Types of Positioning Strategies
The following are some examples of positioning strategies used by businesses:
1. Umbrella positioning
2. Premier positioning
3. Positioning against competition
4. Un-owned positioning
5. Repositioning
Figure 6: Types of Positioning Strategies

Source: https://www.geektonight.com/segmentation-targeting-positioning/
● Umbrella positioning
An umbrella positioning is a claim that highlights the many benefits of a company's products.
Umbrella positioning does not draw attention to the benefits of using a particular product. It
outlines the benefits of using every product from a specific brand. As an illustration, LG
promotes all of its products under the positioning and tagline "Life's Goods."
 Premier positioning
It is one of the strategies that is exclusively directed at a certain business, product line, or
group of services. For instance, TATA simultaneously sells its air conditioners under the
TATA brand and the exclusive brand VOLTAS.
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● Positioning against competition

Companies use this technique to recognize their competitors. For instance, AAJ TAK
asserts that they are the top Hindi news channel in India.
● Un-owned positioning
Positioning is not a physical thing that anyone may own; rather, it is the perception that
customers have of you. Competitors in the market, for instance, look for positioning holes
and try to fill them if they are beneficial.
● Repositioning
Repositioning is the process through which a company strategically modifies the
distinctive image and identity that its product or brand occupy in consumers' minds.
3.6.5 Factors of Positioning Strategy
For any brand, product, or service to leave an imprint on the consumer's mind, positioning is
essential.
A marketer's primary considerations when developing a strategy for a brand or product are:
● Features of the Products: Positioning might be based on a product's appearance,
feel, appearance, etc. To emphasize the value and develop positioning around it, one
might leverage the key characteristics of the products.
● Utility and Advantages: It considers the benefits a product offers and the needs that
are met. It should clearly demonstrate the benefit in terms of money or quantity.
Saving 50% on electricity costs, for instance, can be clearly advantageous to a
consumer.
● Use Categories: This outlines the possible applications for the good. You can use
each and every scenario and use case to develop an effective posture.
● Situation: The period, occasion, or situation in which the product may be used.
Association with a New Year’s can lead to strong positioning in the minds of
customer.
● Competitive Comparison: Comparing your offering to one of your competitors
allows for positioning. Many businesses do this in order to take their current
competitive standing and improve it utilizing points of parity or points of
differentiation. To get a competitive edge, the product is differentiated based on two
factors during positioning:
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● Points of Parity (POPs): Positioning is done using largely comparable factors to

those of a competition.
 Points of Difference (PODs): The product offers in this instance clearly differ from
those of the competitors. The laptop, iPod, netbook, and Kindle product placement
graph above illustrates the advantages in terms of several parameters. Perceptual
mapping and brand mapping are other terms used to describe this approach to
understanding positioning.
3.6.6 Benefits of Positioning Strategies
● Build a powerful competitive position: Customers' perceptions of your product or
service in relation to the competition are influenced by your positioning. Your
capacity to stay one step ahead of the competition is tremendously aided by being able
to assert your position in the competitive environment.
● Improve sales: One of a business's main goals is to boost sales and revenue. By
having a more relevant offering and presenting it more persuasively, your company
may be able to penetrate a new market. Greater clients and more revenues can follow
from this.
● Define a clearer target market: By emphasising a specific quality or benefit of your
goods or services, you can create the idea that you are an authority in the field by
using positioning in marketing. Prospects will consider you to be considerably more
valuable as a result.
● Make more effective decisions: Once you understand the fundamental thesis behind
effective positioning strategies, you'll be in a better position to make decisions along
the route. Additionally, clear positioning in marketing drives effective communication
and better, stronger consumer ties.
● Connect to consumer needs: Through positioning in marketing, businesses have the
option to outline the key benefits that their product or service offers. It connects the
product to the specific client who needs it while also giving it energy.
3.7 MARKETING RESEARCH
Research is a methodical attempt to both accept and reject or modify previously held beliefs.
Young (1988) contrasts this with the idea that social science research is "the systematic
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procedure of discovering new facts or validating old facts, their sequence in the relationship,
causal explanation, and the natural rule that controls them."
Marketing research, also referred to as consumer research, is a component of business
research. A rigorous, objective investigation of issues pertaining to the advertising of goods
and services is known as marketing research.
It can be used in any facet of marketing. Research is the only tool accessible to an
organisation for keeping up with its external operational environment.
Since marketing research is a well-organized, methodical process, planning is necessary at
every stage. It makes use of science. Given that it makes an effort to deliver correct, reliable
information, it is an objective procedure.
3.7.1 Definition of Marketing Research
Marketing research helps marketers to understand the possible need, want and desire of the
consumers and it also helps to forecast the probable future demands of the particular products
or brand. Marketing research considered as one of the important aspects to get feedback and
opinion of the customer as well as their interest in the particular goods and services.
Some definitions of marketing research include the use of the scientific approach to address
issues with marketing. In simple terms “Marketing Research is a systematic process of
determining and collecting information related to target market and future prospects about
the sales.”
3.7.2 Aims and Objectives of Marketing Research
 To specify a business concept.
 To gain access to market circumstances.
 To predict the state of the economy.
 To Understanding the distribution pattern
 To understand the results of marketing initiatives.
 To learn about a product's target market's preferences.
 To assess the competitiveness of different company policies.
 To choose the distribution strategy that will best serve the product.
 To pick the best course of action from a list of commercial decisions.
 To research the specifications for the features of goods and services.
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3.7.3 Application of Marketing Research

Advertising testing research, branding research, customer satisfaction research, price
research, product positioning research, and new product assessment research are the key uses
of marketing research. Here is a succinct explanation of each of these ideas:
1. Research on testing advertisements: This study assesses the advertising concepts,
themes, and concept potency.
2. Branding Research: The main objective of this research is to provide clients with
branding research material that will assist them better understand their brand
position and then strengthen that position in the market. In other words, branding
research is driven by corporate branding decisions.
3. Customer Satisfaction Research: This type of marketing research aids a business
in determining its degree of customer satisfaction as well as the elements that will
enable them to do so.
4. Pricing Research: This type of research has numerous purposes, including market
validation, product evaluation, and the design of new items. A product research
design is driven by the goal, the client's overall positioning, and market tactics.
5. New Product Development Research: For this type of marketing research, the
challenge is to find the appropriate creative or product market research methodology
for the various stages of new product development. The methodologies and
instruments used for product development market research may change depending
on the type of product, the significance of incremental and risk factors, and the price
associated with launching a new product.
6. Sales analysis: Marketing research is used to examine the sales trend and, as
necessary, develop effective tactics. It serves to
● Examine the market's possibilities.
● Prediction of a product's demand.
● An estimate of market share.
● Study a product's seasonal variation.
● Research on market segmentation.
● An estimated market size.
● Need study to see how the product fits into the market.
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3.7.4 Methods of Marketing Research

According to its methodology, marketing research employs four different study designs,
namely:
a) Qualitative marketing research – Typically, this is done for experimental purposes.
The qualitative data gathered focuses on consumers' perceptions and sentiments
toward a good or service. Because there were typically few respondents, the results
cannot be applied to the entire population. In general, no statistical techniques are
used. Ex: Projective approaches, in-depth interviews, and focus groups.
b) Quantitative marketing research – This is typically done to reach conclusions on a
certain issue. It use procedures for random sampling to test a specific hypothesis and
extrapolate population data from the sample. Statistics are used to conduct the
analysis, which involves a sizable number of respondents. Example: Questionnaires
and surveys.
c) Observational techniques - The researcher gathers data by observing social
processes in their natural environment. Cross-sectional (all observations taken at
once) or longitudinal observations are both possible for the observations (observations
occur over several time-periods) Examples include computer cookie tracing and
product use analysis.
d) Experimental techniques – In this scenario, the researcher constructs a quasi-
artificial environment to attempt to control erroneous components, then manipulates
at least one of the variables to obtain a study answer. Ex: Purchase laboratories and
test marketing
To ensure that the proper data is acquired, the many elements of the marketing research
process must be carefully considered. Good researchers take these procedures to make sure
the data they gather to address the issue and resolve. Research might be done internally or via
a third party organisation.
I. Determine the problem and approach
The research issue and challenges must be defined as the initial step in marketing. A research
problem is a particular topic, challenge, paradox, or knowledge gap that you intend to solve
in your study. You might search for theoretical or practical issues that aim to further
knowledge or bring about change.
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II. Research Design

The framework of the research methodologies and procedures a researcher selects to carry
out a study is known as the research design. The layout enables researchers to focus on
developing research techniques appropriate for the topic and set up their investigations for
success.
A research design is only a structural framework for the many research methodologies and
approaches that a researcher uses. In marketing research, mainly 3 types of research design
are used by the market researchers i.e.
• Descriptive Research
• Exploratory Research
• Causal analysis
The classification is determined based on the objective of the investigation. In some cases,
the research will fall into one of these categories, while in other cases, separate components
of the same study endeavour will fall into several categories.
III. Data Collection.
Data collection and choosing the data sources is the one of the important aspects in marketing
research. The researcher must choose between using primary and secondary data. Both
approaches are occasionally used in combination.
One should look for secondary data that may have already been obtained for other purposes
but that can be used in the current study before investing the time and money in gathering
primary data. Secondary data can come from sources both inside and outside of the company,
including published data and commercially available data, as well as internal sources like
sales invoices and warranty cards. The official census is a great source of secondary
information.
IV. Data analysis and Result Interpretation
It is the process of studying the structured information to find underlying truths. To uncover
new information, the data are examined from as numerous viewpoints to explore the new fact
about the issue and problems.
The process of analyzing data and presenting appropriate implications by applying a variety
of analytical techniques is known as data interpretation. Researchers can categories,
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manipulate, and summaries data with the aid of interpretation in order to find answers to
important issues.
V. Report and Present Findings.
The report must be written objectively, coherently, clearly when presenting the concepts, and
with the appropriate use of charts and diagrams. The study may occasionally identify one or
more topics that need for deeper research.
The contents should be divided into smaller chunks and structured under heading and sub-
headings. The purpose is to present a logical and graded arrangement of subject matter.
The language should be simple and easy to understand. It should not be bookish and full of
jargon. The language used should be appropriate to the level of the learner.
Table of contents.
Table of contents.
List of illustrations
Executive summary.
Research aims
Methodology
Results
Limitations.
Recommendations and conclusions
Annexes that include duplicates of the surveys, etc.
3.8 MARKETING INFORMATION

The systematic process of gathering, analysis, interpretation, storage, and presentation of
market information to the marketers on a regular, ongoing basis from both internal and
external sources is referred to as the marketing information system.
There are numerous sources (including internal, marketing intelligence and marketing
research via which the pertinent knowledge about the market can be collected because every
marketing operation works in harmony with the conditions existing both inside and outside
the firm.
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Definition of Marketing Information System

“The marketing information system provides marketers with pertinent information so they
may effectively decide on matters such as pricing, packaging, new product development,
distribution, media, promotion, etc.”
3.8.1 Components of Marketing Information System
Source: https://businessjargons.com/marketing-information-system.html
1. Internal Records: The report must be written objectively, rationally, clearly, and with the
appropriate use of charts and diagrams when presenting the concepts. The Marketing
Information System should be helped by regularly maintaining the most recent sales data.
The information can be obtained from the documents the company has generated, such as
invoices, transmission copies, and billing documents, once it receives an order for goods and
services from a client, a dealer, or a sales representative. Marketers can utilize this
information to develop their future sales plan.
The Companies maintain several databases such as:
Database for customers that contains all pertinent information on a customer, such as name,
address, phone number, frequency of purchases, financial situation, etc.
Product Database: This is where all the details on a product's features, pricing, and variants
are kept.
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Salesperson database: It stores all of the salesperson's personal data, including name,
address, phone number, and sales target. The data can be obtained whenever necessary from
the data warehouse where the corporations store their data. After the data is stored, statistical
professionals mine it is using a variety of computer programs and methodologies to transform
it into information that provides facts and figures.
0. Marketing Intelligence System: The marketing intelligence system offers information on
market developments, or information about the marketing environment outside of the
company. It contains information on shifting market trends, price strategies used by
competitors, shifts in consumer tastes and preferences, new items introduced to the market,
rival advertising strategies, etc.
The following actions should be taken by the businesses in order to improve the marketing
intelligence system in order to have an effective marketing information system:
● Giving the sales staff the appropriate training and encouraging them to monitor
market developments, such as changes in client tastes and preferences, and to provide
ideas for improvements.
● By learning more about their rivals, businesses can also enhance their marketing
intelligence system.
● By including the devoted customers in the customer advisory panel, who can share
their experiences and offer guidance to the new potential customers, the businesses
can have an effective marketing information system.
● The businesses might use the public data to enhance their marketing information
system. Data on population trends, demographics, agricultural production, and other
topics can be used by a company to design its marketing strategies.
● By using online feedback forms, the Marketing Intelligence system can be further
enhanced by directly asking clients about their experiences with the good or service.
0. Marketing Research: The systematic gathering, organizing, analysis, and interpretation of
primary or secondary data for the purpose of identifying solutions to marketing issues is
known as marketing research. Many businesses do marketing research to apply various
statistical methods to the marketing environment, which includes changes in client tastes and
preferences, competition strategies, the scope of new product launches, etc. Data must be
gathered in order to perform market research. Marketing research makes a significant
contribution to the marketing information system since it offers true information that has
been thoroughly examined by the researchers.
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1. Marketing Decision Support System: It has a number of software tools that marketers can
utilize to examine the data already gathered and make smarter marketing decisions. The
marking managers can use computers to save the massive amounts of data in tabular form,
evaluate the data using statistical tools, and then make decisions based on the results.
3.8.3 Benefits of Marketing Information System (MIS)
i. Prediction of Consumer Demand: Predicting consumer demand helps businesses
grow their markets by laying the groundwork for mass production and distribution of
goods and services. Using an organizational marketing strategy makes it easier to
gather the most recent data about customer preferences.
ii. Identification of Marketing Complexity: The outcome of the modern marketing
concept process is complexity and a deeper marketing strategy. The usage of pertinent
market knowledge and a well-structured information system are required due to the
rapid expansion of global market expansions and marketing operations. Understanding
the multifaceted market's makeup and demand is consequently essential.
iii. Facilitates up-to-date Economic Information or Condition: The cost and market
circumstances are determined by the dynamics of supply and demand, which are
constantly changing. In a large and complex economy, demand, supply, and price
fluctuations are quite intense. People who work in marketing need up-to-date,
sophisticated information on shifting economic conditions relating to supply, demand,
and costs. They rely on market research and market-related intelligence services for
this. The prediction or forecasting of the future is based on economic variables such as
the population, income, GDP, price, etc.
iv. Competitor Analysis: Organizations operate in a highly competitive environment
where several rivals develop tactics to outdo one another. It is necessary to use the
services of the marketing information system and marketing intelligence to anticipate
competitive activity and outperform it. Marketing professionals must have access to
the most recent market data regarding the type and scope of the competition in order to
survive.
v. Up-to-date Information on Technology: Growth in the market results in
technological advancements. The most recent knowledge on technological issues or
advances is needed by marketing professionals. New products, technology, processes,
etc. should be supported by facts. Such is provided by the marketing information
system.
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vi. Proper flow of Information for better Customer Service: There may be a
communication chasm between customers and marketers throughout the market
expansion phase. Due to this mismatch, marketing initiatives and plans may be
exaggerated. Dissatisfaction in consumers is a result of different marketers who are not
regularly involved in marketing activities. An increase in consumer complaints
demonstrates how poorly items meet consumers' requirements and desires.
3.8.4 CASE STUDY

Segmentation
Vijay was starving while studying late at night. He didn't want to go outside to buy food
when he was away from home, so he asked someone to prepare something for him to
eat. The time was 3 a.m. Finally, he ventured outside and purchased a snack from a
roadside seller. He learned of a business possibility as a result of this encounter. He
considered entering the food industry after completing his education with the idea of
nighttime deliveries. As a student, he frequently felt the desire for a midnight snack and
discovered that many other kids shared his issue. Finally, he launched "Night Cravings,"
a company that would bring food all night.
Questions1. Which segment should Rahul consider first?
Questions 2. Can he divide the market according to income?
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Marketers should pay particular attention to:
a) Segmentation
b) Targeting
c) Positioning
d) All of the above
Which segments of the population are represented by age, gender,
income, race, and family life cycle?
Geographic
Demographic
Psychographic
Psychology
A business is engaging in _______ when it determines the segments of
the market that it can service most effectively and profitably.
Concentrated marketing
Mass marketing
Market targeting
Segmenting
Your business has made the decision to adapt its goods and services
to the needs of the regional market. Segmentation would be a wise
strategy to utilise in this situation.
Geographic
Benefit
End-use
Customer
Which method of segmentation is most likely being used by Positive
Image, Inc. when it targets the clothes, cosmetics, and toiletry markets?
Age and life cycle
Gender
Behavior
Psychographic
3.9 SUMMARY
.
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In this chapter we have studied about the segmentation, targeting, and positioning (STP)
marketing model which is a well-known strategic marketing method today. It is one of the
marketing models that is used in practice the most frequently, and marketing leaders.
In brief we can say that Segmentation is the process of employing one or more attributes to
divide the heterogeneous market into homogenous segments whereas Targeting is related to
selecting the number of market categories to target as well as positioning is concerns with
giving customers a memorable impression of a product or brand. We also studied about the
marketing research that is a well-organized, methodical process, which gives reliable
information to the marketers predict their market circumstances, understanding sales and
demand pattern. Finally we discussed about the marketing information which is a systematic
gathering, analysis, interpretation, storage, and presentation of market information to the
marketers on a regular, ongoing basis from both internal and external sources.
1. Answer: B
2. Answer: B
3. Answer: D
4. Answer: A
5. Answer: B
1. What are components of the S.T.P Marketing Model?

2. What are the bases to segment any market?
3. Briefly explain the Approaches of Targeting.
4. Points out the Variables of Positioning in Market.
5. What are the types of positioning strategies?
6. What do you understand by Marketing Research?
7. Define Marketing Information System.
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1. https://www.uou.ac.in/sites/default/files/slm/HM-303.pdf
2. https://www.geektonight.com/segmentation-targeting-positioning/
3. https://www.shivajicollege.ac.in/sPanel/uploads/econtent/42cd59f445c747c35501e9df6bc
a5668.pdf
4. https://businessjargons.com/marketing-information-system.html
5. https://www.mageplaza.com/blog/positioning-in-marketing.html
6. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/need-for-market-segmentation.htm
7. https://www.mbaskool.com/business-concepts/marketing-and-strategy-terms/2762-
positioning.html
8. Kotler, Philip. (2000). Marketing management. Upper Saddle River, N.J. :Prentice Hall.
9. T. N. Chhabra, (2014). An Introduction to Marketing Management, 1st Edition, Sun
India’s.
10. Malhotra Naresh, K. and Dash, S. (2015) Marketing Research, An Applied Orientation.
7th Edition, Pearson, India.
11. Rajan Saxena. (2020) Marketing Management 6th Edition, Mc Graw Hill.
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LESSON 4
STRATEGIC MARKETING PLANNING PROCESS
STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Strategic Marketing Planning
4.3.1 Strategic Marketing Planning: - Meaning and Objectives
4.3.2 Strategic Marketing Planning: Characteristics
4.3.3 Need for Strategic Marketing Plan
4.4 Strategic Marketing Planning Process & Competitor Analysis
4.4.1 Strategic Marketing Planning Process- Key Elements
4.4.2 Competitor Analysis
4.5 Marketing Warfare Strategies
4.6 Summary
4.7 Glossary
4.10 References
A written document that outlines your company's future course is a strategic plan. It outlines
the objectives of your business and justifies their significance. By knowing the environment,
you may increase performance by using the strategic planning process.
The student should be able to:
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 Describe the process of strategic marketing planning and its significance after
finishing this session.
 The capacity to create and apply marketing strategies by analyzing competitors.
 To design precise plans for achieving marketing objectives.
 The ability to employ marketing warfare techniques through analysis of the external
environment.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
To adapt to the continually changing markets and strengthen their competitive advantage,
businesses adopt strategic marketing planning. A company's strategic marketing planning
outlines how it will change to seize opportunities in a continually shifting environment. The
design and duration of the marketing strategy vary from company to company, but it is
typical to have a yearly plan in place for the strategic and planning tasks. Making the proper
decisions in your marketing planning will help you get the outcomes you want, whether
you're redesigning your website or trying to create a completely integrated campaign. What
justifies the significance of strategic marketing planning? There are a variety of reasons why
businesses should think about strategic marketing planning, from managing initiatives to
creating campaigns and gauging success.
Every company needs to set goals to maintain a healthy work atmosphere and
increase levels of sales and profits. An organization that has a strategy in place and a plan in
place achieves its goals and objectives before its competitors in the market, giving it a
competitive edge. Studying the market environment, learning about the competitors' next
movements, developing novel product concepts, and maintaining customer satisfaction
through a variety of ways and measurements are all part of strategic planning.
A solid marketing strategy is outlined in a plan that takes into account your practice's
needs as well as those of the local community. However, the effectiveness of the strategy
depends on your dedication to putting it into action, allocating enough resources to the
project, involving your personnel, and maintaining open lines of communication with them.
The marketing strategy shouldn't only be prepared, examined, and stored on a shelf. Your
practice marketing strategy should be an ever-evolving road map that directs your efforts and
tracks your progress. When commitment is present, marketing is effective. You are in charge!
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4.3 STRATEGIC MARKETING PLANNING
4.3.1 Strategic Marketing Planning: - Meaning and Objectives

Strategic marketing planning is developing a marketing plan that specifies your goals, the
programs you'll use to reach them, who will be in charge of tracking the metrics, and when
you'll be doing them. Companies can succeed in a highly competitive market by providing
superior value to their target customers and knowing how to adapt to a constantly changing
environment. Therefore, businesses need to be farsighted and visionary and must build long-
term strategies in order to adapt to changing conditions in their industry.
The process of strategic planning includes creating a plan to face competition and guarantee
long-term survival and growth. The marketing function contributes information and other
inputs to aid in the creation of the organization's strategic plan, playing a significant part in
the process.
The two main goals of strategic planning are as follows:
(i) To successfully lead the business through all environmental changes.
(ii) To establish a competitive advantage that will allow the business to outperform its
rivals and gain market domination.
4.3.2 Strategic Marketing Planning: Characteristics
Strategic marketing planning is a comprehensive framework for all upcoming
organizational operations. Therefore, strategic planning is crucial for any organization
and must be done prudently.
Characteristics:
1. Top Management Involvement - Strategic planning or strategy creation directly
contributes to the development of the company's future. Making strategic decisions
largely entails creating long-term goals and formulating organizational policies. The
top-level management of an organization must thus make these decisions since they
call for a great deal of wisdom and insight from the decision-makers.
2. Requires Significant Resource Allocation - Strategic choices necessitate the firm's
commitment over a lengthy period and on key challenges affecting the broader
organization. As a result, massive resources in the form of workers, materials, money,
machinery, and time must be deployed.
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3. Long-Term Survival and Performance of the Firm - Strategic planning, with a

long-term commitment in terms of organizational objectives, is commonly regarded to
have a significant influence on the firm's success. A strong strategy formulation may
propel a firm to new heights, but a poor strategy formation might destroy it.
4. Future-Oriented – Strategic planning is done in preparation for future
implementation. It is now molding the future. Strategies are proactive plans of action
created for future implementation. Strategic planning tries to reduce the entire
uncertainty of the future by developing goals, objectives, and methods for achieving
them.
5. Irreversible - Strategic planning is typically regarded to be irreversible owing to its
complexity, large financial participation, and long-term commitment. Such
judgments, if they must be overturned or amended, come at a high cost. That is why
strategic planning is irreversible.
6. Sensitive to the Environment – To be effective, strategic planning must maintain a
balance between an organization's internal strengths and weaknesses and external
possibilities and risks posed by the environment. The primary need for strategic
planning is that it be responsive to environmental influences and capable of
responding to changes.
4.3.3 Need for Strategic Marketing Plan-
A solid strategic marketing strategy is an excellent instrument for assessing the company's
position and doing a situation analysis. Thus, the necessity and significance of a strategic
marketing plan are-
1. Competitive advantage in the market: An organization with a plan in place and a
strategy in mind achieves its goals and objectives ahead of its rivals, giving it a
competitive edge. Studying the market environment, learning about the rivals' future
movements, developing novel product concepts, and maintaining customer
satisfaction through a variety of ways and measurements are all part of strategic
planning.
2. Maintains employee motivation: As previously noted, adopting a strategic planning
approach gives the company a sense of direction and ensures that all employees are
aware of how to achieve the given short- and long-term objectives. And they become
extremely driven and work their hardest to complete the duties in the most effective
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way when they are given the tasks and responsibilities that correspond to their
knowledge and professional qualifications, along with the appropriate wards.
3. Innovation: As was mentioned in the previous point, by recognizing the importance
of strategic planning and implementing it, the company develops goods and services
that score well in terms of uniqueness and innovation. The company prepares and
strategizes its next line of offerings, which are unique and exclusive in the market and
are guaranteed to increase sales, profit margins, and brand value, in the same way as
with strategic planning and feedback from the internal team, external parties, and
experts.
4. The organization becomes more proactive as a result: - Understanding the value of
strategic planning enables a company to be more proactively as opposed to reactively
responding to impending concerns and challenges in achieving its goals and
objectives. The organization becomes more proactive as it anticipates and foresees the
challenges arriving when it adheres to the foundations of strategic planning. Problems
and issues are bound to develop when attaining all the short term and long-term
objectives. Therefore, the management and the team's key players take corrective
action ahead of schedule to resolve problems before they threaten the company's
brand value and bottom line.
5. Increased sales and profits: The Company is quickly achieving its goal of higher
sales and profits when it adheres to the Importance of Strategic Planning in all areas
of its business operations. Since it is a universal truth that all strategic planning and
actions are taken by the company to not only increase the value of its brand in the
market but also to boost sales and profits to keep the cash registers ringing and stay
relevant in the market despite fierce competition, carving a niche for itself.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
 Strategic marketing planning helps to successfully lead the business through
all environmental changes. True/ False.
 Competitive advantage doesnot allow the business to outperform its rivals and
gain market domination. True / False
 To be effective, strategic planning must maintain a balance between an
organization's internal ------ and ------ and external ------ and ------- posed by
the environment
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4.4 STRATEGIC MARKETING PLANNING PROCESS &

COMPETITOR ANALYSIS
1.4.1 Key Elements of Strategic Marketing Planning Process
Setting your marketing goals, conducting a marketing audit, conducting market research,
analysing the research, identifying your target audience, deciding on a budget, developing
specific marketing strategies, scheduling the strategies' implementation, and developing an
evaluation process are the nine main steps needed to develop a well-crafted, strategic
marketing plan.
Figure1: Elements of Strategic Marketing Planning Process
Set
Goals
Evaluate Marketi
ng Audit
Implem Market
ent Research
Strategy
Develop Analyse
Strategy Research
Set Identify
Budget Traget
Audienc
Source: e
1. Setting your marketing goals. Once you've made the decision to advertise your practice,
you need to establish attainable objectives for the following 18 to 24 months. You may
schedule activities around neighborhood events that support your marketing objectives within
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this time frame. We advise against scheduling particular activities more than two years in
advance due to the fast changes taking place in the healthcare industry.
2. Conducting a marketing audit-A marketing audit is an assessment of all marketing

activity in your practice over the last three years. Be as comprehensive as possible, reviewing
every announcement, advertisement, phonebook ad, open house, booklet, and seminar to
determine its success.
3. Conduct market research. Market research is used to provide a realistic image of your
profession, the community in which you practice, and your present standing in that
community. With this study, you may create reasonably accurate estimates about future
community growth, identify competitive variables, and investigate unorthodox prospects.
Market research is frequently the most time-consuming element in this process. It is,
nevertheless, one of the most crucial phases. This study allows you to determine what your
practice does well and where you need to improve, what the needs of your community are,
who your practice should target, and how you should go about it.
4. Analyzing the research.

The raw data you acquire must then be analyzed and summarized into relevant conclusions
that will serve as the foundation for choosing which marketing techniques make the most
sense and will yield the best outcomes for your practice. The study will help you define your
target audience by identifying the demands and requirements of your present and future
patients. This is also a wonderful moment to reflect on the objectives you've set for yourself.
You may need to revise some of your objectives based on the results of your investigation.
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A strategic marketing plan necessitates the definition of your practice in terms of what it
accomplishes for consumers. The research study will show the strategic benefits of your
practice. After extensively examining your own and your rivals' practices, you may ask
yourself three critical questions: What are the distinctions and similarities between your
practice and those of your competitors? What distinguishes your practice from the
competition? Is your technology more appealing than that of your competitors? Do you
provide a greater range of services than your competitors? Is there a service that you offer
that no one else in the business does? Your competitive advantage might be in your practice
style, the breadth of services you provide, the simplicity of scheduling an appointment, or the
way you communicate.
MARKET RESEARCH GUIDE

Conduct market research on your business, your competitors, and your neighborhood to
obtain the information you need to establish a comprehensive marketing plan for your clinic.
Your profession cannot rely on intuition, judgement, or experience; it requires real evidence.
Although gathering this information will take some time, there are a lot of tools accessible to
help you.
Your expertise
Much of the information you want regarding your own practice may be obtained through
talks with employees and consumers, as well as through a study of your past consumers. You
may also learn about your company and if it is serving the requirements of your present
customers by having them complete a business survey. Here are some of the questions you
should have concerned your business:
• What is your organization’s background and history? Is it a recent addition to the present
community?
• What are the strengths and shortcomings of your organization?
• Who are your present customers in terms of age, gender, ethnic origin, education etc?
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• What services does your business offer? Who requires these services? Are these
requirements changing?
Your competitor
You must learn about your competition and what they are offering to their customer
base. Check with your executives and intermediaries to see how many other substitutes and
new entrants have move in the segment in the last five years.
After you've discovered who your competitors are, you must evaluate them. This information
may be more difficult to obtain, but you may try to acquire as much as you can by simply
asking other stakeholders and analyzing rivals' strengths. To evaluate your competitors, ask
the following questions:
• Who are your rivals' target markets and target audiences?

• What makes specific consumers or groups of people like or dislike your competitors?
• How does your rivals rank in the community?
• What marketing strategies have your rivals employed?
Your neighborhood
● In addition to learning about your profession and your rivals' practices, you should study
everything you can about the people in your neighborhood. Answers to the following
questions can be obtained by contacting your local Chamber of Commerce, your state vital
statistics bureau, or by consulting the (www.census.gov). Every state, county, city, ZIP code,
neighborhood, and so on may access census data:
● What is the population density in your service area? Is the population anticipated to increase
or decrease?
● What are the demographic features of your local population?
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5. Identifying your target audience. You should be able to determine your organization’s
"target audience" with the help of your market research analysis, which is the exact group of
people to whom you'd like to aim your marketing efforts. Your target audience might include
people of a given age, education, lifestyle, culture, gender, and so on. Remember that your
target audience should include not just the customers you wish to attract, but also other
stakeholders that may influence and expose that sector of the population.
6. Determine a budget. Before you can select which exact marketing methods to use to
reach your goals, you must first review your financial data and create a marketing budget.
Marketing budgets differ depending on the sort of market a business is in, the age of the
business, and if the organization has previously advertised. There is no set amount that a
business should spend. However, in our experience, practitioners in open marketplaces spend
3–5% of their yearly gross income on marketing. If your practice is new, in a highly
competitive market, or has never been promoted before, or if you plan to launch an ambitious
new program or service, expect to spend 10% or more of your revenue on marketing.
7. Develop marketing strategies. With your budget in place, you can start defining
marketing tactics that will meet your objectives, reach your target demographic, and grow
your client base. Remember to concentrate your efforts on the aspects of your organization
that may be leveraged to generate a unique value in the minds of your clients and referral
sources. Each strategy should be linked to a specific objective and comprised of several steps.
One technique connected to the objective of attracting customers, for example, is to make the
workplace and employees more customer pleasant. The following activities may be necessary
for such strategy:
Improve the reception area's décor; Provide name tags for employees; require staff to identify
themselves to each new customer; provide staff with training sessions on customer
satisfaction; create a method for consumers to self-schedule appointments on the business
website.
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8. Developing an implementation schedule-An implementation schedule is a timetable that

outlines which marketing activities will be carried out when and by whom. The calendar
should also contain the cost of each marketing action and how it fits within the 24-month
budget predictions. Consider how the activities will influence present practice operations and
if there are enough resources (such as employees, time, and money) to complete the essential
tasks while designing the timetable. It may be required in some circumstances to reduce the
list or postpone some activities. In other circumstances, it may be better to proceed with your
plan's full implementation.
If you want to fully implement the strategy but lack the necessary personnel resources, you
can think about hiring a consultant to manage the marketing efforts or hiring a part-time
employee to take care of the bulk of the marketing duties. You may use the implementation
timetable as a foundation for tracking the development of your marketing strategy.
9. Create an evaluation process-The efficacy of a marketing plan determines its worth,
which calls for thoughtful and timely implementation as well as monitoring and outcomes
evaluation. It's crucial to compare your performance to the benchmarks you established while
setting your goals. By comparing your progress to the implementation timetable, review your
strategy on a regular basis (we suggest quarterly). You may assess your success in a number
of ways, including customer satisfaction survey results, reference sources, improved revenue,
more new clients, and a decline in complaints.
If at any point you discover that your development falls short of what you had hoped, you
must figure out why? Maybe no new customers have responded to the advertisement for the
new service you are promoting. If the advertising campaign has been implemented as
instructed without yielding any results, stop and attempt another course of action. Perhaps
you might consider holding a series of seminars, running a campaign that is especially aimed
at the demographic you want to attract, or creating a new section on your website only for
customers that highlights the advantages of the new service. In other words, the marketing
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plan's activities, and even its strategies and objectives, are not set in stone. You can always
make changes by consistently keeping track of and analyzing each activity.
4.4.2 Competitor Analysis

A competitor analysis, also known as a competitive analysis, is the process of identifying and
analyzing rivals in your industry's various marketing techniques. You may use this
information to assess your company's strengths and shortcomings in relation to each
competition. You may do a high-level competition study or delve into a specific component
of your competitors' company. This article will focus on how to do a generic competitive
analysis, but you should personalize this method to your company's requirements and goals.
Small company entrepreneurs sometimes find themselves juggling many jobs at once. But
even with a hectic schedule, it's worthwhile to undertake a competition study. By supporting
you, it can boost your business by:
Identify the strengths and Recognize industry trends

limitations of your
company.
Establish standards for Establish standards for

future expansion future expansion
Source:
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Identify the strengths and limitations of your company.
You may learn about the benefits and drawbacks of your own brand by examining how your
rivals are seen. Knowing your company's advantages might help you position your business
in the market or create the mental image of your product or service that you want people in
your target market to have. It's crucial to explain to potential clients why your service or
product is the greatest option out of all those offered.
Knowing your company's vulnerabilities is just as crucial to advancing your enterprise. You
may find places where you might wish to put time and money to use by understanding where
you fall short of your consumers' expectations.
You could discover, for instance, that clients favor the customer service provided by your
rivals. Investigate your rivals to learn what they're doing well and what you might adapt for
your own firm.
● Recognize industry trends-
Knowing how the industry is changing as a whole may also be determined by studying the
competitors. However, you shouldn't follow your rivals' lead in accomplishing anything. It's
seldom, if ever, successful to copy the competitors without carefully analyzing your own
position in the market. Don't immediately copy what your rivals are giving if you notice them
doing something that you aren't. Instead, consider your consumers' wants and ways to add
value for them.
● Recognize your market
You can discover businesses while identifying your rivals that you were unaware of or that
you had not previously considered to be in your industry. To outperform your competition,
start by identifying who they are.
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You might be able to find areas where your market is underserved by conducting an in-depth
analysis of what your rivals have to offer. You can take the initiative and increase your own
products to meet any unmet consumer demands if you discover discrepancies between what
your rivals are giving and what customers desire.
Establish standards for future expansion- You should consider businesses that are both bigger
and smaller than your own while doing a competition study. Studying existing companies in
your field may help you create a vision of success and a benchmark for measuring your future
expansion. On the other hand, the firms that could challenge your market share in the future
might be identified by investigating new competitors in your sector.
4.4.2.1 When should you analyze your competitors?
When launching a new firm, it is usually a good idea to do a comprehensive competition

study. A competition analysis is useful for businesses other than startups. It is a tool that may
be applied at every step of the company life cycle and ought to be. You may uncover new
market trends and keep a competitive edge over other businesses in your field by periodically
evaluating and updating your competition study, or by starting one from fresh.
4.4.2.2 Competitor analysis techniques
It might be challenging to decide what to emphasize while performing a competitive analysis.

Here are six steps to get you started: Think on the purpose of your competitor analysis before
you start. Include any additional research fields that support these objectives.
1.Identify your rivals.
Consider where your clients would go if they didn't buy from your firm while compiling a list
of possible rivals. Searching for your product or its category on Google or another search
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engine and browsing the results is a simple method to get started. You may also conduct a
poll or conduct an interview with current clients to learn more about the alternatives they
looked at before choosing your goods or services.
So that you can devote adequate time and effort to investigating each rival, limit your list to
10 or less. To acquire a thorough understanding of the market, when you finish your list, try
to include a variety of businesses. Additionally, take into account companies that compete in
each of the three categories
Direct Rivals
Direct rivals cater to comparable target markets by offering comparable goods or services.
When you consider your competitors, these are probably the businesses that immediately
spring to mind. McDonald's, for instance, probably sees Wendy's and Burger King as direct
rivals in the fast-food burger industry or Coke vs Pepsi in beverage industry.
Indirect Rivals
Although they target a similar demographic to yours, indirect rivals provide a different good
or service in the same market. For instance, McDonald's faces off against pizza delivery
services like Domino's and Papa John's.
Replacement rivals-
Although they compete with you outside of your product category, replacement rivals meet
comparable consumer needs. Any option individuals choose when they're hungry, including
goods like frozen dinners, might be a replacement rival for McDonald's. Replacement
competitors are the most difficult of the three categories of rivals to recognize. You should
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pay close attention to both direct and indirect rivals while doing a competitor analysis. Even
so, it's vital to quickly assess any prospective substitute rivals that can jeopardize your
company's future.
2.Make a matrix of competitors
Take some time to arrange yourself before you get into your competitor analysis. You may
organise your research using a table or spreadsheet called a competitor matrix, sometimes
referred to as a rival grid. It will be simpler to compare your results to those of rivals and see
wider patterns as a result.
Start by giving each rival you've identified a row or column to itself. List the data points or
categories of information you want to know about each rival on the opposite axis. If you're
unsure of what to search for at this stage, don't worry. As your study progresses, you may
always add new categories.
3.Assemble background data
Start researching your rivals' companies after you have a list of them. Start by looking for the
most fundamental details, then work your way up from there. Start by checking out any news
items that have been written about the firm as well as its websites and social media profiles.
Here are some fundamental details that you might wish to look for. History of the company-
This covers details like its inception date, financial sources, and any mergers or acquisitions it
has taken part in. The "About" section of their website or previous news releases from the
business are frequently good places to look for this information. You may gain a deeper
knowledge of your rivals' company by researching how they came to be where they are.
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4.Size of Business
How many individuals are employed by your rivals? For this type of information, Glassdoor
and LinkedIn are also good sources. Additionally, you should research the number of clients
and income that your rivals have. For larger organisations, this information will probably be
readily available online. You may have to settle for approximations for smaller, privately
held businesses. You may better contextualise the remaining data you get if you are aware of
the size of your competition.
5. Concentrate on the 4 Ps
It's important to investigate how each competitor approaches that market segment now that
you have determined who their target market is. A thorough examination of their marketing
tactics will be necessary.
The four Ps—product, pricing, promotion, and place—that make up the marketing mix are
the prerequisites for bringing a product to market. For each competitor you've chosen, ask
yourself the following questions as part of your investigation.
Product
• What do they market?

• What characteristics does their good or service have?
• What features of the product or service appeal to customers the most?
• What are the product's or service's flaws?
Price
• What sort of pricing structure do they employ? Is it a yearly subscription or a one-time
purchase?
• What are their prices for their goods or services? Do they provide discounts or sales?
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• How does the price of a product or service relate to its actual or perceived quality?
Promotion
• How do they disseminate information about their good or service? What mediums do they
utilise for advertising, such as social media, email marketing, print ads, etc.?
• What features of their goods or services do they highlight? What makes them stand out from
the competition?
• What is their business's history? How do they describe their company's brand?
Place
• Where are their products sold? Do they do their business online or offline?
• Do they collaborate with merchants or third-party marketplaces, or do they sell to customers
directly?
These inquiries are supposed to provide a place to start. Feel free to elaborate and modify
them to fit your industry and the objectives of your study.
There is probably a tonne of information available. Make an effort to summarize your results
into brief bullet points that you can later readily refer to. If you can find it, make sure to
incorporate quantitative data where it is suitable.
6.Analyse strengths and weaknesses—yours and your competitors’
Think about each of your chosen rivals' advantages and disadvantages based on the data
you've gathered. Consider the reasons why customers pick a certain brand's goods or services
over competing ones. In your spreadsheet, note your conclusions.
Finally, think about the strengths and shortcomings of your own business. How does your
company stack up against the rivals you've studied? You can better serve your target clients
by being aware of what makes your company stand out from the competition and where it
falls short of expectations.
4.5 Marketing Warfare strategies
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Marketing warfare strategies are a type of business and marketing strategy that attempts to
make comparisons between business and warfare before applying military strategy to
business situations. Competing firms are compared to sides in a military conflict, and market
share is compared to territory that is in contention.
For instance, in a game of football between two teams, each team will attempt to advance the
ball toward the goal line, and most likely, their rival team will stop them. Teams must create
counter-competition plans that enable them to outmaneuver and outflank opponents if they
want to win the game. The same principles are used everywhere to win, whether it be in
sports, business, or warfare.
Depending on the conditions in the environment and the strategic move of rivals, commercial
enterprises might employ one of four different marketing warfare techniques.
Offensive Flanking
Strategies Strategies
Guerrilla Defensive
Strategies
Strategies
Source:
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Offensive marketing warfare strategies - To gain a competitive edge, offensive marketing

warfare tactics are deployed; often, market leaders, runners-up, or failing rivals are targeted.
By using offensive marketing, you may directly confront the competition with your greatest
deals and promos. It's also how many businesses compete with one another for customers'
attention by offering bargains, promotions, product upgrades, and the like. For instance, if
company A is selling ice cream this week for Rs. 10 per piece, company B can run a counter
campaign advertising ice cream on sale for Rs. 9.50. Although the transaction wasn't
anticipated or planned, an aggressive marketing campaign made it happen. You may not
make as much money from a particular transaction if you go on the offensive, but you will
gain ground through more sales and customers in the long run. The primary objective of
offensive strategies is to improve sales, increase market share by increasing customer base
and destabilize the current market leader.
Defensive marketing warfare strategies – Defensive tactics are managerial instruments that
may be employed to repel a prospective competitor's attack. Consider it a battleground. To
keep your consumers satisfied and your profitability constant, you must defend your market
share. Defensive tactics are managerial methods that may be used to repel a prospective
competitor's attack. The purpose of these techniques is to keep your position as the market
leader while battling against competitors that want to steal your market share. As a result, it is
characterized as a marketing technique that assists businesses in retaining important clients
who may be stolen away by competitors. The goals of this approach are to maintain current
market share while increasing profitability, to maintain current levels of competitive
advantage and top position in local and existing markets.
Flanking marketing warfare strategies – A Flanking Attack tactic focuses on a

competitor's weak spots. You assault them to remove them and acquire market share. The
term derives from a military tactic in which an adversary is assaulted from the side, assuming
that the majority of might is concentrated in the front. It is an attack on the area where the
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opponent gives little importance for example Close-Up brought first gel toothpaste in the
market by changing product form, similarly Sony brought portable electronics or Volkswagen
with smaller size cars.
Guerrilla marketing warfare I strategies – Guerrilla marketing is the employment of

creative or unusual ways to increase sales or generate interest in a brand or business. These
tactics are frequently low-cost or free, and they entail the broad usage of more human
connections or viral social media messaging. Business organizations employ tactics such as
assault, conceal, and retreat until the competition exits the market. For example, a local store
tailoring a strategy to attract local customers versus a national product, or a locally
customized business magazine by a local vendor that a national publisher such as the Times
of India or the Hindustan Times cannot accomplish.
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CASE STUDY
Ries and Trout utilise the burger war to show a flanking manoeuvre in the fast food
business. McDonald's was the market leader, and Burger King attempted aggressive
strategies. The moves that failed were those that expanded the product line and imitated
McDonald's. The successful campaigns distinguished Burger King from McDonald's.
Have it your way, for example, targeted a flaw in McDonald's consistent product line
procedure, which had the unintended consequence of being rigid. The campaign
highlighting the fact that Burger King's burgers were flame-broiled whereas McDonald's
were fried was even more popular. Wendy's effectively countered McDonald's by
focusing on adults rather than children, giving adult-sized portions, and creating the
hugely popular Where is the beef? campaign.
Finally, White Castle was the low-end Guerrilla, limiting their geographic spread,
without adding a bewildering array of other goods, and maintaining a high level of sales
at each establishment. White Castle followed the guerrilla philosophy of never acting
like the leaders and was able to coexist peacefully as a consequence.
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Activity- Identify the type of warfare strategy
4. The businessmen competed with Facebook by concentrating on the photo sharing

aspect of their service. While the Facebook team spread themselves thin over a wide
range of features and functions, Instagram narrowed its attention to just photographs
and effectively established itself as a household name in the social media space. Of
course, Facebook eventually bought them.
5. The traditional "exit man" signs that are so prevalent in places all around the world
are customized with stickers for Axe Body Spray. The additional stickers tell a tale
about the recognizable departure guy; to think we had believed he was fleeing from
a fire!-
6. The two market leaders in the soft drink beverage sector are Coca-Cola and Pepsi.
They both possess resources and money. They've used frontal assaults frequently in
the past. Pepsi began selling diet Pepsi after Coca-Cola introduced its diet coke.
7. A price competition in which a business commits to equal or outbid its rivals,
increasing the features in order to stay ahead of a rival, offering warranties that
testify to having superior products or better service.
4.5 MAIN BODY SECTION 3
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
 -------------- strategy is used to attack competitors on the area where the opponent is
weak to penetrate and gain market share.
 The ----------- type of warfare strategy has the goal to maintain current levels of
competitive advantage and top position in local and existing market.
 The strategic marketing planning process consist of detailed steps and no of steps are
-------------
4.9 SUMMARY
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Strategic marketing planning is a comprehensive framework for all upcoming organizational

operations. Key Elements of Strategic Marketing Planning Process are: Setting your
marketing goals, conducting a marketing audit, conducting market research, analyzing the
research, identifying your target audience, deciding on a budget, developing specific
marketing strategies, scheduling the strategies' implementation, and developing an evaluation
process are the nine main steps needed to develop a well-crafted, strategic marketing plan..
A competitor analysis, also known as a competitive analysis, is the process of identifying and
analyzing rivals in your industry's various marketing techniques.
● Identify the strengths and limitations of your company
● Recognize industry trends
● Establish standards for future expansion
● Establish standards for future expansion
Marketing warfare strategies are a type of business and marketing strategy that attempts to
make comparisons between business and warfare before applying military strategy to
business situations. The types are:
● Offensive marketing warfare strategies
● Defensive marketing warfare strategies
● Flanking marketing warfare strategies
● Guerrilla marketing warfare strategies
1. True 9. Defensive
2. False 10. Nine
3. Strength and Weakness, Opportunities and Threats.
4. Flanking
5. Guirella
6. Offensive
7. Defensive
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8. Flanking
1. Explain the type of marketing warfare strategies the company can use with suitable
examples.?
2. Discuss strategic marketing planning process in detail with relevant examples?
3. What are the measures you will take to analyses competitors?
1. Bloodgood, J. M. and Bauerschmidt, A. (2002). Competitive analysis: Do managers

accurately compare their firms to competitors? Journal of Managerial Issues, 14(4):
418-434.
2. Fleisher, C. and Bensoussan, B. (2003). Strategic and competitive analysis: Methods
and techniques for analyzing business competition. Prentice Hall.
3. Kotler, P. (1991), Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and
Control, 7th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
4. Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. (2004) Principles of Marketing. 10th Edition, Pearson-
Prentice Hall, New Jersey. - References - Scientific Research Publishing. (n.d.).
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LESSON 5
PRODUCT MIX
STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Product Meaning
5.3.1 Definition
5.3.2 Five Product Levels
5.3.3 Classification of Goods or Products
5.4 Product Mix Meaning
5.4.1 Definition
5.4.2 Dimensions of Product Mix
5.5 Introduction to New Product Development
5.5.1 Definition of Product Development
5.5.2 Meaning of Product Development
5.5.3 New Product Planning
5.5.4 Role of New Product Development
5.5.5 New Product Development Process
5.6 Product Lifecycle
5.6.1 Product Lifecycle Stages
5.6.2 Marketing Decisions
5.7 Glossary
5.10 References
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After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Analyze how products are classified
 Explain the product line and product mix strategies
 Describe the product lifecycle
 Discuss the stages involved in the new product development
5.2 INTRODUCTION
To begin with, let us understand the term product. We may define the product as a
collection of physical, psychological, service, and symbolic, attributes that collectively yield
satisfaction, or benefit, to a buyer or user. The marketing identified a product as anything
presented to a market to satisfy a want or need. This chapter helps you to get familiarized
with the significant concepts concerning product management.
Product management is an organizational lifecycle function within a company
involving the planning or marketing of a product or products at every stage of product
lifecycle. We shall be discussing the levels and classifications of products, and the strategies
of product line and product mix. We will also analyze the important steps to be considered in
the new product development process.
5.3 PRODUCT MEANING
In a general usage, a product is any object which has an identifiable physical

existence. The marketing identified a product as anything presented to a market to satisfy a
want or need. We may define product as a collection of physical, psychological, service, and
symbolic attributes that collectively yield satisfaction, or benefit, to a buyer or user.
5.3.1 Definition:
According to Philip Kotler,” A product is anything that can be offered to a market for
attention, acquisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a want or need. It includes
physical objectives, services, persons, places, organizations and ideas.”
According to W. Anderson,” A product should be considered as a bundle of utilities
consisting of various product features and accompanying services.”
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A product has different layers like an onion and each layer contributes to the making
of the product. It uses five product levels in which a product is located or seen from the
perception of the consumer. These 5 Product Levels indicate the value that consumers attach
to a product. The customer will only be satisfied when the specified value is identical or
higher than the expected value.
ACTIVITY
One caution to be observed by any lesson writer is the amount of time a learner
needs to spend on any activity/exercise etc. As these activities/exercises are given
along with the material; the learner should not be diverted for a longer duration
by giving longer/difficult questions/activities/exercises etc. At best, learners may
spend a few minutes (5-10) and come back to the material for reading so that
focus and rhythm of study would not be lost.
5.3.2 Five Product Levels:

1. Core Product: This is the basic product, and the focus is on the purpose for which
the product is intended. This layer explains the ‘why’ of buying the product. For
example, a warm coat will protect you from the cold and the rain. The more important
benefits the product provides, the more that customers need the product. This will
benefit the product positioning within a market and effect the possible competition.
2. Basic Product: This represents all the qualities of the product. The consumer looks at
the basic utilities, like physical features and tangible elements of the product. For a
raincoat this is about fit, material, rain repellent ability, high-quality fasteners, etc.
3. Expected Product: This is about all aspects the consumer expects to get when they
purchase a product. The expected layer is a set of attributes and conditions that buyers
normally expect out of the product. The basic product is the ‘given thing’ in the
product.
4. Augmented Product: The Augmented Product refers to all additional factors which
sets the product apart from that of the competition. And this particularly involves
brand identity and image. Is that product in style, its color trendy and made by a well-
known fashion brand? But also factors like service, warranty and good value for
money play a major role in this. The goal is to deliver something that is beyond an
expected product. It’s the translation of the desire that is converted into reality.
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5. Potential Product: This is about augmentations and transformations that the product
may undergo in the future. Here the marketer is always on constant search for new
methods and processes to differentiate the offer on the basis of product features and
services that will satisfy the customer and create the desired differentiation.
5.3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GOODS OR PRODUCT:
Classification of Products
I. Durability and Tangibility II. Consumer Goods III. Industrial Goods

(a) Non-durable goods (a) Convenience goods (a) Equipment and
Physical Facilities
(b) Durable Goods (b) Shopping goods (b) Materials entering into
the Product
(c) Services (c) Specialty goods (c) Manufacturing or
Service Supplies
(d) Unsought goods (d) Management Materials
Table 1:Classification of Products
I. DURABLITY AND TANGIBILITY

Products can be classified on the basis of durability and tangibility. On the basis of durability,
they can be grouped as non-durable and durable products.
(a) Non-Durable Goods: These are goods which get depleted on consumption. For example
a bottle of soft drink is consumed at once on one occasion within a matter of minutes.
Soap obviously takes a little longer. However, in both these cases, the goods are
consumed very fast
(b) Durable Goods: These are goods which are `durable' or which last for some time.
Examples of such goods would be electric irons, refrigerators, television sets, etc. This
type of product requires more selling effort from the salesman. The question of after
sales service and repairs is also of importance as `selling points' or `benefits' which the
customer would like to have.
(c) Services: Services are specially mentioned here (although they do not constitute
products) because it is generally thought that marketing is related to products alone.
Products are classified as physical products or tangible whereas services are intangible,
inseparable, variable and perishable in nature.
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II. CONSUMER GOODS

Consumer goods are those goods which are designed for final consumption by individuals
and households. Television, radio, cigarettes etc., are the examples of consumer goods.
TYPES OF CONSUMER GOODS
(a) Convenience Goods: Goods which consumer buys frequently, immediately and with
minimum shopping effort are classified as convenience goods. Examples: Cigarettes,
newspapers, magazines etc.
(b) Shopping Goods: Goods which consumer selects and buy only after making
comparisons on such bases as suitability, quality, price and style are called as shopping
goods. Examples: furniture, readymade garments etc.
(c) Specialty Goods: Goods for which significant numbers of buyers are habitually willing
to make a special purchasing effort are known as specialty goods. They should possess
unique features or have a high degree of brand identification or both.
(d) Unsought Goods: These are goods that the consumer does not know about or does not
normally think of buying. These goods need advertising and more personal selling
efforts for making a sale. These include life insurance products, coffins, and fire alarms.
II INDUSTRIAL GOODS
Goods which are for use in the commercial production or other goods or for use in connection
with carrying on of some business or institutional activity are known as industrial goods.
TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL GOODS
1. Equipment and Physical Facilities: Major capital assets such as plant, machinery,
building etc., come under this category.
2. Materials entering the Product: This category of industrial goods includes raw
materials, semi- manufactured goods and fabrication parts.
3. Manufacturing or Service Supplies: These are products that are essential to the
business operations of the industrial users but do not become part of the finished goods.
Example: Fuel, oil etc.
4. Management Materials: This category covers both office equipment’s and office
supplies. Example: Stationery, typewriters, calculators.
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5.4 PRODUCT MIX MEANING
The term product mix refers to the collection of products dealt with by a business firm. The
product mix is one of the elements in the product policy.
5.4.1 DEFINITION
According to Philip Kotler,” Product mix (also called as product assortment) is the set of all
product lines and items that a particular seller offers for sale to buyers.”
According to William J. Stanton,” The product mix is the full list of all products offered for
sale by a company.”
CASE STUDY
The impact of distance education on higher education: A Case Study of the United States
In 2013, Gail D. Caruth and his team of Texas University have studied the impact of
distance education on higher education. Distance education has been credited for bringing
education to students who would not otherwise have educational opportunities. This study used
a qualitative case study approach to examine the research to determine the impact of distance
education on higher education in the United States. They found that the impact of distance
education is significant to higher education because informed knowledge of the impact will
provide insight into the effects of overall education in the United States. The researchers asked
the following two exploratory questions: What happened during the evolution of distance
education in the United States? What themes emerged over time? Their findings suggested that
the impact of distance education on higher education in the United States has been change. They
also anticipated that, in the future changes will continue to occur. Researchers concluded that
the higher education has to be prepared to teach about change and teach students how to handle
change.
5.4.2 DIMENSIONS OF PRODUCT MIX

The relationship between the items and lines that form a given product mix may be described
in terms of three dimensions, namely, width, depth and consistency.
1. Length of the Product Mix: The length of the product mix refers to the total number of
items in its product mix.
2. Width of the Product Mix: The width of the product mix refers to the number of
different product lines the company carries.
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3. Depth of the Product Mix: Depth refers to how many varieties are offered in each
product line. In other words, the depth is measured by assortment of sizes, colours,
models, prices and quantity offered within each product line.
4. Consistency of the Product Mix: The consistency of product mix is a measure of how
closely related its various product lines are to one another. The relationship may be due
to the use, production requirements, distribution channels, consumer behavior and other
characteristics.
5.5 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
5.5.1 Definition of Product Development

To serve the needs of its end-users, product development is generally characterized as
"making, innovating, or developing totally a new product, or presenting an existing product
with expanded utility, improved features, more appealing design, better quality, and
reliability."
5.5.2 Meaning of Product Development
Product refers to a good, service, concept, or object made by a process and made available to
fulfill a need or a want. Development is the process or act of expanding, advancing, or
developing.
There are two parallel paths involved in the new product development process. The first
involves the idea generation, product design and detail engineering whereas the other
involves market research and marketing analysis. Basically, Companies typically see new
product development as the first stage in generating and commercializing new products
within the overall strategic process of product life cycle management where it is used to
maintain or grow their market share. It is important the new product which is based on
current market trends should be launched so that it can gives greater benefit to the customers.
At the same time, it can also help them to understand what the needs of their customers are
helps to increase the sales of their business in terms of maximizing the profits.
5.5.3 New Product Planning
New product planning has been defined by the American Marketing Association as “the act
of making out and supervising the search, screening, development and commercialization of
new products; the modification of existing lines; and the discontinuance of marginal or
unprofitable items”. Simply stated, product planning decides the nature and other related
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aspects of the articles produced and sold. Product development is a more limited term but
includes the technical activities of product research, engineering, and design. Product
planning and development is the result of the coordinated efforts of large number of
specialists – engineers, scientists, marketers, etc. Product planning is usually described as
‘Merchandising’ and it covers both, the existing and potential products. This activity,
therefore, must deal with the proper balance between the old and the new products. New
product planning is a very long and complex process, and it deals with changes in:
The kinds of goods or services offered by a marketer for various segments. The number or
kinds of products, or different lines, that the company offers in various segments. The width
of product line offered.
The quality levels or levels acceptable to various classes of consumers in various target
markets. The degree of distinctiveness. Increased societal and governmental constraints. The
growing shortage of new product ideas in certain areas. Shorter time spans between the
emergence of the idea and the physical launch of the product. The costliness of the new
product development process.
The following decisions are important in new product planning:
● Improving the existing product lines and services,
● Weeding out unprofitable items in the product line (simplification),
● Expansion of the current product line (diversification),
● New product development for the present customers, and
● New product development for new customers (diversified products).
5.5.4 Role of New Product Development
Whatever may be the size and nature of operations of a firm, product planning and
development is necessary for its survival and growth in the long-run. Every product has a life
cycle and it becomes obsolete after the completion of its life-cycle. Therefore, it is essential
to develop new products and alter or improve the existing ones to meet the often-changing
requirements of customers. The role of new product development can be stated in terms of:
1. Ensuring that the product mix, matches changing environmental conditions and that
product obsolescence is avoided.
2. Enabling the marketer to compete in new and developing segments of the market.
3. Reducing the marketer’s dependence upon particular elements of the product range or
vulnerable market segments.
4. Filling excess capacity.
5. Achieving greater long-term growth and profit.
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Introducing new product is rather difficult as it involves long-range planning. Customers’

need should be identified, competing and substitute products should be evaluated and, above
all, the strength of the company should be examined before deciding to produce a new
product. Product failure defeats the very objectives of a firm. In a survey conducted by
Booze, Allen and Hamilton, it was revealed that firms with well-organized product planning
programs have only 40-50 percent product failures. When this percentage is compared with
the overall industry product failures (80 percent), one could easily be convinced of the need
for product planning.
5.5.5 New Product Development Process
As you must have realized by now, it is very important to have a strategy for developing new
products. Many products fail and in order to keep expanding company sales, we must have
new products. Some products of Hindustan Lever have failed, but still they remain leading
manufacturers because they have continuously added to their lines and added product lines to
their product mix. Their "Hima" peas introduced in the 60s flopped, because, in the words of
the Chairman of Hindustan Lever, 'India is not yet ready for convenience foods, neatly done
up in packages'. The product 'concept' requires testing before one goes into product designing
and it is very necessary to have an adequate strategy for developing new products and
introducing them.
New product development involves marking out and supervising the search, screening,
development and commercialization. It therefore embraces decisions regarding the type of
product idea to be taken in hand, its development and reaching the ultimate consumer to
satisfy his demand. Such a philosophy of marketing would ensure the introduction of logical,
well designed and individually justified products.
This will enable the company to face the competition from a position of strength.
New product development, therefore, starts with the conception of a product idea, its due
screening for its commercial and technical viability, probing its market potential and
consumer acceptance, matching it with company facilities and constraints, developing the
product with due thought and care, and its ultimate offering to the largest market segment.
This sequence can well be described as a customer-oriented approach to new product
planning.
From the above discussion you will appreciate that introduction of a new product is a highly
sophisticated and difficult task and involves a long-term planning effort. It has a high-cost
component. Even after a product is finally developed, its marketing costs are exceedingly
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high and yet there is no certainty that it will succeed. It is for this reason that a company
should move from stage to stage in a careful and systematic manner. The approach is
composed of seven steps as demonstrated in Figure 1: New Product Development Process.
New Product Strategy
Idea generation
Idea Screening
Concept Development
and Testing
Marketing Strategy
Business Analysis
Product Development
Test Marketing
Commercialization
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Figure 1: New Product Development Process

1. Idea Generation
The new product approach starts with the generation of a product idea. It means matching a
perceived need with the recognition of a technical opportunity. The said need may be new or
old one. The first stage of new product’s evolution begins with an idea for the product.
Hence, this stage is called as Idea Generation. Ideas may originate from the following
sources:
● Sales personnel
● Marketing personnel
● Research and Development Department
● Top management executives
● Production department
● Customer Service Decisions
● Employee suggestion system
● Customers
● Competitive products
● Foreign products
2. Idea Screening
The second step in the process of product development is Idea Screening. At this stage, the
ideas collected are scrutinized to eliminate those inconsistent with the product policies and
objectives of the firm. Most promising idea is kept for the next stage.
3. Concept Development and Testing
The concept formulation happens in the laboratory. During this stage, the ‘idea on the paper’
is turned into a ‘product-on-hand’. In other words, the idea is converted into a product
concept that can be produced and demonstrated. Concept testing calls for testing product
concepts with an appropriate group of target consumers, then getting those consumers
reactions.
4. Marketing Strategy
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This stage requires a close co-ordination between Engineering and Marketing Divisions.
Along with the process of product development, the marketing division of the company
develops a tentative marketing strategy. A blue print is designed about the price structure,
promotion and distribution strategy for the proposed product. The marketing team identifies
the need of sales force needs, advertising program and sales promotion tools for the new
products. After developing tentative marketing strategy, the prototype is released for testing.
5. Business Analysis
After management develops the product concept and marketing strategy; it can evaluate the
proposals business attractiveness. Management needs to estimate whether sales will be high
enough to yield satisfactory profit. At this step business analysis for the new product is done.
Business analysis includes - estimation of sales, frequency of purchases, nature of business,
production and distribution related costs and expenses, and estimation of profit.
6. Product Development
During this stage, the idea-on-the-paper is turned into a ‘product-on-hand’. The idea is
converted into a product that can be produced and demonstrated. The product passes the
business test it moves to R&D and engineering to be developed into physical product. The
R&D department will develop one or more physical versions of the product concept. This
stage is also termed as technical development. Its goal is to find a prototype that consumers
see as embodying the key attributes described in the product statement and can be produced
within the budgeted manufacturing costs.
7. Testing the Product
In this stage of product testing, the new product manager can check the feasibility and
accuracy of product performance. Thus, commercial experiments are necessary to verify
earlier business judgments. The objective of this stage is to assess whether the product meets
the technical and commercial specifications developed at various levels of concept
development for ascertaining product acceptability.
8. Commercialization and final launch
In this stage, the product is submitted to the market and thus commences its lifecycle.
Commercialization is also the phase where marketing is most active in connection with the
new product. This stage is considered to be a critical one for any new product and should
therefore be handled carefully. The following activities are usually undertaken during this
stage:
a. Completing final plans for production and marketing
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b. Initiating coordinated production and selling programs

c. Checking the outcomes at regular intervals
Case Study
Amazon is an example of a customer-oriented approach to product development strategy.
Their product strategy is focused entirely around customer needs. Amazon likes to work
backwards from the target market. They write the press release for the product first, and
hone it until its language is simple enough for anyone to understand. The press release has
no technical jargon about technologies or UIs. They then work backward from the press
release to the product. This is a product development strategy that focuses on Amazon’s
internal process, in engaging with customers to create a specific product that meets an
identified need.
5.6 PRODUCT LIFECYCLE
Products have a life cycle just like anything else. Professor Raymond Vernon of Harvard
University first proposed and shaped the product life cycle (PLC) idea in 1966. PLC
designates the time frame from the beginning of a product's development (R&D) until the
time it is taken off the market. The four phases of a typical PLC are introduction, growth,
maturity, and decline.
5.6.1 Product Lifecycle Stages
(Fig. Product Life Cycle)

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(Source: MBAknol.com)
1. Introduction Stage: The "commercialization" stage of new product development is

from where the idea of a product lifecycle comes into existence. Product adoption and
awareness among potential buyers are still quite low at this point. Due of the poor sales,
promotional expenses are significant. The company must spend money on advertising,
sales promotion, and other types of marketing in order to survive in the market.
At this point, a low level distribution strategy is the main barrier to quick market
penetration. Many retailers tend to wait until they hear favorable things about the brand
before supporting the new product. This method of introducing new products frequently
brings physical distribution and logistics issues to the core.
2. Growth Stage: Due to the combined effects of initial promotion, distribution, and word-
of-mouth influence, the product starts to make quick sales. Profits at this stage
significantly increased. At this point, customer satisfaction must be guaranteed in order
to achieve and sustain ongoing growth. Then demand starts quickly increasing. Only
innovators at this point go in transition from the trial stage to the adoption stage
whenever a repeat purchase occurs. If the creators are pleased with the products, word-
of-mouth and referral marketing are used to encourage additional consumers.
3. Maturity Stage: Sales growth at this stage continues but at a diminishing rate, because
of the declining number of potential customers who remain unaware of the product or
who have taken no action. The last of the unsuccessful competing brands will tend to
withdraw from the market. Due to this, sales are likely to continue to rise.
4. Decline Stage: Sales begin to decline at the final stage for a variety of reasons. Sales fall
as a result of shifting consumer preferences, market competition, technological
advancements, and other environmental factors. Sales at this point drastically decline as
the buyer starts to prefer other products. If a product category is experiencing a decline,
the marketer may choose to trim the product portfolio, drop the declining brands, or plan
to reintroduce brands with certain product modifications.
In reality very few products follow such a prescriptive cycle. The length of each stage
varies enormously. For example Fashion products tend to have a short life cycle i.e. the
time between the launch of a product and the point at which the product is mature is very
quick.
5.6.2 Marketing Decisions
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The decisions of marketers can change the stage, for example from maturity to decline by
price-cutting.
1. Competition – At the introductory stage, competition is given no importance. At the

growth stage, it is given a little importance while at the maturity stage; there are many
rivals in the market. Slowly, however, the number of competitors or rivals gets
reduced with the declining stage.
2. Overall Strategic Focus – At the first stage, emphasis is laid on market
establishment. At the growth stage, market penetration and persuasion of mass market
are emphasized. Creation of brand loyalty and brand preferences is focused at the
maturity stage. At the decline stage, the strategy aims at overall preparation for
renewal.
3. Profit – At the introductory stage, profits are negligible but at the growth stage, they
reach the peak levels as a result of growing demand. At the maturity stage, they
decline due to the increasing competition. At the last stage, the declining volume
pushes costs up and eliminates profits.
4. Distribution Strategies – At the introductory stage, distribution is selective.
However, at the growth and maturity stages, it is intensive. At the decline stage, it
becomes selective and hence low-end strategies are used.
5. Advertising Strategies – At the introduction stage, advertising strategies aim at the
needs of early adopters; at the growth stage, an attempt is made to make the mass
market aware of brand benefits. At maturity stage, advertising is used as a vehicle for
differentiating among otherwise similar brands. At the last stage, however, it
emphasizes on low price of the product and minimum advertising expenditure.
5.6 SUMMARY
● A product is the offer that the consumer ultimately owns in the exchange process.
Each product offers some level of core, tangible, and augmented benefit to
consumers.
● A product has different layers or levels like an opinion and each layer contributes to
the make of the product. The identified levels are: core layer, basic product layer,
expected product layer, augmented product layer and potential product layer.
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● Products can be classified on the basis of three essential characteristics – durability,

tangibility and user type.
● Product mix is an assortment of all related and unrelated products that the company
offers in the marketplace. Product mix has got four important elements like width,
depth, length and consistency.
● Product line decisions are related to the length and depth of each product line and the
decisions that the marketer should take for each product’s segment.
● Many companies follow different types of new product development system which
are concept generation and market structure identification, advertising development,
product formulation and testing, commercialization and final launch.
● Products follow certain kinds of lifecycle patterns. The stages of product lifecycle are
introduction stage, growth stage, maturity stage and decline stage.
5.7 GLOSSARY
 Convenience products: These products satisfy the needs but one isn’t willing to
spend time or effort to shop for them.
 Durable goods: These are the goods that survive many uses by consumers.
 Industrial products: Products that are used in producing other products.
 Non-durable goods: These are the goods, which are consumed in one instance or a
few uses.
 Product: A product is anything which is offered to the market to satisfy consumer
needs and wants.
 Product line: A set of individual products that are closely related.
 Product width: It explains how many different product lines a company carries.
 Product depth: It explains the number of products that a product line has in its
overall product mix.

1. Explain the concept of learning. Discuss personal factors that influence learning, with
suitable examples.
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2. Discuss some effective methods of learning that you would like your students to
practice in class and at home. Illustrate your answer with relevant examples.
5.9 REFERENCES
As per APA style (APA Manual 6th Edition to be referred)
1. https://www.tcgen.com/product-development/product-development-strategy/#gettools
2. https://www.mbaknol.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Product-life-cycle-strategy-
mbaknol.jpeg

As per APA style (APA Manual 6th Edition to be referred)
1. Marek, M. W., Chew, C. S., & Wu, W. C. V. (2021). Teacher experiences in converting
classes to distance learning in the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of
Distance Education Technologies (IJDET), 19(1), 89-109.
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LESSON 6
BRANDS, PACKAGING AND LABELLING
STRUCTURE

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Branding
6.3.1 Meaning and Importance
6.3.2 Benefits of Brand Building
6.3.3 Brand Strategy Decisions
6.4 Packaging
6.4.1 Functions of Packaging
6.4.2 Types of Packaging
6.4.3 Requisites of Good Packaging
6.4.4 Criticism of Packaging
6.5 Labelling
6.5.1 Meaning
6.5.2 Functions of Labelling
6.5.3 Types of Labels
6.6 Summary
6.9 References
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After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 explain the terms branding, packaging and labelling
 describe significance of branding
 outline brand strategy decisions
 construct a good brand name
 describe functions and types of packaging
 relate criticism of packaging
 identify types and functions of labelling
6.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson you have studied new product development, product life cycle and
product mix strategies. In addition to product development and design, it is very important to
understand how a product is presented to prospective customers. Branding, packaging and
labelling are the three major components which are associated with presentation of a product.
In this lesson we will discuss in detail about branding, packaging and labelling. It is very
important to understand significance of branding and how brand strategy decisions are made
by the companies. We will discuss functions and types of packaging along with its
requirement and criticism. You will also study labelling, its legal requirement, its functions
and types of labels.
This lesson has many real-life examples so that it will be easy for you to understand these
topics and you will be able to relate this to your real-life experiences. This will aid in
understanding the three marketing terms namely: branding, packaging, and labelling from a
whole new perspective.
6.3 BRANDING
6.3.1 Meaning and Importance

Brand is an asset for any firm and needs to be managed carefully. A product that is unbranded
is termed as commodity, and at the time of purchasing a commodity a person takes into
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consideration its physical characteristics and benefits. In contrast, a brand is a lens through
which a product is viewed with additional feature. that make it different from its counterpart.
Brand is a strategic tool which empowers the firm to bargain with suppliers, creditors and
customers. When you go to the market and purchase Reebok or Nike footwear, you are
assured that the shoe which you are buying has specific standards. This underlines the fact
that a brand name differentiated the product of one company from another which satisfies the
same needs and wants of the customer. Brands have been used by the producers to identify
and differentiate one’s own products from those of the others. Brands are considered units of
meaning in the language of the consumer market culture Pennington (2000).
Marketers can leverage brand name when consumers have to make choice while purchasing
a product. Brand is about making emotional connections. It is a powerful yet intangible asset.
People trust brands, develop strong loyalties, buy them and believe in their supremacy.”
Brand recall refers to the ability of a consumer to retrieve the brand from the memory (Keller
1993). The success of brands depends on the degree of their significance to consumers and
how they use them. They provide consumers with a level of quality and a name that can be
trusted. Since brands provide additional value, they are priced higher.
Brand: A brand can be a sign symbol, term, name or design or a combination of them. When
firms develop good reputation and gain confidence of customers about quality, then brands
help them enjoy greater control over customer and develop brand loyalty. Brand is viewed as
the promise, the reputation and the expectations that dwell into customer’s mind about the
product and/ or the company. Branding is the process of identifying a particular product
among various products available in the market. Branding is not only done to identify a
product or seller, but also to make a product superior to the competitor’s product.
In the rapidly changing business environment of today due to globalization and cut throat
competition a company’s brand can be a feature that distinguishes it product from that of its
competitor. When a new product is introduced in the market, the manufacturer decides
whether it should be known on the behalf of generic name or brand name. Generic name
refers to collective name for a whole class of product. EG: - Soaps, jeans, tea leaves etc.
Whereas brand name refers to the specific name by which the product is to be known in the
market.
Brand Name: Brand name or a trade name is the name given by a producer or manufacturer
to his specific product or service. Mostly it is the name of founder members of the company.
The purpose of giving a brand name is identification and differentiating a company’s product
or service from other related brands, for example: Apple, Nike, BMW, Dunkin Donuts etc.
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GENERIC NAME BRAND NAME

Soap Lux, Santoor, Dove, Dettol
Jeans Adidas, Calvin Klein, Levies
Tea leaves Red label, Taj Mahal, Tata
ACTIVITY
Think of some more products and prepare the list of popular brand names by
which they are available to you in the market.
6.3.2 Benefits of Brand Building

A strong brand name is an asset for any company. It helps the consumers and firms in many
ways.
Benefits of Brand Building to consumers
1. Guarantee of Product Quality: When products are sold under a brand name, the
manufacturer try hard to produce good quality product to enhance its brand image.
2. Easy Recognition: Branding aids in simplifying shopping experience for the
consumers as the marketed product enables the buyers to pinpoint instantly and
efficiently what they want. It significantly reduces wastes of time and money on
unknown products.
3. Emotional Attachment: The objective of branding is to build a brand that adds value
to the features and functions of the product. This value comes from a brand
personality and image to which the consumers feel emotionally attached.
4. Easy Decision Making: With experience and search of information the buyers can
make decisions swiftly and easily for deciding about the purchase of the brand.
5. Uniform Price: The price of the branded products is almost similar throughout the
marketplace, hence there is no exploitation of consumer on price point.
6. Fine Packaging: The branded goods come with fine and safe packaging with all the
details of usage of that product as labelling.
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7. Reduces the risk of wrong product choice: Customers may identify different types of
risk involved in buying and utilizing product, such as functional risk -when the
product underperforms and does not meet the expectations, physical risk- when the
product possesses threat to the bodily well-being of the users or others, financial risk-
when the product is not worth the amount spent, social risk when the product results
in social embarrassment, time risk -when the failure of the product results in an
opportunity cost of finding another product that meets the needs.
Benefits of Brand Building to the firms
1. Legal Protection: A brand name offers legal protection for the branded products. It
does so through trademarks patents and copyrights. Trademarks protect the brand
name registered; patents protect the manufacturing process of the firm. Similarly,
copyrights of unique designs protect packaging.
2. Acts as an entry barrier to other brands: A strong brand that meets customer needs
efficiently creates a barrier to the entry of other brands into the market. Branding
helps customers to take decision whether to switch to another brand or not.
3. Brands build financial value: Brands can be measured in financial terms and can be
found in the asset side of the balance sheet. Strong and successful brands can be
bought and sold by the organization. Example: WhatsApp acquisition by Facebook.
4. Branding amplify recognition: A logo is one of the significant components for the
company's brand name. Professional logo design is simple to remember and catchy
enough to give the desired recognition to the company.
5. Customer Loyalty: When customer has a positive experience with a brand, he/she is
more likely to repurchase it, than the product or service competitor is offering. There
are favourable chances that customer will buy related items of the same brand or
recommend that brand to other people in family and friends.
6. Dominance at marketplace for the product: When the product of same company
under a brand name is sold continuously in the market, there develops a dominant
position for such a product or service. The customer has not to think much before
making a choice to buy the product of that brand.
7. Easy availability of agents or middleman for distributing the branded products:
For distribution and selling of branded goods the wholesaler, retailer or agents gets
agreed easily. When a brand becomes quite popular, the manufacturer can even
distribute the product directly to consumers. It is obvious that the less the middleman
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is, the lesser is the price of the product at which it can be made available to the
customer.
Brand Awareness
Brand awareness is defined as the extent to which consumers are familiar with the qualities
and image of a particular brand of goods or services. Brand recognition is the extent to which
a consumer correctly identifies a particular product by viewing its logo, packaging, tagline or
advertising campaign. Brand recall performance is the ability of the consumers to retrieve the
brand from memory when given the product category, the needs fulfilled by the category, or a
purchase or usage situation as a cue.
Brand Equity
Brand equity refers to the value of a brand in the eyes of the customer. It is the ability of a
brand to capture the consumer’s attention while making purchase decisions. A strong brand
name works as a trustworthy signal for the quality of the product and generates price
premiums as a return to branding investments. The firms are able to charge price premiums
that derive from brand equity and product differentiation. A consumer’s knowledge about a
brand also depends on how the manufacturers and advertisers are marketing the brand. Brand
equity is created by educating the customer and formulating investment plans, thereby
admitting an increase in market share and profit margins. These strategic investments will be
realized over time to deliver a return on the initial investment.
6.3.3 Brand Strategy Decisions
Branding includes a set of intricate branding decisions- Development, Positioning, Name
selection, Sponsorship- all are important factors in any brands’ strategy. The company’s
strong branding decisions help it create its unique image in the minds of consumers and stand
out of the competition.
For example: No matter the occasion- from romantic dates to festival celebrations- Cadbury
has created a special place in the heart and palate of its consumers and with the slogan of
“KuchhMeethaHoJaaye”,and has become an integral part of every celebration.
A. BRAND POSITIONING
Brand positioning explains how a brand differs from its rivals in the market and can be
positioned at three levels i.e. on the basis of product attributes, benefits, beliefs and values. It
is the act of designing the company’s offer and image so that it occupies a distinct and valued
place in the target customer’s mind. Good brand positioning helps guide marketing strategy
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by clarifying what a brand is all about, how it is unique and how it is like competitive brands,
and why consumers should purchase and use it.
Imagine a scenario: you just got into the college of your dreams, or you just got a big
promotion at work or the person of your dreams finally agrees to marry you. The list goes on,
but the feeling remains the same. These are the “feel-good” moments of your life, moments
of pure bliss that call for a celebration. And nothing is better than the taste of sweet chocolate
to match the sweetness of life in that moment. This is when comes to mind, the purple
wrapped chocolate of Cadbury. With the words ‘KuchShubhKaamKarne Se PehleMeethaKha
Lena Chahiye’, Cadbury has been the first responder to every happy occasion.
From celebrating the taste of life through ‘Asli Swad Zindagi Ka’ to the auspicious
beginning of new things through ‘Shubh Aarambh’& ‘Kuchh Meetha Ho Jaaye’, - the brands
taglines clearly sum up the attributes that it stands for. In its decade’s long journey, Cadbury
has stood the test of time, rising to glory with an indomitable spirit of celebration, cheer and
happiness.
Recently, the brand moved from its slogan of “Free the joy” in Favour of “Taste like this
feels” to focus marketing on the founding ideologies of the brand & its creator, philanthropist
John Cadbury, by presentation moments of “kindness and generosity”.
B. BRAND NAME SELECTION
Choosing a brand name is very crucial as a good name adds to a product’s success. Finding
the best name requires a careful review of a product and its benefits, and the target market to
which it caters to. Ideally the name of a brand should possess the following qualities in order
to be favorable in the eyes of customers.
Criteria for Brand Name Selection
● Be distinctive
● Easy to pronounce
● It should be easily memorable
● Adaptable to addition to product line
● Capable of being registered and legally protected.
● Should be meaningful or suggest something about product benefit or its use.
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Strategies for Brand Name Selection

1. Individual name: Different brand name for different products. Example: - Head and
shoulders and Pantene, here both are shampoos of P&G.
2. Separate Family name: Different brand name for different product line. Example: -
Hindalco for alumina, Ultra tech for cement, Idea for telecom of Aditya Birla Group.
3. Blanket Family name /Company Brand name: Single brand name is used for all
types of products. Example: - TATA – TATA Consultancy Services, TATA Salt,
Tata Motors
C. BRAND SPONSORSHIP
There are many options available with respect to brand sponsorship. The product may be
launched as manufacturer’s brand or national brand, or it can be sale out to reseller who give
that product a private label and it will become private label brand or store brand. Some
producers market licensed brands or go for co-branding where two companies join hands and
co-brand a product.
National Brand
P.Kotler et al. (2018) defines a national brand (also called manufacturer’s brand) as “a brand
created and owned by the producer of a product or service.” National brands were the market
leaders till the last century, but they are receiving a serious threat and competition from
private label brands. This is owned and coordinated by a producer and sold through a specific
chain of stores. Earlier manufacturer brand approach was followed where a manufacturer or
producer produced his goods, marketed it under his brand name and made it available at retail
stores for selling. Example: Nike, Coca-Cola, Raymond etc.
Private Label Brand
Private Label brands are the brands owned, coordinated and sold exclusively by a retailer or
supplier who gets its goods (Baltas 1997) produced by a contracted manufacturer under
license under its own label (Berthon et al., 1999). Kumar and Steenkamp (2007) have defined
the store brand to be any brand that is owned by the retailer or distributor and is sold only in
its own outlets.
private labels are also termed as retailer brands i.e the brands which are owned and sold by
the retailer, moreover, distributed by the retailer. Retailer brands are also commonly called
“store brands” or “own labels”. Private Label brands are the brands offered by retailers in
their store within their own branded label. According to Beneke (2009), private labels are
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usually manufactured by a third party under license. This third party is called the contract
manufacturer. Example: Big Bazaar, Shoppers Stop, Lifestyle
Licensing: This type of brand sponsorship is a contractual arrangement between two or more
firms where the licensor firm contacts with licensee firm to use its brand name, symbols, logo
in exchange for a licensing fee. This type of sponsorship is common for apparels,
entertainment products, toys, school supplies and accessories. Licensing is a highly profitable
business and provides benefit to the licensor. Gucci, Tommy Hilfiger, Armani receive huge
royalties for their products from licensee. Spider man, Harry Potter, Dora, Winnie the
Pooh are the licensed character names which sellers of children products attach with lunch
boxes, water bottles, toys etc.
Co-branding: In this marketing strategy, two or more brands are used together to promote a
new product. Co-branding offers many advantages as both the brand names dominate in their
respective categories. Both the brands when combine, creates broader consumer appeal and
greater brand equity. This strategy allows company to enter into new and profitable market
segments which were earlier remained untapped. While co-branding each partner must
coordinate carefully in their advertising, promotion and other marketing efforts. Example:
BMW and Louis Vuitton. In their co-branding partnership BMW created a sports car
named BMW i8 and Louis Vuitton made a design of complete 4 piece set of suitcases and
bags that fit to perfection into this sports car rear parcel shelf.
D. BRAND DEVELOPMENT
It is the strategic method for creating and distinguishing a company's image, goods, and
services from those of its rivals. It is an ongoing process that builds and strengthens a brand
so that it can remain relevant, serve a purpose, and grow in the market.
The brand development matrix is as below-
1. Line Extension- Existing Brand Name, Existing Product Category: When a company
extends an existing brand name to new form, flavor, size, colour or ingredient to existing
product category it is called Line extension. For Example: 5 Star- Launched in India in
1969 as a “caramel and nougat mix covered with smooth milk chocolate” in a golden
wrapper decorated with stars, the product has seen many line extensions throughout its
life cycle. Price Options- Rs.5 (11.1 gm), Rs.10 (19.5 gm), Rs.20 (40 gm) Flavours-
Normal, Fruit & Nut, Crunchy and Chomp, 5 Star 3D, 5 Star 3D OREO
2. Brand Extension- Existing Brand Name, New Product Category: It involves
extending an existing brand name to a new or modified product category. This gives the
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new product instant recognition and faster acceptance and can save substantial advertising
costs for establishing a new brand. For example:
Dairy Milk Ice Cream- With another marketing masterstroke, Cadbury successfully rode
into the Ice-Cream category with the help of pre-built reputation of its chocolate brand
Dairy Milk. Dairy Milk, being a household name in chocolates helped successfully launch
the ice-cream segment of the brand and ensured acceptance in the market without putting
in much marketing effort or costs.
Dairy Milk Candies “Marvellous Creations”-Yet another example of successful brand
extension of Dairy Milk is into the candies segment through “Marvellous Creations”
Candies.
3. Multi Brands-New Brand Name, Existing Product Category: This includes marketing
of various different brands in a given product category to cater different segments as per
specific needs. Cadbury offer multiple chocolate brands within the chocolate segment.
The brand sells numerous types of chocolates with unique tastes, textures and features to
cater to different segment of customers in the market.
For Example:
● Dairy Milk for Milk chocolate lovers.
● 5 Star for those who prefer sweet nougat flavor.
● Perk for those who like crispy wafer chocolates.
● Silk for Teenagers &Millennials with changing tastes.
● Bournville for those who prefer dark chocolate.
● Temptations for premium quality customers.
4. New Brands- New Brand Name, New Product Category: A company creates a new
brand name for entering a new product category if the power of existing brand names has
diminished or if current brand name is not suitable for the new product category. For
Example:
Tang- It is surprising to hear that Tang, a drink-mix, is manufactured by a company of
chocolates. Chocolates and fruity drink-mixes have nothing in common, yet they are
offered by (Mondelēz International a.k.a. Kraft Foods), parent company of Cadbury. The
firm used a new brand name Tang to enter a completely new product category, since no
existing brand name was suitable for this diversification. Today, Tang is sold in more
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than 30 countries around the world and is the leading brand in Cadbury’s powdered
beverage portfolio.
Halls- a chocolate manufacturing brand also sells cough-drops. Halls is the leading sugar
confectionary brand in the whole world and accounts for more than 50% of cough-drop
sales worldwide. The same product is used as a cold relief product in the northern
hemisphere and in drier countries; it is even used as a refreshing candy.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
 A company when uses successful brand name to launch a new or modified
product in a new product category, the strategy is called as ________.
 ________ assures repeat purchase of same company product and help to
overcome competition from other firms.
 Nowadays retailers and wholesalers are creating their own private brand
called ________.
 Two established brand names of different companies when join hands to
promote a new product , it is termed as________.
 _________ refers to the value of a brand in the eyes of the customer.
 Brand name is termed as good when it is easy to pronounce. T/F
 Nyka is a clothing brand name. T/F
 Branding enhances the financial value of the firm. T/F
6.4 PACKAGING
Packaging entails the functions that ensure the safety and integrity and facilitate the
transportation process. Packaging is a subset of marketing where a brand designs and
develops the wrapper or container to aid its transport, handling, delivery, and communicate
the brand and product information by making it look attractive. However, the function of
packaging has evolved with the times. It no longer serves the simple utilitarian function of
protection but rather it serves as a blank canvas for the company’s marketing team.
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6.4.1 Functions of Packaging

1. The global markets run with myriads of similar products, and packaging, when
looked at as a component of the Marketing Mix, presents companies with the
opportunity to distinguish them from the competition while still performing its
primary function of providing protection and a means of effective storage.
2. Effective packaging also helps facilitate the use of the product itself. Some products
such as toothpastes are inseparable from their packaging i.e., toothpaste tube.
3. With rising concerns for health, people are more gravitated towards products that are
packaged with utmost care as it is seen as a sign of purity (free from adulteration)
and higher standards of production.
4. Many a times, as it can be observed in self service outlets the products are
responsible for their own personal selling. Packaging of a product act as silent
salesman and helps in grabbing customer attention along with describing the
attributes of product and making an overall favourable impression.
5. Good packaging reduces wastage and help in preserving food items for longer
duration and thus large proportion of food doesn’t get spoiled.
6. Packaging enhances company and its brand image and provides instant recognition.
It acts as a billboard because of its vibrant bright colours.
6.4.2 Types of Packaging
There are three types of packaging: primary, secondary and tertiary
1. Primary packaging is the wrapper or the material that first envelops the product to
hold it. Here the package is in direct contact with the contents. For example: a
chocolate bar wrapper, soft drink can, a packet of chips etc.
2. Secondary packaging is wrapped outside the primary packaging which is used to
hold primary packages together. It is designed for retail use instead of final
consumers. Secondary product protects the individual units during packaging. For
example: cardboard boxes/trays, plastic trays, plastic rings holding six pack cans
together.
3. Tertiary packaging is used for shipping and bulk handling, warehousing and storage.
The most common is the wooden pallets and large shipping containers. These pallets
can be easily moved by forklift trucks or small forklifts within the warehouse or
large stores.
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6.4.3 Requisites of Good Packaging

1. It must advertise the brand name and the manufacturer
2. It must be strong enough to withstand the strain of handling and transportation.
3. It should be requiring minimum shelf space.
4. Package material must be able to keep hygiene for the inner product specially when
it is something eatable to enhance shelf life.
5. It must be able to differentiate the product from its competitors.
6. The packaging should not be easily breakable or spoiled and should be designed
keeping in mind the cost effectiveness.
7. Tertiary packaging should not be too heavy to handle, and it should be less expensive
on freight.
8. The package should be convenient to display on shelf.
9. The cartons should be able to dispose of easily.
10. It must be able to create psychological and social good image.
6.4.4 Criticism of Packaging
1. After consuming the product, people through away the packaging at public place
which litter the streets and add to solid wastes. Firstly, we should not through the
packaging anywhere as per our convenience and secondly, this problem can be
tackled by using biodegradable material in packaging.
2. Manufacturing of containers requires scarce raw materials which depletes the natural
resources. This problem can be addressed by using recycled material for packaging
the products.
3. Packaging also increases the price of the product which is borne by consumer, but
simultaneously good packaging reduces the transport and handling cost.
4. Some forms of plastic package are harmful for our health. Due to government
regulations on use of plastic, large number of firms are switching to safe packaging
materials.
5. Sometimes packaging deceives consumers, size of the package is such that it conveys
that it carries large content but actually it is not true. Sometimes due to attractive
colour of packaging we feel that product is of good quality but in reality, it is not
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always true. Government has imposed many restrictions on firms to deal which such
situations.
CASE STUDY
The Problematic Purple
The colour Pantone 2685C might seem like any other colour out of the infinite spectrum
of colours, but it has its own history and relation with Cadbury. Pantone 2685Cis the iconic
shade of purple that Cadbury has been using for decades for packaging its products. Since 1905,
the renowned company has wrapped their well adored chocolates in this purple colour and has
also fought valiantly to preserve the rights to use the same. In 1995, Cadbury submitted an
application to obtain legal ownership of the Pantone 2685C colour mark. However, only
chocolates in bar or tablet form were covered by Cadbury'soriginal application of 1995. In 2004,
Cadbury submitted a new application in order to broaden the scope of its colour mark protection
beyond just chocolates to include cakes and drinking chocolates. The application was opposed
by Nestle, another well-known confectionary juggernaut, on the grounds that the colour mark
(for Purple) is not unique and is too general for a variety of products. After years of legal battles,
in 2019 Cadburylost an appeal that would have safeguarded a trademark it had acquired in 1995,
making it more difficult to stop competitors from using a similar colour. However, in July 2022,
Cadbury was again allowed to register the iconic purple colour trade mark after a UK High
Court ruling, allowing brands to register a colour.
Key Take away from the case
Cadbury’s decades long legal struggleemphasis just how crucial it is to ensure the protectionof a
brand’s identity, and how trademarks and brand names must be accurately specified, especially
for distinctive marks like sound, colour etc. A layperson can readily associate some colours with
a particular thing, like red with danger, green with nature, blue with water or the sky and hence
these may not be distinguishable. However, in this instance of Cadbury, the referred-to shade of
purple has nothing to do with chocolates and just goes on to show that in business, competitors
will stop at nothing just to make things even a little harder for you.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
9. Packaging must be designed in such a way that it is convenient to handle the
product for middlemen and final consumers. T/F
10. Packaging always increases the cost of the product. T/F
11. ________packaging is used for shipping and bulk handling.
12. Packaging should be requiring________shelf space.
6.5 LABELLING
6.5.1 Meaning
We have understood packaging in the previous section. Nowadays, there is a need to give
constant attention to government regulations while managing the function of packaging.
Government has laid down various regulations relating to use of packaging materials while
transportation of hazardous cargo and for consumer protection. The most prevalent regulation
is related to the information producer or manufacturer of good is compelled to provide on
packaging is labelling, most importantly on eatables, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic products etc.
Labelling means printed or graphic matter on the package of container or on the container. A
good label is the one which fulfils all legal requirements as well as act as an important sales
instrument. Label is regarded as a source of information for the buyer, who reads the label
and makes a purchase decision on the basis of correct and relevant information. A label
therefore provides the following information:
1. Net weight, when packed
2. Manufacture’s name
3. Manufacturing date
4. Expiry date
5. Maximum retail price
6. Directions for use
7. Directions for storage
8. Ingredients used
9. Cautions against misuse, if any
10. Brand name
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6.5.2 Functions of Labelling

Labelling provides necessary information about the quality and features of a product.
Consumers can compare similar products on the basis of price, quality, quantity and other
important information provided on the label and can buy them without any hesitation or
doubt. Labelling has become an important element which helps to boost sales and distribution
process of a company’s product. The functions of labelling of a product are stated as follows:
1) Label helps to identify the product and hence popularize the brand name.
2) Labelling grades, the product and classify them on the basis of quality. You might
have seen on olive oil container of 1kg, 2kg or 5 kg. They are classified as pure,
virgin and extra virgin.
3) Different descriptive are provided by labels like price, manufacturer details, expiry
date etc.
4) Labels promote the product through attractive figures, graphics or marks, thus play
the role of advertiser and helps in promotion of the product.
5) Labelling protects consumers from deception as composition of ingredients, weight,
utility of a product is clearly mentioned. In case of any grievance customer can also
get legal remedies.
6.5.3 Types of Labels
There are primarily four types of labels:
1) Brand label: When a label only denotes the brand name of a product along with its
logo or trademark like LG, amazon, Dettol, Close Up and many more.
2) Grade Label: A tag on the product, sticker, letter or number that identifies the grade
or quality of a product. Grade labels are given as A, B, C, D or 1,2,3,4 to packed
food items.
3) Descriptive label: The label which gives instructions and information about a product
like price, weight, manufacturer name and address, manufacturing date, expiry date
etc.
4) Informative Label: The label which give a lot of information about the usage of the
product, its performance levels and the care required while handling the product like
microwave ovens, washing machines, air conditioners use descriptive labelling.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
13. _________ is useful in providing detailed information about the product.
14. Label which only denotes the brand name of a product is called________.
15. Labelling protects consumers from deception. T/F
16. Package of Lassi having description of quantity, ingredients, weight, nutritional
value, price is an example of ________ label.
6.6 SUMMARY
In this lesson we have discussed the process by which a product or service is turned into a
brand, a name which is easily memorable and suggest something about product benefit or its
use. Branding includes a set of intricate branding decisions: development, positioning, name
selection and sponsorship. These four factors are important in any brand building strategy.
The company’s strong branding decisions help to create its unique image in the minds of
consumers and stand out of the competition. Further, we learnt that packaging is regarded as
a subset of marketing. It no longer serves the simple utilitarian function of protection but
rather it serves as a blank canvas for the company’s marketing team. The criticism through
which packaging goes through is also viewed along with how this problem can be tackled.
We have also learned various regulations that govern packaging and labelling industry along
with their functions and types.
6.7 GLOSSARY
Brand: A brand can be a sign symbol, term, name or design or a combination of them.
Brand Name: Brand name or a trade name is the name given by a producer or manufacturer
to his specific product or service.
Brand Awareness: Brand awareness is defined as the extent to which consumers are familiar
with the qualities and image of a particular brand of goods or services.
Brand Equity: Brand equity refers to the value of a brand in the eyes of the customer. It is
the ability of a brand to capture the consumer’s attention while making purchase decisions.
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Brand Positioning: It is the act of designing the company’s offer and image so that it
occupies a distinct and valued place in the target customer’s mind.
Labelling: The printed information that appear on the package or on the container of a
product.
Packaging: The activities involved in designing and producing the wrapper or container for a
product.
1. Brand extension 9. True

2. Brand loyalty 10. False
3. Store brand 11.Tertiary
4. Co-branding 12.minimum
5. Brand Equity 13. Labelling
6. True 14. Brand label
7. False 15. True
8. True 16. Descriptive
1. Companies mostly stick to one logo, but Google Doodles are changed as per the
occasion. Do you consider it a powerful branding tool?
2. What is branding? Explain the benefits of branding a product.
3. Discuss the brand development strategies marketers use to develop brands. Provide an
example of each strategy.
4. List the names of store brands found in following stores
a) Pantaloons b) Metro c) Shoppers Stop d) Croma
b) “Packaging is a silent salesman”. What is your opinion about this statement? Give
the advantages of packaging.
5. What are the various functions performed by packaging?
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6. Distinguish between packaging and labelling.

7. How many types of labels are used by marketers and what information must be
contained on labels.
6.10 REFERENCES
● Baltas, G.(1997). Determinants of store brand choice: A behavioural analysis. Journal

of Product and Brand Management, 6, 315-324.
● Beneke, Justin (2009). Consumer perceptions of PLBs within the retail grocery sector
of South Africa.African Journal of Business Management, 4(2), 203-220.
● Berthon, P., Hulbert, J.M., and Pitt, L.F. (1999). Brand management prognostications.
Sloan Management Review, 40 (2), 53–65.
● Keller, K.L., (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer based
brand equity.Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 1-22.
● Kumar, N., and Steenkamp, J.E.M. (2007). Brand versus brand.International
Commerce Review, 7(1), 46-53.
● Pennington, R. (2000). Brands as the language of consumer culture.Journal of Global
Competitiveness, 8(1), 318-329.
● Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Agnihotri, P. (2018). Principles of Marketing. pp. 241-249
● Keller, K., Parameswaran, A.M.G., Jacob, Isaac. (2018). Building, Measuring and
Managing Brand Equity
● https://www.cadbury.co.uk/
● https://www.mondelezinternational.com/
● https://www.facebook.com/cadburydairymilkindia
● https://www.cityam.com/cadburys-allowed-to-register-iconic-purple-colour-trade-
mark-in-high-court-ruling/
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LESSON - 7
DEVELOPING PRICING STRATEGIES: SETTING PRICE,
FACTORS INFLUENCING PRICE DETERMINATION
STRUCTURE

7.2 Introduction
7.2.1 Pricing in a Digital Era
7.3 How Companies Price
7.3.1 Consumer Psychology and Pricing
7.3.2 Reference Pricing
7.3.3 Price-Quality Inferences
7.3.4 Price Ending
7.4 Setting the Price
7.4.1 Selecting the Pricing Objective
7.4.2 Determining Demand
7.4.3 Estimating Costs
7.4.4 Analyzing Competitors Costs, Prices and Offers
7.4.5 Selecting a Pricing Method
7.4.6 Selecting a final Price
7.5 Factors Involved in Pricing Decisions
7.6 Types of Pricing Strategies
7.7 Summary
7.9 Glossary
7.10 References
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The lesson's goals will aid in your comprehension of the following. How a consumers assess
prices? How should businesses decide how much to charge for goods or services? How do
corporations modify themits prices to take advantage of emerging possibilities and changing
conditions? When and how should a business begin changing prices?
7.2 INTRODUCTION
Price is one of the components of 4P’s. If we talk about price it is not simply a number that is
represented on a tag rather it comprises many functions. For instance if we talk about college
fees, bus fares, metro fares, tuition fees, salaries, commissions etc. All the above mentioned
points are said to be an exchange of two things i.e., to purchase a product or to avail any
service you need to pay for its price. Another example, If are purchasing a new car, the ex-
showroom price and the on-road price would be adjusted by various benefits that the
company would like to provide to consumers such as Welcome Kit, Insurance, Other
Benefits, Additional Insurance, Benefits for taking Loans for purchase of your vehicle. In
return they would give you some sought of benefits or goodies to engage and delight
consumers.
If we talk about price throughout the period from traditional to modern marketing, price is
said to be negotiation and deal between the buyer and the seller. In the changing times
nowadays no uniform or same price can be given to all the consumers due to change in
lifestyle and mindset of consumers. Price is considered one of the key aspects for consumers
decision making. Price is equally important if we talk about production, and exchange, for
consumption or even for distribution. Earlier consumers preferred brick and mortar models.
They were not so much concerned about comparing products before purchasing but now with
the use of the internet and newer technologies consumers can compare the same products
over different platforms before its actual purchase.
7.2.1 Pricing in a Digital Era
first century, consumers have all the access to credit nowadays. Consumers and all other
purchasing agents who have all the information which help them to create some sought of
pressure to retailers so as to lower down their prices. In the same manner retails goes further
down the channel to manufacturers to lower their prices so as to compete in this market. This
leads to heavy discounts and other promotions at the marketplace. Nowadays Internet provide
a great access to consumers and the sellers to interact. It can provide various benefits to
buyers and sellers.
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Benefits to Buyers
● Instant price comparisons from thousands of vendors
● Check prices at the point of purchase
● Get Free Products
Benefits to Sellers
● Understand the consumer behavior and provide tailored made offers to them
● Discounted Price to special consumers
● Free Goodies on purchase of certain specified amount
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7.3 \HOW COMPANIES PRICE

*
Prices areA set differently among different companies depending upon its size. In small
companies R prices are set by its heads, In large companies we have various specifications and
divisionsAB such as product managers, line managers, marketing managers who perform
activitiesI to set price for products. It include all personnel from various departments from
C
manufacturing to finance to marketing to all other personnel for price setting for a product.
Companies 1 must keep in mind consumer psychology for setting prices or adapting new prices
:
or changing prices for products.
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7.3.1 Consumer Psychology and Pricing
r
i
Traditionally it was assumed that consumers are said to be price takers and
not price givers.
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Now withe use of technology consumers are proactive in information search
(Online, offline,
word of mouth, advertising, brochures, pamphlets, seeking recommendations from friends,
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a School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
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family, etc) prior to purchase of any product or availing services. If we talk about purchase
decision of consumers it is based on the prices which are perceived by consumers and not the
stated market price. The following example talks about the psychology of consumers for a
same product i.e., black T-shirt.
Example
A Black T-Shirt for women looks ordinary. In fact, it’s not that different from the black T-Shirt
sold by Gap and by Swedish discount clothing chain H&M. Yet, the Armani T-Shirt costs $275
whereas the Gap item costs $14.90 and the H&M one $7.90. Customers who purchase the Armani
T-shirt are paying for a T-shirt made of 70 percent nylon, 25 percent polyester, and 5 percent
elastane, whereas the Gap and H&M shirts are made mainly of cotton. True, the Armani T is a bit
more stylishly cut than the other two and sports a “Made in Italy” label, but how does it command
a $275 price tag? A luxury brand, Armani is primarily known for suits, handbags, and evening
gowns that sell for thousands of dollars. In that context, it can sell its T-shirt for more. But
because there aren’t many takers for $275. T-shirts, Armani doesn’t make many, thus further
enhancing the appeal for status seekers who like the idea of having a “limited edition” T-shirt.
“Value is not only quality, function, utility, channel of distribution,” says Arnold Aronson,
managing director of retail strategies for Kurt Salmon Associates and former CEO of Saks Fifth
Avenue; it’s also a customer’s perception of a brand’s luxury connotations.
Figure 2: The perceived Value of a product as simple as a black T-shirt depends in part on
where it is sold
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7.3.2 Reference Pricing

In Today’s scenario consumers are more knowledgeable related to prices as they can have
various sources through which they can check and compare the prices. For Example: If we
want to purchase camera from Croma (A Tata Product) they would provide the best deal and
simultaneously they would also compare their price with other players such as Vijay Sales,
Reliance Digital, Other big stores that are available in the market. They certainly reference
their prices with competitors' prices that are prevailing in the market.
There are various types of reference prices that are available in the market nowadays which
are as follows :-
Fair Price
Last Paid Price
Typical Price
Expected Future Price
Lower Bound Price (That is the minimum price which a consumer is willing to pay)
Upper Bound Price (That is maximum price which a consumer is willing to pay)
Historical Competitor Price and Usual Discounted Price
7.3.3 PRICE-QUALITY INFERENCES

For many consumers price plays an important indicator of quality. For consumers the price
they are paying for the product is representing its quality. Consumers prefers expensive
products such as designers' clothes, designer bags, perfumes, luxury cars, expensive
sunglasses etc. For instance, Rs 5000 bottle of perfume if we talk about only have worth Rs
400 of scent, but for gifting purpose the giver would be ready to pay Rs 5000 to express their
regard to the person whom they are gifting.
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Also, if we talk about perception about cars there is a very important relationship of price and
quality in it. The cars which are costly are considered superior and elite class cars. For
examples we always consider BMW, Audi, Ferrari etc. elite and premium cars in the segment
and are generally priced higher than their actual price. If the information about the product is
available the role price is significantly reduced compared to when information is not
available the price act as a benchmark for quality for the product.
Brands often look forward to adopt exclusivity for their product and also lays emphasis to its
uniqueness so as they are able to justify why they are charging exclusive price for the
product. Companies look forward if the consumer is willing to go forward for exclusive and
unique products they certainly charge higher price for the same because few consumers are
able to afford the product.
7.3.4 Psychological Pricing
Sellers in price ending plays with the psychology of the consumers by displaying the price
which ends in odd number. If a consumer is willing to see a price of product is Rs 399, they
would consider the price close to Rs 300 rather than Rs 400 range. The consumers also tend
to process information related to price from ‘left-to-right’ instead of rounding it off to nearest
number. For example, in India Bata is considered as a great example who had played with
price ending by displaying all their products ending with’9’ such as Rs199, Rs299, Rs499,
Rs999 and so on. So the influence of 9 is more in the mind of the consumers rather than ‘0’
or ‘5’.
Figure 3: Bata offering its products on price endings (Source: Bata website)
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ACTIVITY
You are a marketing manager at a company of your choice. You have to
launch a new product in the industry of your selected company. What all
aspect you would consider before pricing the product. Discuss in group of 2-3
students and make a short note for the same.
7.4 SETTING THE PRICE
Firm usually set prices for the product when it developing a new product in the market. For
the new product they need to take into consideration all the factors such as geographical
areas, distribution channels, marketing strategies for the product. The company also
emphasize and segregate the position of the product depending upon its prices and the quality
of the product.
Example
Majorly markets have 3-5 price points. Marriott Hotels had different brands or variations of
brands for different price points:
Highest Price for Marriott Vacation Club
High Price for Marriott Marquis
High- Medium Price for Marriott
Medium – High Price for Renaissance
Medium Price for Courtyard
Medium – Low Price for Towne Place Suites
Low Price for Fairfield Inn
Firms devise their branding strategies to help convey the price-quality tiers of their
products or services to consumers.
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The firm must take into consideration various factors that are important before we set the
price for the product. There are six steps that are considered important for setting the price
which are as follows: -
Step 1: Selecting the Pricing Objective

Step 2: Determining Demand
Step 3: Estimating Costs
Step 4: Analyzing Competitor’s Costs, Prices and Offers
Step 5: Selecting a Pricing Method
Step 6: Selecting the Final Price
7.4.1 Selecting the Pricing Objective

The initial stage for the business is to decide where the product will be offered first. Setting
the pricing for the goods is simple if the company's goals are precise and obvious.
Survival
Fiv
e Maximum Market
Maj Share
or Maximum Current
Obj Profit
ecti Product Quality
ves Leadership
Maximum Market
Skimming
7.4.2 DETERMING DEMAND
Companies marketing objective is been impacted with different products as every product
have their own demand and its own price. There is an inverse relationship between price of
the product and demand of the product which is shown below in the diagram.
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Figure 4: Inelastic and Elastic Demand

To estimate demand curve many companies uses different methods such as:-
● Surveys: - To understand the purchase intention of the consumers that at what price
they are willing to purchase the product.
● Price Experiments: - To understand the purchase response the company do price
experiments depending upon territories and stores.
● Statistical analysis: - To understand the consumers on the basis of past purchases,
quantities sold and other factors.
7.4.3 Estimating Costs
Cost is considered to be an important aspect for setting the floor for the price whereas
demand set the ceiling of the price. It is very important for the company to cover its all the
cost that includes producing cost, cost related to distribution, cost related to selling the
product and any other type of cost incurred to produce a product. Company includes a price
of product where they are able to cover the above-mentioned cost and after that they can earn
the profit on the same product. Various types of cost that company takes into consideration
are as follows: -
Fixed Cost Variable Cost Semi

Variable Cost
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7.4.4 Analyzing Competitors’ Costs, Prices, and Offers

When a company is determining its cost or market demand for the product, they should
always consider the competitors aspect of Price, cost and its reaction in the market. If we are
providing some exclusive feature which isn’t offered by competitor that can add value
addition to your product and thus you can charge little high price for the product. Whereas if
competitors’ products is exclusive and have a feature which is not available in your product
in that case you shall set your product price less than competitor's price.
Despite the strong competition among Coca-Cola and Pepsi but the prices of the product are
same and they can certainly work on their cost but the price of the product remains same
among competitors brands as well. It is better for company to have harmony with competitors
otherwise if a strong competitor who have any problem and have strong brand proposition
can harm your brand image.
It is important to anticipate competitors' reaction, it can be done if there is a price change by
the competitors or any fresh challenge given by competitor. Competitors can have different
interpretations and reasons for lowering the price so that they can steal the majority of
market. For example, when Reliance Jio was introduced, it was introduced free of cost for
using internet and calling and it had forced other players in the market such as Airtel, Idea,
Vodafone to lower down their prices in order to compete with the new player in the market.
Jio had taken up huge share of market from the existing players.
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7.4.5 Selecting a Pricing Method

Till now the company are able to understand the demand schedule of the consumers, the cost
associated with the product, the pricing strategy of competitors. Now company is ready to
finalise and select their price for the product. Company must take into consideration three
aspect while setting the price i.e., Ceiling Price, Floor Price and Competitors Price. It is
Shown in the diagram below:-
Figure 5: The 3 C's Model for Price Setting

Companies select a pricing method on the basis of various aspects that are as follows:-
● Markup Pricing: It includes all the cost which is associated with the product and
adding certain profit part in it.
● Target Return Pricing: In this company determine the price of the product based on
the rate of return they are expecting on the investment.
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● Perceived Value Pricing: Companies set the price of the product based on the value
that the product has in the mind of the consumers which is built on the basis of past
buying pattern, past product performance, the customer support service, after sale
service and trustworthiness of the product. It is a bundle of value that the consumer
hold in its mind by actual purchase of product in the past or the image they develop
watching an advertisement. Example: A Croma Product
● Value Pricing: In this Company at first go prefer to win the loyalty of the consumers
by changing floor price or lower prices for high quality products and continue to
maintain the same over the time frame so that they tend to engage consumers and
have faith in company products and brand image. Many companies now a days prefer
everyday low pricing where consumer research in designing its new products and
markets aggressively to spread the word. The company spent over $1.2 billion on
research and development after the Fusion’ they tend to provide lower prices for the
selected products on selected days. Example: Big Billion Day Sale, Monday Blues
Sale, Weekend Dhamaka Offers etc.
Example: Gillette
In 2006, Gillette launched the “best shave on the planet” with the six-bladed Fusion –
five blades in the front for regular shaving and one in the back for trimming – in both
power and non-power versions. Gillette conducts exhaustive consumer research in
designing its new products and markets aggressively to spread the word. The company
spent over $1.2 billion on research and development after the Fusion’s predecessor, the
Mach3 was introduced. About 9,000 men tested potential new products and preferred
the new Fusion over the Mach3 bya two-to-one margin. To back the introduction,
Procter & Gamble spent $200 million in the United States and over $ 1 billion
worldwide. The payoff? Gillette enjoys enormous market leadership in the razor and
blade categories, with 70 percent of the global market, and sizable price premiums.
Refills for the Fusion Power cost $14 for a four pack, compared to $5.29 for a five-
pack of Sensor Excel. All this adds up to significant, sustained profitability for
corporate owner P&G.
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● Going-Rate Pricing: In this company set prices on the basis of how competitors
perform. In this it is basically we will follow the leaders whatever prices is been set
by them will follow that.
● Auction-Type Pricing: In this the consumer generally bid the price for the product if
it matches with the sellers price the product is sold. It usually applicable in electronic
products.
7.4.6 Selecting a Final Price
While selecting the final price the company must take in consideration all the factors and
additional factors such as impact of other activities which are related to marketing, other
company policy of pricing, various impact of prices on other parties.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
How many steps are involved in setting a price ____________________.
Mention the steps involved in setting a price in the sequence
____________________.
Does Estimating Cost come prior to Estimate Demand (True/ False)
7.5 FACTOR INVOLVED IN PRICING DECISIONS
Pricing decision factors can be grouped into two categories namely (i) Internal Factors and
(ii) External Factors
INTERNAL FACTORS
Marketing Objectives Market positioning and a number of other pricing
goals influence price strategy. Surviving,
Increasing current profits, Market share leadership,
low cost leadership, and product quality leadership
Marketing Mix Strategies Pricing to be coordinated well with elements of
marketing mix
Target costing on the basis of price support product
positioning strategies..
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Costs Various sorts of costs, including total costs, fixed

costs, semi-variable costs, and variable costs.
Different costs at various production levels would
affect price fixing.
Organizational Considerations • Who determines the cost?
CEO or top management for a small company.
Divisional or product line managers for large
companies. In industrial settings, where pricing
departments might be established, price bargaining
is frequent.
External Factors
Nature of Market and Demand • Market types include pure competition,
oligopolistic competition, monopolistic
competition, and pure monopoly.
• Recognizing how customers view value and
price.
Demand curve for prices and quantities.
Competitors' Costs, prices and ● Always examine the costs, prices, and potential
offers reactions of your competitors.
● The type of competitions has an impact on
pricing strategy.
● Low-price, low-margin business practises
discourage rivalry.
● High-price, high-margin business models draw
rivalry.
● Compare marketing expenses to those of the
competition.
Other Environmental Factors ● Economic factors influence production costs,
customer perceptions of price and value, and
production costs.
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● Government restrictions or limitations on

pricing alternatives must be taken into account;
● Social considerations might be considered.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
How many types of Factors are considered for pricing decisions ………
Does organization consideration part of External Factor (True / False)
Competitors Cost and price are part of Internal Factor (True/ False)
7.6 TYPES OF PRICING STRATEGIES
There are various types of pricing strategies which the companies adopt while introducing
their new product in the market or changing pricing strategy of the existing product in the
market. The various types of pricing strategies are as follows:-
1. Penetration Pricing
2. Economy Pricing
3. Premium Pricing
4. Price Skimming or Skimming the Milk Strategy
5. Psychological Pricing
6. Bundle Pricing
7. Geographical Pricing
8. Promotional Pricing
9. Value Pricing
10. Captive Pricing
11. Dynamic Pricing
12. Competitive Pricing
13. Cost-plus Pricing
14. Freemium Pricing
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Pricing Meaning Suitability Pros Cons Example

Strategy
Penetratio Aims to Small ● Allows a ● Can create McDonal
n pricing attract businesses product to be pricing d’s selling
buyers by with the quickly expectations low
offering main goal adopted and for customers budget
lower of building accepted by meaning they burgers in
prices on brand customers might always India
goods and loyalty and ● Generates a expect a low targeting
services reputation price and be youth
high sales
than dissatisfied if
quantity
competito the price rises
rs ● Creates a
● May reduce
large
customer
inventory
loyalty since
turnover rate
most will be
since demand
bargain
will be higher
hunters
● Encourages
● Can trigger
positive word
price wars
of mouth
● May hurt
brand image
as customers
could perceive
discounted
products as
cheap or bad
quality
Economy Aims to Businesses •Easy to ● Can be Indigo
pricing attract the that want implement challenging airline
most to keep to cut uses
• Keeps
price- their production economy
customer
conscious overhead costs pricing to
acquisition costs
consumer costs low fill any
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s. and that low ● Small empty

sell businesses seats and
• Attracts
commodity may not have lower the
price-sensitive
goods enough brand cost per
customers
awareness to unit
• Best forgo custom
strategy to use branding
during an
● Works only if
economic
there’s a
downturn or
steady stream
recession
of customers
● Potential to
negatively
impact brand
perception
Premium Businesse Businesses ● Makes your ● Higher cost of Tech
pricing s set costs that have a brand appear production and giants like
higher considerab more marketing Apple can
because le desirable sell their
● Smaller target
they have competitiv ● Higher profit products
audience
a unique e at a
margins
product or advantage ● Reduced sales premium
brand that and know ● Provides a volume price
no one that they competitive compared
can can charge advantage to their
compete a higher competito
with. price rs because
without of their
being name
undercut
by a
product of
similar
quality
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Price This Businesses ● Allows ● Excess An 8K

skimming involves that have businesses to inventory may TV would
setting products maximize occur if this benefit
rates high that are in profits strategy fails from a
during the high through early ● The quality of higher
initial demand, adopters the new marked
phase of a like tech ● Helps small service or price
product, companies businesses product must when
then recoup justify the only 4K
gradually development higher cost to TVs and
lowering HDTVs
costs be effective
prices as currently
competito ● Creates an ● Won’t work if exist on
r goods illusion of your the
appear on exclusivity competitors market
the and quality are creating
market similar
products
Psycholog Techniqu Businesses ● May offer a ● Could cause Use of
ical es that aiming high return customers to “buy one
pricing marketers toward on feel as though get one
use to short-term investment they’re being free”
encourage goals and ● Allows manipulated language
for
customers quick cost ● Doesn’t set versus
you apart from “50% off
to wins transparency
respond two
competitors
● Simplifies the
since it’s a items.”
based on
emotional decision- This
popular
impulses, making strategy
strategy
rather process for relies on
than customers ● Requires the
logical consistent customer
ones demand for favouring
your product one
wording
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over
another
even
though
they’re
the exact
same
deal.
Bundle Selling Businesses ● Increases the ● May affect Combos
pricing multiple that want value products that at
products to create perception in may be selling McDonal
for a large the eyes of better than the d’s are
lower rate margins your other if they’re cheaper
than while customers bundled than
selling offering a ● An effective (product individual
each item lower price cannibalizatio items on
way to reduce
individual than n) the menu.
inventory
ly. competitor ● Some
s ● Lowers
customers may
marketing
not want all
and selling
products
costs
offered in the
bundle,
resulting in an
unwanted or
unused
product
● May cause a
negative
perception of
the brand due
to customers
assuming the
product is of
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lower quality
since it’s
bundled
Geograph Setting a Businesses ● Allows you ● Local A gym
ical price that have to gain local regulations may
pricing point markets in appeal need to be charge a
based on many considered, higher
● Can boost
the different such as pricing price for
perceived
location locations laws members
value in
where a hip in
certain ● Accounting
product or Delhi a
locations and
service is than they
bookkeeping
sold. can become would at
Factors the same
more
for the location
complicated
changes since there are in
in prices Kanpur.
different
include: regions to be
•Taxes accounted for
•Tariffs
•Shipping
costs
•Location
-specific
rent
•Supply
and
demand
Promotio Offering Businesses ● Increases ● More Mega
nal discounts that want sales calculation Diwali
pricing on a to generate volume in s are Sale, New
particular quick the short required to Year’s
demand for ensure the Sale in
163 | P a g e

product. their term sales India.

products or volume
● Increased
services compensat
inventory
es for the
turnover
discounted
● Promotio prices
ns can
● Lowered
build
perception
customer
by
loyalty
customers
due to
“cheaper”
prices
● Customers
may be
reluctant to
purchase
again if
you don’t
keep
offering
promotion
s
Value Setting Businesses ● Potential ● RequiresAn
pricing your that for high additional
example
prices specialize profit market of value
based on in SaaS or margins research to
pricing
your subscriptio determine
can be
● Increased
customer’ ns what is of
seen in
perceived
s value to
the
value in
perceived your fashion
your
value of audienceindustry.
brand and
what A
services ● Markets
you’re that work company
● Increased
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offering. customer well withmay

This loyalty this produce a
occurs strategy product
when tend to be
line of
external very niche
high-end
factors, since dresses
like a they’re that they
sharp high-end sell for
increase Rs.1,000.
● Goods will
in cost more They then
competiti to produce make
on or a umbrellas
recession, that they
encourage sell for
the small Rs.100.
business
to further
provide
additional
value to
its
customers
to
maintain
sales.
Captive The Businesses ● Increases ● Customers Club

pricing method that have a flow of traffic may begin to Mahindra
behind product to the core feel selling
captive that product unsatisfied holiday
pricing is customers with having to packages.
● Boosts sales
to will update their
each time the
generate continually products
upgraded
profits renew or repeatedly
accessory is
from
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added update released ● High-priced

accessorie accessories
● Customer
s that go can lead to a
loyalty
along loss of sales
increases
with the ● You’ll need to
core continuously
product offer new and
you’re improved
selling. products each
time to
maintain
revenue and
customer
interest
Dynamic It’s a Businesses ● Allows for ● Customers Flight
pricing flexible looking to pricing to may be scared prices can
pricing maximize reflect the off by prices change
strategy their profit market that are always dependin
that takes margins demand for fluctuating g on
many and boost the product or ● Higher risk of when you
factors declining service book,
price wars
into sales you’ve
● Provides
account— ● Increases experienc
more insight
particularl competition ed
into customer
y changes within the dynamic
demand and
in supply industry pricing
purchase
and first-hand.
patterns
demand.
● Enables you
to maximize
your profits
by matching
your price to
the demand.
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When Businesses ● Simple ● Not good to Flipkart

prices that are implementati use long-term will
Competiti
either just on since compare
ve pricing
match or starting out ● Can competitors the prices
be
beat those will catch on of
combined
of similar and modify products
with other
products their strategy sold on
strategies
that are such as cost- ● Not a strategy their
sold by plus pricing to use if you platform
competito to make want to stand and
rs. efforts more out since your utilize
rewarding competitors that
are likely informati
using the same on to
offer the
methods
lowest
price in
the
market.
Cost-plus Marking Businesses ● May lead to ● Discourages Grocery

pricing up with a cost positive efficiency and stores and
(adding a advantage differentiatio cost supermar
fixed or an n and containment kets work
percentag interest in customer ● Potential for on a cost-
e) the cost using price trust customers to plus basis
of transparen ● Reduced risk perceive the to
services cy as a determine
of price wars product
and goods differentiat the prices
negatively
to arrive or ● Can provide of items
at your predictable ● Not such as
selling profits guaranteed to eggs and
price. cover all costs milk.
● Simple to
since much of
implement
the calculation
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is an
estimation.
● Can be
difficult to
change prices
when needed
Freemium A service Businesses ● Potential to ● A higher YouTube,
pricing or product that intend unlock viral percentage of Spotify
is given to offer growth free users may
to a both free ● Creates a no- never convert
customer and paid risk ● Cash reserves
free of versions of environment can be
charge their that attracts depleted
unless product customers quickly due to
they want and those who want to a large number
to access that offer try something of non-paying
premium free trials for free users
features
or ● Opportunity ●
services to monetize
within on
that advertising
product.
7.7 SUMMARY
1. Despite the growing importance of non-price considerations, pricing is still seen as a

key component of marketing. Only one price factor in the marketing mix element
results in product revenue; the other three factors result in costs. The pricing decision
is the most difficult in the changing environment.
2. Setting the price policy is a six-step process. The first stage is choosing the pricing
goal. Following that, it proceeds to calculate the demand curve and the likely quantities
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it will sell at each potential price. Then it continues by calculating how its expenses
change with output levels, levels of experience gained in production, and with
differentiated marketing offerings. The costs, pricing, and offers of competitors should
then be compared. We choose a pricing strategy moving forward based on all the
aforementioned phases, and that method chooses the final price.
3. In most cases, businesses establish a pricing structure rather than a single price to
account for changes in geographic demand and costs, market-segment requirements,
purchase timing, order amounts, and other considerations. There are several price-
adaptation tactics available: Geographic pricing is one factor, followed by price
reductions and allowances, promotions, and discriminatory pricing.
4. Businesses frequently need to adjust their prices. A price reduction may result from an
increase in production capacity, a loss of market share, a desire to control prices in
order to dominate the market, or a downturn in the economy. Overdemand or cost
inflation could both contribute to price increases. When raising pricing, businesses
must carefully control customer perceptions.
5. Businesses must anticipate price adjustments from rivals and set up backup plans.
There are several possible answers in terms of maintaining or modifying price or
quality.
6. The company facing a competitor's pricing change must make an effort to comprehend
the competitor's motivations and the anticipated timeframe for the change. The
production of homogenous or nonhomogeneous products by a company has a
significant impact on strategy. A market leader under pressure from lower-priced rivals
may try to better distinguish itself, launch its own low-cost rival, or alter itself more
thoroughly.
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CASE STUDY
Southwest Airlines
Southwest Airlines entered the airline industry in 1971 with little money but lots
of personality. Marketing itself as the LUV airline, the company featured a bright red
heart as its first logo and relied on outrageous antics to generate word of mouth and new
business. Flight attendants in red-orange hot pants served Love Bites (peanuts) and
Love Potions (drinks).
As Southwest grew, its advertising showcased its focus on low fares, frequent flights,
on-time arrivals, top safety record, and how bags fly free. Throughout all its
communication efforts, Southwest uses humor to poke fun at itself and convey its warm,
friendly personality. One TV spot showed a small bag of peanuts with the words, “This
is what our meals look like at Southwest Airlines. . . . It’s also what our fares look like.”
Its ongoing “Wanna Get Away?” campaign uses embarrassing situations to hit a funny
bone with consumers. And its tagline: “Ding! You are now free to move around the
country” is a self-parody of its in-flight announcements. This light-hearted attitude
carries over to the entertaining on-board announcements, crews that burst into song in
the terminal, and several personalized aircrafts, including three painted as flying killer
whales, “Lone Star One” painted like the Texas flag, and “Slam Dunk One,”
symbolizing the airline’s partnership with the NBA.
Southwest’s business model is based on streamlining its operations, which results in low
fares and satisfied consumers. The airline takes several steps to save money and passes
the savings to customers through low fares. It flies over 3,100 short, “point-to-point”
trips in a day—shuttling more passengers per plane than any other airline. Each aircraft
makes an average of 6.25 flights a day, or almost 12 hours each day. Southwest can
accomplish such a feat because it avoids the traditional hub-and-spoke system and has
extremely fast turnaround service. In its early years, it turned planes around in less than
10 minutes. Today, its turnaround averages 20 to 30 minutes—still the best in the
industry and half the industry average. Southwest’s unique boarding process helps.
Instead of assigned seating, passengers are assigned to one of three groups (A, B, C) and
a number when they check in. The number refers to where they stand in line at the gate.
Group A boards first, and once on board, passengers may sit anywhere they like.
Southwest grows by entering new markets other airlines overprice and underserve. The
company believes it can bring fares down by one-third to one-half whenever it enters a
new market, and it expands every market it serves by making flying affordable to people
who could not afford it before. Southwest currently serves 68 cities in 35 states, usually
secondary cities with smaller airports that have lower gate fees and less congestion—
another
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e that leads to faster turnaround and lower fares.
CASE STUDY
Southwest Airlines - Continued
Southwest currently serves 68 cities in 35 states, usually secondary cities with smaller
airports that have lower gate fees and less congestion—another factor that leads to faster
turnaround and lower fares.
Another unique cost savings strategy is Southwest’s decision to operate Boeing 737s for
all its flights. This simplifies the training process for pilots, flight attendants, and
mechanics, and management can substitute aircraft, reschedule flight crews, or transfer
mechanics quickly.
Jet fuel is an airline’s biggest expense. According to the industry’s trade group, Air
Transport Association, jet fuel now accounts for 40 percent of an airplane ticket versus
15 percent just eight years ago. Southwest’s biggest cost savings technique and
competitive advantage has long been its program to hedge fuel prices by purchasing
options years in advance. Many of its long- term contracts allow the airline to purchase
fuel at $51 per barrel, a significant savings especially during the oil shocks of the 2000s
that drove oil past $100 per barrel. Analysts estimate that Southwest has saved more
than $2 billion with fuel hedging. Because lighter planes use less fuel, Southwest makes
its planes lighter by, for instance, power-washing their jet engines to remove dirt each
night. It carries less water for bathrooms and has replaced its seats with lighter models.
Southwest consumes approximately 1.5 billion gallons of jet fuel each year so every
minor change adds up. The airline estimates that these changes saved $1.6 million in
fuel costs over just three months.
Southwest has pioneered services and programs such as same-day freight service, senior
discounts, Fun Fares, and Ticketless Travel. It was the first airline with a Web site, the
first to deliver live updates on ticket deals, and the first to post a blog. Despite its
reputation for low fares and no-frills service, Southwest wins the hearts of customers. It
consistently ranks at the top of lists customer service for airlines and receives the lowest
ratio of complaints per passenger.
Southwest has been ranked by Fortune magazine as the United States’ most admired
airline since 1997, the fifth-most admired corporation in 2007, and one of the top five
best places to work. Its financial results also shine: the company has been profitable for
37 straight years. It has been the only airline to report profits every quarter since
September 11, 2001, and one of the few with no layoffs amid a travel slump created by
the slow economy and the threat of terrorism.
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CASE STUDY
Southwest Airlines - Continued
Although the hot pants are long gone, the LUVing spirit remains at the heart of
Southwest. The company’s stock symbol on the NYSE is LUV, and red hearts can be
found across the company. These symbols embody the Southwest spirit of employees
“caring about themselves, each other, and Southwest’s customers.” “Our fares can be
matched; our airplanes and routes can be copied. But we pride ourselves on our
customer service,” said Sherry Phelps, director of corporate employment. That’s why
Southwest looks for and hires people who generate enthusiasm. In fact, having a sense
of humor is a selection criterion it uses for hiring. As one employee explained, “We can
train you to do any job, but we can’t give you the right spirit.” And the feeling is
reciprocated. When Southwest needed to close reservation centres in three cities in
2004, it didn’t fire a single employee but rather paid for relocation and commuting
expenses.
Questions
1. Southwest has mastered the low-price model and has the financial results to prove it.
Why don’t the other airlines copy Southwest’s model?
2. What risks does Southwest face? Can it continue to thrive as a low-cost airline when
tough economic times hit?
Sources: Barney Gimbel, “Southwest’s New Flight Plan,” Fortune, May 16, 2005, pp. 93–
98; Melanie Trottman, “Destination: Philadelphia,” Wall Street Journal, May 4, 2004; Andy
Serwer, “Southwest Airlines: The Hottest Thing in the Sky,” Fortune, March 8,
7. How do companies understand the psychology of consumer before pricing its product
in the market. Explain with examples.
8. What are various factors affecting pricing decisions?
9. Explain the steps of setting up pricing
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7.9 GLOSSARY
Consumer: A consumer is an individual who intends to either purchase a product or avail a

service.
Price: It is an amount a consumer is willing to pay for the product.
7.10 REFERENCES
Kotler, Philip, Keller, Kevin Lane. (2016). Marketing management 15th ed. (15th). Harlow
Jobber, D., 2010. Principles and practice of marketing. 6th ed. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.
Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Agnihotri, P. Y., Haq, ul Ehsan: Principles of Marketing: A South
Asian Perspective, Pearson.
Kotler, Philip, Keller, Kevin Lane. (2016). Marketing management 15th ed. (15th). Harlow
Jobber, D., 2010. Principles and practice of marketing. 6th ed. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.
Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Agnihotri, P. Y., Haq, ul Ehsan: Principles of Marketing: A South
Asian Perspective, Pearson.
Ramaswamy, V.S. & Namakumari, S.: Marketing Management: Global Perspective-Indian
Context, Macmillan Publishers India Limited.
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LESSON-8
CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION
STRUCTURE
8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Defining a channel of distribution
8.3.1 Designing distribution channel
8.4 Managing conflicts and control in channels
8.4.1 Types of conflicts
8.4.2 Effects of price battling
8.4.3 Ways to control channel conflicts:
8.5 Retailing
8.5.1 Concept of retailing
8.5.2 Two main channels of retailing: multi-channel retailing and e-commerce
8.6 Wholesaling
8.6.1 How does wholesaling work?
8.6.2 Functions of wholesaling
8.6.3 Types of wholesaling
8.6.4 Wholesaling vs retailing
8.7 Logistics
8.7.1 Classification of logistical activities
8.7.2 Key activities involved in logistics management
8.8 Summary
8.9 Glossary
8.10 Answers to in-text questions
8.12 References
8.13 Suggested readings
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After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 understand the channel of distribution
 develop a distribution channel
 identify the types and causes of channel conflict
 manage a channel conflict
 explain the retailing, wholesaling and logistics
8.2 INTRODUCTION
The process of moving products from the producer to the final consumer is known as
distribution in marketing. Distribution takes place through channels, which are agents that
enable and promote consumer purchasing and whose quantity and nature are decided by the
producers. In order to assemble items, staff, advertising messages, and downstream selling
partners that, when combined, enhance competitive advantage, producers must first choose
and then manage a channel or array of channels. Producers may alter their distribution
methods in reaction to modifications in the market, technological advancements, or other
circumstances, but unwise or poorly executed channel changes usually lead to the loss of
reseller support, disappointing sales, and decreased earnings.
How to go to market, or how to create a distribution system, is a crucial strategic marketing
choice for many businesses, with each strategy offering a different set of advantages and
disadvantages. A multistage distribution process in which a manufacturer sells to a reseller (a
wholesaler, who may subsequently sell to retailers), who then sells to consumers, is
frequently the only viable choice. In the business-to-business market, the producer frequently
sells to the final user through wholesale distribution or, in some cases, through a distributor to
a dealer or supply house who then provides the final user with the product. Simple economic
models of company behavior sometimes neglect the existence of this multistage process, but
economists and marketers are increasingly examining the degree to which producer/reseller
connections and incentives impact how goods and services reach customers and at what price.
A producer must weigh three key factors before deciding on a distribution strategy: control,
effectiveness, and efficiency. Where efficiency is the capacity to provide products and
services to customers and merchants at the lowest possible cost and effectiveness is the
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maximum market coverage and control is the ability to fix the timing and focus of
distribution efforts.
One of a marketing manager's biggest challenges is designing and implementing distribution
channels. All facets of the company's operations, from segmentation and targeting high-
priority clients to defining revenue streams and profitability, could be significantly impacted
by how the company chooses to enter the market. Channel decisions may require more time
to implement than other marketing-mix considerations.
A group of interconnected businesses that work together to make a good or service accessible
for end-user consumption is referred to as a channel of distribution. Important is the
interdependent component. To meet the needs of the end-user customer, channel members
must understand that they cannot act alone and must collaborate. If one member views
another as a dependent, an opportunistic and harmful self-interest is likely to emerge, and
power and conflict may govern the relationship. Conflict tends to be contained if participants
perceive themselves as interdependent, even though it is inevitable in all channel connections.
8.3.1 Designing Distribution channel
The successful introduction of new products is essential for many Organizations to keep their
market dominance. Sadly, empirical facts show that between one-third and fifty percent of all
new goods fall short of a company's financial and marketing objectives. These failures have
been attributed to a number of reasons, including an inadequate focus on the
commercialization process, a lack of management backing, and subpar marketing planning
and execution. In this part, we systematically evaluate, plan, and execute the distribution
channel design.
The main query is to the channel structure; specifically, which intermediary, or intermediary
group, is most suitable to promote the new product? A related but equally crucial issue is how
the intermediary network should be run once it is operational.
Designing a distribution channel refers to the choices made when creating new marketing
channels or altering those that already exist (Rolnicki, 2018).
The distribution channel design decision can be broken down into six steps namely:
1. Identifying the need for channel design decision
2. Setting and organizing distribution objectives
3. Specifying the distribution responsibilities
4. Developing alternate channel structures
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5. Evaluating important variables

6. Choosing the best channel structure
The first and one of the most important tasks for any organisation is to recognize the
need for a channel design. For the following reasons, an organisation would opt for a
new channel design:
i. When a new line of products is created, usually when the existing channels are
insufficient for the new line
ii. when a new target market for the existing product is chosen. This frequently occurs
when a company that typically serves B2B clients decides to enter the consumer
sector.
iii. When there is a shift in the components of the marketing mix when a company
lowers the price on a particular item, the channel chosen will be depending on the
price points, and they might look for discounters.
iv. when dealing with significant environmental changes, especially those in the
economic, technological, or legal domains.
v. Lastly, when the company expands its geographic marketing areas
The channel manager's next responsibility is to figure out how to construct the channel
structure, either from scratch or by changing the existing one, after the need for a design has
been identified. The channel manager needs to carefully assess the company's distribution
goals. The channel manager must do three responsibilities for the distribution objectives to
be successful and well-coordinated.
i. Learn about the firm's other pertinent goals and strategies as well as the ones in the
other parts of the marketing mix. In most circumstances, the same individual or
group that sets the distribution objectives will also set them for the other components
of the marketing mix.
ii. Define the goals and make them clear. A good objective is one that is plain, clear, and
plays a bigger part in attaining the company's overarching goals. The following are
some illustrations of effective distribution goals. With its "Apple experience,"
campaign Apple Computers set a distribution goal to reach more customers. As a
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result, Apple revived and re-established its connections with major retail chains,
which it had neglected in recent years.
Similar to this, Coca-Cola wants to increase its market share in schools and colleges.
As a result, it has contacted numerous educational institutions in order to have them
offer only Coca-Cola products on their campuses.
iii. Verify that the distribution goals are in line with the company's marketing, overall
goals, and other strategies. This entails confirming that the distribution goals do not
clash with those of the other marketing mix components or even with the business's
overall goals. Examining the interrelationships and hierarchy of the firm's goals is
crucial for cross-checking. Figure 1.1 gives a clear picture of the same.
Firm’s overall
objectives and
Strategies
General Marketing
Objectives &
Strategies
Product Pricing Objectives & Promotion

objectives & Strategies Objectives & Distribution
Strategies Strategies Objectives &
Strategies
Figure 1.1: Distribution Goals (Adapted from (Dent, 2011))s
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Specify the distribution responsibilities

Once the goals have been established, certain tasks must be carried out in order to achieve the
distribution goals. Therefore, in order to achieve the goals, the management must describe the
kind of tasks that must be completed. To fulfill the defined distribution objectives, the duties
must be clearly stated.
For instance, a producer of a consumer good, such as high-end cricket bats targeted at serious
amateur cricket players, would have to specify distribution tasks such as gathering
information on target markets shopping patterns, promoting product availability to the target,
maintaining inventory and timely availability, compiling information about the product
features, providing hands-on experience using the product, processing and filling customers’
orders, transporting the product, and setting up credit. When we talk about seeing clients,
these duties are in fact distribution tasks, even though they may appear to be production-
oriented rather than distribution tasks.
Develop alternate channel structures
The channel manager should research other methods of assigning these jobs after having
specified them. To effectively contact the consumer, the channel manager typically selects
multiple channels. Britannia offered its biscuits for sale at pharmacies, department stores,
convenience stores, and wholesale food distributors. Whatever the channel layout, there
should be options for allocating resources based on (a) the number of levels in the channel,
(b) the intensity at different levels, and (c) the kinds of intermediaries.
There is a range of levels available, from two to five. The channel manager may choose
between meeting clients directly and employing two middlemen as appropriate approaches.
The quantity of intermediates at each level is referred to as intensity.
Generally speaking, there are three types of intensities:
i) Intensive
ii) Selective
iii) Exclusive.
Using the maximum number of outlets at each level of the channel is what is meant by
intensive saturation. Selective refers to the utilization of only a subset of the available
intermediaries at a certain level. Exclusive describes an extremely selective distribution
pattern.
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A company like Rolex may use a high level of selectivity, whereas a company like Parle
Products may use an intense distribution channel strategy. The third component, or categories
of intermediates, must be handled carefully. Businesses shouldn't disregard the new kinds of
intermediaries that have developed recently.
ACTIVITY
(A) Would you use exclusive, selecting or intensive distribution for the following
products?
1. Kia India Private Limited (Automobile Company)
2. ITC Kitchens of India
3. LG Electronics
3. Evaluate important variables affecting channel structure

Each channel structure needs to be assessed based on a variety of factors after the various
designs have been described. There are five fundamental categories, including
i. Market variables: Marketing management is founded on the marketing concept idea,
which emphasises the requirements and wants of customers; managers must follow
the market's indications. Market geography, market size, market density, and market
behavior are the subcategories that have the biggest impact on the market structure.
ii. Product variables: Product variables include things like volume and weight,
perishability, unit value, level of standardization, technical vs. non-technical, and
newness. These are some of the most crucial product factors. Products that are large
and heavy have high handling and shipping expenses compared to their value.
Manufacturers of these goods must remember to ship in bulk to the fewest locations
possible.
iii. Company Variables: Size, financial capability, managerial competence, goals, and
tactics are significant factors that influence effective channel design. The ability to
exert significant power in the channel increases with the size of the firm. The
company has some freedom in choosing the channel structures because of its size.
When it comes to financial capabilities, the same is true. The amount of capital a
company has accessible will reduce its reliance on intermediaries.
For an example companies like General Electric and AEC business engages in
industrial marketing prefers to have its own sales force, storage, and order processing
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capabilities. Larger companies with strong financial foundations are better able to
endure the high expense of these facilities. When a company lacks good managerial
abilities, a thorough channel structure ranging from wholesalers to brokers is required
to carry out the distribution activity. As the company gets expertise, the number of
intermediaries can be changed or decreased.
The use of intermediaries may be constrained by the goals and plans an organisation
has. These tactics may place a focus on aggressive promotion and even change the
duties involved in distribution. This is one of the main factors considered while
appraising something.
iv. Intermediary Variables: The crucial intermediary variables are services provided,
price, and availability. One of the important factors is availability because it affects
the channel shape.
If we look at the example of Dell Computers, it created a direct mail order channel in
the absence of a proper channel structure, which also offered a solid technical backup.
Another factor a channel manager takes into account is the price. The manager may
think about decreasing the use of intermediaries if the cost of utilising a particular
intermediary is too high relative to the services it provides. Another crucial element is
the services provided by the intermediaries; a reputable intermediary will provide
effective services at a reasonable price.
v. Environmental Variables: The various facets of channel development and
management may be impacted by uncontrollable or large-scale environmental
phenomena. In this context, "environment" refers to the setting in which a company,
its consumers, and its distribution channels operate. Environmental variables like
socio-cultural, technological, and legal have a big impact on the channel structure.
The other factors can be changed or improved upon by the organisation, but the
environmental forces are those that the organisation must contend with.
4. Choose the best channel structure
The management should select the best channel structure available in order to achieve the
necessary degree of effectiveness at the lowest cost. Although there isn't a single right way
to choose an ideal channel structure, it all comes down to the firm's orientation. The
channel structure would be appropriate if the company's objective were profit
maximization. However, the majority of channel decisions are still made using
administrative discretion and the information at hand.
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The channel structure should always be kept short as this will always be superior. Food
items and flowers are regarded as being extremely perishable. Highly perishable products
should have a channel structure that allows for quick distribution from producers to
consumers. One crucial factor to keep in mind is that the longer the channels, the lower the
unit value of the product, the less room there is for distribution costs.
Figure 1.2 explains the relationship between the channel length and degree of
standardization. The degree of personalization is greater if the product flows directly from
the maker or producer to the user, but as the product becomes more standardized, it passes
through more channels. While many consumer markets are primarily standardized, B2B
machinery has a high degree of customization as it moves from the maker to the industrial
user.
Because of their technical know-how and support, industrial items are typically distributed
through direct channels, but many technical consumer products do use shorter channel
structures. A shorter channel is suggested to raise awareness when the product is new and
in the introduction stage in order to take advantage of the aggressive promotion.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-PART A
What do you understand by the channel of distribution.
State whether the following statements are True or False.
Buying and Selling are the only activities that are carried on by a distribution channel.
Risk bearing is one of the functions of a distribution channel.
Transportation is the primary function of a distribution channel.
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CASE STUDY
Lids Off Jar Opener: Major ADL Distribution Channel, Vast Cross-Media
Marketing Campaign
In the past, opening vacuum-sealed food jars has proven to be a difficult process for
people of all ages and abilities. In today's supermarkets, a wide range of prepared meals
and condiments are packaged in jars, including pickles, mayonnaise, and sauces of
many kinds. It was determined that there was a chance to create an automated jar opener
device that would fill this clear market need and greatly improve the quality of life for
those with functional limits or disabilities.
Black & Decker, a significant consumer appliance maker, was approached and
persuaded to enter this undeveloped market. Throughout the whole product
development process, direct consumer engagement was used, and the end product,
dubbed Lids Off, was produced with an initial manufacturing production run of 500k
units. As a preliminary "testing of the waters" on consumer buy intent and price point,
distribution would first be accomplished through an Internet product launch. Consumer
testing had revealed a consumer price point of $39.39, but for the introduction of its
Internet product, a starting retail price of $49.99 was chosen. Additional distribution
channels would be through big-box stores (Wal-Mart, Target, and others) that already
offer modest home kitchen equipment after a successful internet launch.
At a press and marketing gathering called Christmas in June in New York City, The
Lids off Jar Opener made its official debut. With adverts in numerous newspapers and
family-friendly periodicals, a comprehensive publicity campaign was launched.
Online sales were modest. After about a month, it was decided to boost the product's
advertising budget while lowering the retail price to $39.99. The item was delivered to
big-box stores, who featured it in weekly sales ads that were published across the
country in newspapers and on the Internet. Sales of the new jar opener soared thanks to
an expanded advertising campaign and the product's accessibility through common
distribution channels. Sales were so strong that the company's initial product run was
sold out in November and that it was forced to pull its December holiday advertising for
the appliance because it was out of stock. Sales of Lids off Jar Openers continued to
grow quickly after inventories were restocked the following February, with more than 1
million units sold in the first year.
One important finding from consumer focus groups was that the intended user of the
appliance would not necessarily be the one who bought it. Although older folks were
prepared to spend money on buying the equipment, they clearly wanted and required it.
They were more than happy to accept it as a present, though.
(Source: www.resna.org)
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8.4 MANAGING CONFLICTS AND CONTROL IN CHANNELS
Channel conflict is defined as any argument, disagreement, or strife between two or more
channel partners if one partner's actions or operations have an impact on the other's
operations, sales, profitability, market share, or achievement of comparable objectives.
Channel conflicts are one of the drawbacks of marketing your company over several web
channels. The likelihood of channel friction grows when we use a variety of sales channels to
promote your business. Other resellers may quickly identify the goods we sell online, where
we store them, and how much we charge, which causes conflict, unlike offline retail.
Particularly when various shops are offering the same products to the same markets at various
costs.
On the other side, thanks to the increasing expansion of ecommerce sales, online channels,
and features like simple-to-use and reasonably priced Sales for ecommerce tools and
platforms, selling directly to consumers (D2C) has never been simpler for manufacturers.
To balance one's ecommerce stores with other online distribution channels like wholesalers
and merchants is difficult for a manufacturer. The first rule is to treat each other as partners
rather than rivals with the aim of creating and maintaining satisfied consumers (Gorchels,
2004).
8.4.1 Types of Conflicts
We define 3 types of channel conflicts:
i. Horizontal Conflicts
In horizontal conflicts, the conflicts arise here between two or more related parties who work
for the producer or wholesaler. Assume a wholesaler provides items to four distinct retailers
in the four cities Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, and Hyderabad. A channel dispute can only arise
when one merchant decides to sell products in another city if there is a significant agreement
among all parties to stay inside their cities. Conflicts will undoubtedly arise as a result of this,
and if they cannot be resolved, it's possible that everyone engaged in providing that
product—from the manufacturer to the retailers—may be impacted. Additionally, if these
merchants are the only ones selling the products in specific cities, consumers may suffer.
ii. Vertical Conflicts
Unlike horizontal conflict, vertical conflicts occur between two members on a consecutive
level, like a wholesaler and a retailer. Assume that a retailer gets products from a wholesaler
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for ₹ 40 each, and happens to sell them at ₹ 100 each to consumers. If consumers happen to
get to know the actual cost of such a product, they might make a complaint to the
manufacturer who in turn might phone the wholesaler. Thus, the wholesaler will have to
question the retailer on such actions, especially if it is affecting the demand for such a good in
the market. It may also result in a direct rivalry between manufacturers and retailers resulting
from manufacturers selling directly to consumers (D2C) rather than through retailers.
iii. Multichannel Conflicts
This often refers to disputes that have an impact on various supply circle participants in any
order. Assume for the moment that a company owns both traditional and online marketing
channels. Currently, he charges ₹45 for traditional channel distribution of his goods and ₹30
for internet marketplace distribution. Now, just by taking a quick look at this, one might infer
that it will cause problems for the reseller of such things. Let's however imagine that the
wholesaler purchases these goods from the producer for ₹45 to sell them to the retailer for
₹48. The retailer chooses to purchase this product directly from the manufacturer through the
online marketplace at a price of ₹30 per unit because he just requires a sufficient number of
these products to meet market demand. Now, if he chooses to sell these goods to customers
for ₹35 each, he will be able to increase sales as compared to when he purchases from the
wholesaler and decrease sales as compared when he competes with the manufacturer. This
demonstrates that all three of the involved channels are immediately impacted. In this
situation, the store will suffer greater losses because customers can use the internet market to
purchase goods for ₹5 less, but he would save ₹18 compared to purchasing from the
wholesaler. In either case, the wholesaler won't be selling since there isn't a retailer to buy at
that price, and the retailer won't be selling as much either because there is another channel
with lower pricing. The producer will now have to decide whether to fix the pricing problems
or abandon the conventional sales strategy. To select option two would not be a wiser idea.
Figure 8.3: Types of Conflicts

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1.4.2 Effects of Price Battling

i. Chain Reaction - Brand and Product Lose Value:
Consider the scenario where you wish to run a pricing promotion on a retailer's website just
for its customers. Within a few hours, the pricing bots on the marketplaces will recognize this
promotion and automatically match it (or possibly beat it). The likelihood is that additional
retailers will follow suit within the following 24 hours. This kind of domino effect can cut
your product price, reduce its worth, reduce your profit margin, and seriously harm your
brand's reputation.
Figure 8.4: Effects of Price Battling

Sales Stagnation:
Buyers can postpone purchases when prices are unstable since they are aware of this.
Customers who purchase a product only to discover that the price has lowered later on feel
tricked, which increases product returns and damages a brand's reputation
ii. Price battling can weaken the distribution channel:
When retailers and wholesalers stop marketing or even selling your products.
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8.4.3 Ways to Control Channel Conflicts:

i. Offer exclusive products: Offer a unique product that can only be found on the brand
website. Build demand, generate discussion, and showcase your business. Giveaways
of your products are another option. Add value by introducing a supplementary item,
like the Apple gift card. Offer kits and bundles: Helping clients get more use out of
your items will increase sales. By bundling things, you can offer a discount without it
appearing to be one. As much as you can, try to vary your offering; you might even
provide distinct SKUs for other shops. To safeguard profits, make it harder for retailers
to match identical product pricing.
ii. Set appropriate boundaries: Change to a selective distribution model (for at least
some products) to control unauthorized resellers and distributors who are not part of
your brands' network. It is important to find unlicensed vendors on marketplaces using
ecommerce monitoring software, such as Site Lucent, and try to determine where their
supply comes from. Your reseller network might need to be thinned out. Any non-
compliant or unauthorized seller can be contacted and asked to take corrective action,
sometimes even converting them into authorized ones.
iii. MSRP policy & Monitoring: To avoid any price competition between wholesalers,
retailers, and manufacturers, keep product prices uniform throughout all sales channels.
While MSRP refers to the price a manufacturer advises retailers to sell a product for,
MAP pricing focuses on how a reseller markets a product. In the nations where they are
legal, a brand or manufacturer will enter into a Minimum Advertised Price (MAP)
Policy with authorized merchants. Monitoring your online retailers' and marketplaces'
prices regularly to check for MAP compliance is known as MAP monitoring. Pricing
SKUs at or above a predetermined minimum price is agreed upon. The agreement is not
enforceable in court. Retailers can continue to sell a product below the MAP price as
long as they don't promote it.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-PART B
Explain the concept of channel conflict.
State whether the following statements are True or False.

Due to price battling brand and product lose its value. True
When a single company employs two or more marketing channels to connect with one
or more consumer segments, this is known as multi-channel marketing. True
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8.5 RETAILING
The delivery of finished products starts with the producer and ends with the final consumer.
There is a third party—the retailer—between the two of them. Retailing is characterized as a
series of actions taken to sell a good or a service to customers for domestic or private
consumption. It is in charge of coordinating individual consumer needs with producer
supplies. The French verb “retailer”, which means "to cut a piece of" or "to break bulk," is the
source of the English word "retail."
According to Cundiff and Still, “Retailing consists of those activities involved in selling
directly to ultimate consumers.”
Thus, Retailing includes all the activities involved in selling goods or services directly to
final consumers for personal, non-business use. A retailer or retail store is any business
enterprise whose sales volume comes primarily from retailing.
“A set of business activities carried on to accomplishing the exchange of goods and services
for purposes of personal, family, or household use, whether performed in a store or by some
form of non-selling.” – American Marketing Association
“Retailing includes all the activities involved in selling goods or services to the final
consumer for personal, non-business use.” – Philip Kotler
According to Cardiff and Still, “Retailing consists of those activities involved in the selling
directly to ultimate consumers.”
Our daily lives now include retailing so thoroughly that it is frequently taken for granted. The
countries with robust retail sectors have seen the greatest economic and social improvement.
Why has retailing grown to be such a common way of doing business? The answer is the
benefits of a thriving retail industry i.e., easy access to a wide range of products, freedom of
choice, and excellent levels of customer service.
A retailer is a person, agent, agency, business, or other entity that plays a key role in getting
products, items, or services to the final customer. Retailers carry out particular tasks such as
anticipating client needs, creating product assortments, gathering market data, and financing.
One prevalent misconception about retailing is that it exclusively involves the sale of goods
in physical storefronts. The selling of services, such as those provided at a restaurant, beauty
parlour, or by automobile rental companies, is also included. Selling does not always have to
happen through a store.
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Retailing includes selling through every channel that could be used to approach the
consumer, including the mail, the Internet, and door-to-door sales. Manufacturers like Dell
Computers become retailers when they sell directly to customers. Small family-run chains
and stores with a regional focus are the dominant players in the global retail industry whereas
Wal-Mart, Sears, McDonald's, and Marks & Spencer are a few of the multibillion-dollar
multinational corporations that slowly gained control of western markets. The larger shops
have established huge supply or distribution networks, inventory management systems,
financing agreements, and extensive marketing plans, allowing them to achieve economies of
scale and offer better services at competitive pricing (Xu, 2009).
The introduction of numerous retail formats that have started operating in the majority of
product categories is a significant recent development. Large departmental shops, for
instance, provide a wide range of products and services. Discount retailers compete primarily
on price and provide a wide range of goods. Big Bazaar and Reliance Mart are two examples.
Other high-end shops use luxury labels like Dior and Louis Vuitton to target extremely niche
markets. It will be interesting to observe how these advantages play out for each of these
shops as they each have unique advantages. For instance, bargain merchants typically
outperform their competitors in difficult economic times, whereas the reverse is true when the
economy is doing well (Konings, 2020).
8.5.1 Concept of Retailing
It is essentially the marketing idea of a company-wide, customer-centered approach to
creating and carrying out a plan. It lays forth the rules that all merchants must abide by,
regardless of their size, channel design, or mode of sale.
The retailing concept has four broad areas that are an essential part of the retailing strategy:
i. Customer Orientation – The retailer carefully considers the demands of the
customer and makes an effort to meet those needs.
ii. Goal Orientation –The retailer sets tactics to accomplish its well-defined objectives.
iii. Value Driven Approach –The merchant provides the customer with goods that are
reasonably priced and of high enough quality to appeal to the target market.
iv. Coordinated Effort- Every business operation is coordinated with the overall
objective to maximise effectiveness and provide customers with value.
Although the retailing concept is straightforward to embrace, many retailers fail to adhere to
it because they overlook one or more of the a core mentioned elements. For the retailer to be
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successful, there needs to be a good balance between all the components of this concept. The
retailing notion, while significant, is constrained by the fact that it does not take into account
the firm's internal resources or the level of competition in the outside world. However, it is
still a crucial strategic directive (Ampountolas et al., 2019).
8.5.2 Two Main Channels of Retailing: Multi-Channel Retailing and E-Commerce
i. Channel 1: Multi-Channel Retailing: Retail does not always have to begin with a
physical location. The Indian unicorn startup Nykaa has been around for a very long
time. To supplement their long-running catalogue channel, which was initially
introduced in 2012, they did, however, open their first store in 2018.
Retail Channels and Multi-Channel Retailing
How a retailer sells its goods are known as retail channels. Although physical stores account
for the majority of sales, other avenues including online shopping and catalogue sales are also
significant. Depending on the services a retailer offers and prospective client behavior, a
channel must decide which retail channel to use. Retail channels are currently becoming more
confounded. Given that customers can now purchase "anytime, anywhere," it is crucial for
merchants to be available across multiple channels to retain customers.
Different Retail Channels:
a) Brick-and-mortar stores: Many customers still choose to browse and shop in actual
stores. When we talk about brick-and-mortar stores customers can chat with staff
members and inquire about the goods or services in physical stores. Customers may
try products like video games or laptops at Croma stores and have lunch in cafe while
shopping in IKEA, and other experiences in brick-and-mortar stores. Brick-and-
mortar stores also give customers immediate satisfaction when they make a purchase.
b) Direct response channel: In direct response channels, the retailer contacts and
approaches potential customers directly. Conversion rates (from potential to member)
are greater and it is more personalised. The Direct Response channel also includes
Internet channels.
There are other retail distribution methods also which include selling directly to
customers, souvenir shops, institutional distributors like restaurant chains, etc.
Multi-Channel Retailing
Customers expect to be able to shop "anytime, anyplace" in the modern world. Multi-channel
retailing is a hybrid strategy that combines a variety of possibilities. Technology development
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has improved retail channels as well. Customers can choose between purchasing goods from
an outlet on the one hand and using online websites as their marketplace for their preferred
goods on the other. The goal of multi-channel retailing is to use a variety of distribution
channels rather than just one. Few of the many successful businesses that have benefited from
the multi-channel retailing in the Indian market are Patanjali, Xiaomi and Nykaa.
Benefits of Multi-Channel Retailing
In today's cutthroat industry, multi-channel selling is not an option; it is a requirement.
Customers who use many channels are the most affluent, picky, and time crunched. They are
also your brand's most priceless assets.
Because customers increasingly expect consistently outstanding buying experiences
regardless of the channel, merchants are under increasing pressure to deliver superior
customer experiences across all channels. The thought of developing a thorough and
integrated multi-channel experience intimidates many businesses, and they wonder whether
the work will be worthwhile.
The four benefits that make investment in multi-channel strategy valuable include:
a) Enhanced customer perception
b) Increased Revenue
c) Enhanced data collection
d) Enhanced output.
ii. Channel 2: E-Commerce:
Any business or commercial transaction involving the transmission of information over the
Internet is referred to as "Electronic-commerce" or "e-commerce." It includes a variety of
industries, from consumer-focused retail websites to auction or music websites to commercial
exchanges where firms trade goods and services. Currently, it ranks among the most
significant elements of the Internet.
Over the past ten years, e-commerce has grown quickly and is still growing. The retailing
sector has jumped on board and started to offer online shopping and e-trading, including
fashion retail and grocery retail. "Shopping carts" are used in online retailing which enables
customers to make purchases, track them, and tie all aspects of e-commerce together into a
single, seamless system. E-commerce has the potential to be a tremendously lucrative
endeavour, but success takes time. It is crucial to conduct extensive research, ask questions,
put in a lot of effort, and base business decisions on information obtained through studying e-
commerce (Bloomberg 2020).
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E-Commerce Strategies
Over time it has been observed that both B2B (Business to Business) and B2C (Business to
Consumer) e-commerce are expanding daily. All businesses now understand how important it
is to have an entire retail strategy that includes an e-commerce plan. Ecommerce is a very
different business model from traditional retail in every way.
When launching an online store, a retailer should keep a few things in mind, some of them
are as follows:
a) Understand market trends, opportunities, and risks. Planning for business growth and
dealing with numerous external influences are both aspects of retail strategy.
b) The consumer must come first. When selling through physical, traditional
establishments, customers get a tactile experience, making it simpler to develop a
relationship with them. E-Commerce platforms need to come up with ways to connect
with virtual customers one-on-one and establish relationships. Everything starts with a
great, user-friendly website that delivers the information in the "proper way" to draw
in customers.
c) To stand out from the competition and attract clients to your online store, you must
provide something better than the other e-commerce companies.
d) Pricing: Compared to traditional physical storefronts, online retailers have
significantly lower operating and sales costs, which may persuade customers to make
larger purchases.
Logistical emphasis - The management of shipping costs presents the biggest difficulty in
operating an online store. To save costs, retailers must collaborate with numerous logistical
providers.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-PART C
What are the four broad areas of retailing?
Explain the concept of E-commerce retailing.
What is multi-channel retailing?
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8.6 WHOLESALING
Buying products in bulk from the producer and reselling them to the retailer for a profit is
known as wholesaling. A wholesaler is a person or company that acts as a link in the supply
chain, linking the producer and the retailer. They have the option of selling a single item, a
variety of items, or both. Wholesalers are common in industries including banking and
finance, telecommunications, and energy in addition to physical goods distribution. They
offer businesses in the commercial, industrial, and other professional sectors affordable
business-to-business (B2B) services. Even if they charge merchants more, the price they
charge is still considerably less than the standard retail price.
8.6.1 How Does Wholesaling Work?
Buying huge quantities of products from producers and reselling them to merchants who then
sell them to consumers is known as wholesaling. The idea of economies of scale underpins
the entire procedure. A wholesaler first invests in purchasing and warehousing a sizable
quantity of goods. They then make money by offering those goods in modest amounts to
shopkeepers in a town, city, or market. The idea gained popularity in the 19th century as a
result of the development of mass production and marketing techniques.
There may be numerous wholesalers selling the same or different goods made by the same
manufacturer. Similar to how one wholesaler might sell to lots of different stores. It is
important to note that organizations like manufacturers and service providers occasionally
function as wholesalers. Wholesaling has a substantial economic impact because it is an
essential part of the distribution system. To efficiently transport their goods to retailers and
eventually consumers, manufacturers work with wholesalers. In this way, the supply chain is
made up of the manufacturer, wholesaler, retailer, and customer, each of whom functions at
their level and depends on the one above them (Neha Wadhawan., R K Arya., 2020).
8.6.2 Functions of Wholesaling
i. Wholesalers carry out a wide range of tasks in addition to selling products, including
marketing, risk-taking, warehousing, shipping, financing, management, and advising.
ii. Due to operational or warehousing costs that vary depending on process efficiency,
costs of goods and services, and inventory turnover, wholesalers have more control
over pricing.
iii. Since they are not producers and primarily sell competing items, they typically do not
offer after-sales service or product support.
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8.6.3 Types of Wholesaling

The definition of wholesaling can be any of the following types, depending upon their field of
business and functions:
i. Merchant
Large quantities of goods are purchased by these wholesalers from the producer, who then
retains possession of them, stores them, and sells them to anyone other than the consumer.
They primarily come in two varieties and work independently:
Wholesaler Merchants: They frequently work in the hardware, pharmaceutical, apparel, and
seafood industries and sell to retailers.
Industrial Merchants: They frequently work in the consumer goods, engineering, industrial,
and equipment industries and sell to makers.
ii. Merchandise Agents or Brokers
Wholesalers that buy goods from numerous producers to resale them are known as
merchandise agents. However, they do not take possession of the products. Instead, they help
with its display and storage. Contrarily, product brokers serve as a mediator in negotiations
between the manufacturer and the merchant. They make money off of sales commissions, as
is seen in the stock, real estate, and insurance industries.
iii. Mini Offices and Branches
To participate in the wholesale process, the manufacturer establishes a new branch or a small
office. These divisions or offices directly accept purchase orders from retailers and deliver
goods to them. They concentrate on sales, marketing, and inventory management with a
particular geographic area in mind.
iv. Specialized
These distributors focus on a certain good or commodity and are well-informed about its
advantages and disadvantages.
8.6.4 Wholesaling vs Retailing
Retailing and wholesaling are both necessary for a supply chain to work properly. A
wholesaler acts as a bridge between manufacturers and retailers by concentrating on
preserving relationships with both groups. In situations involving product shortages, supply
issues, price increases, discount offers, or complaints, retailers do not speak with corporate
representatives directly. They visit the wholesaler instead. Contrarily, retailing simply
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describes a local store owner who buys numerous things from a wholesaler and then sells
them to customers directly. Retailers are seen as the company's face by end users. Retailers
benefit when wholesalers get a good deal or a discount when buying products from a
company (Shaffer & Zettelmeyer, 2018). After that, retailers pass it on to final customers,
guaranteeing everyone's profit and fairness.
Other striking differences between wholesalers and retailers include:
i. Since wholesalers don't have any additional expenses, they can sell products in greater
quantities and at lower costs to shops, businesses, and other organisations. Retailers
sell products to end customers in smaller quantities and at higher prices as a result of
added expenditures.
ii. The role of wholesalers is to act as a middleman between manufacturers and retailers.
Wholesalers and customers are connected by retailers.
iii. Wholesalers frequently require large sums of cash and have lower profit margins.
Small firms with strong profit margins and little capital requirements are retailers.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-PART D
How does wholesaling works and what are its functions?
Explain different types of wholesaling.
Explain how wholesaling differ from retailing.
8.7 LOGISTICS
Planning, implementing and controlling the effective movement of raw materials, work-in-
progress items, finished goods, and related information from the point of origin to the site of
consumption to ensure customer satisfaction is known as the concept of logistics (Rolnicki,
2018).
According to Phillip Kotler, “Market logistics involve planning, implementing and
controlling the physical flow of material and final (finished) goods from the point of origin to
the point of use to meet customer requirements, at a profit.”
Certain pertinent observations on the concept of logistics are:
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a) Logistics' actual work is primarily supportive. Operations in manufacturing and

marketing require the help of logistics.
b) The idea of logistics is based on an overall system viewpoint of the numerous tasks
involved in moving resources and goods from supply sources to consumers. As a result,
it forces management to consider managing the entire system rather than simply a single
component of it.
8.7. 1 Classification of Logistical Activities:
Logistics (or Logistical Activities) may be Broadly Classified into Two Categories:
i. Inbound Logistics:
Inbound logistics is concerned with the efficient and cost-effective influx of supplies to the
manufacturing facility, including materials and other inputs required for production. The
management must continuously engage with suppliers for appropriate management of
incoming logistics (vendors).
ii. Outbound Logistics
Outbound logistics, also known as physical distribution management or supply chain
management, is concerned with the movement of completed products and other relevant data
from a business to a client. The management must continuously interface with transport
providers and channels of distribution to manage outbound logistics effectively.
Logistics
Inbound Outbound
Sources of Plant Customers

supply
Figure 1.5: Scope of logistical activities (Adapted from (Gorchels, 2004))
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8.7. 2 Key Activities Involved in Logistics Management:

Following is a brief account of key activities involved in logistics management:
i. Network Design: One of the main responsibilities of logistics management is network
design. The size and placement of the industrial facilities, warehouses, material
handling equipment, etc. that are necessary for logistical efficiency must be determined
using this network.
ii. Order Processing: Orders from customers are crucial in logistics management.
Receiving, handling, filing, and recording orders are all included in order processing
activities. Management must here make sure that orders are processed accurately,
reliably, and quickly. To achieve quick order processing, management must also reduce
the amount of time between the receipt of orders and the date of consignment dispatch.
Order execution delays have the potential to seriously irritate customers, which is
something that must be avoided at all costs.
iii. Procurement: It has to do with getting supplies from outside vendors. Inbound
shipping, receipt and inspection, order placement, negotiation, supply sourcing, storage,
and handling are all included in procurement. Its main goal is to promote
manufacturing by offering prompt supplies of high-quality materials at the most
affordable prices.
iv. Material Handling: In production, distribution, and transportation, material handling
is implemented to enhance customer service, decrease inventory, speed up delivery, and
cut total handling costs. Management must ensure that the raw materials, parts, semi-
finished, and finished goods are handled properly. Additionally, the management needs
to cut down on handling expenses and labour time.
v. Inventory Management: It entails tasks including moving raw materials, components,
semi-finished products, and final commodities into and out of a facility's warehouses
and transportation hubs. To reduce losses from
The main goal of inventory management is to keep working capital out of inventories
as little as possible, while still maintaining a steady flow of resources to meet
production demands and timely deliveries of items to satisfy consumer wants.
vi. Packaging and Labelling: A crucial part of logistics management is packaging and
labelling. Packaging refers to enclosing or encasing a product into suitable packs or
containers allowing both the seller and, especially, the customer to easily and
conveniently handle the product.
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Packaging facilities the sale of a product. It serves as a quiet salesman. On the eve of
Diwali, for instance, the sale of sweets, cookies, and other such things is boosted by
their elegant and decorative packaging.
Labelling implies putting identification markers on the package of the goods. A label
contains information about - the date of packing and expiry, weight or size of goods,
ingredients used in the manufacture of the product, instructions for sale handling of the
product, the price payable by the buyer etc.
vii. Warehousing: Storage, often known as warehousing, is a logistical operation that
saves time by keeping items on hand from the point of production until the point at
which the final consumers require them.
viii. Transportation: Transportation is that logistical process which creates place utility.
Transportation is needed for:
a. The transfer of raw materials from suppliers to the production facility.
b. Movement of ongoing projects throughout the plant.
c. Transfer of finished items from the factory to the end users.
8.8 SUMMARY
A distribution channel is a set of people and firms involved in the flow of title to a product as
it moves from producer to ultimate consumer for the business user. A channel includes the
producer, final customer and any middlemen that participate in the process. Distribution
channels perform transactional functions, logistical functions and facilitating functions.
The distribution channel design decision can be broken down into six steps namely:
3. Specify the distribution responsibilities
4. Develop alternate channel structures
5. Evaluate important variables
6. Choose the best channel structure
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Conflicts across distribution channels are one of the disadvantages of marketing a firm
through many web channels. When you market your company through a multitude of sales
channels, the risk of channel friction increases. In contrast to traditional retail, other resellers
may easily determine the products you sell online, where you store them, and how much you
charge, which might lead to disputes. especially when different stores are charging different
prices for identical products to the same markets. Conflicts can be largely divided into three
types: multichannel, vertical, and horizontal.
8.9 GLOSSARY
Channel of distribution: A distribution channel is a network of firms or middlemen that a

commodity or service travels through before reaching the final consumer or buyer.
Wholesalers, merchants, distributors, and even the internet are part of distribution channels.
Channel conflict: Any disagreement or conflict that could arise between two or more
channel partners when one partner's decisions or actions have an impact on the other's
financial results, sales, or market share is referred to as a channel conflict.
Retailing: Retailing is the practise of selling goods and specific services to customers. It
typically involves a business established for that express purpose selling single units or small
lots to numerous buyers.
Wholesaling: Purchasing items in bulk at a reduced cost from a manufacturer and selling
them to a retailer at a higher price for them to repackage and then sell to customers in smaller
quantities at an even higher price is known as wholesaling.
Logistics: The term "logistics" describes the total process of controlling the acquisition,
storage, and delivery of resources to their intended location.
Part A Part B
Ans 2. Ans 2.
i. False i. True
ii. True ii. True
iii. False
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8 Enumerate six steps performed in the distribution channel design.

9 A new lemon soda manufacturing co. which has successfully launched its lemon drink in
Delhi is planning to launch this product to three other cities. What kind of distribution
channel would you recommend to them?
10 What are the different types of conflict in channel of distribution?
11 What are the effects of price battling?
12 Explain the different ways to control channel conflict.
8.12 REFERENCES
 Ampountolas, A., Shaw, G., & James, S. (2019). The role of social media as a
distribution channel for promoting pricing strategies. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Insights, 2(1), 75–91. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-07-2018-0040
 Bloomberg (2020): “E-commerce stocks soar with pandemic gains seen as long-lasting”,
24 April
 Dent, J. (2011). Distribution channels: Understanding and managing channels to market
(2nd ed.). Kogan Page Publishers.
 Gallaugher, J. M. (2002). E-Commerce and the undulating distribution channel.
COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM, 45(7), 89–95.
 Gorchels, L. (2004). The Manager’s Guide to Distribution Channels. McGraw Hill.
 Konings, R. (2020, February 20). Channel Conflicts, or Opportunities? Sitelucent.
 Neha Wadhawan., R K Arya., (2020) “Understanding E-Commerce: A Study With
Reference to Competitive Economy” Journal of Critical Reviews, ISSN- 2394-5125,
Vol. 7, Issue 8, Pp. 805-809.
 Rolnicki, K. (2018). Managing Channels of Distribution: The Marketing Executive’s
Complete Guide. Amacom.
 Shaffer, G., & Zettelmeyer, F. (2018). Advertising in a distribution channel. Marketing
Science, 23(4). https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.1040.0084
 Xu, X. (2009). Optimal price and product quality decisions in a distribution channel.
Management Science, 55(8), 1347–1352. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1090.1023
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 Etzel, M. J., Walker, B. J., Stanton, W. J., & Pandit, A. (2010). Marketing (14th ed.).
Mc Graw Hill.
 Kapoor, Neeru (2022). Principles of Marketing. PHI
 Kotler, P., Armstrong, G. and Agnihotri, P. (2018). Principles of Marketing (17th
Edition), Pearson Education. Indian edition.
 Mahajan, J.P. and Mahajan Anupama (2016). Principles of Marketing. Vikas
Publications.
 Sharma, K., & Swati Aggarwal. (2018). Principles of Marketing. Taxmann's.
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LESSON 9
PROMOTION
STRUCTURE

9.2 Introduction
9.3 Promotion
9.3.1 Definition
9.3.2 Role of Promotion Mix
9.3.3 Promotion Mix
9.3.4 AIDA model
9.4 Integrated Marketing
9.4.1 Definition
9.4.2 Communication process
9.4.3 Factors Influencing Promotion Mix
9.4.4 Social media platform
9.5 Summary
9.8 References
 Define the role of promotion mix

 Define the AIDA model to influence the consumers
 Describe to communication process
 Which type of factors are influence the promotion mix
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9.2 INTRODUCTION
Promotion is the important part of marketing mix, they are provided the quality information
for customers in the target market, i.e., its share the features of the products, quality, price
and availability of the goods in market. Marketing professionals are sharing the valuable
suggestion for manufactures to related goods & services. The companies are depending on
the customers interest and needs or wants of the products. The professional are share the
market research related to particular product & services in the market.
“Giving the information to the target customers about the products / service that’s called to
promotion” promotional activities are create the demand in the market about the product/
services.
Promotion is a key element in marketing strategy. Marketing calls for more than developing a
good product, pricing it correctly, and making it easily available to the customer. Product,
price and distribution alone cannot create sufficient sales and profits for the organization. But
promotion is an important role play to share the information for the potential customers and
create the interest to purchase the goods and services.
Sources: - google.com/communication images. com

The communication process contains five elements – the communicator, the message, the
medium, the audience and feedback and can be summarized as:
Who……………Says What………? In what way…………To whom…………. with what
effect?
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We will be discussed about, how the model helps a marketing communicator to arrange
effective messages and media for an intended audience. To do this effectively, we shall
discuss the four elements not in the order of the message flow (from communicator to
audience) but in terms of planning flow (from target audience backward through channels to
the communicator). The communicator must start with the audience because it is the audience
who determines what is to be said, how it is to be said, when it is to be the said, where it is to
be said and who is to say it.
Promotion is a persuasive communication that inform potential customers of the existence of
the products and persuades them that these products have want- satisfying capabilities. The
communication process is the foundation of promotion. Let us, therefore, look at the process
of communication as it is used in marketing.
In marketing management, the communicator is the manager who desires to promote his
product. The audience is the target market segment. Feedback is the flow of communication
information from the consumer to the marketing manager.
9.3 DEFINITION
Prof. Philip Kotler has defined promotion as, "Promotion includes all the activities the
company undertakes the communication and promote its products to the target market."
Prof. William J. Stanton has defined it as, "Promotion in the element in an organization
marketing mix that serves to inform, persuade and remind the market of the organization
and or its products."
E. J. McCarthy has defined promotion as, "Promotion is any method of informing,
persuading or reminding consumers, wholesalers, retailers, users or final consumers about
the marketing mix of product, place and price which has been assembled by the marketing
manager."
The above- mentioned definitions make it clear that promotion is one of the important tools
of marketing. It creates demand in target markets and gives information to the customers
about the products & services. Promotion activities are the crucial part to share the
information’s make believe for the companies, enthusiasm or influence and remind the
customers about manufacturing goods. These activities are positively impact on customer
mind then now a day, every company and manufacturing firms are conduct these promotional
activities in the market.
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Marketing communications can be defined as “the means by which firms attempt to inform,
persuade, and remind customers—directly or indirectly—about the products and brands they
sell. In a sense, marketing communications represent the ‘voice’ of the company and its
brands and are a means by which it can establish a dialogue and build relationships with
consumers.
9.3.1 Role of Promotion Mix
1. Helpful to create the image in the customer mind: - Promotion tools are very
helpful to create the image in the consumer mind, because the companies are focused
to create the awareness and share the information for the potential customers through
any media channels or social media portals.
2. Create the demand in the market: - Promotion is helpful to create the demand in
the market, today senior mostly peoples are used the social media portals and e-
shopping portals through purchase the products. Promotion is helpful to create the
awareness in consumers mind and prompted the product through social sites.
Promotion is helpful to boost the sale in market. Nike is promoting the shoes for many
social sites and blog & other promotion tools are used by the company, that only
focus to create the interest related to our product.
3. Brand Awareness: - Promotion is main objective to create the brand awareness in
consumers mind through the any media channels i.e., social media, Facebook,
Instagram, e-commerce sites, blogs, amazon, flip kart etc. promotion are main point to
attract the consumers, then appeal to purchase the articles.
4. Create the interest: - Promotion is advantageous, to create the interest in related to
product/ services in consumer’s mind. This is very important thing, which type of
promotion are choose by the company, how much people are engaged to in this
website or social sites. For example, in today, senior mostly companies are used to
promote the product in online or social media portals Facebook, Instagram, YouTube,
social media pages etc.
5. Brand loyalty: -Mostly companies are provided the special service for the specific
customers. Brand loyalty is perception-based (image and experience). Brand-loyal
customers believe that a certain brand represents both higher quality and better service
than any competitor—and the price does not matter. i.e., amazon provided the more
discounts during the festival season. Diwali sale, seasonal sale but they are provided
the special sales or coupons or other types of discounts only prime customers
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9.3.2 Promotion Mix

Promotion is an important element of the marketing mix for every business enterprise. It is
the inspiration outlets of the marketing mix. It is a process of communication involving
information, persuasion and influence. It has included all types of personal or non-personal
communication with customers as well as middlemen in distribution.
Source (Google images .com)

Advertising
“Any paid form of non-personal prestation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an
identified sponsor through the various media.” (Richard F. Taflinger)
. American marketing association defines advertising as, “any paid form of non-personal
presentation of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor”. Advertising is a prime part
of promotion mix. For example: - advertisements on the television and radio, and magazines
etc. Mainly small businesses must choose the advertising to promote the product through the
newspaper’s ads, ratio, Tv ads, railway stations, Trains etc. to achieve the target audience.
1. Public presentation: -It should be advertising is a highly public mode of
communication. Its public nature confers a kind of legitimacy to the product and
suggests a standardized offering.
2. Pervasiveness: - Advertising is a pervasive medium that permits the seller to repeat
his message many times. It also allows the buyer to receive and compare the messages
of various competitors. Large-scale advertising by a selling, approximately positive
regarding the seller’s size, reputation and success.
3. Amplified expressiveness: - Advertisement are giving opportunities for overstating
the companies and its products beyond the artful use of print, sound and colour.
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4. Impersonality: -As a non- personal tool, advertisement in spite of being public,

pervasive and expressive, cannot be as compelling as a personal salesman. The
audience does not feel obliged to pay attention or respond. Advertising is only able to
carry on monologue, not a dialogue, with the audience.
Advertising sacrifices the effectiveness which is generated by feedback in personal
selling -no-tailor -adjusted in this sales pitch, no probing for objections, etc. on the other
hand, advertising is more efficient, it can reach many potential customers at relatively low
cost. To some extent therefore, personal selling and advertising are complementary, rather
than alternative, promotional media.
Personal Selling
“Personal presentation by the firms sales force for the purpose of making sales and building
customer relationships”. This is one of the oldest processes of promotional tools, in which
the salesman is linked to directly for customers. It is a face -to – face communication between
the company representative and customers, the company has main motive to manipulate the
customers for purchase the goods and service. i.e., retail stores, business to consumers etc.
Personal confrontation: - personal selling includes an alive, immediate and collaborative
relationship between two or one persons. Each party can observe at close hand the
characteristics and needs of the other and make immediate adjustments
Cultivation: - Personal selling permits all kinds of relationship to spring up, ranging from a
matter of fact selling relationship to a deep personal friendship.
Response: - Personal selling in contrast with advertising make the buyer real under some
obligation for having listed to the sales talk or using up the salesman’s time. He had a greater
need to attend and respond, even if the response is a polite ‘thank you’.
Personal selling is an effective tool. The salesman can observe the potential customer’s
behavior and change his sales talk to more closely match the customer’s wants and desires.
He can point out the specific advantages of his product, probe objections and answer them,
and ask directly for the sale. But this effectiveness is often purchased at high cost in
efficiency. One -to-one relationships are relatively expensive.
Sales Promotion
“Sales promotion are short term incentives to increase sales of product or service for specific
period. Generally, Companies are providing the exclusive discounts, sales promotion
schemes during special occasions or festival seasons by customers i.e., discounts, coupons,
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payback offers, freebies etc. are the sales promotion schemes. During the sales promotion, the
company has earned the more profits on short terms periods, by attracting the new and
existing customers., Diwali sales, Season sales, Discounts, Coupons, Buy get 1free, promote
the new product in the market, Promote the unsold inventory etc.
American marketing association defines sales promotion as those activities, other than
personal selling, advertising & publicity that stimulate consumer purchasing and dealer
effectiveness, such as display, shows and exhibitions, demonstrations, and various non-
recurring selling efforts not in the ordinary routine.
1. Insistence presence: Many sales promotion tools have an attention -getting, some-
tomes urgent, quality that can break through habits of buyer inertia towards a
particular product.
2. Product demeaning: - some tools are suggested that the seller is anxious for their
sale. If they are used too frequently or carelessly, they may lead buyers to wonder
whether the product class or brand is desirable or reasonably priced.
The term sales promotion is a catchall for a wide variety of promotional activities. But this
category cannot be overlooked. i.e., product samples, coupons, premium etc. sales
promotions often supplement advertising and personal selling to complete the promotion task
by capitalizing on the consumer interest and product knowledge generated by these media.
i.e., free samples complement advertising in new product introductions. Therefore, sales
promotion plays an integral part in the total promotional program of an organization.
Public Relations
“Building good relations with the company’s various publics obtaining favorable publicity,
Building the good image in the company, handing, or heading off the unfavorable rumors,
stories, and events”. (Business Queensland.com)
Public relations tools are extremely helpful to reach the target audience and having their
attention using the media channels i.e., news, word of mouth, government announcements
etc. Trustable sources, brand oriented communication message, two-way communication,
Press release, Sponsorship, event, web pages etc.
Direct Marketing
Direct marketing is different from personal selling. Though even in direct marketing direct
contact with the customer is important, normally it doesn’t involve a highly personalised
sales pitch. Direct marketing refers to a tool of promotion strategy where marketer builds
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lasting relationship with the customer and receive immediate response from the customers
directly. In direct marketing excludes indirect medium like wholesalers and retailer. The
information received by a customer through news tends to influence customers better than the
advertisement.
9.3.4 AIDA Model
(Fig-1.3)
The marketer may be seeking a cognitive, effective, or behavioral response from the target
audience.
Cognitive response: - the marketer may want to put something into the consumer’s mind.
Affective response: - the marketer may want to change the consumer’s attitude.
Behavioral response: - the marketer may want to get the consumer to undertake a specific
action. Here there are four best known response hierarchy models. There are: -
A. The AIDA model shows the buyer as passing through awareness, interest, desire and
action.
B. The ‘communication’ model shows the buyers as passing through exposure, reception,
cognitive response, attitude, intention, and behavior.
C. The “hierarchy -of- effects” models show the buyers as passing through awareness,
knowledge, liking, preference, conviction, and purchase.
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D. The “innovation-adoption” model shows the buyer as passing through awareness,

interest, evaluation, trial and adoption. The six elements of hierarchy ---effects’ model
are as follow: -
1. Awareness: - if most of the target audience is unaware of the object, the
communicator’s nob is to build awareness.
2. Knowledge: - the target audience might have company or product awareness but
not know much more. Here objective is to build up product knowledge.
3. Liking: - I f the target audience knows the object then the communicator should
know the feelings of the audience (Whether favorable or unfavorable outlook).
4. Preference: - The target audience might like the product but not prefer it to
others. In this case the communicator tries to build consumer preference. The
communicator can check on the campaign’s success by remeasuring the
audience’s preferences after the campaign.
5. Conviction: - A target audience might prefer a particular product but not develop
a conviction about buying it. The communicator should try to convince the target
audience.
6. Purchase: - Some members of the target audience, might have conviction but
quite get around to making the purchase. They may be waiting for additional
information, plan to act later and so on. The communicator must lead these
consumers to take the final step. Some of the purchase -producing devices are
offering the product at a low price, offering a premium, offering an opportunity to
try it on a limited basis, or indicating that it will soon be available.
7. Examples:- a company that took a multi-pronged approach, and an unexpected
creative campaign, to create a awareness about their new product:
Most of the differences among these models are semantic. They all see the buyer
as having to pass through a cognitive stage, an affective stage and an action stage.
Each stage is represented by one or two terms; two are used to express a
difference between a weak and strong response in the stage.
i.e., knowledge is stronger than simple awareness in the cognitive stage,
preference is stronger than liking in the affective stage and adoption is stronger
than trial in the action stage.
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All these models assume that each succeeding stage implies a higher probability
that the person will purchase the product. In general, people may go backward as
well as forward, and skip around. Although being is one stage is neither nor
sufficient condition for moving to another, but the communicator will generally
want to identify the stage his audience is in and tailor his message be desirable: if
the audience is aware of the brand, then arguments for its superiority are required
to be communicated and if the audience has already tried the brand, then
supportive and reminder communications are called for.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. ________ are the key elements of promotion mix
A) Advertising and sales promotion B) Publicity and public relations
C) Direct marketing and personal selling D) All of the above
2. Which of the following marketing mix activity is most closely associated with
newsletters, catalogues and invitations to organization- sponsored events?
A) Pricing B) Promotion
C) Distribution D) Product
9.4 INTEGRATED MARKETING
Integrated marketing communication concepts, the company has participated and manages its
many communications channels to deliver a clear and consistent message. It aims to ensure
the consistency of the message and the complementary use of media.
Integrated marketing communication is a multi-disciplinary promotional area, these are
included in old and new media practices. It is a part of holistic marketing approach, and they
are helpful to make the marketing strategy within the context of larger aims of the
organizations and business development s and maintain the needs. Using by the IMC theories
and strategies, marketing specialists, public relations directors, brand managers, digital media
associates, social media marketers, and other media professionals can create, execute and
track multi-channel advertising and communication message that reach the target audience
and influence the specificity audience. i.e., websites display advertisements, blogs, search
engine optimization, newspapers, magazine and more.
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The company has used the marketing tools and approaches for specific reasons, reach the
target audience through the social media, maximize impact of consumers mind and resulting
in maximum profit at minimum cost. It uses several innovative ways to ensure that the
customer gets the right message at the right place and right time.
9.4.1 Definition
According to Philip Kotler, the integrated marketing communications process involves
creating, communicating, and delivering value for consumers such that the 'whole is
more than the sum of parts'.
Simple definitions to own words
“Integrated marketing is a strategy for delivering a unified message across all the
marketing channels your brand uses. It provides consistency wherever customers choose to
interact with a company. Without an integrated marketing strategy, you risk delivering mixed
messages or communicating in a disconnected voice”
"Integrated Marketing is a strategic approach to integrating communications and interactive
experiences targeting defined audiences and individuals which coordinates all aspects of
marketing of a brand, including:
● Paid media (offline advertising, direct marketing, and online display and
programmatic);
● Earned media (Organic search fuel led by content marketing, PR (Public Relations)
and online influencer outreach)
● Owned media (including social media, on-site UX, customer service and direct
messaging through email and mobile)
in order achieve consistent messaging customized where possible by channel which presents
a unified and seamless experience to consumers across the customer lifecycle or path to
purchase".
Plan and optimize your Omni channel digital marketing strategy using The Race Framework
to structure your digital media, digital experiences, and digital data.
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9.4.2 Communication Process
Source: - Integrated marketing communication process, Philp Kotler, Principles of

Marketing
Fig :- 1.4
This is a two ways communication process, one person is sharing the information for other
person, that is called Integrated marketing communication
1. Sender: - A Sender is the person who initiates, generates, and sends the message. He
is representing the sources of message. The communication process begins when the
sender develops an idea or message that he wants to transmit. He arranges the ideas in
a manner that can be understood by the receiver. A teacher delivering a lecture in the
classroom is the sender of the message.
The sender is sending the information for other party, that is called to sender.
2. Encoding: - Transferred the message in the code form i.e., words, symbols, pictures
and signs and body gestures etc., Because no two people interpret information in the
exact same way, the sender must be careful to choose words, symbols and gestures
that are commonly understood to reduce the chances of misunderstanding. Therefore,
a sender must be aware of the receiver’s communication skills, attitudes, skills,
experiences, and culture to ensure clear communication.
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3. Message: -encoding has finished than next one is message mode; Senders gets the
message that he intends to convey. The message is a written, sign, symbol, silent and
body gestures or in different forms of message triggers the response of a receiver.
A message is the idea or information that the sender wants to convey. He may convey
it verbally (by writing or speaking) or non-verbally (through gestures or body
language). Whatever the form, the message should be clearly formed so that the
objective is accomplished
4. Communication channels: - which types of channels are used by the person,
message can attempt to convey the information, alter perceptions, stimulate desires,
produce conviction, direct attention, and provide reassurance. The choice of message
depends on the state the audience is in, each type of message works on a separate set
of principles.
5. Decoding – When the message reaches the receiver, the message must be decoded
into its intended meaning. Therefore, the receiver must translate the words, symbols,
and gestures as the sender intended. Because no two people interpret information in
the exact same way, incorrectly decoding a message can lead to
misunderstanding. Successful decoding is more likely when the receiver creates a
receptive environment and ignores distractions. Alert receivers strive to understand
both verbal and nonverbal cues, avoid prejudging the message, and expect to learn
from the communication.
6. Receiver: - The receiver is the person or group for whom the communication effort is
intended. The message must be crafted with the receiver’s background in mind. An
engineer in a microchip manufacturing company, for example- might have to avoid
using technical terms in a communication with someone in the company’s advertising
department; for the same reason, the person in advertising might find engineers
unreceptive to communications about demographics. If the message does not reach
the receiver, communication has not taken place. The situation is not much improved
if the message reaches the receiver, but the receiver does not understand it.
9.4.3 Factors Influencing Promotion Mix
Type of the product; -
The types of products are helpful to companies, and which types of promotion tools are best
for promoting the product in the market. Companies are divided in different types of
products, first one is branded product and second is non- branded products, luxury products,
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necessary products, new product etc., all these types of products required to different types of
promotion tools in promote in the market. I.e., advertising is suitable for branded and
popular product. Personal selling is fit for non-branded product in the market. Advertising,
personal selling, sales promotion and publicity – four types of promotion tools are required to
launch the product in market by company.
Use of the product: -
Product may be defined as an industrial product (Raw materials), consumable product (basic
products), luxurious product (Gold, diamond) these types of products must be need for
promotional tools. They are depending on the promotion tools. i.e., advertising and sales
promotion techniques are widely used for consumer goods while personal selling is used for
industrial goods.
Purchase, quantity and frequency
Companies are considered, which types of goods are mostly preferred or purchase by the
consumers, that’s an important point, how much quantity are mostly preferred by the
consumers. Then companies are decided to which kinds of goods are needed to promotion
tools. Infrequency buying the goods by the consumers. Investigators are indicated that
individual selling and sales promotion methods used by the companies to sell the goods in the
market.
Fund available in the market Promotion: -
Financial conditional of the company is crucial impact on the promotion tools. Advertising
through the Television ratio, digital marketing, social media, campaign this is very costly
promotion tools. Companies have not financial conditional good that is not bear to these
types of promotion tools. They are chosen to personal selling and any other cheaper tools to
promote the product in the market.
Mostly companies are focus to which types of promotional tools are used to promote the
product in market. Advertising or publicity (organized the evets, trial etc.) this is too much
costly promotion mix.
Types of the market
Consumer characteristics are defined, which types of audience are livelihood in near the
market area. these factors are also helpful to influence the promotion mix, Demographical
factors, (education, age, lifestyle capacity, knowledge, personality of the consumers)
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Geographical factors (locations, areas) these types of factors are very helpful to make the
strategy for successful business.
Stage of the product life: The promotion mix changes as the product moves along its life
cycle. During the introduction stage of the product in the market, the principles and objective
stage of the promotion is too helpful to create a demand by highlighting the product features,
utility etc. Promotion mix are helpful to launch the product in the market, advertising and
publicity is way to convey the message for potential consumers. Each stages pose different
threats and opportunities. Each stage is different strategies in sperate marketing stages.
Identify the target audience: A marketing communicator must start with a clear target
audience in mind. The audience may be potential buyers of the company’s products, current
users decides or influencers. The audience may be individuals, groups, particular publics, or
the general public. The target audience will influence significantly the communicators
decisions on what is to be said, how it is be said, who is to say it, where it is to be said and
who I to say. The communicator should research the audience’s needs attitudes, preferences,
and other characteristics in order to establish the audience’s current image of the object.
Images is the set of beliefs, ideas and impressions that a person holds of an object. The first
step is to measure the target audience’s familiarity with the object. Respondents who are
familiar with the product should be asked how favorable they feel towards it. The marketer
should then know the desired image in contrast to the current image, (in terms of resources &
reality).
Selecting the communication channel: Once the target audiences are identified, the
communicator can think about the specific channels for reaching them. Channels of the
influence are two based types personal, non- personal.
i. Personal (expert channels, social channels)
ii. Non- personal (Mass and selective media, atmospheres, events)
Personal influence channels are means to direct inter-personal contact with the target
individual or groups. These personal influence channels can be distinguished- advocate or
representative or salesman of the company, they have personal contact, connection for the
company. They are important role to influence the consumer to purchase the articles. Expert
channels consist of independent persons, exercising an influence on the buyer by dint of their
expertise. Social media channels consist of the buyer’s associates, neighbors, friends or
family who may exercise an influence on him.
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Non- personal influence channels are media that carry influence without involving
interpersonal contact. Three types of non-personal media can be described, mass and
selective media is related to newspapers, magazines, television, radio and billboards that
people might buy or perceive. Mass media are aimed at large, often undifferentiated
audience, selective media are more specialized in reach and focus. Atmospheres are designed
environments calculated to create positive feelings in persons regarding a company or
product.
9.4.4 Social Media Platform
Social media marketing is strong way to convey the message for the target audience. People
find, learn about, follow and shop from branding product or create the awareness, this is
platform to convey the message for potential consumers., Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn
Social media is helpful to bring remarkable success to your business, creating devoted brand
advocates and even driving leads and sales.
Social media benefits: -
Over 70% of populations are used to social media through the smartphones, and peoples have
positive experience with a business on social media will recommend that business to their
networks.
Facebook users click on 12 Facebook ads on average every month.
81% of the population is use Instagram to research products and services.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. Which of the following consumer promotion tools is the most effective, but
most expensive, way to introduce a new product?
A) Coupons B) Price Packs
c) Contents D) Samples
4. Which tool of the promotional mix consist od short-term incentives to encourage
the purchase or sale of a product or service?
A) Advertising B) Public relations
C) Direct marketing D) Sales Promotion
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9.5 SUMMARY
Promotional activities are important role play to influence the consumers buying behavior,
these activities are helpful to convey the message for potential buyers. Promotion is a
important part of marketing mix, they are helpful to share the quality information for the
target customer in the market, i.e., ., its share the features of the products, quality, price and
availability of the goods in market. Marketing experts providing the useful suggestion for the
manufactures related to products for according to customers interest & needs and wants for
exploring the markets. Promotion mix- advertising, social media marketing, publicity, public
relationship, direct marketing.
The model of AIDA is defined that, they are helpful to create the awareness related to goods
in the consumers mind, promotion is beneficial to create the interest in consumers mind, and
build up the knowledge, liking, preference, conviction, and purchase. In today scenario,
social media promotion is very effective to manipulate the consumers, because 70% peoples
are used to social site, i.e., Facebook, Instagram, twitter, LinkedIn etc. Communication
process is important role play to convey the message, because which types of tools are used
by the company to convey the message for potential buyers.
1.All of the Above

2. Promotion
3. Samples
4. Sales Promotion
1. What does the promotion mix, which factors are influenced to motivate to purchase
power?
2. Which types of factors are more influences the promotion mix activities?
3. What is the integrated marketing?
4. What is the communication and explain the process of communications
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9.8 REFERENCES
 Marketing, M., 2022. Meaning of Promotion and Its Objectives in Marketing. [online]
Analysisproject.blogspot.com. Available at:
<https://analysisproject.blogspot.com/2014/04/meaning-of-promotion-project-
management.html> [Accessed 2 August 2022].
 Role of promotion in the marketing: Function and benefits. Click here to discover
more! (n.d.). Just Great Database - Experience the Joy of
Learning. https://jgdb.com/business/marketing/marketing-function/role-of-promotion-
in-the-marketing-function-and-benefits
 Promotion mix: Introduction, concept, factors, strength and weakness. (2019,
November 22). Essays, Research Papers and Articles on Business
Management. https://www.businessmanagementideas.com/marketing-
management/promotion-mix/20846.
 Marketing’s promotional mix: Definition and how to use it | Indeed.com. (n.d.).
Indeed Career Guide. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-
development/marketing-promotional-mix
 Bagaria, A. (2022, May 7). Integrated marketing communication - Meaning, tools, &
examples. Feedough. https://www.feedough.com/integrated-marketing-
communication-meaning-tools-examples/
 Allen, R. (2022, February 14). What is integrated marketing? [Definition and case
studies]. Smart Insights. https://www.smartinsights.com/traffic-building-
strategy/integrated-marketing-communications/what-is-integrated-marketing/
https://www.google.com/search?q=definition+of+integrated+marketing+communicati
on+by+philip+kotler&oq=definiations+of+intergrated+marketing+&aqs=chrome.3.69
i57j0i22i30l5j0i15i22i30j0i5i13i30j0i390.14158j1j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
 Defining integrated marketing communications. (n.d.). Paper
flite. https://www.paperflite.com/blogs/integrated-marketing-communication
 Integrated marketing communications - Meaning and its components. (n.d.).
Management Study Guide - Courses for Students, Professionals & Faculty
Members. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/integrated-marketing-
communications.html
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 Factors affecting promotion mix - Promotion, principles of marketing notes | Study

principles of marketing - B com. (2018, January 29).
EDUREV.IN. https://edurev.in/studytube/Factors-Affecting-Promotion-Mix-
Promotion--Princip/1d98ccde-bf50-4fe1-88c3-7170d4156180_t
 M, M. (2016, July 9). Factors affecting promotion mix. Business
Jargons. https://businessjargons.com/factors-affecting-promotion-mix.html
a. Kotler, Philip, Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, New Delhi.

b. Stanton, Etzel, Walker, Fundamentals of Marketing, Tata-McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
c. Ramesh Kumar S., Schiffman Leon, Kanuk, Leslie Lazar; Consumer Behavior;
Pearson 2. Loudon, David L. and Della, Bitta Albert J.; Consumer Behavior; McGraw
Hill
d. Engel, James F., Roser, D. Blackwell, and Paul, W. Miniard; Consumer Behavior;
Dryden Press.
e. Hawkins, Dal., Roger, J. Best and Kenneth, A. Coney; Consumer Behavior
Implication for Marketing Strategy; McGrawHill
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LESSON 10
TRENDS IN MARKETING: SERVICE MARKETING, SOCIAL MEDIA
MARKETING, GREEN MARKETING, CUSTOMER
RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT, RURAL MARKETING,
OTHER EMERGING TRENDS
STRUCTURE
10.1 Learning Outcomes

10.2 Introduction
10.3 Service Marketing
10.3.1 Concept of Service
10.3.2 Difference between Goods and Services
10.3.3 The 7Ps of Service Marketing
10.4 Social Media marketing
10.4.1 Tools for social media marketing
10.4.2 Importance of social media marketing
10.5 Green Marketing
10.5.1 Green Product and its Characteristics
10.5.2 Reasons for Going Green
10.6 Relationship Marketing
10.6.1 Relationship Marketing Process
10.6.2 Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
10.7 Rural Marketing
10.7.1 Rural Consumers
10.7.2 Marketing Mix for Rural India
10.8. Some other concepts in Marketing
10.9 Summary
10.10 Exercises
10.11 Glossary
10.12 References
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After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

 Understand the concept of services marketing and its importance.
 Understanding social media marketing
 Understand the concept of green products, green marketing and marketing mix.
 Gain insight about the concept and growing importance of relationship marketing.
 appreciate the concept of CRM.
 Understand the concept of rural marketing and its growing importance and challenges
it poses to marketers.
 Develop understanding regarding the marketing mix for rural India.
 Appreciate some of the recent concepts in marketing.
10.2 INTRODUCTION
Marketing is a vital ingredient for business success. It affects our day-to-day life in a
significant manner. The concept of marketing has broadened from being associated with
pushing the products to consumers, to understanding the needs of consumers and building
long term relationships with them. The marketer can reach customers 24X7 via mail, smart
phones or even through social media accounts. So the marketer is no more limited to his
shop. This chapter discusses some of the most important trends in the field of marketing. The
growth of online marketing, increasing focus on rural markets, rising concern for green
products and focus on building long term relationships with customers are a few of the visible
changes in the life of a marketer.
10.3 SERVICE MARKETING
Services marketing is “a form of marketing businesses that provide a service to their

customers to increase brand awareness and sales”. Service marketing is different from
product marketing in the fact that it focuses on promoting and advertising intangible
products. For example, Imagine a advertisement showing a stay at a Club Mahindra resort,
the advertisement would focus on the various aspects of the stay like the lush green resort,
room service, ad on services like pool and spas. The ad would capture the happiness and
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excitement of a consumer staying at the resort, so that element of intangibility which cannot
be touched liked a product but can be felt would come under the purview of service
marketing. Hence, Service marketing is a marketing concept which takes into view the
business of non-physical intangible goods. It is done for company given benefits which
cannot be seen, touched, felt etc. The benefits given to the customers are taken up mostly by
people, process & cannot be kept by a customer. Sectors like hospitality, tourism, financial
services
ACTIVITY
In the category mentioned above, identify companies falling into product and service
category.
10.3.1 Concept of Service
A service can be defined as “any act or performance that one party can offer to another that is
essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything.” Its production may or
may not be tied to a physical product. From the organization’s view point, service is a
process, but it is an experience for the customers. To move ahead and dwell deep into the
concept of service marketing it is very important for us to understand the basic difference
between a product and a service. The major differences between the two are tabulated below
in the form of a table. It is very important for a marketer to have a clear understanding of the
difference between the two so that he is able to easily and effectively market the product to
the target audience.
Think of any 10 things that you see or buy in the market. Based on your understanding of
product and service, classify them into the relevant category. Analyze the target segment that
the marketer has tried to target.
10.3.2. Difference between a product and service
Product is tangible while service is intangible. Product is perishable while the services are
non-perishable. There is a uniformity while we talk of products, services might vary from
person to person and service to service.
10.3.3 Marketing Mix for Service marketing
In the previous chapters we have talked about the marketing mix for a product which consists
of 4Ps namely Product, Price, Place and Promotion. In a service marketing mix we have 3
more additional Ps namely People, Physical Evidence and Perishability. Let us now discuss
all the Ps of service marketing in detail.
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1. Product: In service marketing products can be viewed as some asset plus a process
around it. When you book a hotel room for a night you use the hotel room for an
evening (the asset). But you also undergo a series of processes such as checking-in,
checking-out, and having your luggage brought up to the room etc.
2. Price: It is the amount of money a customer is willing to spend for a particular
service. Pricing is slightly tricky as compared to product pricing because of a variety
of reasons or factors. For example, the price of the room will depend upon the season,
group bookings, peak season etc.
3. Place: Place in service marketing refers to ease of access that the customer has to the
service. In the example that we have been discussing it refers to the channel through
which hotel booking is done, like is it done through an online site or some travel agent
or through the hotel itself.
4. Promotion: Promotion refers to the different ways you communicate, describe, and
advertise your product. Since services are intangible it is difficult to promote services.
Various methods used to promote services are celebrity appeals, testimonials,
warranty etc.
5. Physical evidence: It refers to the tangible elements which are involved with the
delivery of services like companies’ website, accounts, business cards, logos,
equipment, brochures etc. in the above case the hotel building would come under the
physical evidence.
6. Process: Process refers to the procedures and flow of activities that occur when the
customer and the business interact with each other. The processes are well defined
and written in a document called as the standard operating procedure. For example,
when a customer enters the hotel, a process is initiated, when he checks out a process
is initiated etc.
7. People: People in service marketing are the resources which are required to complete
or service or through whom a customer will interact. For example, when a customer
enters a hotel, he will interact with the front desk first followed by other people. It is
very important to train the staff well.
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Case Study
Mr. Walter Sullivan (owner of the Sullivan Auto World) has purchased small Ford
dealership in 1983, after the many years; the dealership built their good reputation as one of
the best in city. In 1999, he decided to move locations of dealership to more populated area
closer to major intersections. With sudden death of Mr. Walter at the age of 56 years, her
younger daughter Ms. Carol Sullivan who is health care manager by profession taken over
the charge of family business and which is not running well these days, profit margins
continuously decrease over the years due to increase in fuel prices, interest rates, mainly
poor performance of the service department. Ms. Carol wonders whether a turnaround is
possible.
Q.1 How is marketing of cars different from marketing of services?
Q.2 Compare and contrast the sales and service department of Auto World.
Q.3 From a Customer’s Perspective, What Useful Parallels Do You See Between Running
a Car Sales and Service Dealership and Managing Health Care Services
10.4 SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING
Social media marketing is about creating and promoting content about your product or
service through various social media platforms. Social media marketing is all about
interacting with your target audience and customers. There are a variety of platforms through
which social media marketing can be done. All major platforms are represented in the table
below:
10.4.1 Tools for social media marketing:
Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Instagram
1.9 billion active users 211 million active users 774 million active users 1 billion active users
Best for brand Best for Public B2B relationships, High-quality images
awareness and relations; customer business development, and videos; user-
branding service; community and social selling generated content;
building advertising
Audience is an even Audience is Primarily Audience is Baby Primarily

spread of Generation Millennials boomers, Generation X, Millennials
X and Millennials and Millennial
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Table 2.1: Table showing comparison of the mostly widely used social media platforms.
10.4.2 Importance of Social Media Marketing
Social Media marketing is gaining importance in today's time because of the following
reasons:
● It helps in building a stronger audience and customers for the business.
● It helps in the generation of more leads and conversions.
● It helps you to give a regular update on your competitors
● It is a cost-effective tool for marketing and promotions.
Examples of companies adopting successful social media campaigns
1. Mercedes Benz – Repeated and successful marketing campaigns
Mercedes Benz to keep the car selling, so they really worked hard on their social media
campaigns. The best one goes back to 2013 when the company believed to have the best
campaigns. Mercedes wanted to reach out to younger audience and hence they hired five top
Instagram photographers to take the wheel of new Mercedes CLA and this campaign really
worked well. By the end of the campaign Mercedes received 87,000,000 organic Instagram
impressions, 2,000000 Instagram likes and 150 new marketing assets.
Oreo : Smart content planning and timely delivery
Oreo is another brand known for their creative social media marketing. They have a big
design team to produce the content. They are consistent with their branding and manage to
catch real time events. The twitter campaign done by them are the best. The campaign Power
out was retweeted 15,000 times.
Q. You have been appointed as the social media manager for a new firm selling ethnic bags.
Create a social media campaign for the same. What platforms will you use for the same.
10.5 GREEN MARKETING
American Marketing Association defines green marketing as: "the marketing of products that
are presumed to be environmentally safe.”
As per Businessdictionary.com green marketing “Promotional activities aimed at taking
advantage of the changing consumer attitudes toward a brand. These changes are increasingly
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being influenced by a firm's policies and practices that affect the quality of the environment
and reflect the level of its concern for the community."
Green marketing “involves development and promotion of products and services that are
capable of satisfying customer’s wants and need for quality, performance, affordable pricing
and convenience without having any detrimental effect on the environment”
The concept of green marketing has grown over a period of time. Initially it was known as the
ecological green marketing. Green consumerism refers to “recycling, purchasing and using
eco-friendly products that minimize the damage to the environment.” This involves decisions
such as using energy star appliances consuming less power, using alternate sources of energy
like solar, wind to generate electricity, not using plastic bags, car pooling, water harvesting,
buying hybrid cars that emit less carbon dioxide, buying locally grown vegetables and fruits.
10.5.1 Green products and characteristics of green products
A green product is a “sustainable product designed to minimize its environmental impacts
during its whole life-cycle and even after it’s of no use”. These products have two major
goals of reducing waste and improving resource efficiency.
Characteristics of a green product are:
● Grown without toxic chemicals
● Can be recycled, reused and is biodegradable in nature
● Packaging is eco friendly
● Less resources are used
● Are Eco efficient
● Has carbon and plastic footprint.
● In the usual scenario, brands producing green products use green marketing to
communicate their value proposition to the market.
Advantages Of Going Green to The Brands
Diversification of products and markets: Developing green products opens the doors to a
new segment who are willing to buy green products at a higher price also.
Competitive Advantage: Going green helps to achieve a competitive advantage.
Positive Public Image: When a brand does something for the society and the environment,
its brand image automatically enhances.
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Brand Loyalty: Consumers have a higher brand loyalty for such brands since they attach an
emotion or sentiment towards it.
Examples of company showing green marketing
British petroleum (BP) displays gas station which its sunflower motif and boasts of putting
money into solar power. Indian Tobacco Company has introduced environmental-friendly
papers and boards, which are free of elemental chlorine. Toyota is trying to push gas/electric
hybrid technology into much of its product line. It is also making the single largest R&D
investment in the every-elusive hydrogen car and promoting itself as the first eco-friendly car
company. International business machines Corporation (IBM) has revealed a portfolio of
green retail store technologies and services to help retailers improve energy efficiency in their
IT operations. The center piece of this portfolio is the IBM Sur epos 700, a point-of-sale
system that, according to IBM, reduces power consumption by 36% or more. We even see the
names of retail outlets like "Reliance Fresh", Fresh@Namdhari Fresh and Desi, which while
selling fresh vegetables and fruits, transmit an innate communication of green marketing.
Case Study: Coca-Cola: A Case Study In Sustainability
How does Coca-Cola integrate sustainability into their operations? For several years its
facility in Brampton, Ontario, one of its largest in North America, has been transforming its
manufacturing and distribution to save energy, reduce carbon footprint, water usage, and
material usage. In this case study we look at the goals, implementation, and progress of the
programs put in place by this $20 billion food and beverage giant.
Coca-Cola‘s 600,000 square foot facility in Brampton houses the plant, management team,
and warehouse. It has three plastic bottling lines, including a Dasani line; one bag-in-box line
producing syrup for national accounts; one pre-mix line for the restaurant business, and one
canning line. There are 650 plant operators, sales and equipment service representatives,
truck drivers, warehouse employees, management and staff.
Located within the eco-business zone around Toronto Pearson International Airport, Coca-
Cola in Brampton joins the local community of businesses to collaborate on green projects.
Under the stewardship of Partners in Project Green, businesses participate in programs to
reduce energy and resource costs, uncover new business opportunities, and address everyday
operational challenges in a green and cost-effective manner. Other companies in this program
include Xerox, Unilever, FedEx, Hewlett-Packard, Walmart, Kraft, and Loyalty One.
Social and environmental risks are now one of seven business risk categories and are
formally embedded into Coca-Cola’s enterprise risk management process. This in turn guides
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the business processes, including annual planning, three-year business planning, and internal
audit planning. As a result, sustainability decisions are becoming an integral part of the
business decision making, commercialization and capital management processes, the three-
year business planning process, and customer and supplier relationships. Highlighted here are
some of their goals, implementation, and progress.
Energy Conservation and Climate Change
The goal is to reduce the overall carbon footprint of our business operations by 15 percent by
2020, as compared to the 2007 baseline.
The Brampton operation converted to an energy efficient lighting system that uses 50% less
energy and provides 50% more light. These new fixtures also operate on motion sensors for
even greater savings.
In the distribution channels, the company has installed 2000 EMS-55 energy management
devices in vending machines. These devices activate lights and adjust cooling based on use,
leading to improved energy efficiency by up to 35 percent.
In addition, the company installed 1,400 climate-friendly coolers at the 2010 Olympic Games
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 5,600 metric tons, the equivalent of
taking about 1,200 cars off the road for an entire year.
Finally, 37 heavy-duty hybrid delivery trucks and tractors were introduced to the Canadian
fleet in 2008 and 2009. These vehicles improve fuel consumption and reduce emissions by
about one third and create less noise and emissions when stopped in traffic.
Water Usage
The goal is to establish a water-sustainable operation to minimize water use and have a
water-neutral impact on the local communities by safely returning the amount of water used
in the beverages to the local communities and environment.
A 20% reduction in water use, accompanied by an efficiency ratio of 1.62 liters was achieved
between 2005 and 2007. Plant teams focused on: 1) reducing the water use ratio; and 2)
recycling the water used in operations (wastewater treatment).
To help reach its water usage goals the company developed and used a water conservation
toolkit to identify actions that would conserve water. It implemented recycle and reclaim
water loops through the plant’s membrane water treatment system. And it installed a new
osmotic water recovery system designed to reclaim nearly 11 million liters of water for
production. In addition water based container rinses were replaced with ionized air rinses and
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the lubrication system on all production lines was retrofitted to discontinue water use, saving
approximately 28 million liters of water annually.
Sustainable Packaging and Recycling
The goals are to: (1) avoid the use of 100,000 metric tons of packaging materials between
2007 and 2010, (2) recycle or recover more than 90% of waste materials at production
facilities by 2010, (3) increase recycled content in plastic (PET) bottles to an average of 10%
by 2010.
For goal (1), Dasani PET bottle weight was reduced by 30%, saving 493 metric tons of PET.
Plastic twist-off closures were designed 24% lighter, saving 235 metric tons of resin. Also,
lighter fiberboard was developed for Minute Maid products saving 124 metric tons of
fiberboard annually. The company also launched the Plant Bottle, a 100% recyclable
packaging made with up to 30% plant-based waste materials.
Goal (2) was achieved in 2009, ahead of schedule. The team also implemented a centralized
recycling initiative that captures broken, damaged or expired product packaging from satellite
facilities to be baled and sold to an industrial recycler.
Investments were made to achieve green innovations in recycling technologies, renewable
packaging materials, vending and cooling equipment controls and design, and hybrid trucks.
Among the tools used was a proprietary packaging database to identify opportunities for
future packaging material reductions and to benchmark performance against the global Coca-
Cola system. See here for more on sustainable packaging.
The Coca-Cola operation in Brampton has shown that there are advantages to thinking
“outside the box”. By respecting the finite nature of the earth’s water and resources the
operation is implementing innovative business practices and contributing to the sustainability
of communities while meeting the expectations of its stakeholders.
Source: https://www.environmentalleader.com/2011/08/coca-cola-a-case-study-in-
sustainability/
10.6 RELATIONSHIP MARKETING
“Relationship marketing is a strategy designed to foster customer loyalty, interaction and

long-term engagement. It is designed to develop strong connections with customers by
providing them with information directly suited to their needs and interests and by promoting
open communication.” The four components of relationship marketing are:
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● Satisfaction
● Loyalty
● Profitability
● Customer retention
When the competition is high, and the customers are aware, the organizations cannot just rely
on selling their products or services to then. The customers always look for the organizations
which provide an added value or advantage to them along with the product or service.
10.6.1 Importance of Relationship Marketing
1.Increase in Sales Volume: Increased customer experience results in cross selling and
upselling thereby increasing the sales.
2.Creates Brand Image: A satisfied customer will promote the product or service among
circles thereby creating a better brand image.
3.Customer Retention: Acquiring a customer, providing value to him and retaining him can
be done with the help of relationship marketing.
4.Gain a Competitive Edge: A loyal customer feels comfortable buying goods or services
from one single store rather than shopping around at various places. This is an advantage for
the organization over its competitors.
10.6.2 Customer Relationship Management
Customer relationship management (CRM) refers to “the principles, practices, and guidelines
that an organization follows when interacting with its customers. From the organization's
point of view, this entire relationship encompasses direct interactions with customers, such as
sales and service-related processes, forecasting, and the analysis of customer trends and
behaviors. Ultimately, CRM serves to enhance the customer's overall experience”
Before understanding about what CRM Technology should be used, we should know and
understand the difference between CRM technology and CRM strategy which is defined as
below:
CRM Technology: It works as a central place where major customer information can be
organized, used, securely shared and acquired.
CRM Strategy: These are the processes that organizations put in place to standardize and
optimize the way CRM technology is used
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10.6.3 How to lay the foundation of CRM strategy for the organisation
There are 4 steps which would help in identifying the system for CRM:
● Identify internal challenges: Identify hurdles and bottlenecks that your consumers
might have to face.
● Map the customer journey: Document how your prospects find you, interact with your
brand and consume your content.
● Define your metrics: Define metrics for your sales
● Business Milestones: While finalizing any CRM look for any product launches that
you might think of
Examples of companies showing successful CRM strategy:
1. Westfield: Westfield’s business is all about selling. The company, which owns and
operates 100+ shopping centers worldwide, is expert in helping retailers build thriving
businesses. Westfield’s own business is also flourishing because of a custom lease
management app built on App Cloud that lets the company do more to help its customers
meet their goals. Westfield’s specialty leasing group which sells retail carts, kiosks,
temporary stores, sponsorships, and brand activations, as well as trade shows and other
special events wanted to improve the way its sales reps find and showcase inventory to
customers so they could close more deals, faster.
2. Best technology services: In an industry that competes primarily on costs, Best
Technology Services competes based on its incredible reach. The IT services firm delivers
more than 250,000 field service jobs a year throughout Australia – even in the most remote
locations. And while its competitors rely heavily on partners and subcontractors, Best
Technology Services subcontracts less than 1% of its jobs.The firm has a 300-strong team
that stretches from Sydney to Perth, covering all the regional areas in between. Today, these
technicians are all connected on Salesforce Field Service. So, whether a customer requires a
onetime installation or 700 branch upgrade, Best Technology Services can ensure consistent
results.
Source: https://www.salesforce.com/in/crm/examples/
ACTIVITY
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You own a tech-based company. Create a CRM strategy for the same.
10.7 RURAL MARKETING
“Rural marketing is a process of developing, pricing, promoting, and distributing rural

specific goods and services leading to desired exchange with rural customers to satisfy their
needs and wants, and also to achieve organizational objectives”
The marketer in rural areas has to understand:
(a) Market segmentation by knowing market potential which will help in the assessment of
market demand.
(b) Consumer behavior and the rural consumer’s priorities.
(c) Which promotion techniques should be used
(d) Who are the catalytic agents of change and what role can they perform vis-a-vis one's
products?
10.7.1 Marketing Mix for Rural India
Behavioral factors of rural consumers are very different and unpredictable in nature, it is
challenging for marketers to design the marketing mix. The marketing mix for rural
marketing is similar to the general marketing mix with slight changes to adjust for the
heterogeneity of the demand.
Product: The firm should make products according to the needs and future demands of rural
buyers. Features of products like size, shape, colour, weight, qualities, brand name,
packaging, labeling, services must suit the demands of the customer.
Price: Rural customers are most sensitive to pricing and hence appropriate pricing should be
done for rural products. rice level, discounts and rebates, then credit and instalment faculties
are important considerations while setting prices for rural specific products. It is seen that low
priced products are preferred by rural consumers.
Promotion: The method of promotion needs to meet the expectations of the market. Vehicle
campaigns, edutainment films, generating word of mouth publicity through opinion leaders,
colorful wall posters, etc. — all these techniques have proved effective in reaching out to the
rural masses.
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Place: Marketer has to strengthen the distribution strategies. Distributing small and medium
sized packets through poor roads, over long distances, into the remote areas of rural market
and getting the stockiest to do it accordingly is the challenge being faced in rural marketing
and hence efforts should be made to strengthen the same.
Case Study: Turning sugarcane waste into electricity
Read the case and answer the question that follows.
With energy generated from renewable sources predicted to be among the major sources of
power in the next decade, a company in the Philippines is tackling the challenge head-on and
turning trash into a highly prized commodity.
Biopower is constructing three biomass power stations on Negros, the fourth largest island of
the Philippines, with the aim of producing a total of 72 megawatts of green baseload power to
feed into the local grid as well as for export to surrounding islands.
The key to this clean, green energy is the waste products from the harvest of the local
sugarcane crop. The trash that would previously have been left on the ground once the
sugarcane was taken from the fields, the collection of this waste is a crucial part of
Biopower’s operation and one they’ve entrusted to Case IH, one of the world’s leading
agricultural machinery brands.
“The cane farmers leave the trash after the harvest, and we move into the field with our
equipment and collect it, taking it to the power station for burning in a controlled
environment to produce electricity,” said Paul Coveney, Vice-President Biomass Operations
and Materials Management for Biopower.
Tractors and other associated machinery need to collect the trash and get it to the power
station as quickly and efficiently as possible, Paul said, and Case IH is delivering on every
one of these requirements.
Paul said when looking for an equipment supplier, they recognized Case IH’s position as a
leading provider of technology solutions, with a state-of-the-art machinery line-up that
assisted Biopower in sustaining the fuel supply necessary for their electricity obligations.
The company has purchased over 100 Case IH machines including Farm lift telehandlers and
Farmall, Maxum and Puma tractors through Filho land, the distributor of Case IH machinery
in the Philippines.
“Our operation has a very small window to do what we need to do, so we needed reliable
tractors that could operate continuously, 24 hours a day,” Paul said.
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“The technology in these Case IH tractors has given us that reliability, and along with the
support of Filho land, they deliver what we need in the short time we have.”
For the Biopower staff who operate the fleet of Case IH tractors, there’s no doubting their
satisfaction with the machines. Paul said the operators regularly commented on the ease of
operation, power and speed of the tractors, and the technological features that made their job
easier. Staff also had high praise for the training offered by Filho land on the tractors and
telehandlers.
Biopower has also been able to install GPS-trackers and data loggers into the tractor fleet that
identify each machine’s location and provide detailed information on what they’re doing and
how they’re doing it at any given time—it basically provides a live, real-time overview of the
entire operation.
The Case IH Farmall JX is one of the models used in the Biopower operation, a small tractor
designed with maneuverability, visibility and handling top of mind. Powered by an upgraded
8000 Series, Tier 3 turbo-charged engine to provide optimum fuel efficiency and maximum
power, the Farmall JX also offers logically positioned controls with clear, concise
instrumentation that make tasks less arduous when in the field all day.
Paul said the performance of the Case IH tractors and telehandlers had been everything they
had expected and this, coupled with the 24-hour service and support, service updates and
training provided by Filho land, confirmed they had made the right choice.
When it came to running a high-pressure, round-the-clock operation like that of Biopower,
Paul said it was reassuring to have the peace of mind of reliable machinery, and support and
assistance when and where it was needed.
“My experience in the sugar industry in Australia means I have seen a lot of Case IH
equipment, and know the reputation of their tractors and harvesters, so I had the confidence
in the brand to introduce it here onto Negros,” Paul said.
“Case IH is well-known worldwide, and with a good partner like Filho land I would have no
hesitation in recommending their products to anyone in the Philippines.
“The brand has a great support network, it’s a quality product and that’s important when
you’re running any business.”
Source: https://ruralmarketing.in/stories/turning-sugarcane-waste-into-electricity/
Q On the basis of the case above, assess what factors have led the brand to be successful in
the rural sector.
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Marketing is an ever-evolving subject. Some of the recent concepts in marketing are as

follows:
1. Experiental Marketing: Experiential marketing, as the name suggests, is a trend
that focuses on creating a brand-based user experience, and not just a product-based
one. Experiences vary by brand and sector, but corporate events, webinars,
competitions are some of the most common examples of experiential marketing”
2. Influencer Marketing: “Similar to celebrity endorsements, it’s where brands use
influencers for their marketing campaigns through social media platforms like
TikTok and Instagram. It’s by no means a new trend but has gained significant
traction in the past few years for its simplicity. Influencers (including micro-
influencers) post content in which they interact with a brand, either by using one of
its products or services or engaging with employees.”
3. Programmatic advertising: “Programmatic advertising is the automation of buying
digital advertising space. Traditionally, marketing teams would need to create
proposals, negotiate and sign contracts. But through programmatic advertising,
brands can bid for ad space within milliseconds, freeing up marketers to spend more
time on campaign optimization rather than administration. Many brands are now
assigning up to 50% of their ad budgets to programmatic advertising, and the trend is
expected to exceed $100 billion in 2022”
10.8 SUMMARY
Service marketing needs a different marketing approach to be followed for them from the
approach used for products as they have certain distinctive characteristics. Marketing mix for
services comprises of 7 P‟s. In addition to the traditional 4 P‟s- product, price, place and
promotion, the additional 3 P‟s is- people, process and physical evidence. Green marketing
refers to the marketing of products that are presumed to be environmentally safe. It aims at
sustainable development. The 4 P‟s of marketing mix is modified for green marketing as the
green products are produced, promoted and is disposable in a manner which does not harm
the environment. The price is relatively high and aims to cut down on transportation
emissions while transporting the goods. Relationship marketing aims to build mutually
satisfying long-term relationships with the key constituents in order to earn and retain their
business. It advocates the philosophy “know your customers”. Rural India is gaining
importance as it offers huge potential market for various goods and services. Large
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population, rising disposable incomes, changing lifestyle of rural consumers and saturating
urban markets are the factors making rural market attractive for the marketers.
In India the retail market is dominated by the unorganized sector.
10.9 GLOSSARY
1. Consumer: A consumer is a person or a group of people, such as a household, who are

the final users of products or services.
2. Customer: A customer is the recipient of a good, service, product, or idea, obtained
from a seller, vendor, or supplier for a monetary or other valuable consideration. He
may or may not be the consumer.
3. Customer loyalty: It refers to the likelihood of previous customers to continue to buy
from a specific organization.
4. Direct mail marketing: It includes sending an offer, announcement, reminder or any
other object to an individual consumer.
5. e-tailing: The sale of goods and services through the internet.
6. Marketing Mix: The marketing mix refers to the set of actions, or tactics, that a
company uses to promote its brand or product in the market. The 4Ps make up a
typical marketing mix - Price, Product, Promotion and Place.
Objective Type Questions

State true or false:
Services are homogeneous in nature.
Service marketing and relationship marketing are synonymous.
Retailing involves the sale of goods for non-commercial use.
Retailers can either have physical existence or online existence.
Fill in the blank with appropriate words.
1. Production, consumption and distribution of services is a process.
2. Marketing mix of services has 3 extra P‟s, namely people, process and
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3. 4 A‟s of rural marketing are accessibility, awareness, and availability.
Short answers type questions:

1. What do you mean by green products?
2. Discuss differentiating features of a product and service.
3. Write a short note on customer relationship management.
4. Compare and contrast rural and urban consumers.
5. Cold drinks like Coca cola are available in rural as well as urban India. What aspects
of advertisement will differ while promoting Coca cola in urban and rural India?
Long answer type questions:
1. Why is the concept of green marketing becoming popular? Discuss marketing mix of
green products.
2. The marketing mix for services is the same as that for products. Comment and discuss
service marketing mix.
3. In this customer-oriented era, relationship marketing helps the company to create and
retain loyal and satisfied customers. Do you agree? Discuss.
4. What do you understand by rural marketing? Discuss different characteristics of rural
markets and the challenges they pose to the companies.
10.11 REFERENCES
Books:
Chhabra, T.N., Principles of Marketing, Sun India Publication.
Jethwaney Jaishri;Jain Shruti. Advertising Management. 2 ed. Oxford
Kotler, Philip; Keller, Kevin Lane; Koshy, Abraham, and Mithileshwar Jha. Marketing
Management: A South Asian Perspective. 14 ed. Pearson
Levy, Michael; Weitz A Barton; Pandit Ajay. Retail Management. 6ed. Tata Mc Graw-Hill
Lovelock, Christopher; Wirtz Jochen; Chatterjee Jayanta. Services Marketing: People,
Technology, Strategy: A South Asian Perspective. 5 ed. Pearson
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Web links:
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/direct-marketing.asp
https://www.boundless.com/marketing/integrated-marketing-communication/the-promotion-
mix/direct-marketing/
http://www.pb.com/smb/solutions/direct-marketing/definition-what-is
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Ca-Clo/Catalog- Marketing.html
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/internet_marketing.html
http://www.studymode.com/essays/Green-Marketing-Concept-776072.html
http://www.ibef.org/industry/services.aspx
http://lexicon.ft.com/term?term=services-marketing
http://www.marketingteacher.com/lesson-store/lesson-services- marketing.html
http://www.managementstudyguide.com/definition-and-characteristics-of- services.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Service_industries
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-services-marketing.htm
http://www.learnmarketing.net/servicemarketingmix.htm
http://www.marketingteacher.com/lesson-store/lesson-services- marketing.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_marketing
http://www.uow.edu.au/~sharonb/STS300/market/green/article2.html
http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/what-is-green-consumerism
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/relationship-marketing.html
http://www.forbes.com/sites/marketshare/2013/05/09/this-is-the-most- important-word-when-
it-comes-to-relationship-marketing/
http://www.appature.com/relationship-marketing.html
http://www.learnmarketing.net/benefitsofrelationshipsmarketing.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_relationship_management
http://www.ibef.org/industry/consumer-markets/indian-rural-market.aspx
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http://www.ibef.org/industry/consumer-markets/indian-rural-market.aspx
http://blogs.rediff.com/shinyvikas/2010/02/22/indias-rural-market-the- fortune-at-the-bottom-
of-the-pyramid/
http://www.mbaskool.com/business-articles/marketing/5455-marketing-mix-from-4ps-to-
4as.html
http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijms/article/viewFile/23573/16443
http://india.gov.in/people-groups/community/rural-indian
https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=20&v
ed=0CJwBEBYwCTgK&url=http%3A%2F%2Fmiteshk.webs.com%2FRURALMA
RKETING.pdf&ei=jS9hUoKZG4rprQfh4IC4Cg&usg=AFQjCNH8Q2H3r2mpmCAP
ZHugfY8bIRE3Rw&sig2=R6L1hIoUW-kHg41OZt8YPg
https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=7&ca
d=rja&ved=0CFsQFjAG&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbig-consultants.com%2Fwp-
content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F04%2FIndian-Retail-
Industry.pdf&ei=PCZpUqvLLoX9rAe35YGYBg&usg=AFQjCNEGl86_PCGqQtpsW
1L3uS-8yXaX4w&sig2=uYqCzWNypQ7ZoJqKWiil7w
Palmer, Adrian, Introduction to Marketing, Oxford University Press, UK

Lamb, Charles W.; Hair, Joseph F., and Carl McDaniel, Principles of Marketing, South
Western Publishing, Ohio.
Kumar, Arun & N. Meenakshi, Marketing Management, Vikas Publications.
McCarthy, E. Jerome., and William D. Perreault, Basic Marketing, Richard D. Irwin.
Pride, William M., and D.C. Ferell, Marketing: Planning, Implementation & Control,
Cengage Learning.
Majaro, Simon, The Essence of Marketing, Prentice Hall, New Delhi.
Zikmund, William G. and Michael D‟Amico, Marketing: Creating and Keeping Customers in
an E-Commerce World, Thomson Learning.
Etzel, Michael J., Walker, Bruce J., Staton, William J., and Ajay Pandit, Marketing Concepts
and Cases, Tata McGraw Hill (Special Indian Edition).
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McCarthy, E. Jerome; Cannon, Joseph P., and William D. Perrault, Jr., Basic Marketing: A
Managerial Approach, McGraw Hills.
“Reliance unit hopes to turn a new page in India‟s retail story” available at:
http://www.livemint.com/Industry/d5u6qxdH3RqbcmY06lyigI/Reliance-unit- hopes-to-turn-
a-new-page-in-Indias-retail-sto.html
“Split with Bharti: Why Walmart will stick to India‟s retail story, despite hurdles” available
at: http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-10- 13/news/42993192_1_fdi-rules-
india-s-easyday
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University of Delhi

Semester - I
Course Credit - 4.5
Editorial Board
Dr. Sunita Dwivedi
Dr. Amanjot Sachdeva
Content Writers
Ms. Veenu Shankar, Dr Malavika Srivastava,
Dr. Jyotika Bahl, Ms. Shalu Garg,
Dr. Saumya Aggarwal, Dr. Sneha Chaudhry

ISBN: .............................
1st edition: 2022
Published by:
Printed by:
Human Resource Management
INDEX
Module 1
Lesson 1: Foundations & Contemporary Issues in Managing Human Resources .................. 1
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Foundations of Managing People
1.4 Principles of managing people
1.5 Contemporary Issues behind Human Resource Management
1.6 Indian laws related to Human Resource Management
1.7 Summary
Module 2
Lesson 2: Human Resource Planning .................................................................................... 24
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Human Resource Planning (HRP)
2.4 Quantitative Aspect of HRP
2.5 Downsizing
2.6 Employee Retention
2.7 Summary
Lesson 3: Job Analysis& Talent Acquisition ......................................................................... 48

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Job Analysis
3.4 Downsizing and Retention
3.5 Talent Acquisition and Recruitment
3.6 Selection and Induction
3.7 Summary
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MBA
Lesson 4: Learning, Training & Development: Process and Methods ................................. 82

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Basic Concepts
4.4 Learning Theories
4.5 Training Need Identification (TNA)
4.6 ADDIE Model
4.7 Training & Development Methods
4.8 Evaluation of Training & Development
4.9 E-Training & E-Development
4.10 Career Development & Succession Planning
4.11 Case Study
4.12 Summary
Lesson 5: Compensation & Reward Management............................................................... 105

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Concept of Compensation
5.4 Compensation Management
5.5 Types of Compensation
5.6 Reward Management
5.7 Summary
Module 3
Lesson 6: Performance Management: Systems &Strategies ............................................... 140
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Concept of Performance Appraisal
6.4 Methods of Performance Appraisal
6.5 Performance Management and Potential Appraisal
6.6 Summary
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Lesson 7: Industrial Relations & Workers’ Participation ................................................... 179

7.2 Industrial Relations
7.3 Dynamics of Employee, Employer and the State
7.4 Trade Unions
7.5 Industrial Harmony & Worker’s Participation
7.6 Collective Bargaining
7.7 Summary
Lesson 8: Grievance, Conflict Management & International Dimensions of HRM ............ 218
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Grievance
8.4 Discipline
8.5 Conflict Management and Dispute Resolution
8.6 Employee Engagement
8.7 International Dimensions of HRM
8.8 Summary
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LESSON 1
FOUNDATIONS & CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN

MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCES
Veenu Shankar
Doctoral Scholar
Department of Management Studies
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
veenu.dms.iitd@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Foundations of Managing People
1.3.1 What is Human Resource Management
1.3.2 Why is Human Resource Management Relevant to all Managers
1.3.3 Line Versus Staff aspects of Human Resource Management
1.3.4 Human Resource Department and its Responsibilities
1.3.5 Human Resource Development
1.4 Principles of managing people
1.4.1 The Strategic Human Resource Management Process
1.4.2 The New Human Resource Manager
1.4.3 Key Competencies of the Human Resource Manager
1.4.4 10 Cs of Human Resource Management
1.5 Contemporary Issues behind Human Resource Management
1.6 Indian laws related to Human Resource Management
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.11 References
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MBA
The objective of this lesson is to thoroughly understand the concept of Human Resource
Management and its relevance in an organization. After this lesson, a student will be able to
understand the following:
• Foundations of Human Resource Management

• Line versus staff aspects of Human Resource Management
• Human Resource Management versus Human Resource Development
• Strategic Planning Process and its process
• Strategic Human Resource Management and its importance
• Human Resource Manager and his/her key competencies
• 10 Cs of Human Resource Management
1.2 INTRODUCTION
It has been said that when there is two or more people who exist and work together, the entity
they are working for becomes an organization. For instance, a bank is an organization. An
organization includes people with formal roles who work together to accomplish the
organizational goals. But to keep an eye on organizational goals, we need PEOPLE to manage
PEOPLE and supervise PEOPLE. That’s why, an emerging term, Human Resource
Management comes into the picture. In this lesson, we will see how Human Resource
Management is important for an organization through comprehending some real-life case
studies.
1.3 FOUNDATIONS OF MANAGING PEOPLE
Primarily, there are five M(s) in management: Materials, Machinery, Money, Methods, and
Men. Out of these, “Men”1 is the most important as it steers other 4M(s) to achieve
organizational goals by effectively coordinating and utilizing all available resources. The
significance of human resources cannot be replaced as all the organizations are heavily
1
By “men”, we mean human resources of all genders. Hence, not specific to ‘male’ gender.
2|Page

dependent on them for swift functioning of operations. In this section, we will learn some
fundamentals or foundations of managing people.
1.3.1 What is Human Resource Management?
As we discovered above that human resource is the fifth M of management that helps in
effective coordination and utilization of organizational resources. The process of managing all
human resources of an organization becomes Human Resource Management (or HRM).
HRM “is the process of acquiring, training, appraising, and compensating employees, and of
attending to their labour relations, health & safety, and fairness concerns”.
The term "people at work" refers to a sizable population of people of different genders, ages,
socio-religious affiliations, and educational or literacy levels. In addition to sharing some
traits and behaviour patterns with one another, these people in the workplace also display many
differences. Every person who is a part of an organization has a unique collection of
requirements, motivations, objectives, and experiences. Despite having unique physical and
psychological characteristics, every human being is the outcome of interactions with his
environment as well as his biological inheritance.
Fig 1.1: HRM Overview
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MBA
Therefore, management must be cognizant of both organizational needs and personnel

demands. All of these cannot be disregarded. An organised effort makes it feasible for
organizations, "people at work," "the people who manage them" (i.e., managers themselves),
and other public groups (such as customers, shareholders, entrepreneurs, governments,
suppliers, etc.) to achieve their goals. The employee forms relationships on all four dimensions:
(i) between management and employees; (ii) within the workforce; (iii) among the managerial
staff; and (iv) throughout the business and community.
The focus of this lesson is to understand the fundamentals of HRM in detail. However, a few
nuances are presented in each section to define the process of HRM in brevity.
1.3.2 Why is ‘Human Resource Management ‘relevant to all managers
First, let’s discuss the definition of a manager. A manager is an individual who is accountable
for accomplishing organizational goals.
ACTIVITY
Imagine that you are a human resource manager at XYZ corporation. And you
conduct the following mistakes.
1. Hire the wrong person for the job
2. Waste time with useless interviews
3. People that you hired are leaving your company
Take a moment and discuss your thoughts with yourself only as you might be reading
this book on your own. If you have a bunch of friends around you, that’s even better,
share your reflections on the above 3 mistakes that you conducted hypothetically.
Remember that as a manager, you can do everything else right but still fail at the end. HRM is
about thirty percent of everything else and seventy percent of the mistakes that are mentioned
in above activity. As you go ahead with this book, you’ll learn HRM methods and techniques
that you make an effective human resource manager. The importance of human resource is
summed up in Lawrence Bossidy’s quote:
“I am convinced that nothing we do is more important than hiring and developing people.
At the end of the day, you bet on people, not on strategies.”
4|Page

1.3.3 Line Versus Staff aspects of Human Resource Management

Managers of different departments, in a sense, are human resource managers as they get
involved in the hiring process. For instance, when a financial company visits a University of
Delhi university college for finance-related placements, the candidates usually must go through
two rounds of interview – i) HR Round and ii) Technical Round. The HR round is organized
with the human resource (HR) manager and the technical round is organized with the finance
manager. In a way, both, finance, and HR manager are helping the company to hire the best
pool of candidates.
If a hiring can be done by a non-HR manager, then why do we need HR managers in the
workplace? To answer this dilemma, one needs to understand the basic distinction between line
authority and staff authority.
The line authority2 conventionally gives managers the right to issue orders, however, the staff
authority provides managers the right to advise other employees or managers. On an
organizational chart, the managers with line authority are called line managers and managers
with staff authority are called staff managers. Human resource managers are commonly staff
managers. The following are the staff functions of human resource managers:
1. Advises the top management (CEO, COO, CFO) on personnel aspects of an
organization
2. Assists in hiring, training, counselling, and firing of employees or managers
3. Administers benefits programmes like retirement, vacation etc.
2
“Authority is the right to make decision, direct others’ work, and give orders”
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MBA
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Ankur has the right the issue orders and Ankit has the right to assist other
employees. Choose the correct option:
a. Ankur is the line manager and Ankit is the staff manager
b. Both are line managers
c. Ankur is the staff managers and Ankit is the line manager
d. Both are staff managers
2. If you are responsible for accomplishing organizational goals, then you are?
a. Boss b. Manager
c. Supervisor d. CEO
3. ___________ includes people with formal roles who work together to
accomplish the organizational goals.
a. Organization b. Firm
c. Company d. All the above
4. Suppose you are the human resource manager at company XYZ, and the top
management wants you to conduct a survey to comprehend the determinants
that drive employees to perform better. What would you include in the survey?
a. Organizational goals b. Personal Demands
c. Both A and B d. None
1.3.4 Human Resource Department

A human resource department is responsible for effectively managing an organization’s
human resources, which are primarily its employees. Like a HR manager, the key
responsibility of human resource department is to collectively manage, compensate, and train
employees. The following are the core functions of HR department (including HR managers):
1. Recruitment and Selection
Recruitment is the process of attracting qualified pool of candidates whereas selection
is placing the right candidate for a job. An advertisement published in the newspaper is
a recruitment technique and conducting interviews is a selection technique. You will
learn this concept in detail in the lesson 2 of this book.
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2. Training and Development

Training and development are educational or skill development initiatives that an
organization undertakes to improve the job-performance of employees. From instilling
motivation to providing resources for knowledge, are a few examples of T&D (or
training and development) activities. You will learn this concept in detail in the lesson
3 of this book.
3. Industrial Relations
As the name comprises two terminologies, i) industrial & ii) relations. By industry, we
refer to the organization, and by relations, we mean the relationship between employer
and employees. In nutshell, the industrial relations are “the relationship between
employer and employees in an organizational setting”. You will learn this concept in
detail in the lesson 4 of this book.
4. Conflict Management
As the name suggests, conflict management is the process by which conflicts are
resolved in an organization. The primary responsibility of an HR manager is not to
avoid conflict but to deal with them and provide efficacious solutions to resolve the
conflict. You will learn this concept in detail in the lesson 5 of this book.
1.3.5 Human Resource Development
Human resource development (HRD) is the process of nurturing a company's workforce. It
means to provide the abilities and pertinent information that might help in employees’ overall
professional development. As a result, HRM includes human resource development as well.
HRD begins with a clear goal of employee development and is frequently met through training
activities that are conducted in an organization. These efforts help employees in their career
chart as well as in personal lives.
As Human Resource Developers oversee several areas within the human resources division
of an organization, including training, employee development, executive and leadership
development, human performance technology, and organizational learning, they have become
very important members of the HR team in some organizations. They may be responsible
for establishing mechanisms to recruit and retain talent, developing training programmes, and
organizing organizational development activities, such as planning workshops, among other
things.
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Table 1:
Human Resource Development versus Human Resource Management
Particulars Human Resource Human Resource
Development Management
1. Function It is a proactive function. It is a service and reactive
function.
2. Objective It aims to ameliorate efficiency It aims to develop
of people. professional capabilities of
employees while enhancing
overall organizational culture.
3. Responsibility It is the responsibility of human It is the responsibility of
resource as well as technical human resource manager.
manager.
4. Terminology Human Resource ‘Developers’. Human Resource ‘Managers’.
5. Focus It usually focuses on ‘creative It usually focuses on

aspects’ to motivate employees. ‘organizational goals.’
Even though these two concepts are distinct, they have a lot in common. For instance, they
both require addressing problems. When disagreements emerge inside a company, HR
managers may be relied upon to find innovative, considerate solutions. Similar problem-
solving exercises may be assigned to HR developers when creating new training techniques
and systems. Since both positions need interaction with others, having interpersonal skills
may be advantageous in creating and maintaining positive working relationships between
workers and a company.
1.4 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGING PEOPLE
Many experts believe that managing people mainly involve five functions: planning,
organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling.
• Planning: In this stage, the planning related to tasks is formulated.
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• Organizing: In this stage, whatever was planned in the planning stage, is allocated to
each employee.
• Staffing: After organizing stage, most of the times an organization feels lack of
adequate personnel, lack of skilled personnel. Therefore, in this stage, activities such as
recruitment and selection, training and development etc. are focussed.
• Leading: Once you are clear on the staffing process, it is consequential to motivate
and encourage employees. Hence, under this stage, motivation is given utmost
importance.
• Controlling: After planning, organizing, staffing, leading, it becomes important to
check how well an organization has achieved its goals. In this stage, evaluation of the
performance is done and based on that corrective measures are devised.
SWOT MATRIX WITH GENERIC EXAMPLES

Potential STRENGTHS: Potential OPPORTUNITIES:
- Market leadership - New market
- Cost advantage - Diversification
- High quality products - Merger with competitor
Potential WEAKNESSES: Potential THREATS:
- Negative market image - Takeover threat
- Lack of resources - Slow market growth
- Lack of research and development - Excessive regulations
1.4.1 The Strategic Human Resource Management Process

The strategic management process starts with the basic five functions
(explained above) of management and ends with scanning internal strengths (S) & weaknesses
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(W) and external opportunities (O) & threats (T) to establish a competitive advantage in the
market. This helps an organization decide its strategy.
Strategic human resource management (SHRM) process is “formulating and executing
human resource policies & practices the produce the employee competencies and behaviours
the company needs to achieve its objectives”. An effective SWOT analysis helps organizations
in their SHRM processes.
1.4.2 The New Human Resource Manager
Earlier, a human resource manager used to focus on only administrative activities like hiring
and firing employees, keeping an eye on compensation management etc. But today the
employer faces several challenges related to the functionalities of an organization. The HR
managers of today are expected:
1. To focus more on big picture issues (or strategic issues)
Human resources are more often used in helping companies address strategic and big
picture issues. As explained above in section 1.4.1, this is known as strategic human
resource management.
2. To focus on improving performance
The human resource managers of today are equally responsible for improving
performance of employees associated with the organization.
3. To measure performances of an employee and give timely results to the organization.
Measurability is another task that is very challenging. Human resource managers make
sure to provide well equipped benchmarks for evaluating current performance of
employees.
4. To manage ethics
Ethics is “the standards that someone uses to decide what his/her conduct should be”.
Human resource managers are also responsible to pen down workplace related ethics.
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STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT PROCESS: PROCESS
Step 1 – Where are we now?

Here, the manager starts with defining company’s current business and mission.
Questions like, what products need to be sold, where to sell them and how to gain
competitive advantages are answered in this step.
Step 2 – Perform SWOT analysis
The next step is to ask, “are we heading in the right directions given the
challenges that we face”.
Step 3 – Create a few Strategic Options
Under this phase, several strategic options are created by the management for the
company.
Step 4 – Review Strategic Options
This step helps the management to review strategic options created in the third
step and shortlists viable options to purse.
Step 5 – Make a Strategic choice
Under this step, a strategic choice is decided after performing SWOT analysis of
each strategy shortlisted in the step 4.
Step 6 – Translate into Goals
Under this step, the strategic choice, decided in the step 5, is divided into
actionable strategic goals.
Step 7 – Implement the actionable strategic goals
Now, in this step hiring and firing of people is decided according to the
actionable strategic goals.
Step 8 – Evaluate Performance
“Things don’t always turnout as planned”. Therefore, a continuous evaluation is
required in the last step.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. Developing skills of employees are needed to run business in
a. Short-term b. Medium-term
c. Long-term d. All of the above
6. Which of the following problems can be disguised in organizations?
a. Territorial b. Social
c. Environmental c. Economic
7. _______ is the process of acquiring, training, appraising, and compensating
employees, and of attending to their labour relations, health and safety, and
fairness concerns.
a. HRM b. HRD
c. SHRM d. None of the above
8. Which of the following does not imply the staff functions of human resource
management?
a. Advises the top management (CEO, COO, CFO) on personnel aspects
of an organization
b. Assists in hiring, training, counselling, and firing of employees or
managers
c. Administers benefits programmes like retirement, vacation etc.
d. Looking after profit and loss accounts
9. Suppose you are the CEO of XYZ company, which department should you be
giving your valuable time and efforts?
a. Marketing b. HRM
c. Finance and Operations d. All of the above
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CASE STUDY
The Tata Group
One of India's biggest and most reputable business giants, the Tata Group, has a distinguished
history of implementing some of the best human resources (HR) practices. The group had
significantly grown over the years, necessitating the need for a shared HR platform inside the
organization. A successful group-wide HR strategy was developed and put into practice. It
would be difficult to implement HR policies across all the different entities as many group
companies expand internationally. It remained to be seen if the Tata group would uphold the
basic principles and ideals in its pursuit of development and international enlargement.
Discussion of the difficulties huge corporations have adopting uniform HR rules is made
possible by the case. It also makes it easier to have conversations about employer branding
concerns and how to maintain brand equity in a globalized environment. Students can also
explore Tata's HR initiatives as a model employer, the Tata brand's ability to be sustained in
the face of global competition, and whether growth will dilute the company's reputation.
Questions:
1. Is the Tata Group the best employer in the country? What are reasons for your answer?
2. Visit the Tata Group’s website and list down some of their best employee practices of the
following:
a. Tata Steel
b. Tata Motors
c. Tata Electronic Private Limited
d. Tata Consultancy Services
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1.4.3 Key Competencies of the Human Resource Manager
Figure 1.2:
Human Resource Manager Competencies
Let’s discuss each competency3 one by one.

1. Strategic Managers
This competency is related to the ability required for strategic human resource
management which has been explained in detail in section 1.4.1. Through having this
competency, the managers help organization in creating the strategy.
2. Leaders
By having leadership attributes, a human resource manager is respected and admired in
the organization.
3. Innovators
With this competency, a human resource manager can create a platform for meaningful
work environment in an organization. They train, develop, and retain talent with their
innovative ideas.
4. Tech Savvy
Technology plays an important role in the lives of human resource managers. During
the COVID-19 pandemic also, it was HR managers’ responsibilities to connect people
via technology and colleagues do the same.
3
An ability or skill required for a task
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1.4.4 10 Cs of Human Resource Management

Since its inception in the 1970s, the area of human resource management has been developing.
Numerous models have been put out by HRM specialists to interpret, clarify, and promote HR
practices and policies that are in line with a certain ideology and philosophy. The Ten C model
of HRM is recognised as an all-inclusive and practical model within this new genre. This model
was created by Alan Price, who published it in his 1997 Book ‘Human Resource Management
in a Business Context’. The 10 Cs, or the ten fundamental principles, comprise this approach.
These are:
1. Comprehensiveness -An organization's HRM plan must cover employee-

related strategies right from their selection to the time they decide to exit the
organization.
2. Credibility -The HRM practices must promote employee engagement and
foster trust between workers and senior management.
3. Communication -All workers need to understand and accept the
organizational and HRM goals. Organizational culture must promote
transparency and be devoid of any obstacles.
4. Cost effectiveness -Fairness is required in the promotion and reward system.
5. Creativity -The company's distinctive HR initiatives must be the source of
its competitive advantage.
6. Coherence -HRM strategies and activities need to make sense.
7. Competence -The HRM strategy should be designed in way that the
organization develops the capacity to accomplish its goals with the aid of
individual competences.
8. Control -HRM methods and policies must make sure that HR performance is
in line with corporate goals.
9. Change -The fundamental tenet of any HRM strategy must be that existence
depends on ongoing development and improvement.
10. Commitment -The last C emphasises that the individual must be inspired to
pursue organizational objectives.
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1.5 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES BEHIND HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT
Organizational environments will inevitably alter because of changes in socioeconomic and

political circumstances. Due to quickly evolving business environment, it becomes important
to regularly update the knowledge and abilities after considering the goals and objectives of an
organization. Five of the contemporary issues include:
1. Setting up an adequate internal environment
The foremost crucial aspect of managing management employees is weaving an
environment that is i) adaptable to external changes, ii) satisfactory for current
employees, and iii) sustainable in the long term.
2. Coping up with the increasing workforces
The organizational size and complexities keep growing just like the number of
individuals who work in the organization. The management of a larger workforce
presents significant difficulties and obstacles, particularly when employees' awareness
of their rights increases.
3. Dealing with the legal environment
Adjustments will need to be made to better utilise human resources to keep up with
the legal environment.
4. Maintaining a psychological state of employees
The paradigm of managers would involve encouraging the employees to maintain a
psychological state of preparedness for any sudden change if ever occurs. From helping
them to developing new knowledge & skills, working on the psychological state is a
never-ending process and requires continuous attention of human resource managers.
5. Keeping up with the technological advancements
An accurate evaluation of the new technology and providing training to the existing
employees based on it, becomes a daunting task as it sometimes leads to attrition and
retrenchment which results in lowering the motivation of employees.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
10. The responsibilities of HRM managers are now expanded to
a. Tasks b. Organizational Strategies
c. Goals c. None of the above
11. Which is NOT one of the competencies of human resource managers?
a. Leaders b. Strategic Managers
c. Tech Savvy d. Outdated Knowledge
12. ______________gave the 10Cs of the human resource management in the year
_________. Choose the correct option
a. Joshua Stuart in 1997 b. Alan Price in 2007
c. Alan Price in 1997 d. Joshua Stuart in 2007
1.6 INDIAN LAWS RELATED TO THE HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT
The laws related to the human resource management (or labour laws) are inspired by British
laws. The widespread perception is that Indian Labour laws (or human resource laws) are
outdated and inflexible. However, India as a country, has implemented various labour laws
catering to industrial relationships, wages, working hours, equality & empowerment of women,
and social security. As an HR manager, one should know the following Indian labour laws.
1.6.1 Laws related to industrial relations
These laws help in establishing cordial relationships between management and human
resources (or labour). There are specifically three laws pertaining to the industrial relations:
1. The Trade Unions Act, 1926
The law was passed even before independence, and it stated that all trade unions should
be registered under this act.
2. The Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, 1946
This law acts as a medium of communication between labour and management.
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3. The Industrial Disputes Act, 1947

This act allows the government to interfere in the conflict if required.
1.6.2 Laws related to wages
The two pioneer laws under this section are:
1. The Payment of Wages Act, 1936
The objective of this law is to make sure that certain groups of employees get regular
income without any unauthorized deductions.
2. The Minimum Wages Act, 1948
This law ensures the minimum rate of wages to all types of employees as well as labour
1.6.3 Laws related to working hours
The following laws help the employees/workers/labours to protect their health:
1. The Factories Act, 1948
This law acts as a safeguard for workers to protect their health and provides safety at
the workplace.
2. The Shops and Commercial Establishments Act, 1961
This act is also in similar lines with the factories act. But it deals with the IT
(Information Technology) and ITES (Information Technology Enabled Services)
sector.
1.6.4 Laws related to equality and empowerment of women
1. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961
This act provides benefits to all women employees working in certain organizations.
This act specifically aims at empowering women.
2. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
This act encourages organization to pay equal remuneration to men and women. This
is an anti-discrimination act that focuses on equal pay for equal work.
1.6.5 Laws related to social security
1. The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923
The act makes employer responsible for any mishap occurring to an employee while
working. It allows employees to receive compensation for injuries arising out of
accidents during work.
2. The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948
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The objective of this act is to provide financial relief to the employees in case of any
emergency.
Please note that only a few important labour laws have been mentioned in brief.
Please refer Taxman Labour Laws, 2019 edition for deeper understanding on the labour
laws.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
13. One of the employees’ unions of your organizations have started protesting
for their unfair demands. As a manager, you feel that the government can
provide better decision and solutions in this scenario. Which act would
allow government to sort out this tussle?
a. Trade Union Act b. Maternity Act
c. Industrial Dispute Act d. Industrial Employment
14. Aman and Naina are working in the ACG company as HR managers at
the same level. However, Naina’s annual package is 6 lacs lower than that
of Aman’s. Which law can help Naina for her remuneration?
a. Equal Remuneration Act b. Maternity Act
c. Trade Union d. Employee’s State Insurance
15. The full form of SWOT is:
a. Strength, weakness, opportunities, tasks
b. System, weakness, opposition, threats
c. System, weakness, opportunities, threats
d. Strength, weakness, opportunities, threats
1.7 SUMMARY
After reading this lesson, all students should be able to answer what is human resource
management, and why is it important? An adequate understanding of this would help
upcoming managers to not commit any hiring mistakes while hiring personnel for their
organization. The section on the new human resource manager will help the students to work
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on the key competencies that are required for strategizing and creating high performance
work systems. A little snippet on the Indian labour laws will help students to comprehend
employments laws.
1.8 GLOSSARY
Strategy: A course of action the company can pursue to achieve its strategic aims.
Strategic Aims: Strategic aims are nothing but organizational objectives.
Benchmarking: The practice of comparing business models with industrial best standards and
practices.
Competitive Advantage: Any factor that allows an organization to differentiate its product or
services from those of its competitors to enhance market share.
Attrition: The involuntary or voluntary departure of employees from the organization.
Retrenchment: An involuntary firing of employees due to the replacement of labour with
technological advancement.
Mission Statement: Summarizes the answer to the question, “what business are we in”.
Employee Awareness: A level to which an employee knows certain policies, situation,
documents, or any other important information specific to his/her organization.
Interpersonal Skills: Interpersonal skills are “the skills we use every day when we
communicate and interact with other people, both individually and in groups”
1. A 10.B
2. B 11. B
3. D 12. C
4. C 13. C
5. C 14. A
6. A 15. C
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7. A
8. D
9. D
Discussion Questions:
1. Explain the concept of human resource management. Discuss major contemporary
issues associated with the concept.
2. What are the basic differences between line and staff managers? Explain with an
organizational example.
3. Define key competencies of the new human resource manager.
4. How HR managements concepts are relevant to other department in an organization?
Individual/Group Activity:
1. Working individually or in groups, develop an outline showing how trends like
workforce diversity, technological innovation, globalization, and changes in work have
affected the college or university you are attending now. Present in the class.
2. Working individually or in groups, interview an HR manager. Based on that interview,
write a short presentation regarding HR’s role today in building competitive
organizations.
Application Case:
India Cleaning Centers
Priyanka Sharma graduated from State University in June 2010, and after considering several
jobs’ offers, decided to do what she always planned to do – go into business with her father,
Amar Sharma.
Amar opened his first laundromat in 1995 and his second in 1998. The main attraction of these
coin laundry businesses was that they were capital rather than labour intensive. Thus, once the
investment in machinery was made, the stores could be run with just one unskilled attendant
and none of the labour problems one normally expects from being in the retail service business.
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Notwithstanding, Amar had decided by 1999 to expand the services in each of his stores to
include the dry cleaning and pressing of clothes. He embarked, in other words, on a strategy of
‘related diversification’ by adding new services that were related to and consistent with his
existing coin laundry activities. He added these for several reasons. He wanted to better utilise
the unused space in the rather large stores he currently had under lease. Furthermore, he was,
as he put it, “tired of sending out the dry-cleaning ad pressing work that came in from our coin
laundry clients to a dry cleaner 5 miles away, who then took most of what should have been
our profits”. To reflect the new, expanded line of services, he renamed each of his two stores
Indian Cleaning Centres and was sufficiently satisfied with their performance to open four
more of the same type of stores over the next 5 years. Each store had its own site manager and,
on average, about seven employees and annual revenues of about $500,000. It was this six-
store chain that Priyanka joined after graduating.
Her understanding with her father was that she would serve as a trouble-shooter/consultant to
the elder carter with the aim of both learning the business and bringing to it modern
management concepts and techniques for solving the business’s problems and facilitating its
growth.
Questions:
1. Make a list of five specific HR problems you think Indian Cleaning will have to deal
with in future.
2. What would you do first if you were Priyanka Sharma?
1.11 REFERENCES
Becker, B., & Gerhart , B. (1996). The impact of human resource management on
organizational performance: Progress and prospects. Academy of Management Journal.
Bowen, D. E., & Ostroff, C. (2004). Understanding HRM–Firm Performance Linkages: The
Role of the “Strength” of the HRM System. Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29, No. 2.
Dessler, G., & Varkkey, B. (2016). Human Resource Management, Indian Edition. Delhi,
Chennai: Pearson.
Gary, D., & Biju, V. (2016). Human Resource Management, Indian Edition . Delhi, Chennai:
Pearson.
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Hui, Z. (2009). Notice of Retraction: Practice of Strategic Human Resource Management In

the Enterprise. 2009 International Conference on Computer Technology and Development.
Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia: IEEE.
Lado, A. A. (2000). Strategic Human Resource Management. Academy of Management
Review, Vol. 25, No. 3.
Taxmann. (2019). Taxmann Labor Laws. Delhi: Taxmann.
Ulrich, D., Jon, Y., Brockbank, W., & Ulrich , M. (2012). HR from the Outside In: Six
Competencies for the Future of Human Resources. Newyork, The USA: McGraw Hill
Professional.
Wright, P. M., & Snell, S. A. (1998). Toward a Unifying Framework for Exploring Fit and
Flexibility in Strategic Human Resource Management. Academy of Management Review, Vol.
23, No. 4.
Becker, B., & Gerhart , B. (1996). The impact of human resource management on
organizational performance: Progress and prospects. Academy of Management Journal.
Bowen, D. E., & Ostroff, C. (2004). Understanding HRM–Firm Performance Linkages: The
Role of the “Strength” of the HRM System. Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29, No. 2.
Dessler, G., & Varkkey, B. (2016). Human Resource Management, Indian Edition. Delhi,
Chennai: Pearson.
Lado, A. A. (2000). Strategic Human Resource Management. Academy of Management
Review, Vol. 25, No. 3.
Ulrich, D., Jon, Y., Brockbank, W., & Ulrich , M. (2012). HR from the Outside In: Six
Competencies for the Future of Human Resources. Newyork, The USA: McGraw Hill
Professional.
Wright, P. M., & Snell, S. A. (1998). Toward a Unifying Framework for Exploring Fit and
Flexibility in Strategic Human Resource Management. Academy of Management Review, Vol.
23, No. 4.
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LESSON 2
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING: HIRING, RETAINING &
DOWNSIZING
Dr. Malavika Srivastava
Associate Professor
Institute of Information Technology & Management
GGSIPU
Malavika.iitm@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Human Resource Planning (HRP)
2.3.1 Nature of HRP
2.3.2 Objectives of HRP
2.3.3 Steps in HRP
2.4 Quantitative Aspect of HRP
2.4.1 Demand Forecasting
2.4.2 Supply Forecasting
2.4.3 Problems in HRP
2.4.4 Guidelines for Effective HRP
2.5 Downsizing
2.5.1 Role of HR Manager in Downsizing
2.6 Employee Retention
2.6.1 Importance of Employee Retention
2.6.2 Employee Retention Strategy
2.7 Summary
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2.8 Glossary
2.11 References
After reading this lesson you will be able to:

• Understand the importance and concept of human resource planning in managing
human resources.
• Understand the process of Human resource planning.
• Understand how to maintain a balance between Human Resource Supply and Demand
• Understand the concept of downsizing and retention and will be able to analyse
conditions where they need to be used.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Human Resource or manpower may be defined as the total knowledge, skills, creative abilities,
talents and aptitudes of an organization’s workforce, as well as the values, attitudes and beliefs
of the individuals involved. It is the sum total of inherited abilities acquired knowledge and
skills represented by the talents and aptitude of the employed person. Thus, Human Resource
includes not only human beings but also their knowledge, skills, attitudes, aptitudes etc. Human
resource is considered the most dynamic resource of the organization. Other factors are useless
without their effective use by the Human Resources Hence, proper management of such a vital
resource in an organization is inevitable for organizational success. With that view let us
understand the concept of Human Resource Management.
Human Resource Management may be defined as that activity in an enterprise which strives to
mould human resources into an effective organization, provides an opportunity for maximum
individual contribution under healthy working conditions, promotes individual development
and encourages confidence and understanding between the employees and the employers and
between the employees themselves.
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Primary to any managerial process are the functions of management. Among these functions
Planning is the vital function of management in any organization. The major focus of planning
is majorly on important tasks like product development, methods of production, procurement
of raw materials, machinery tools etc. implementation of the methods of production, sales and
marketing, quality maintenance and so on. In addition to these, some focus is now being placed
on planning the manpower of the organization, led from the increasing people centrism in
organizations. In commercial and Industrial undertakings, planning has been focused on profit
taking, procurement production, marketing, quality control, and recently on manpower.
Manpower has now been recognised as the intellectual asset, that needs to be procured wisely
and managed effectively in order to utilise them optimally for maximum benefits to the
organization. Human Resource is not only a resource that needs to be planned but is important
as one of the most important factors that is needs for execution of all other organizational plans.
an important part of the overall planning of an organization. HRP is essential to realise all other
plans and putting them into action in order to achieve organizational goals.
2.3 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING:
In a narrow sense HRP may be defined as the replacement planning which encompasses the
analysis of labour turnover and recruitment policies and developing models for planning
recruitment and promotion of employees. But broadly, HRP is a process that can be realised in
two phases, in the first phase by projecting future manpower requirements and in the second
phase by developing manpower action plans to accommodate the implications of projection.
Thus, manpower planning works for ascertaining objectives, policies and programmes that will
help in developing, utilising and distributing manpower for the achievement of organizational
goals.
In the words of Vetter “In the process of Human Resource Planning, management discuss and
finalise strategies for an organization to bridge the gap between existing manpower condition
to its desired manpower condition.”
2.3.1 Nature of Human Resource Planning:
(i) Manpower planning is forward looking in nature. It aims at ascertaining the future
manpower needs of the organization both in number and kind.
(ii) Human Resource Planning is an integral part of corporate planning. Without a corporate
plan, there can be no manpower plan.
(iii) HRP is a continuous process due to changing demand and supply
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(iv) It presents an inventory of existing manpower of the organization to ascertain the status
of the available personnel and to discover untapped talent presently available with the
organization.
(v) It helps in determining the surplus & deficit of manpower by comparing the total
manpower needs with the present supply of manpower.
(vi) HRP is helpful in case future needs exceeds presently available talent, organizational
programme for recruitment and training begins. And, if the presently available talent
exceeds the future needs, organizational programmes of transfer, deployment,
discharge etc. begins.
ACTIVITY
Considering yourself as a Human Resource Manager, in case of surplus of
employees in your organization, what actions will you take? Enumerate the suitable
steps in sequence.
2.3.2 Objectives of Human Resource Planning:

The main objective of any Planning is to achieve something or the other by doing it according
to the planned way. So is the case with Human Resource Planning, it is a process aimed at
procuring and managing human resource in such a way in an organization that it maximizes its
gains and make it more competitive in nature. To be more specific about objectives of
manpower planning are as follows:
1. Forecasting future requirements for manpower in an organization for its goal
achievement.
2. Calculating the manpower surplus and deficit in the organization.
3. Analysing the effect of technology on the human aspect of an organization.
4. Analysing favourableness of conditions for expansion and diversification related
decisions.
5. Managing and optimally utilising human resource of organization.
6. Ensuring that the human resource needs are timely fulfilled with the adequate quantity
and quality of human resource.
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7. Ensuring insubordination of HRP with the overall organizational planning.

8. Directing to take necessary actions in case of surplus or deficit of human resource.
9. Developing foundation for conducting Management Development Programmes as and
when required.
2.3.3 Steps in Human Resource Planning:
The process of human resource planning involves the following steps:
1. Deciding objectives of HRP: The main purpose of Human Resource Planning is to
maintain a balance between human resource demand and supply. Through effective
planning the future enterprise needs should be assessed in advance so as to increase
preparedness of the enterprise in terms of manpower availability. Also, planners need
to be extra careful while making assessment of availability and requirements of human
resource in the organization, in order to take correct decisions and develop right
strategies.
2. Inventory Management: The management of deficit and surplus of human resource
can be smooth if the organization will be able to manage its human resource inventory.
From the existing skill in the inventory people can be trained, placed, developed and
utilised as and when required, cutting down the cost of hiring and procuring new set of
skills as the requirements occur. It is even helpful in developing management
succession plans or calculating replacements, the need of which may arise due to
retirement, resignations etc.
3. Demand forecasting: Demand is created when there appears a gap between ‘what is’
and ‘what should be’. To foresee the demands of human resource, current manpower
analysis needs to be done by department with major emphasis on functions, occupation
that needs to be filled, level of skills or qualification required. On the basis of a detailed
analysis appropriate decisions can be taken to satisfy the human resource demands of
the organization.
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appraisal of
Human Objectives of
Resource HRP
Planning
Training & Inventory of

Development Human
Program Resource skills
Demand &
Employment
Supply
Program
forecasting
Redeployment
Determine net
and
manpower
redundancy
requirement
plan
Factors influencing future manpower demands are:

a. Employment Trend Analysis: The manpower planners must make a thorough
analysis of employment trends i.e., employments conditions in the organization
during past five years. This in return will help understanding stability or
instability of people in the organization, this will also clarify that whether the
trend has expanding or contracting.
b. Replacement Need Analysis: In an organization there can be various reasons
for replacement, such as death, retirement, resignation and termination of
employees. An analysis of the same may help in finding better replacements for
vacant positions.
c. Productivity: Organizational productivity is closely linked with productivity of
people in the organization. Therefore, caution needs to be taken while making
hiring decisions as a wrong hire may have an adverse effect on the overall
productivity of the organization.
d. Growth & Expansion: Growth and expansion of any organization needs more
human resource. This need should be carefully analysed in advance so as to
have adequate quantity of human resource that favours the decision regarding
expansion of organization.
4. Supply Forecasting: Whatever is the demand, it can be fulfilled only with an adequate
amount of supply. Therefor they carry equal importance in case of human resource
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forecasting. There are specifically two sources of supply of human resource- Internal
and external. Both are utilised depending upon the nature and type of demand. Internal
supply is considered to be more important in comparison to the external sources. It is
so because of accessible availability. It comprises of the employees working in the
organization who can be promoted or transferred to fill up various vacant positions as
and when required. The only thing needed is the evaluation and tallying of needs with
available supply of personnel to understand their suitability. Tools used for supply
forecasting is HR Audit and Replacement charts This would require an evaluation of
the present personnel abilities, strengths and weaknesses, so as to gauge their suitability
for different jobs. In order to estimate the internal supply of personnel, it is necessary
to conduct HR Audit and prepare replacement charts in advance.
a. Human Resource Audit: Process of HR audit systematically examines the
executive personnel or managers leading to the creation of management
inventories and for non-managerial employees it leads to the preparation of skill
inventories.
b. Replacement Charts: It clearly shows that who will replace whom in the long
run. They are prepared for listing key positions in the organization and
indicating time when it is likely to fall vacant. Also list the most likely
candidates in the organization who ca suitably fills vacancies and the time when
they are ready for promotion.
5. Gap Analysis: Gap is what lies between supply and demand. Manpower planning
experts can identify this gap by comparing demand forecasts with supply forecasts.
With the help of which they will be able to assess either deficit or surplus of human
resources in future. In case of deficit, decisions need to be taken regarding procurement
of human resource i.e., recruitment from outside whereas in case of surplus,
redundancy, redeployment, transfer or retrenchment can be the solution. Gaps can also
be in the form of knowledge, skills and aptitudes. If the employees are found to be
deficient of some specific skills or knowledge, they can be trained on the other hand
employees with higher skills may be diverted into more enriched jobs. As soon as these
gaps are identified, plans are prepared, and appropriate decisions are taken to bridge
these gaps.
6. Redeployment and Redundancy Program: On estimation of surplus manpower, a
decision regarding redeployment/retrenchment of such personnel needs to be taken.
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Redeployment may include the following measures:

(a) Transferring personnel from the departments having surplus manpower to those having
shortage of manpower.
(b) Transfer in sister concerns
(c) Creating ad hoc projects for accommodating surplus staff,
(d) Providing adequate training to personnel and place them in other projects.
Redundancy/retrenchment programme includes the following measures:
(a) Voluntary Retirement: Volunteer Retirement Scheme (VRS), introduced by The
Government of India. It is also termed as ‘Golden Handshake’. With the objective of
solving the problem of overstaffing in public sector undertakings including nationalised
banks, this scheme was introduced wherein management provide cash rewards to those
employees opting for VRS in addition to normal retirement benefits. Hence this is
called “Golden Handshake”. This aims at solving the problem of an excessive supply
of human resource over its demand.
(b) Compulsory Retirement: In contrast to golden handshake there exist the concept of
‘’Iron Handshake’. Under this scheme, the retirement is not volunteer but compulsory,
here management spot the surplus employees and discharges them from service.
Discharged employees do not receive any cash or non-cash benefits other than normal
retirement benefits hence, the name ‘iron handshake’.
(c) Attrition: In a lot of incidents every day in organizations, employees decide to leave
their current organizations. It may be due to various personal and professional reasons.
These positions are kept vacant till it needs to be filled. Such ban on employment can
be implemented organization, department or job wise.
(d) Layoffs: It can either be temporary or permanent. A temporary layoff can be because
of sloppiness in business, machinery or power breakdown or the recent pandemic that
we all went through. Ones the conditions are back to normal, workers are called back.
Permanent layoff is due to shut down or winding up of the company.
(e) Leave of absence without pay: Many a times employee prefer to be on leave without
pay rather being jobless. Therefore, this technique is also used to helps company cut
the labour cost and the employee to pursue his/her self-interest of fulfil other personal
responsibilities while being on leave without pay.
7. Employment Plan: Above was done in case of surplus of manpower but is case of
deficit, there has to be decisions regarding employment of people to fill the gap. For
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this decision to be effective major emphasis should be on the quality and quantity of
manpower to be employed. These decisions will lead to processes like recruitment,
selection, placement, transfer, promotion etc.
8. Designing Training Programme: In many cases what is mostly required to fill the gap
between human resource requirement and availability is the skill only and not a new
hire. This requirement can be fulfilled to an extent by just training people in such a way
that they can harness their skills to be utilised for new projects and assignments. Hence,
employees in the organization must be given appropriate training for their and
organization’s benefit. Development programmes should also be designed and
conducted for them so that enrich their knowledge. Long-term
9. Appraisal of HRP: An appraisal of Human Resource Planning process must be made
to check its effectiveness. Deficiencies must be pointed out corrective actions should
also be taken whenever it is feasible and necessary to remove the deficiencies in
manpower planning. An appraisal of the existing manpower plays will also serve as a
guide in the future manpower planning.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Manpower planning is _______________ looking in nature.
2. Human Resource Planning identifies gaps in existing manpower in terms of
their quantity and talent. True / False
3. Right Estimation of manpower requirements is the objective of:
a) HRD b) Human Resource Policy
c) Recruitment Process d) Human Resource Planning
4. Examination of number of employees during past five years is
____________________ trends.
5. Planners can identify ____________________ by comparing demand forecast
with supply forecast.
2.4 QUANTITATIVE ASPECT OF MANPOWER PLANNING
The analysis of manpower planning leads to its two broad aspects, viz. quantitative aspect and
qualitative aspect. The former relates to the determination of the right number of personnel
required for each job in the organization and the later relates to specifying the quality of
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personnel in terms of laying down the educational, professional qualification, work experience,
psychological traits, etc. We will now discuss the quantitative aspect of human resource
planning which consists of the following aspects:
(i) Demand forecasting: estimating future manpower needs by reference to corporate and
functional plans and forecasts of future activity levels.
(ii) Supply forecasting: estimating the supply of manpower by reference to analysis of
current resources and future availability, after allowing for wastage.
(iii) Determining manpower requirements: analysing the demand and supply forecasts to
identify future deficits and surpluses.
(iv) Productivity and cost analysis: analysing manpower productivity, capacity utilization
and cost to identify the need for improvements in productivity or reductions in cost.
(v) Action planning: preparing plans to deal with forecast deficits or surplus of manpower,
to improve utilization and productivity to reduce manpower costs.
(vi) Manpower budgeting and control: setting manpower budgets and standards and
monitoring the implementation of the manpower plans against them
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Demand Supply
Business Plan Analysis of present

resources
Organization Plan Activity Forecast Internal supply External Supply

analysis analysis
Demand Forecast Supply forecast
Analysis of Human
Resource utilization
Forecast
Deficit/Surplus
Human Resource
Plan
Recruitment Training Improved Alternative Re-

Productivity Sources deployment
Human Resources Budgets/Standards
Human Resources Controls
Fig. 2.1 Human Resource Forecasting
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2.4.1 Demand Forecasting:

Demand forecasting is the process of estimating the future quantity of manpower required. The
manpower forecasts should be based on the annual budget and long-term corporate plan,
translated into activity levels for each function and department. Only a well-conducted Demand
forecast may lead to an accurate estimate of the human resource requirement leading to the
most appropriate decisions.
There are three basic demand forecasting methods:
a. Managerial Judgement.
b. Statistical techniques, including ratio trend analysis and econometric models.
c. Work study techniques.
In many cases, a combination of the above techniques would be used. Now, let us discuss the
above techniques in detail:
a. Managerial Judgement: The most convenient method of forecasting used in smaller
companies is managerial judgment. In this method discussions and brainstorming
sessions of managers come into play. Managers try to analyse their upcoming
departmental workload and on the basis of that decide upon their future requirements
for human resources. It might be done on a ‘bottom up’ basis with line managers
submitting a proposal for approval by top management.
Alternatively, a ‘top down’ approach can be used in which company and departmental forecasts
are prepared by top management, which is thereafter reviewed and discussed with the
departmental managers. Guidelines for departmental managers should be prepared indicating
broad company assumptions about future activity levels which will affect their departments.
b. Statistical technique: Under this head there are two methods viz Ratio-trend analysis,
most commonly used statistical manpower forecasting and Econometric Model, more
complex and less used technique.
(i) Ratio Trend Analysis: It is carried out by studying past ratios between the
number of direct and indirect workers in a manufacturing plant, and forecasting
future ratios, having made some allowance for changes in organizations and
methods. This technique, although crude, is easy to understand and use. Its value
depends upon accurate records and realistic estimates of future activity levels
and the effect of improved performance or changed methods.
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(ii) Econometric Model: To build an econometric model for manpower planning, it

is necessary to analyse past statistical data and to describe the relationship
between a number of variables in a mathematical formula. The variables
affecting manpower requirements may be identified under headings such as
investment, sales or the complexity of the product line. The formula could then
be applied to forecast movements in these variables to produce manpower
forecast. This is a complex process only for large organizations.
c. Work Study Technique: In order to calculate that how long operations should take the
amount of labour required, this technique is used by applying work measurement
technique.
2.4.2 Supply Forecasting:
Supply forecasting measures the quantity of manpower that is likely to be available from within
and outside the organization. The supply analysis covers:
1. Existing manpower resources: The basic analysis should classify employees by
function or department, occupation, level of skills and status. The aim should be to
identify from this analysis ‘resource centres’ consisting of broadly homogeneous
groups for which forecasts of supply need to be made. From the management
perspective of their succession planning and preparation of management development
programmes, it may be equally important to know how many people with potential for
promotion exist and where they can be found. The analysis of current resources should
look at the existing ratios between different categories of staff. Recent movements in
these ratios should be studied to provide guidance on trends and to highlight areas
where rapid changes may result in manpower supply problem.
2. Labour Wastage: Labour wastage should be analysed in order to forecast future losses
and to identify the reasons for people leaving the organization. Plans can then be
attached to the problems causing unnecessary wastage and to replace uncontrollable
losses. The manpower planner therefore has to know how to measure wastage and
analyse its causes.
3. Internal promotions and transfers: The supply forecast should indicate the number of
vacancies that will have to be filled to meet the demand forecast. Vacancies arise
because people leave. In order to fill these vacancies, the first strategies to think about
should be internal promotions and transfers as it has various benefits, as it will enable
the organization to make optimum utilization of resources and it even saves cost of
training new hires in the organization.
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4. Effect of changing conditions on work and absenteeism: This assessment should cover
factors operating within the firm such as changes in normal weekly hours of work;
overtime policies; holidays; retirement policies; policies for hiring part-timers and shift
system. Trends in absenteeism should also be analysed to trace causes and identify
possible remedial actions.
5. Sources of supply: Internal sources of labour include the output from established
training schemes or management development programmes and the reservoirs of skills
and potential that exist within the organization. Besides that, external sources of supply
are also equally vital source of supply of human resource. The factors which can have
an important bearing on the supply of manpower are listed below:
Local Factors:
i. Population densities within reach of the company
ii. Current and future competition for labour from other employers.
iii. Local unemployment levels.
iv. The traditional pattern of employment, and the availability of people with the required
qualification and skills
v. The output from the local educational system and government or other training
institutes
vi. Availability of part-time labour
vii. Local housing shopping and transport facility
viii. Attractiveness of area or company.
National Factors:
i. Trends in the growth of the working population
ii. National demands for special categories of manpower
iii. The output of the universities, polytechnics and professional institutions.
iv. The effect of changing educational patterns
v. The impact of national government training schemes
vi. The impact of government employment regulation.
2.4.3 Problems in Human Resource Planning:
(i) Identity Crisis: Many managers as well as Human Resource specialists do not
understand the Human Resource Planning process completely. There can be little doubt that
unless the Human Resource specialist develop a strong sense of purpose, they are more likely
to fail.
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(ii) Lack of support from top management: Human Resource Planning cannot be fruitful
without top management support. As planning is always said to happen at the top level,
it needs complete support from them so that it should flow down to the other levels and
are executed in its true sense.
(iii) Insufficient initial efforts: Any sort of planning requires initiation, and so is the case
with Human Resource Planning. After a plan is initiated, it flourishes slowly and
gradually by placing things in place, developing a full proof plan and then executing it
well. Without initiation human resource planning may not come in its required shape
and form to benefit the organization.
(iv) Resistance from employees: Manpower Planning is very often resisted by employees
and trade unions. What lead them towards this is their feeling that if this planning
increase it will result in higher workload and may also restrict them from bargaining.
This also drive them to feel that it would lead to widespread unemployment, especially
for unskilled labour.
(v) Coordination with other Managerial function: Planning is always more fruitful and
effective when done in consultation with others. Similarly, HRP if done after
understanding departmental requirements also through a thorough discussion and
consultation with the departmental managers, it would be much better.
(vi) Expensive and time consuming: Human Resource planning is mostly resisted by the
employers because of the expense associated with it and high time-consuming quality
which in turn increases the overall cost of manpower.
(vii) Uncertainties: Planning is always done for future, and future is always unpredictable
and uncertain. There are various factors like absenteeism, labour turnover,
technological transformations and market fluctuations that feed this uncertainty, that
becomes the biggest constraints to Human Resource Planning.
(viii) Insufficient Information: Planning cannot dwell in the absence of vital information.
If there will be insufficient information regarding HR requirement and availability,
human resource planning cannot be done effectively.
2.4.4 Guidelines for effective Human Resource Planning:
(i) Organised Effort: Human Resource Planning function should be properly organized.
A separate cell, section, or committee may be constituted within the Human Resource
Department to provide adequate focus, and to coordinate the planning efforts at various
levels.
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(ii) Support of top Management: Planning cannot come to the execution stage without
top management. It is essential to ensure the necessary resources, cooperation, and
support for successful Human Resource Planning.
(iii) Adequate Initial Effort: Human Resource Planning fails because of lack of sufficient
initial effort. To be successful, human resource planning should start slowly and expand
gradually. Development of accurate skill inventory and preparation of replacement
charts are an integral parts of manpower planning.
(iv) Coordination with other Management Functions: To be effective, human resource
planners must coordinate with other management functions rather than being totally
absorbed in their own specialized areas keeping themselves aloof from the other
operating managers.
(v) Integration with organization plans: Human Resource Planning must go hand in
hand with the organizational objectives, as the basic objective of HRP is to procure
such human resources in the organization that can contribute to the achievement of
organizational goals. An important requisite for this is open communication between
planners. The organization lacks such integration will fail in planning constructively.
(vi) Involvement of Operating Managers: Human Resource Planning must happen at all
levels and departments of the organization. It is not only the task of the Human
Resource department. The involvement of all operating managers can make the process
much more constructive in nature
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CASE STUDY
RovoNov Testing Ltd. has planned for computerization of nearly 50% of the production
operations and control. It has taken care of all resources in the computerization plan including
human resources. The present inventory of human resources and future requirements of the
production department were specified as given hereunder:
Category of Human Resources Present Inventory Requirements Surplus

after
computerization
Chemical Engineers (Operation) 15 8 7
Chemical Engineers (Maintenance 10 6 4
& Control)
Mechanical Engineers 2 2 0
(Maintenance)
Supervisors 10 2 8
Operators 30 10 20
Quality controllers 5 1 4
72 29 43
The Human Resource Planners suggested the redeployment of chemical engineers in their newly
started sister concern, i.e., Lamant Textiles Ltd. and retrench surplus employees of all other
categories. They also recommended to the management that there was no need for any other
action plan.
The computerization was over by the end of 2001. When the management wanted to start the
production on the newly computerized process, they were shocked to note that not many
employees in the production department were suitable for the new positions and the
information supplied by the Human Resource Planners in this regard did not match the reality.
Questions:
1. What is the main problem in this case?

2. Who is responsible for the present state of affairs?
3. What measures would you suggest dealing with the problem?
4. How can the interests of surplus staff be protected?
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Human Resource Planning does not facilitate succession planning in the

organization. True / False
7. _______________ is the process of estimating the future quantity of manpower
required.
8. Which of the following is not associated with Human Resource planning?
a) Information b) compensation
c) Integration d) Welfare
9. ____________________ is the measure of quantity of manpower that is likely to be
available from within or outside the organization.
10. Identity ____________________ is one of the major problems of HRP.
2.5 DOWNSIZING
Downsizing involves organizational restructuring which results in decreasing the size of the
organization and often results in a flatter organizational structure to respond more rapidly to
the pace of environmental changes. Downsizing as a strategy has been adopted throughout the
world to achieve operational economies and increase efficiency to be able to survive and grow
in the uncertain environment. In the context of human resource management, downsizing
involves elimination of certain jobs with a view to improve work efficiency. The organization
reduces staff exceeding its need. As a result, some of the employees get separated from the
organization.
Downsizing may become necessary due to the following reasons:
(i) An organization might suffer from overstaffing due to faulty human resource planning.
(ii) A change in man-machine ratio may occur due to technological advances.
(iii) An organization may start outsourcing some of its business functions. As a result,
people employed in these functions become surplus.
Downsizing may create a feeling of insecurity causing low morale and high stress among
employees. Employees may feel that they are paying the price for mismanagement. Moreover,
when competent employees leave the organization, downsizing may erode the skill base.
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2.5.1 Role of HR Manager in Downsizing:

(i) HR Manager must ensure proper communication to minimise the negative effects of
rumours and ensure that individuals are kept informed with factual data.
(ii) In order to sell the idea of downsizing to the employees, HR manager has to convince
trade unions and win their support for downsizing.
(iii) HR manager must also deal with the actual layoffs. He must have programs to assist
the laid off employees. When informed about layoff, employees face many
uncertainties about service pay, retirement benefits, search for alternative job, transition
assistance etc. These uncertainties need to be anticipated and taken care of.
Downsizing of workforce is generally implemented through Voluntary Retirement Scheme
(VRS). Under this scheme, the organization and its employees enter into a mutual agreement
under which employees agree to voluntarily retire on payment of agreed compensation by the
employer. VRS has been recognised as GOLDEN HANDSHAKE because of the benefits for
both employees and employer.
An organization may resort to voluntary retirement scheme involving handsome
compensation to employees to get rid of surplus staff. VRS involves separation of employees
based on mutual agreement between the organization and its employees. VRS is not new to
Indian corporate sector as it has been practised in the past though the magnitude was not large
enough to attract attention.
2.6 EMPLOYEE RETENTION
Rightsizing an organization is important but retaining human assets in it is even more important
as ‘a bird in hand is better that two in the bush’, i.e., retaining existing talent in the organization
is much better than hiring new ones. Employee Retention refers to the various policies and
practices which let the employees stick to an organization for a longer period of time.
2.6.1 Importance of Employee Retention:
1. The cost of turnover: Increased turnover leads to increased cost due to new hiring and
training of people in replacement of those who have left the positions vacant and work
incomplete for the organizations to deal with. In order to avoid this cost of turnover,
employees must be retained in the organizations.
2. Loss of Company knowledge: With people moving out of the organizations, their
skills, knowledge, expertise also move out, and regaining the same becomes a difficult
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task for the organizations. Human Resource which is also referred to as intellectual
assets must be retained into the organization as much as possible.
3. Interruption of Customer service: In service industries many a times person
rendering services highly matters as the customers establish rapport with them and
wants to be served by them in future as well. In such a scenario if they will leave the
company, it may also lead to losing the customer as well.
4. Turnover leads to more turnover: Many at times it is observed that a person moving
out of the organization can influence other too to take such steps, leading to mass
resignations increasing the overall turnover of the organization. This may be due to
dissatisfaction, discontent, grievance and so on. In such case the root cause needs to be
found out in order to sort it out.
5. Goodwill of the company: Too many people leaving the organization can go in the
bad name of the company losing its reputation and goodwill, which is vital for
organizational growth and success. Hence, this needs to be dealt with in an efficient
manner.
6. Regaining Efficiency: Efficiency ones lost takes too long to gain back. Efficiency in
terms of knowledge, skill, experience if will be lost with the people turning out of the
organization will again require a lot of time, cost and energy to be regained. Therefore,
retention of employees is given importance in the organizations.
2.6.2 Employee Retention Strategies:
Growth
Opportunities
Grievance Attractive
Redressal Package
Retention
Training &
Recreation
Development
Fig 2.2 Employee Retention Strategies

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In addition to above there are many other important things that can be taken care of for
higher retention:
1. Most important is to hire the Right Person at the Right Place
2. Empower the employees
3. Make employees realize that they are the most valuable assets of the organization
4. Have faith in the employees, trust them and respect them
5. Furnish them with crucial information
6. Keep providing them feedback on their performance
7. Recognize and appreciate their performance
8. Keep their morale high
9. Create a conducive environment for them to work
Middle High
Low Level
Level Level
Appreciating and Promoting worklife
recognizing a well done Appreciating and effectiveness
job recognizing a well done Understanding
Recognizing professional job employee needs
as well as personal Benefit programs for Encouraging
significant event family support professional training
Providing benefits, Providing convenience and development
perks and workplace at workplace and/or personal growth
convenience opportunities
Providing Training &
Ocassional Stress Development & P Provide an environment
relievers ersonal Growth of trust
Support in tough time opportunites Respect opinions and
and professional crisis suggestions
Fig. 2.3 Retention strategies at various levels.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. ____________________ involves organization restructuring resulting in
flatter organizations.
12. Downsizing of workforce is generally implemented through
____________________.
13. VRS is also termed as IRON HANDSHAKE. True / False
14. _______________ is the process in which the employees are encouraged to
remain with the organization for maximum time.
15. Which is not one of the retention strategies:
a) Growth Opportunities b) Authoritative environment
c) T&D d) Recreation
2.7 SUMMARY
For an organization it is very necessary plan each and every function, activity, process
etc. as it is only effective planning that leads to its effective execution. Human Resource being
such a vital asset for any organization, its management needs planning too. Human Resource
Planning forms a base for various other important processes viz. recruitment selection,
deployment, retrenchment and so on. For correct planning it is very important to be aware of
the present state of affairs in the organization, hence, demand and supply forecast of human
resource are referred to as the most important tools for human resource planning. Through this
analysis surplus or deficit of human resource is calculated which works as reference for
decisions regarding recruitment, hiring, retention, downsizing, retrenchment etc.
2.8 GLOSSARY
Forecast: To say what will probably happen in the future.

Quantitative: Connected with the amount or number of something rather than with how good
it is.
Downsizing: To reduce the number of people who work in the company in order to reduce
cost.
Retention: The action of keeping something or of being kept.
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1. Forwards 9. Manpower Supply

2. True 10. Crisis
3. Human Resource Planning 11. Downsizing
4. Employment Trends 12. VRS
5. Gaps 13. False
6. False 14. Employee Retention
7. Demand Forecasting 15. Authoritative environment
8. Integration
5. Define Human Resource Planning and outline the steps in the manpower planning
process.
6. Briefly discuss the quantitative aspect of Human Resource Planning.
7. How are the requirements of manpower determined in a large organization? Discuss.
8. “The logical approach to staffing begins with a careful assessment and planning of
current and prospective requirements of human resource”. Comment.
9. Explain the concept of Downsizing. Why is it conducted?
10. Explain the concept of Employee Retention. Explain its importance and strategies for
maintaining it.
2.11 REFERENCES
Vetter, Eric W. (1967). Manpower Planning for High Talent Personnel, Bureau of Industrial
Relations, p. 15
Coleman, Bruce P. (1970). An Integrated System of Manpower Planning. Business Horizon,
Vol. 13, p. 89.
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Flippo, Edwin B. (1981). Personnel Management, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1981. P. 110.
Mathis, Rebert L. and Jackson, John H. (1987). Personnel: Contemporary Perspective and
Applications, West Publishing Company, p. 69.
Mackey, C.B. (1981). Human Resource Planning; A Four Phased Approach. Management
Review, p. 17.
Chhabra, T.N. & Chhabra, Monica S. (1988). Essentials of Human Resource Management, Sun
India Publications, New Delhi, p. 6.3-6.24.
Chhabra, T.N. (2019). Principles and Practices of Management, Dhanpar Rai & Co., Delhi, p.
271.
Coleman, Bruce P. (1970). An Integrated System of Manpower Planning. Business Horison,

Vol. 13, p. 89.
India Publications, New Delhi, p. 6.3-6.24.
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LESSON 3
JOB ANALYSIS AND TALENT ACQUISITION
Ms. Shalu Garg
Assistant Professor
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University
shalugarg11901@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Job Analysis
3.3.1 Concept of Job Analysis
3.3.2 Job Description
3.3.3 Job Specification
3.3.4 Comparison of Job Description and Job Specification
3.3.5 Uses of Job Analysis
3.3.6 Process of Job Analysis
3.3.7 Techniques of Data Collection for Job Analysis
3.4 Downsizing and Retention
3.4.1 Downsizing
3.4.2 Retention
3.5 Talent Acquisition and Recruitment
3.5.1 Talent Acquisition
3.5.2 Recruitment
3.6 Selection and Induction
3.6.1 Selection
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3.6.2 Induction
3.7 Summary
3.8 Glossary
3.11 References
After studying the lesson, the students will be able to:

• Get acquainted with job analysis, job descriptions and job specifications.
• Learn the various techniques for data collection for job analysis.
• Explain the steps involved in recruitment process, selection process and the induction.
• Understand meaning of talent acquisition and downsizing.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
This lesson will be very helpful for the future job seekers and job providers. In this lesson we
will be learning how to tackle the problem of over staffing, how we will hire the new
employees, how we will be creating a fit between the right people and the right job. We will
be gaining knowledge about how the job analyser analyses the job, develops job descriptions,
and prepares job specifications. We will also learn how can retain the talented employees so
that they do not leave our organization. We will be looking at various internal and external
sources of recruitment, whole process of selection. And lastly, we will also see how we should
orient the new employee in the organization.
3.3 JOB ANALYSIS
3.3.1 Concept of Job Analysis:

Job Analysis is the process of collecting data for a particular job which will distinguish this job
from the other jobs in the organization. It involves collecting the data which will guide about
the skills, knowledge, abilities, and qualifications required for the job. Job analysis also
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instructs about the tasks, duties, and responsibilities related to the job. The management will
collect the data related to the job and then will analyse it.
The meaning of the terms involved in the Job Analysis:
a) Job- Job means grouping of tasks, positions involving some duties, responsibilities,
knowledge, and skills.
b) Position- Position is the collection of tasks and duties regularly assigned to one person.
c) Duty- Duty is the related to sequence of tasks to be performed.
d) Task- It is a specific activity which has a process and few steps.
e) Occupation- Occupation is grouping of jobs.
f) Job Family- Job family consists of jobs of similar nature like all jobs of doctors.
Job Analysis has two by-products which are Job Description and Job Specification. The
purpose of analysing the job is to develop the differentiation between the various jobs so that
not job is same in the organization as it will lead to duplication of work. Job analysis involves
studying the aptitude required, skills required, level of understanding required for a particular
job. Also analysing the physical and mental characteristics required by the job holder for the
job like personality, confidence, learning skills, communication skills, etc.
3.3.2 Job Description:
Job Description talks about the requirements of a particular job which is necessary before
advertising any vacancy. It is a detailed facts about the job which consists of content related to
the job likes roles and responsibilities of the job. It is a factual written document giving
descriptions about the job.
Details which can be included in Job Description are as follows:
a) Name or the Title of the Job- Like Manager, Financier, CEO (Chief Executive
Officer), CFO (Chief Finance Officer).
b) Location of the Job- It includes the name of the department for which the job would
be advertised.
c) Summary of the Job- It will include the task to be performed in a summarised manner.
d) Usage of Tools, Machines or Equipment- Whatever machinery or tools or equipment
will be used should be described in the job description as it will give indication about
the job.
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e) Nature of Relationship- It should clearly indicate the nature of relationship of job with
other jobs in the organization as it will give clearer picture about the job.
f) Work Environment- For interpreting the work environment, condition of work,
condition of physical environment all should be written under job description.
3.3.3 Job Specification:
Job Specifications talks about the requirements of a job. It translates the job descriptions into
physical characteristics which are necessary to perform a job. These are the minimum
acceptable qualities of human beings which should be possessed for a particular job.
The Job Specifications include:
a) Mental Skills
b) Educational Qualifications
c) Training
d) Experience
e) Health
f) Personality
g) Creativity
h) Initiative
i) Aptitude
j) Interests
Job Specifications serve as a guide which helps the management in hiring right people for the
right job. It acts as a parameter which needs to be fulfilled for the candidates and helps the
management in judging the eligible candidates.
3.3.4 Comparison between Job Description and Job Specification:
S.No. Basis Job Description Job Specification
1. Meaning Job Description talks about Job Specifications talks about the
the contents of a particular job qualities required for a job.
2. Importance It is important to define the It is important because it aids in
job. recruitment, selection, etc.
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3. Includes It includes title, It includes qualifications, training,

responsibilities, location of experience, etc.
job, job summary, etc.
4. Precedes or It precedes Job Specification. It succeeds Job Description.
succeeds
3.3.5 Uses of Job Analysis:

The Job Analysis is used in various fields which are given below:
a) Human Resource Planning- Job analysis helps in knowing the qualifications of the
human resource which is required in the organization.
b) Recruitment- When job analysis provides the description of the job then it becomes
easy to gather the application from the eligible candidates.
c) Selection- Job specifications help in hiring right people for the right job. It creates a fit
between the prospective employee and the job.
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d) Placement- With the job analysis, the interests, knowledge, skills all these traits can be
matched with the potential employees, and they can be hired and placed to the right
positions in the organization according to their abilities.
e) Training and development- If the employees are clearly acquainted with what is
expected from them then they can also indulge in some skill development and training.
f) Job Evaluation- Evaluating the job will help in fixing the compensation for that job.
Job description helps in knowing the worth of the job to calculate the remuneration for
the job.
g) Performance Appraisal- Job analysis gives the benchmarks or the yardsticks against
which the performance of the employees can be judged. The standards can be matched
with the actual performance of the employee, whether he is able to achieve the targets
given top him or not.
h) Employee Counselling- The employees which are not able to cope with the present job
according to the needs of the job then they can be guided and counselled to adopt
another job which will relate to their domain.
i) Job Design- Job analysis helps in designing the jobs according to the specifications and
descriptions. It also helps in re formulating some jobs.
j) Organisational Design- Job analysis helps in grouping and classifying different types
of jobs which helps in building the structure of organization in terms of authority and
relationship building.
k) Safety and Health- Lastly, job analysis helps in finding the work environment which
guides any hazardous conditions of working or any unhealthy environment. There can
be dust, heat or noise in the industry which can cause issues to the employees.
3.3.6 Process of Job Analysis:
There are number of steps in the process of Job Analysis which are discussed below:
a) Organisational Analysis- The very first most step in the process of Job Analysis is to
find the number of jobs available in the organization to know the linkages and the
relationship between them. It would help the job analyser to know the goals and the
objectives of the organisation and in developing the jobs.
b) Acquiring Knowledge about Jobs- It is critically important to know all the job titles
available in the organization because sometimes the titles which are similar are not
related and vice-versa. After knowing the tittles, the analyser would fetch information
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related to different jobs. The information should answer what, when why and how about
the job.
c) Taking Samples for Jobs- The analyser of course could not analyse all the jobs so he
takes some jobs which will be acting as a representative of other jobs for analysing and
judging.
d) Gathering Information- Now the question arises is who will collect all the required
information. So, the analyser can take the help from trained officials from outside or
can take help from the staff already working in the organization.
e) Data Collection- After this is decided that who is going to collect the data, the phase
of data collection comes into picture. Now the data collection should involve the duties,
tasks, role, responsibilities, etc. related to the job.
f) Development of Job Descriptions- The information which is gathered will be used to
prepare a factual statement describing the roles and responsibilities which are required
for performing a job.
g) Preparation of Job Specifications- The last step is to prepare the specifications for
the job which will specify the physical and mental characteristics required to perform a
job.
3.3.7 Techniques of Data Collection for Job Analysis:
There are some techniques which are used by the management for collecting the data for
analysing the various jobs which are explained below:
a) Questionnaires- The questionnaire is a popular method of collecting data for analysing
jobs. It is distributed to the employees and supervisors for fetching the information. It
consists of questions related to the description of duties, working conditions, tasks,
responsibilities, etc. This method would be impactful if the respondents understand the
questions carefully and provide the answers with objectivity.
b) Written Narratives- In the organizations where the supervisors maintain detailed
records of their tasks, timings of the task, this information can serve as written
narratives. This method is little unsystematic and unorganised. This method should be
coupled with other methods so as to fetch the correct details.
c) Observation- In this method, the analyser of the job observes the workers performing
their tasks, duties, and responsibilities. After observing, he makes the notes for the
same. But this method has limited applicability because observing every job is not an
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easy task. For example, observing the salesman would mean that the analyst should
follow him wherever he goes to sell his products for several days.
d) Log Records- Under this method, job holders are provided with a logbook under which
they need to enter every detail of the work performed. The type of tasks they have done,
type of duties they have performed, starting time, and ending time of each work. But
this logbook provides incomplete information because it does not consist of the type of
equipment used, the type of machine used, and the type of tools used. And also, it
suffers from one more limitation that is not everyone will maintain this logbook
properly and enter every detail. This method is used for the jobs which are not easy to
observe, like job of scientists, senior executives, researchers, etc.
e) Interviewing- Under this method, the job analyst interviews the employee and the
supervisor of the employee to get the information about the job. From this method, the
job analyst can easily get the information related to the job. Structured questions can be
asked to fetch the information from the job holder and the supervisors. After this the
job analyst can make judgements which information is useful for his job designing.
ACTIVITY
Suppose you are given the responsibility of hiring a financier for your company.
Prepare the job descriptions and job specifications for the job of financier.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. The two by products of Job Analysis are _____ and ______
7. Observing is one of the techniques of data collection. True/False.
8. The _______ explains the characteristics of the job.
9. Job Specifications explains the roles and responsibilities of the job. True/False.
10. Does safety and health are
11. 5included in Job Analysis? Yes/No.
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CASE STUDY
A Case Study on Job Analysis
ABC Pesticides Company is 9-year-old pesticides making company in Kerala,
decided to expand their business in 4 other states namely Jammu, Gujrat, Punjab and
Maharashtra where the product is having good demand. They planned to approach farmers
directly to understand their demands and also the dealers in the said state to establish the
products.
Mr. Arjun is the head of HR department of the company. The senior executive told him to
select four best candidates for marketing purpose who can sell company’s product and
capture good market share. Mr. Arjun started finding the best personnel for this task and
found four candidates who have good experience and have good track record in top
pesticides making companies. So, Mr. Arjun selected these four candidates and also
introduced them to the senior executive and assigned them with their duties and
responsibilities.
After a month, the senior executive was very disappointed with the performance of these
candidates who have been placed. He called up Mr. Arjun and gave him the feedback about
all those candidates. He told Arjun that only one candidate was able to bring the business
from one state, rest of the candidates didn’t add in the business anything and also, they are
quitting. He also added that Mr. Arjun shouldn’t be paid as he was unable to do his basic
HR job.
1. What went wrong in the case?
2. Who is at fault the senior executive or Mr. Arjun or the three failed candidates?
3. How can the pesticides company come out of this issue?
4. What are the HR concepts that you can correlate with this case?
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3.4 DOWNSIZING AND RETENTION
3.4.1 Downsizing:
Downsizing refers to the process of reducing the number of employees in the organization. It
involves terminating the contract of many employees at the same time. Downsizing is also
referred to as Restructuring or Rightsizing. It leads to flat structure of organization which is
more competitive and eligible to adopt to the threats and opportunities coming. It is a planned
and deliberate action taken by management to reduce the number of staff in the organization.
During downsizing, many workers are waved off and others are forced to work in the
environment which is not certain. Downsizing is a permanent reduction of the employees
unlike the case of layoff which is a temporary elimination of employees. An organization can
also give option of VRS (Voluntary Retirement Scheme)
There can be various reasons for downsizing-
a) Reducing the increased expenses of the organization.
b) Improving the company’s overall operations.
c) Removing the unprofitable projects which will lead to termination of jobs.
d) Meeting the challenges of the environment.
e) Upgradation of technology due to which some employees become obsolete.
f) Changing the location of the business like moving the business from one place to
another which will create difficulty for some of the employees.
g) Solving the problem of overstaff.
h) Reducing duplicate work.
i) To save the organization from recession like in the case of Covid.
j) To adapt to the latest technology.
k) Giving more concentration on core activities and outsourcing the non-core activities.
Measures taken by Human Resource Manager during Downsizing:
a) Communicating with Employees- HR manager plays a critical role during downsizing
as he plays the mediating role between the management and the employees. He conveys
the reasons for the termination of employees. If the manager will communicate
everything positively then chances of negative word of mouth and rumours about the
organization will get somehow reduced.
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b) Gaining Employee’s Union Trust- The manager should gain the support of trade
union by convincing them the need for downsizing. To tackle union can become a
challenge for the management because the union can protest against the organization.
In India, this policy is much opposed by the trade unions.
c) Giving Outplacement Services- The manager can help the displaced employees in
finding alternate jobs by referring them in other organizations or by finding them other
jobs or by helping them in preparing resume according to the industry’s requirement or
helping them with career counselling.
d) Looking at Other Possible Alternatives- The HR manager should try to convince the
top-level management that downsizing should be the last option, first try other
alternatives which can help in overcoming the problem of over staffing. The various
alternatives can be:
i. Reducing the number of work hours of all the current employees which will
lead to cost reduction and the termination of employees will not be required.
ii. If the number of employees is more in one department, then they can be shifted
to some other department which in understaffed.
iii. Giving the option of VRS to the employees.
iv. Laying-off employees which mean temporary elimination of the workers for
some period of time so as to cut down the cost.
ACTIVITY
You are working as the HR manager in ABC company, due to Covid your
business has faced recession. Earlier the company had 120 employees but now
the production of the company got reduced. So, what all other alternatives can
you take except permanently eliminating the workforce?
3.4.2 Retention:
Acquiring talent is not only the challenge faced by the organization, but the bigger challenge
is to retain those employees with the organization for a longer period. There are lots of
opportunities for talented people out there also the problem of poaching and raiding is going
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on there in the industry. If we will not provide the employees with job satisfaction and with all
the facilities, then they may switch to a job with higher pay and higher facilities.
Measures for Retention of Talent:
a) Acquiring Right Talent- It is very important to employ the right people for the right
job as if they will properly fit in the job then they would feel more satisfied with their
work. If there is a misfit between the employee and the job then that employee should
be transferred to the department where he fits well according to his interest,
qualifications, and skills.
b) Providing Attractive Remuneration- If the management wants to retain their current
employees, then it should provide them with good compensation packages so that they
cannot be easily poached.
c) Encouraging the Involvement of Employees- When the management engages their
employees in the decision-making, planning, and formulating of strategies then the
employees feel that they are being valued and they are a vital part of the organisation.
This will increase the loyalty and the commitment of the employees towards the
organization.
d) Challenging Projects- Providing the motivated employees with meaningful and
challenging projects makes them feel satisfied and increases their dedication towards
their work and organization.
e) Recognising Performance- When the employees are recognised for their work, they
feel being valued in the organization because their work is getting appreciated and
praised. This will improve their relationship with the management.
f) Job Security- For retaining the employees, the very simple step a management can
make is to provide the employees with the job security. Some employees prefer secured
jobs even if they are offering little less pay than the unsecured jobs. So, if the employees
feel job insecurity, they may leave our organization for a secured job.
g) Career Development- The employees at higher positions want professional growth
also with the personal growth. So, the organization should try to inculcate some sort of
training programmes for such employees so that they can advance in their careers
simultaneously with their work schedule.
h) Positive Work Environment- Last but not the least, the organization should provide
the employees with positive and cordial work environment. The atmosphere of the
workplace leads a great impact on the effectiveness and the efficiency of the employee.
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The management should understand work-life balance of employees and provide an

atmosphere with great communication, trust for each other and cooperation among all.
ACTIVITY
Imagine you are the manager of the company, and your rival company is
poaching your talented employees.
What all measures will you take to retain your employees?
CASE STUDY for Retention

Attracting and Retaining Talent at ABC Company
ABC Company is a diversified advertising agency company with more than
21,000 associates in the U.S., Canada, and the UK. Relatively early in its growth cycle,
the company realised that the requirement to create a lean, engaged, and productive
workforce. Given the turbulent environment in which it operates, ABC Company realised
the need to align its organisational design and staffing to meet current and future business
requirements while accommodating rapid and unexpected changes. To meet this
challenge, ABC Company developed an integrated workforce-planning framework using
a cross functional team that homed in on both the staffing mix and staffing dynamics of
the business. Using multi-dimensional scenario modelling, optimal mixes of internal and
external human capital could be determined- laying out the number of positions available
at each level for Marketing, Operations, IT and Staff groups. The modelling helped
identify which groups should focus on attracting talent at any given time and establish
ceilings on attrition rates by allowing for greater control over promotion rates. The impact
on the company has been positive and measurable. Not only has ABC Company been
able to better maintain stable executive headcount, but it has also broadened its control
over staffing issues and set a floor for promotion rates. The latter has had a positive effect
on retention of talent.
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3.5 TALENT ACQUISITION AND RECRUITMENT
3.5.1 Talent Acquisition:

Talent Acquisition is the function of the human resource department which involves
finding the people which can be hired. The talent acquisition is the work of top-level
management. It is related to making strategies and plans about how to proceed with the
acquisition of new talent in the organization. It involves inviting applications from eligible
candidates and then choosing the right people for the right job. It is the process of hiring,
deploying human resources and providing them with fair compensation. It is the process which
involves:
➢ Recruitment
➢ Selection
➢ Induction
➢ Training
Talent acquisition is important from the viewpoint of the organization because if the employees
will be less or more in number it would be a problem for the organization. If the number of
employees is less in number, then it would hamper the work and the growth of the company.
If the number of employees is more than it would increase the unnecessary cost of the company.
Also finding the right personnel is vital as lots of time, effort and money are involved in the
process of hiring any employee. We will be learning the meaning of the terms, recruitment,
selection and induction in the next section of the lesson.
3.5.2 Recruitment:
Recruitment is the process of bringing pool of applications. It involves making people
apply for the vacant positions in the organization. It fosters attracting various suitable
candidates to enable the organization to choose the best one among them. Recruitment is a
positive process which involves finding the prospective employees for the current or future
position of job opening. For recruitment process various sources have to be identified through
which personnel can be attracted. This process of searching different sources is known as
process of Recruitment.
Recruitment process precedes the selection process and is related to making all the
applications available at a single place for management to choose the suitable candidate. For
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collecting various applications, the human resource department advertises the vacancy in
various sources so that people can apply.
Process of Recruitment-
a) Identification of various sources from where personnel can be attracted.
b) Analysing their feasibility and viability.
c) Choosing the appropriate source which will provide us with the desired candidates.
d) Inviting applications from the candidates for the vacant positions.
The scope of recruitment is widespread, and the prospective and potential employees can be
invited from various internal sources and external sources.
Internal Sources- Internal sources of recruitment means when we recruit the employees which
are already working in the organization. Sometimes, the candidate which is required by the
organization is easily available inside the organization only. So, there is no need to hunt the
employees from outside sources.
There are three types of internal sources which are given below:
a) Transfer- Transfer means when an employee is shifted from one job to another, one
unit to other or from one shift to another which carries same set of responsibilities,
compensation, and same designation. It is generally done so that the problem of over
staffing can be overcome. Transfer is a horizontal shift of the employee in the job status.
For example, a manager of a company is shifted from its Mumbai branch to Delhi
branch.
b) Promotion- Promotion means when an employee is shifted to a job with greater set of
responsibilities, higher compensation and with higher position. Promotion is a vertical
shift of an employee in terms of job status. The existing employees may be given some
sort of training for getting promoted to higher positions or higher designations.
Promotion acts as a motivating factor for the employees to work harder in the organization.
For example, promoting an eligible Assistant Professor to the vacant position of
Associate Professor.
c) Re-employment of Ex-employees- Re-employment of existing employees means
employing the people who was working with the organization in the past but left the
organization due to some personal reasons. It is cheaper for the organization to
employee the ex-employees as the company already have a data of them and the
organization knows them too well.
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Advantages of Internal Sources:

a) The internal candidates have all the insider knowledge about the organization.
b) Promotion will boost the motivation among the existing employees.
c) Promotion will lead to the increased efficiency among the existing employees as they
have a motivating factor to work upon.
d) Training costs will be reduced if the existing employees will be promoted to the senior
designations.
e) When the internal sources are used then the capabilities of employees can be used in
the best possible manner.
f) The cost involved in recruitment through internal sources is very low.
Limitations of Internal Sources:
a) Young blood cannot be found out from the internal sources which act as a demerit of
recruiting through internal sources.
b) Better talent which can be hired from the external sources cannot be achieved if we rely
on internal sources only.
c) Employee mobility is reducing which is little healthy for the organization.
d) There can be partiality in promoting the employees to higher positions. For example,
the manager will give promotions to his favourites regardless of their inability for that
position and not promoting the deserving candidate because he doesn’t like a particular
employee.
e) Growth of the organisation becomes limited as fresh talent is not hired from the external
sources.
External Sources- External sources of recruitment means when we hire the employees from
outside the organization. Sometimes, the suitable candidates are not available inside the
organisation, so the organization must search the external sources like through advertising or
placement agencies, etc.
There are various types of external sources which are given below:
a) Direct Recruitment- Many organizations are approaches by some unskilled workers
checking whether they can get employment there. Also, some organizations give
recruitment at factory gate, it means whenever there is more work, or many workers
have taken a leave together than these workers can be called to fill the gap. These
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unskilled workers can be kept at temporary basis, and they are also known as Budli
Workers.
b) Casual Callers- In many reputed organizations, qualified people also approach by
sending their CV. These people can be called whenever the need arises and are also
called Unsolicited Applicants. The organization can maintain a file of these applications
so that whenever vacancy is there, these people can be called.
c) Advertising- Advertising the vacant position has become a fashion these days as it
helps in getting applications from world-wide. The advertisement can contain the
minimum qualifications necessary to appear for the interview which will weed out some
unsuitable candidates.
d) Employment Exchanges- There are some employment exchanges made by
government under which government has also made it mandatory top fill some
vacancies through these exchanges.
e) Placement Agencies- Like employment agencies there is a network of private
companies which provide personnel. These professional companies provide various
categories of personnel to the organizations.
f) Management Consultants- Management consultancy firms specialise in providing the
personnel, the also advertise the vacancy on the behalf of their clients (organizations).
These consultants have a data bank of qualified personnel and specialises in providing
top-level and middle- level executives.
g) Campus Recruitment- Campus recruitment is a very popular method of finding
qualified personnel as in colleges they complete their degrees which makes them
qualified for the job. The organizations can visit the institutions and can conduct
interviews there to find the suitable candidates.
h) Recommendations or Referrals- The organizations prefer referrals of the existing
employees as some knowledge of their background can be easily found. Also, the
recommendation by some business friends, family also acts as a good source of
recruitment.
i) Labour Contractors- Labour contractor b rings labour in the organization, while he
also works in the same organization. But there is a limitation in this method that if the
labour contractor leaves the organization, then the labour which he brought will also
leave with him. So, this method is not very popular but used in construction industries
even nowadays.
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j) Web Publishing- Nowadays putting advertisement on the internet has gained a lot of
popularity. Even some websites are also meant specifically for job findings like
www.naukri.com and www.jobstreet.com, etc.
k) Telecasting- When the organization posts the vacant position on television through
some channels like Door darshan, this method is called telecasting. The advertisement
should be with every details along with the job specification.
Advantages of External Sources:
a) When we use external sources, qualified personnel can be attracted.
b) When the advertisement is given in newspaper, the organization receives lots of
applications and has a wider choice to choose from.
c) Fresh and young blood can be catered to when the organization hires the employees
from the external sources which is not possible in the case of the internal source of
recruitment.
d) If the organization caters to external sources, then the existing employees will work
harder to prove their worth to the organisation.
Limitations of External Sources:
a) When the organization caters to the external sources for recruitment, it acts as a source
of dissatisfaction among the existing employees.
b) The hiring from the external sources is a time-consuming process.
c) Also, the hiring the employees form the external environment is a costly affair as
searching candidates needs investment in the whole procedure.
d) Uncertainty factor is there when hiring from external sources as there is no guarantee
of finding the right person for the right job.
Comparison of Internal Recruitment and External Recruitment:
S.No. Basis Internal Sources External Sources

1. Meaning Searching candidates from Searching candidates from
within the organization outside the organization
2. Cost involved It is economical in nature. It is costly.
3. Level of Existing employees become Existing employees become
motivation highly motivated. highly de motivated.
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4. Fresh Talent Fresh talent cannot be found Fresh talent can be found out
out. easily.
5. Time taken It is a quick process. It is a time-consuming process.
Recent Trends in Recruitment:

a) Outsourcing- When the organization hires the personnel from some outside agencies
on temporary basis rand does not offer them job as employee, this process is known as
Outsourcing. It means when we hire the personnel on lease. The agencies which
outsource the personnel has a contract with these organizations. These organizations
pay these agencies their payment and these agencies in turn pay the remuneration to the
personnel. Under outsourcing, the businesses do not have to trouble themselves in
finding the right candidate and does not need to give advertisements which is a time-
consuming process and costly affair.
b) Poaching or Raiding- Poaching means giving employment to the personnel who are
already employees with some rival organization. This can be done by giving them
higher pay and more benefits than they are getting in their current organization. For
example, the employees of Pizza Hut can be raided by the Domino’s which will also
bring the insider information of the organization along with the employee.
c) Website or E-Recruitment- With the digitalisation all around the globe, we can easily
advertise our vacant position on the internet and the potential candidates can send their
CV (Curriculum Vitae) through emails. The applications of candidates which seems to
be suitable can be chosen from the various applications. This process is cheaper and
takes less time. The organization can easily find the right people for the right job.
d) Internships- Internships refers to employing during the summer before graduation
from college. These can be in some technical courses. Employer tries to find talented
interns and can also give them job on their completion of training period if they work
well.
e) Walk-In Interview- Under walk-in interview, the employer advertises its vacant
position with a tag walk-in interview, it means anyone who is eligible for that vacant
position can come and contact HR department and give interview. The candidate is also
asked to fill the application form during the time of interview so that his details can be
collected.
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ACTIVITY
Imagine you have been appointed as a recruiting manager in an Automobile
Industry in India, how will you recruit for entry level positions in different
departments.
Prepare a draft for the same in brief.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. Write down the two sources of external recruitment- _____ and ______.
12. Does employment exchange a part of internal source of recruitment?
True/False.
13. Downsizing involves VRS. Yes/No.
14. Is promotion a part of internal source of recruitment? True/False.
15. _______is the process of gathering a pool of applications.
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CASE STUDY
The XYZ Company Recruitment Process
One of the most notable statements of the CEO of XYZ Company is that “XYZ
Company invests in people.” The main reason why people from different cultures, have
been dreaming of being recruited and hired by XYZ Company is that the company offers
possibly the most outstanding job compensation packages any normal employee could ever
enjoy.
In order to attract the best employees, XYZ Company draws them by the promise of wealth
and luxury, providing their employees with almost everything an employee could possibly
need, from absurdly high compensations to extravagant and luxurious benefits like gourmet
food, carwash, gym, snacks, exercise classes, dry cleaning services, car services, haircuts,
oil changes, massages, check-ups and many more, all for free.
Nevertheless, the recruitment process was also far beyond ordinary. Several people who
have had experience in the XYZ Company recruitment process narrates that the experience
was totally nerve-wracking. One applicant who underwent interviews for XYZ Company
has had five to seven interviews in one day for two to three straight days. That applicant
claims that the interviews were really tough with some of the brightest people in the world,
conducting the interviews filled with brain teasers, algorithmic problems, and IQ tests.
Another applicant who also have had experiences in the recruitment process of XYZ
Company claims that his XYZ Company experience was one of the most nerve-wracking
adventures of his life. The interviewers were looking for extremely bright individuals and
so the recruitment method was filled with IQ tests, brain teasers, algorithms, data structures,
and a lot of mathematics involved in it.
Questions:
1. How was the experience of the employees of the recruitment process at the XYZ
Company?
2. Why the XYZ company was so popular regarding its recruitment?
3. How the XYZ company finds the most suitable candidate for the company?
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3.6 SELECTION AND INDUCTION
3.6.1 Selection:
Selection is the process of choosing the right candidate for the right job. It involves
screening the various applications and from them choosing the best candidate which fits
optimally for the required position. It is the process of differentiation which differentiates a
candidate from the other based on skills, talent, and qualifications.
Selection is a negative process because it involves rejection. In the process of selection,
the selection committee rejects the unsuitable candidates from the list of the candidates. There
are various stages to weed out certain candidates for a job.
Selection is a vital process for the organisation as it involves lot of time and money of
the organisation. It is the process including heavy investment. If the employer has chosen the
wrong candidate for a job in consideration, then there will be a loss of time, money, and effort
which was used during the selection period of the employee. Hence, a systematic procedure for
selecting employee should be made by the organization so that right people can be employed.
Every phase in the process of selection procedure should be eligible in getting more
and more knowledge about the various applicants or candidates. When the company will select
right people for the right job then the employee will prove to be an asset for the business and
lead the business to great heights.
The benefits for selecting right candidate are as follows:
a) Rate of Absenteeism- When right candidate is employees which is dedicated towards
the organisation then he the rate of absenteeism will also get reduced.
b) Labour Turnover- When the employees feel satisfied with the organisation and they
are valued then they do not think about switching their jobs and therefore, the labour
turnover also gets reduced.
c) Rate of Industrial Accidents- When suitable candidate who have knowledge and skills
about that job then the chances for industrial accidents will also be less.
d) Job Satisfaction- When employees have the job of their interest, and which is of their
choice then they feel more satisfied with their jobs and contended towards the
organisation. It will also increase their efficiency.
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e) Motivation of Employees- When the organization values their employees, listens to

them, and treat them as asset for the business then the employees feel highly motivated
to give their best for the organization.
Difference in Recruitment and Selection:
S.No. Basis Recruitment Selection
1. Meaning Recruitment is the process Selection is the process
of actively searching and of choosing the right
finding candidates to apply candidate among all
for a specific position or candidates who have
job. applied for the job.
2. Nature Recruitment is a positive Selection is the negative
process as it involves all process as it involves
candidates to apply for the weeding out the
vacant position. unsuitable candidates.
3. Aim The aim of recruitment is The aim of selection is
to make a pool of to choose the right
candidates that means candidate for the right
bringing a greater number job which matches the
of applications. skills and qualifications
required.
4. Procedure The organization The organization makes
advertises its vacancy the candidate to pass
through various sources through various stages
and distribute the like filling form,
application from through employment tests,
which the candidate can interview, etc.
apply in online mode and
offline mode.
5. Contractual No contractual A contractual
Relationship relationship is made relationship is made
because there is only between employer and
communication about the the employee as the
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vacancies in the candidate is hired to

organization. perform services.
6. Number of There is no limit on the There is a limit on the
Candidates number of candidates number of candidates
applying in the process of getting selected in the
recruitment. process of selection.
When we have recruitment plan ready, and we have plenty of options to choose from then we
can start with the process of Selection. The process of selection involves various steps to choose
the right candidate to choose for the present job or for the future opening of the job. The
responsibility for hiring people lies with the managers and supervisors but Human Resource
Management also plays a critical role in helping the managers in the process of selection. HRM
helps in providing the guidelines and defining the roles for which job openings are there. The
process of selection is an expensive process because of the amount of money and time involved.
The process of hiring involves screening out the various applications, then weighing the
resumes which are more superior than the others.
ACTIVITY
Visit yours or another person’s LinkedIn page. Consider the content from an
interviewer’s point of view. Should anything be removed or changed?
The candidates must pass through various stages during the process of selection. He has
different hurdles in front of him and if he is not able to clear a hurdle then he won’t be
proceeded to the further stages.
The process of Selection included various steps which are given below:
a) Preliminary Interview- The first most step in the process of selection is the interview
of the candidates. It is generally brief in nature and weeds out the unsuitable candidates
in the earlier stage only. For example, the qualifications which is necessary for the job,
or the experience required or some kind of training, all these are not possessed by a
candidate then he stands unsuitable for further stages in the process of selection. He
would be eliminated then and there only.
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The candidate who clears the interview will be allowed to fill the application form for more
details of the candidate. This step helps the employer as well as employee.
The benefits of the preliminary interview:
i. To Applicant- Applicant does not have to pass through the long process of selection if
he is unsuitable for a particular job then he will be saved from getting troubled by giving
all the tests taken by the organization.
ii. To Organization- Organization can save its money and the expenses which would have
been on the unsuitable candidate if the organization takes him to the remaining steps of
the process.
b) Screening of Application Forms- After preliminary interviews the candidates which
are still suitable for the vacant position can be provided with application form wither in
the physical form or the form can be downloaded from the organization’s website. The
application form should be very simple and incorporate all questions which can fetch
the details required of the applicant. The form is required to have a written record of
the qualifications, experience, skills possessed and other qualities of the applicant.
Usefulness of Application Forms-
i. Application form give detailed knowledge about the candidate to the interviewer.
ii. The record can be collected in written from through application forms.
iii. It makes the processing of the applications an easy task.
iv. It helps in eliminating unsuitable candidates.
v. It also helps in taking the suitable candidates to the next stage of employment tests.
c) Employment Tests- These tests are mostly used by the organization to select the
candidates for various jobs. These tests help in matching the right person for the right
job. All the individuals are different from each other in the form of qualifications, skills
acquired, mental capacity, potential to learn and their personality. S these various
employment tests helps in knowing the candidate better.
The following are the employment tests which can be taken by the organization to select
suitable personnel:
i. Intelligence Tests- These tests check the mental capacity of the candidates. These tests
see the ability of the candidates to learn, to understand, to recall and to catch. These tests
also check the reasoning and judgements made by the candidates in the given situations.
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These tests measure the logical ability of the candidates. There are different types of
intelligence tests made by the psychologists, these can be verbal or non-verbal in nature.
ii. Aptitude Tests- Aptitude tests measure the potential of the candidates to learn and adapt
any new skills which are required for the job. It checks whether there is capacity and
motivation among candidates for learning. These tests help the organization in knowing
whether the candidate will be able to adapt to the new situations and the problems which
will arise in the business in the coming future.
iii. Occupational Tests or Professional Tests- These tests are also called as Proficiency
tests, Performance tests or trade tests. These test helps in measuring the skills already
possessed by the candidates. Proficiency tests are different from aptitude tests as the
former measures the skills already acquired by the candidate while the latter measures
the potential of learning new skill by the candidate. Trade tests take some sample of
candidate’s behaviour which will replicate his actual behaviour.
iv. Interest Tests- These tests measure the level of interest of the candidates in different
areas. These tests help in finding the right job for the candidate according to his interests.
v. Personality Tests- These tests help in knowing the different personalities of the
candidates. It reflects their interests, their qualities, their aptitude in a combined manner.
It shows how much mature the candidate is, his emotional side and many more aspects
which does not came out from the other tests conducted.
d) Employment Interview-After all the employment tests has been conducted, the
candidates which clears these tests are called for the final interview. It would be
conducted by the board members consisting of the Human Resource Manager and the
people from other departments. This interview will check whether the candidate is
suitable or not and also give him clearer picture about the role and responsibilities of
the vacant position. In interview, there is a face-to-face conversation between the board
members and the candidate. Apart from oral communication there is also constant
observation regarding body language, confidence and situation handling of the
candidate. The conducting interviews are very important for the organisation.
Importance of Interviews:
i. Face-to-face Contact- There is a face-to-face communication which helps in knowing
more personality traits of the candidate.
ii. More Information- The candidate can also get more knowledge about the organization
and the job and therefore improves understanding about the role of the job.
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iii. Communication Skills- The communication skills can be judged by looking at

confidence, fluency, and smoothness in speaking.
iv. Applicable in cases of Non-Elaborated Selection- When the organization is not
following all the steps like not conducting the employment tests then interview can really
help in weeding out the unsuitable candidates and selecting the appropriate one.
e) Reference Checking- After the interviews, the candidates are asked to give reference
details of some people. The details of the references include their name, address, mobile
number. These details are necessary for investigation purpose and getting some more
information about the candidate. The references can be previous employer, university’s
teachers, professors, known persons.
f) Medical Examinations- After all the tests have been conducted, interview have been
taken and the references have been checked the selected candidates has to pass through
medical examinations which will ensure that the candidate is physically apt for the job.
Medical examination will help the organization in saving the expenses form hiring the
medically unfit candidate.
g) Appointment Letter or Job Offer- Now, this is the last stage in the process of
selection. When the candidate has successfully cleared all the hurdles in the process of
selection, he will be provided with an appointment letter for joining the organization.
ACTIVITY
A new HR manager has been appointed in the company and you are the assistant
of that HR manager. You are given the task of preparing the manager for taking
interviews. At the point when you offer assistance to manager, he says he has
talked with many individuals and needn't bother with your assist in arranging the
meeting with handling. At the point when you sit in the meeting with him, he poses
improper inquiries that you do not feel truly evaluates the capacities of the
competitors. How might you deal with this?
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CASE STUDY
The XYZ Interview Process
In 2013, Since XYZ company is known to be the ultimate recruitment and selection
machine, its processes are also the most gruelling experiences an applicant could ever have.
Usually, the interviews begin using the telephone. Once the phone interviews conducted
have been successful, the applicant would be scheduled by the recruitment officer and be
invited for a series of five to ten interviews in one day with ten different people. Some
people who have successfully undergone this process, described it as the most excruciating
employment experience of their lives as a lot of mental gymnastics were necessary to prove
your skills.
There were many instances when the applicants were asked to write codes, brainstorm, role
play or solve mathematical equations on the spot just to prove that they are highly skilled
and competent. In other instances, the applicants are even tested of their marketing skills
even though the position an applicant is applying for is highly technical. The interviewers
seem to have control and power over the applicants letting them do everything just to prove
that they are worthy for the position. Common questions involved computer network
problems, Java programming and algorithms by which XYZ company is known for.
Moreover, other applicants can rate and share comments on another applicant which XYZ
Company can track and use as another basis for hiring or not hiring an applicant. Overall,
the process was a lengthy, tedious and nerve-wracking experience which can possibly
traumatize anyone whose dream is to work for one of the most prestigious companies in the
world. Nevertheless, the perks and benefits are limitless and are more than enough to
compensate for such a tough employment experience.
Questions:
1. Was the interview process too time consuming for the organization?
2. How this system can be shortened and made simpler? Give your suggestions.
3. Does this process actually able to analyse the skills of the interviewee?
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3.6.2 Induction:
When the whole procedure of selection has been done, and the candidate is given
appointment letter, then comes the turn for the induction process. Induction is the process in
which the employee is introduced to the organization. It is the process of orientation where the
employee is welcomed at made to feel at home in the organization. This process is the first
communication between the new employee and the existing employees. It helps in building
cordial relationship among all the employees.
The whole process of orientation helps the new employee in knowing everyone in the
organization and to get adjusted smoothly with his colleagues. He also gets acquainted with
the work environment. A senior employee has been delegated with the work of systematically
introducing the new joiner to the whole organization. Every organization has different ways of
orientation. Some companies show some small video depicting the company’s past and the
company’s mission and future vision. The new joiner is also given information about the lunch
break, washroom facilities, canteen facilities, tea breaks, etc.
The objectives of Induction are-
a) To build the confidence of the newcomer.
b) To give the new employee all the necessary information.
c) To develop cordial relationships among all the employees.
d) To develop a positive attitude of the new employee towards the organization.
e) To develop a sense of belonging to the organization.
Benefits of Induction-
a) It encourages developing two-way communication between the new employee and the
management.
b) It helps in reducing the nervousness of the new employee.
c) It helps in knowing what the new employee is expecting from the organisation.
d) It fosters developing positive attitude towards the company.
e) It reduces the time of socialisation process.
Induction Procedure-
a) New employee has been provided with the timings and the place where he needs to
work.
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b) When the new employee comes for the duty, the senior employee should meet him and
welcome him.
c) All information related to working hours, number of leaves available, medical leaves
should be conveyed to the employee.
d) After this an introduction to the department should be given in which he will work and
to whom he will report should be told to him.
e) Some printed material related to information should also be provided to the employee
apart from the oral communication.
f) The orientation programme should be conducted by the senior employee who is well
versed with the organization so that he leaves a positive impression about the
organization on the new employee.
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CASE STUDY
The Induction Process
XYZ company, a FMCG company recruited ten new employees. On the very first day of the
introduction, the manager of the company introduces the new employees with the company. Also, the
manager gave instructions to the new employees about the company’s rules and regulations, the
timings of the break, the dress code which needs to be followed in the company. The induction
program lasted till lunch.
After lunch, the manager took all the employees on a guided tour in a company van to all the
departments. Meanwhile, the employees were not given any work or training in the initial two days.
And they were asked to acquaint themselves with each other. It will help them in knowing the
company informally.
On the first day, the workers were extremely formal and amiable to one another. They asked their
names and data about one another's instructive foundation and past work insight. On the subsequent
day, they talked about their perspectives on different issues - public governmental issues, global
governmental issues, social issues, changes in innovation, contamination, and business morals, etc.
Assuming any individual offered any expression on any issue, individuals who concurred with him
talked in his help. Most individuals who couldn't help contradicting him didn't stand up. Regardless
of whether they communicated their conflict, they did not do it in a strong way and stayed away from
contentions.
Following two days, the new representatives were given preparation for a week and afterward they
were appointed work obligations and obligations. As they worked, connection among them expanded.
A few representatives fanned sub-gatherings. Assuming contrasts in feelings emerged on any issue,
workers contended fervently and were upheld by their sub-bunch. Following a couple of months, the
representatives got comfortable with their work. They additionally understood the significance of
collaboration and coordination in finishing the work without a hitch. The representatives additionally
educated the significance of tuning in. They attempted to pay attention to their associates' perspectives
and figure out their perspective. Thusly, the recurrence of brutal contentions diminished, and the
workplace moved along. Every individual from the gathering had the option to straightforwardly
communicate his perspectives. The gathering took choices solely after thinking about the assessments
of the relative multitude of individuals. Since everyone partook in navigation and arranging, the
gathering had little trouble in execution. The gathering finished any venture allocated to it effectively.
1. What is the type of group described in the above case?
2. How the group developed in company XYZ?
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
16. ______ is the process of choosing the right people for the right job.
17. Induction helps in creating two-way communication between the management
and the employee. True/False.
18. ______ is the process of introducing the new employee to the organization.
19. Selection precedes Recruitment. True/False.
20. Recruitment acts as a base for the process of selection. Yes/No.
ACTIVITY
Suppose you are appointed as the HR Manager of ABC Company which is a fastest
growing company in a FMCG industry. The company needs to hire some interns,
so keeping this in mind explain the procedure of recruiting and selecting the
personnel.
Write the steps in brief.
3.7 SUMMARY
This lesson taught us the job analysis, the two by-products of job analysis, recruitment process,
selection process, induction process. We have also learnt the meaning of downsizing and how
it should be introduced in the organization to face less resistance from the employees and how
can we retain our talented employees in the organization.
3.8 GLOSSARY
Poaching- Hiring the employees of the rival companies by giving greed of money and
facilities.
Compensation- All the remuneration given by the employer to the employee.
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1. Job Description and Job Specification 9. Yes

2. True 10. Recruitment
3. Job Specification 11. Selection
4. False 12. True
5. Yes 13. Induction
6. Direct Recruitment and Web Publishing 14. False
7. False 15. Yes
8. Yes
11. Considering yourself as a Human Resource Manager, answer the following question:
(a) What will your workforce look like when the “new normal” becomes the actual norm?
12. Consider yourself as an employee of the company and try answering the following
questions:
(a) How likely are you to stay at this organization if you were to receive a 10% salary
increase from another organization?
(b) How enthusiastically would you reapply for a job here?
(c) How likely are you to be working here in one year?
(d) How likely would you be to refer someone to work here?
(e) How likely would you be to recommend our organization's products or services to a
friend or colleague?
13. An organization is planning to fill up vacancies in the higher positions from amongst
the employees. Do you agree or disagree with the proposal? Explain. (Source: Book-
Essentials of Human Resource Management by T.N. Chhabra and Monica S. Chhabra)
14. Even though interviews have been widely criticised, they are heavily used in selection
of candidates for employment. Discuss why this selection device still rates high
although we know it can provide unreliable information. (Source: Book- Essentials of
Human Resource Management by T.N. Chhabra and Monica S. Chhabra)
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15. How is Job Analysis information helpful in human resource management? (Source:
Book- Essentials of Human Resource Management by T.N. Chhabra and Monica S.
Chhabra)
16. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of hiring an internal and external candidate.
Give an example of when you do not think an external candidate should be considered
for a position. (Source: Book- Human Resource Management by K Aswathappa and
Sadhna Dash)
17. Discuss the significance of employment tests and describe any three types of
employment tests commonly used in industry. (Source: Book- Essentials of Human
Resource Management by T.N. Chhabra and Monica S. Chhabra)
18. Define Orientation and discuss its importance for the organization and the employees.
(Source: Book- Essentials of Human Resource Management by T.N. Chhabra and
Monica S. Chhabra)
19. “Job Description and Job Specification are the two by-products of job analysis.”
Discuss the statement. (Source: Book- Essentials of Human Resource Management by
T.N. Chhabra and Monica S. Chhabra)
3.11 REFERENCES
271
Amos, T., Ristow, A., Ristow, L., & Pearse, N. (2008). Human Resource Management, JUTA
and company ltd.
India Publications, New Delhi.
Pande, S., & Basak, S., (2015). Human Resource Management Text and Cases, Vikas
publishing house
Chhabra, T. N., & Chhabra, M. S. (2016). Essentials of Human Resource Management (2nd
ed.). Sunindia.
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LESSON 4
LEARNING, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT: PROCESS
AND METHODS
Dr. Saumya Aggarwal
Assistant Professor
Shri Ram College of Commerce
University of Delhi
aggsaumya9@gmail.com
Ms. Bhawna Rajput
Assistant Professor
Motilal Nehru College (Evening)
University of Delhi
bhawnarajput.16@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Basic Concepts
4.3.1 Learning
4.3.2 Training
4.3.3 Development
4.4 Learning Theories
4.4.1 Cognitive Learning Theory
4.4.2 Behaviourism Learning Theory
4.4.3 Social Learning Theory
4.4.4 Experiential Learning Theory
4.4.5 Happenstance Learning Theory
4.5 Training Need Identification (TNA)
4.5.1 Job-Task Analysis
4.5.2 Organizational Analysis
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4.5.3 Person Analysis

4.6 ADDIE Model
4.6.1 Analyse
4.6.2 Design
4.6.3 Development
4.6.4 Implementation
4.6.5 Evaluation
4.7 Training & Development Methods
4.7.1 Coaching or Mentoring
4.7.2 Lecture
4.7.3 Modelling
4.7.4 Active Participation
4.7.5 Role Playing
4.7.6 Job Rotation
4.7.7 Simulation
4.7.8 Case Study Method
4.7.9 Game-Based Training
4.7.10 Internship
4.7.11 Sensitivity training
4.7.12 Apprenticeship training
4.7.13 Understudy
4.7.14 Vestibule training
4.8 Evaluation of Training & Development
4.9 E-Training & E-Development
4.10 Career Development & Succession Planning
4.10.1 Evaluate the organisation
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4.10.2 Assess the organisation’s status in development of resources

4.10.3 Assess current opportunities
4.10.4 Identify potential staff to mentor
4.10.5 Identify training gaps
4.10.6 Develop an integrated program
4.11 Case Study
4.12 Summary
4.13 Glossary
4.16 References
• To understand basic interrelated concepts like learning, training, and development.

• To understand different applicable learning theories.
• To know and learn to apply different available T & D techniques.
• To understand the concept of succession planning and the transitioning T & D in the
virtual world.
The application-based approach is followed by adopting activity doing method and case study
approach is followed to ensure a better understanding of the concept of the learner and develop
his problem-solving skills.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
The chapter first discusses the basic understanding of the concepts like difference between
Learning, Training, and Development. The learner may have layman idea about these concepts.
But before understanding different aspects of Training and Development, it’s important to learn
to differentiate between these concepts.
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This lesson would help the learner to comprehend the different learning theories and its
applications. Learner could differentiate between different techniques of training and know
which is the most suitable one to apply under a particular situation. One would learn about
ADDIE model and the TNA concept. The lesson will develop the understanding on the
changing role of T&D approaches in the e-learning environment.
The last part of the lesson discusses contemporary issues like e-training and e-development
concepts. The latest research on the concept of succession planning is shared with the readers
and it is discussed that how succession planning can be achieved. To gauge the understanding
of the reader on the subject, the relevant case study is shared towards the end of the chapter.
4.3 BASIC CONCEPTS
The concepts like ‘Training’, ‘Learning’, and ‘Development’ appears to be synonymous to

each other but there is actually a wide difference across these terms. The differences can be
understood by comprehending the meaning of these concepts. These terminologies are
explained as follows:
4.3.1 Learning:
Learning refers to permanent change in the behaviour of an individual or an organization as a
result of an experience. There are three aspects of learning: change in behaviour, permanent
change, and experience. Learning involves changing of the status quo position which can be
through acquiring new skills or changing of the existing way of doing things. The change is
not brief or temporary but is imbibed. It becomes a normal course of reflex action of an
individual. The third aspect is experience. This change in behaviour can be after experiencing
a better way of doing thing or new skills that can be acquired by way of learning by doing
approach or a mere observation, and reading can also create learning.
There are different perspectives on learning. But over years it has emerged as a long-term
orientation that emerges as a result of various formal and informal on the job and outside job
experiences. Learning may not happen just through formal training or seminars or workshop
programs. But it can happen through informal interactions and through different work and
personal life experiences. It is also not a concept that is limited to the individual level. But
learning can be acquired at the team level as well as at the organisational level.
The changing nature of work requires individuals, teams, and organisations to have continuous
learning. Increased customer demands, changing technology, and increasing complexity of the
jobs require learning to be a continuous part of the system. Learning can cause change in
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cognitive skills, behavioural outcomes, and affective results like attitudinal and motivational
changes.
4.3.2 Training:
Unlike learning which can be voluntary, training is a planned effort by an organization towards
enhancement of current knowledge, on the job skills, and changing of the existing behavioural
patterns of the employees so that they can be successful in their current jobs. In other words,
training is a practical education imparted to enable better functioning on the job. Training has
more focused outcomes and is short term oriented.
Training is not an intuitive process. There is a science involved in designing a right training
program. Training when designed systematically yields positive results. Effective training
occurs when employees learn required knowledge, skills, and attitude (KSAs) to do the job in
the best possible way. Research shows that employees have a favourable attitude towards
training if they are included in its designing process or when they voluntarily chose it rather
than made to attend under compulsion. Training also adds value only when employees get the
opportunity to apply the newly learned skills and behaviours on their jobs. If trainees continue
doing what they were doing earlier than the entire training gets redundant and is easily
forgotten.
Transfer of training is a crucial problem faced after the training programs where in the training
acquired is not applied to the job. Post training climate particularly supervisory support
determine the transfer of training. Peer support also has a positive effect on the transfer of
training to the job. In the post training environment constant coaching, knowledge repositories,
and debriefs can be used as powerful tools of reinforcing learned training to the job.
4.3.3 Development:
Development focuses on the personal and professional growth and is not restricted to the
enhancement of job-related skills. Development involves making the maximum benefit out of
the available opportunities. It is neither restricted to a formal institutional set up and nor time
bound. It can happen anytime, anywhere, and at any place. It focuses on enhancing employee
and not just his job performance.
One can say that both training and development leads to learning. These concepts are different
yet connected to each other. These three concepts are complementary to each other. Training
is a mechanical phenomenon whereas development involves changing the thinking, actions,
and behaviour. Development is a lifelong concept. Training and learning are also different
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concepts. Every training may not lead to learning and learning can happen without any training
also. But learning is a desired outcome of training.
Figure 1: Understanding basic concepts, (source: Self-developed by the author)
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
12. _______________ concept is restricted to the enhancement of job-related skills.
13. Training & Development involves learning. True / False
14. KSA stands for Knowledge, _______, & _________:
a) Skills & Attitude b) self-actualization & Attitude
c) Skills & Aptitude d) Self-development & Aptitude
15. Learning can happen without training. True / False
16. ________of training is a crucial problem.
4.4 LEARNING THEORIES
Different theories have evolved over a period of time as given by different researchers from
time to time. Some of the most prominent learning theories are discussed as followed:
4.4.1. Cognitive Learning Theory:
Learning is dominated by the thinking process that takes place inside the mind of an individual.
Jean Piaget has an important contribution to the cognitive learning theory. According to him
learning is a process of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Assimilation involves
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acquisition of knowledge into existing mental structures. Accommodation is altering the

existing mental structures that contradict with the new experience. Finally reaching to the state
where there is no conflict between new and existing knowledge is called as equilibration. It
believes in the formal education system and the requirement of professionals’ help and
assistance. In this process learning is to be internalized by memorizing the content and
reproducing the syllabus on demand that has been taught to the student. It involves acquiring,
internalizing, storing, and retrieval of the information by the student.
4.4.2. Behaviourism Learning Theory:
The theory involves discussion on classical conditioning and operant conditioning. As per
classical conditioning approach, the natural reflex actions can be reinforced as a response to a
particular stimulus. This theory evolves from the experiment conducted by Ivan Pavlov on the
dogs where they were conditioned to salivate at the ringing of a bell. The second is the operant
conditioning that is based on the belief that reward can reinforce a positive behaviour. Skinner
studied the behaviour of rats where they learnt that pressing lever in the box would give them
food. The operant conditioning approach is based on the use of rewards and punishments to
control the majority of human behaviours.
4.4.3. Social Learning Theory:
Albert Bandura pioneered the concept of social learning theory that he developed after studying
the behaviour of children. He observed in his Bobo doll experiment that children can be
influenced by just observing the behaviour of others. Bandura extended the behavioural theory
by adding the concept of observational learning. Children will be most likely imitating the
behaviour that they see is positively reinforced. Attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation are the four components of social learning theory. Many of the daily behaviours
may not be noted. Attention is the foremost thing for imitation to take place. After observing
the behaviour, it has to be retained and remembered. Every behaviour learnt could not be
imitated. The modelled behaviour needs to be demonstrated. The last is the motivation. If there
is a reward associated with the demonstrated behaviour, then it is most likely to be performed.
4.4.4. Experiential Learning Theory:
David Kolb gave the concept of experiential learning theory. It is the combination of grasping
and transforming the experience that results in knowledge creation. Kolb proposed the four
elements of an experiential learning cycle: Concrete learning, Reflective observation, Abstract
conceptualization, and active experimentation. The first is the encountering stage, where the
person experiences a new situation or may reinterpret an existing notion based on a new
experience. Reflective involves pondering about what is already known. It reflects on
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incongruency between existing knowledge and new knowledge. Based on the experience, the
person may form a new idea or change his existing thinking leading to abstract
conceptualization. Finally, the new knowledge is applied by the learner in the active
experimentation stage.
Figure 2: Experiential learning cycle, (source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-

kolb.html)
4.4.5. Happenstance Learning Theory:
The theory proposed by John Krumboltz states that the human behaviour is based on many
learning experiences arising from both planned and unplanned situations that the individuals
encounter. Some of the situations may be within the control of an individual and some may be
out of control. The consequences of these different situations are difficult to predict and thus
called as happenstance. From the education perspective, theory suggests that every child has
their own starting point. Every individual can have their own level of success bar. Individual
achievement needs to be focused on over group achievement. Students learn best from their
own actions and learning should be an enjoyable process.
4.5TRAINING NEED IDENTIFICATION (TNA)
Identification of the needs for which the training program is required is the very first step of
designing any training program. It involves three components: job-task analysis, organizational
analysis, and person analysis. These three components are explained as follows:
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4.5.1. Job-task analysis:

This involves determining critical requirements of a job and understanding different KSAs
required for performing that job. Training designing process involves task analysis to determine
what training program is best suitable for job? Humans cannot retain everything. There are
limitations to one’s cognitive skills. This step enables trainers to know what is required to be
known and remembered by the trainees so that the focus could be done on those areas. This
also requires team-task analysis that identifies different coordination patterns among the work
groups. This will also help in deciding which set of groups of people should need to attend the
training together.
4.5.2. Organizational analysis:
This step involves determining the preparedness of the organisation to be able to conduct the
training program. It refers to analysing the culture, strategic priorities, and resources that can
be provided by the organisation. Training has to ensure that organisational needs are addressed.
This would require determining the organization’s core competencies and knowing the critical
jobs and functions in the organization. Social supporting environment also need to be examined
for the effectiveness of the training program. There should be a learning supporting
environment for the training to be successful.
4.5.3. Person analysis:
This finally involves deciding if the employee is having the required skills and knowledge for
performing the assigned task. What are the skills that he is lacking and should form the basis
of the training program? Many demographic variables also need to be considered such as age,
diversity in the organisation. Training can vary from an individual to individual. Age is
considered to be positively associated with the training time and negatively correlated with
training performance. Sufficient time must be given to the aged employees and more structured
and self-paced training models might work for the older employees.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Identify theories associated with each example:
21. Mother rewards his child with chocolates after he cleans the room. Child starts
cleaning the room on his own every time his mother is around to get the
chocolate.
22. A child is told that white object in the kitchen is a cooker and should not be
touched as it is hot. As the Child walks towards the next white object in the
room, which is fridge, he remembers that white objects are hot and should not
be touched.
23. A younger child imitates the dancing style of his elder brother on seeing that
he is being appreciated by others for his dance form.
24. John was used to working in an offline environment and always thought that
the job can never be performed remotely. During Covid-19, he learnt to work
online effectively and now prefers to do the remote working.
4.6 ADDIE Model
Before we understand different training and development techniques that are adopted by
managers across different industries, lets first understand the ADDIE model. ADDIE
framework stands for analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. This
model enables managers to follow a consistent training and development process. Using this
model managers can also monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the program in fulfilling
various learning objectives. Details on each phase of this model are as follows:
4.6.1. Analyse:
This stage involves setting of the learning objectives. Based on prior training programs also
the learning modules can be designed. This involves determining the skills sets required for the
job, existing knowledge level of the people, and the resources that can be provided by the
organisation.
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4.6.2. Design:
This phase sets the tone for the entire training program. Based on the learning objectives, the
training strategy is decided. Method to be followed for the delivery of the content, type of
material to be gathered are the decisions to be made during this stage.
4.6.3. Development:
Once the layout of the training program is set, next step involves developing the lectures,
content, and required training material. A small training test can also be done to check the
working of the program and its effectiveness in achieving the desired goals.
4.6.4. Implementation:
This involves implementing the designed and developed training program. Any gaps between
what is desired and what is actually achieved are identified and analysed for future
improvements.
4.6.5. Evaluation:
The learning problems faced by the trainees, and the new learning opportunities are identified
and analysed during this stage. The main purpose of this phase is to refine and improvise the
future training programs.
Analyze Design Development Implementation Evaluation
Figure 3: ADDIE model, (source: https://doi.org/10.1108/14777281111125363)
4.7 TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT METHODS
There is a wide variety of methods to choose from for the training and development purposes.
But the adoption of these method is context specific and need to be adjusted to the specific
needs of the target organisation. Some of these techniques are discussed below:
4.7.1. Coaching or Mentoring:
Coaching is a very effective technique for modifying managerial behaviours in a direct and
personalised manner. It is a customized training program given on a one-to-one basis and over
a period of time. It is generally given in helping out employees with specific problems, or to
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prepare the employee for any new work assignment. This technique is generally used for a
continuous and generalized training program.
4.7.2. Lecture:
There is a single flow of information as it is transmitted from the instructor to the learner.
Learning is dependent upon the knowledge and experience of the trainer. However, this method
puts a cognitive burden on the learner. The knowledge is to be acquired, integrated, and
retained. The pace of every learner also varies from person to person. An improvisation of this
method is lecture-cum-demonstration method in which the lecturer reemphasizes information
by putting the same into action.
4.7.3. Modelling:
In this method, the new behaviour is acquired by observing others performing the same task.
Videotapes can be used for imparting instructions to the trainees. This helps in enhancing the
confidence level among trainees. This technique also enables old learners to understand how
to perform the task.
4.7.4. Active Participation:
This is like a trial-and-error approach where the learners learn by actually performing the task
rather than just observing someone performing it. This approach is based on self-discovery and
learners can learn at their own pace.
4.7.5. Role-playing:
Trainees are supposed to assume a character and play like that character in a particular scenario
or a series of scenarios. It is quite an effective method in changing the attitude of people by
encouraging brainstorming. It is found to be very effective when subjects take the point of view
opposite to their own and express this opposing viewpoint to others. Role-playing is often used
to teach skills such as negotiating, grievance handling, buying and selling and effective
communication.
4.7.6. Job Rotation:
The employee is made to experience working on other jobs while he is still working on a given
task or a project. This can be effective for career development of the employee and can assist
in the employees’ quick promotion. This training method also helps in reducing job burnout
and leads to effective management of existing staff members. This also helps in dealing with
the employee’s absenteeism. When an employee is on leave other employee trained on the
same job can take over. This can also help employee realise his different capabilities and areas
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of interest. But this type of technique might not be suitable to all type of industries especially
where highly specialised workforce is required. Employees may also feel disgruntled and
overburdened with frequent job rotations.
4.7.7. Simulation:
The real-life conditions are imitated, and trainees are repeatedly made to have a multisensory
experience of this simulated environment. It is used when there is high cost involved and the
real-life task is risky to handle. It involves mirroring of a real-life situation. It might be suitable
for industries such as aviation sector (training of pilots), driving schools, and medical industry
(training surgeons). The technique minimizes errors and can be used in creating a team of
experts.
4.7.8. Case Study method:
It is a narrative description of real-life incidents relating to the organization. Trainees are
required to propose a number of viable solutions to a given case. This is used for developing
analytical, reasoning and problem-solving skills. This method can be used to boost learner’s
motivation level. This method requires lower cost and trainee need to have the core knowledge
of the subject.
4.7.9. Game-based training:
It is an interactive approach of training. Trainees are made to compete in various decision-
making tasks that helps them in finding alternative options and also experience the
consequences of their actions. Such techniques enable faster & longer retention of knowledge.
Trainees while learning skills are also able to apply the knowledge at the same time and so
learn by doing approach. This makes training a fun process and keeps the employees engaged
in the training process. For example, taking quiz sessions in between of the lectures or making
employees compete on simulators. This method helps in improving teamwork, leadership style,
and communication skills while playing the games.
4.7.10. Internship:
The trainees learn to do work on the job but with certain restrictions and with less or no pay. It
involves giving a practical work related to student’s field of study. It helps in the career
development of the students. Students get the benefit of insights into real work experience,
constant support and guidance from the mentors, constant feedback, develop professional
contacts, and get new experience and work skills.
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4.7.11. Sensitivity training:

Sensitivity training is also known as laboratory or T group training. In this, an unstructured
group is created to make people aware of themselves and their impact on others. Participants
are encouraged to freely communicate their thoughts and feelings in an open, unstructured
manner. It helps employees to be more sensitive and work more harmoniously and responsibly.
It makes the trainees aware of constructive and correct emotional actions and behavioural
patterns.
4.7.12. Apprenticeship training:
It is a combination of classroom and on-the-job training where the trainee called the
“apprentice” work under the guidance of a skilled instructor. Traditionally, it is used in skilled
jobs, such as those of plumber, welder, craftsman, carpenter, etc. It is a long-term method of
training aimed at preparing the workforce to meet the growing need of the industry.
4.7.13. Understudy:
In this, the superior gives training to his subordinate as his understudy or assistant. The
subordinate learns through experience and observation. The main objective of this method is
to prepare the subordinate to handle full responsibilities in case the supervisor is absent or
leaves the organization.
4.7.14. Vestibule training:
It is “near-the-job” training that takes place away from the factory or production area on
machinery or equipment that closely resembles the actual ones used on the job. Experiences
trainers are responsible for upskilling the employees and training them. The main advantages
of this training method are that it is effective when many people are to be trained for the same
job, it removes the pressure on employees to produce while learning, disturbances to production
at the actual workplace is minimized and workers can get over their nervousness at work before
they join the actual workplace.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Suggest a most suitable training & development technique in the following cases:
10. For the training of Law students.

11. Doctoral student working on a research project.
12. A newly joined employee in a hotel where his job is to keep the rooms tidy
and taking care of the need of arriving customers.
13. Senior teacher has to impart training session to a newly joined teacher in the
college.
14. Learning to develop an animated cartoon movie.
15. Training surgeons for difficult surgeries.
4.8 EVALUATION OF TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT
This is the most crucial stage of any training program that determines the overall effectiveness
of the program. It refers to the systematic assessment of the fact that training objectives are
achieved and is able to enhance the job performance. Through evaluation of training &
development programs organisations can know if an alternative training program is required to
be designed. Evaluation provides feedback to the trainees, trainers, and the organisation and
helps in deciding if the program can be replicated to the other organisations or employees.
This effectiveness of the training and development program can be assessed through the
reactions of the employees (feedback survey), understanding acquired by them (small test after
the session), changing behaviour (changed behaviour on the job), and outcomes (higher sales).
Most of the organisations use trainee’s reaction and learning as a tool to decide the
effectiveness of the training program.
Experimental design can also be used in training evaluation in which trainee performance can
be compared with the performance of others who were not trained. The experimental group
consists of employees who received training and the control group consists of employees who
did not receive any training or intervention. Members of both groups should be drawn
randomly. At the conclusion of training, performance of both groups is compared and if the
performance of the experimental group is improved substantially the training program may be
rated effective.
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4.9 E-TRAINING & E-DEVELOPMENT
Training and development programs have expanded beyond the traditional classrooms. The
just-in-time technology now requires providing just-in-time training. Cost effectiveness, timely
availability of content, and flexibility are the major drivers of e-training programs. The term
‘e-training’ refers to training involving technology. It can be face-to-face or even purely online.
Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) technology like 3D objects, videos, sounds,
and images can be applied in training of aviation personnel. For example, pilots while being in
air may encounter technical glitches and would need immediate just-in-time learning tools. In
such scenarios Learning on Demand (LoD) instruction manuals containing 3D images and
videos of the aircraft can be very useful. E-content and different applications can enable the
government to aware the citizens about development of smart cities. Applications ranging from
agriculture, education, to health care and safety can be shared with people. E-training can
encourage e-governance where people can be encouraged for online payment of taxes, online
documentation work, online bill payments, etc.
Since 1995, the enrolment of students has multiplied in the distance education courses.
Research shows that course content, video size, age of the participant, and environment
simulator are the factors having a great influence on the online training program. Satisfaction
of participants increase when the content is in narrative form rather than being in numbers or a
technical format. Young individuals are also found to recall content over a web module more
than the older participants. The e-content should be presented with a large video display,
limited use of coloured text, and large letter size. The philosophy to be followed while
designing e-content is “less is more” and “keep it simple”.
It is the support of the ICTs to learning and decision making that contributes significantly to
the process of development. Technology enables both economic and social development by
providing new opportunities to people. ICTs are ignored by the people who are fearful of the
technology. Rather an integrated approach is required. Integrated approach requires
identification of development objectives, identification of new information required to meet
the development objectives, and identification of the crucial role of ICTs in meeting the
information requirements. There are benefits of cost reduction, efficiency, and transparency
gains through e-development.
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4.10 CAREER DEVELOPMENT & SUCCESSION PLANNING
Succession planning is the process of selecting the employees to fill higher level positions in
the organisation. The process involves identification of the need of the senior managers. Then
shortlisting the most suitable candidate to fill the senior manager position and ensuring that
relevant core competencies are developed in the candidate for the job. The process provides
job successors for the important executive positions from the existing pool of candidates. A
sophisticated succession plan contains various components such as having a clear vision, a
proper business plan, assessment of current situation, developing potential candidates, and
implementing the plan. An effective succession plan can reduce the turnover rate, fulfil the
career development aspirations of the employees, and can provide the competitive advantage
to the organisation.
Leadership development and succession planning are the two sides of the same coin.
Leadership learning and development should be coupled with succession planning as this can
create a flow of talented successors from early stage of career of employees to being senior
leaders and even headship. In United Kingdom, it was observed that there were leadership
shortages in schools. Poor confidence among teachers, reluctance in taking up new professional
assignments, and lack of career advice were the identified reasons for restricting teachers from
their career advancement and achieving leadership progression. Culture related factors like
teamwork, trust, commitment, and leadership support encourages leadership successors within
schools. Teamwork needs to be created, a distributed leadership approach, and job rotation can
help in succession planning. Techniques like coaching, role-modelling can also assist in the
professional development of teachers.
The leadership development program should fit the organisation’s culture and serve the long
term and short-term objectives of the organisation. Managers can follow the following six steps
for a continuous leadership development model in the organisation:
4.10.1. Evaluate the organisation:
The current state of the organisation needs to be evaluated. This involves understanding the
policy, past practices, strategy, assessment of current resources, and knowing about the culture
of the organisation. It has to be assessed if the right employees are available within the
organisation for leadership roles and how their potential can be fully developed.
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4.10.2. Assess the organisation’s status in development of resources:

This involves getting an idea about the financial resources and the priorities of the organisation.
How much time the organisation is willing to give for the leadership development programs.
4.10.3 Assess current opportunities:
Staff should be provided different opportunities to stand out for leadership roles by engaging
them in different work groups and committees of the organisation. Involve staff in the revision
of company’s policies and procedures. A staff meeting could be arranged where different
individuals can present their case studies. A culture of continuous learning has to be developed.
4.10.4. Identify potential staff to mentor:
This refers to finding out the employee who has aspirations and potential to grow in his career.
Identifying the person who can lead and bear the burden of the organisational responsibilities.
This also involves assessing the value of the investment. The cost of training or coaching the
existing member must be compared to recruitment of an outside person for the job.
4.10.5. Identify training gaps:
There should be five important traits in any case leader: leaders need to be aware about their
changes in their external environment, seek out simple solutions to big problems, have a
creative thinking, respects other team players and should drive engagement & commitment
towards the organisation, and must have complete knowledge and experience to handle the
situation. The training gaps based on these identified five traits can be identified and filled.
4.10.6. Develop an integrated program:
A comprehensive plan based on the cost assessment, judgement about the existing resources
of the organisation should be developed. If required a sponsor for the program or the champion
who can help out in the implementation of the leadership program should be hired.
4.11 CASE STUDY
GoIndia Airline started its operations in the year 2016. After covid-19 pandemic and the rising
turbine fuel has greatly damaged the profitability of the enterprise. Recently, the airline is also
in news for maintenance issues, frequently engineering related concerns are being reported in
the headlines. Ministry of State ordered a special audit of the airline to do a spot check on the
airline. The audit results found that there is a deficiency of sufficient and suitably qualified
engineers, and experienced manpower. To add to the existing problems, the competition has
increased in the industry with the upcoming of new airlines. The attrition rate for the existing
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engineers and maintenance staff has been going up for the airline. Employees are lining up for
interviews with the new airlines expecting not the salary hike but better growth opportunities.
There are two categories of engineers being employed by the airline: Category A and B.
Category A staff is cheaper and is responsible for simpler tasks like refuelling, tyre change,
handling cockpit defects, etc. Category B engineers do major maintenance tasks in an aircraft
and are paid higher. Category A employees are now demanding higher wages and better
opportunities. The engineers are facing extreme burnout as they are working on double shifts
at lower wages. This is creating safety concerns for the airline as maintenance and overhauling
of the aircrafts is compromised.
Please suggest the following:
1. Suggest which type of training and development methods can be adopted by the airline?
2. Which learning theory is best suitable under the current situation?
3. Before organising a T & D plan, what are the factors that should be considered by the
airlines?
4. What can be the best method followed for evaluating the success of the T & D program?
5. Is there an issue of succession planning that can be addressed? How?
4.12 SUMMARY
The chapter discusses the difference in the concepts of learning, training, and development
followed by the detailed discussion on different theories of learning and methods of training
and development that can be adopted by the organisations. The contemporary issues like e-
training, e-development, and the need for succession planning are also elaborated.
4.13 GLOSSARY
Augmented Reality: A technology that involves computer generating image on the user’s
view of the real world.
Debriefs: Documentation of recent experiences that enables identification of what went well
and what can be improved.
Learning Transfer: The extent to which learning on one task facilitates learning on a second
task.
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Virtual Reality: An immersive experience of a simulated real-life environment.
1. Training 9. Experiential Learning Theory

2. True 10. Coaching
3. Skills & Attitude 11. Internship
4. True 12. Modelling
5. Transfer 13. Lecture
6. Behaviourism Learning Theory 14. Simulation
7. Cognitive Learning Theory 15. Game-Based Training
8. Social Learning Theory
Please answer the following questions based on your understanding of this chapter:
1. Is there any difference between training and development? Please elaborate.
2. How can the organisation assess its training needs?
3. What do you understand by the ADDIE training and development model?
4. How can the effectiveness of a training & development program be evaluated?
5. Is it necessary to focus on succession planning? How is leadership development related
to the concept of succession planning?
6. Explain the difference between cognitive and conditioning learning theories?
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Clark, R. C. (2020). Evidence-Based Training Methods: A Guide for Training Professionals
(3rd ed.). ASTD Press.
Kavanagh, M. J., & Johnson, R. D. (2017). Human Resource Information Systems: Basics,
Applications, and Future Directions (4th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Kolb, D. (2014). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development (2nd ed.). Pearson FT Press.
Mondy, W. (2022). Human Resource Management. Generic.
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Pritchard, A. (2013). Ways of Learning: Learning theories and learning styles in the classroom
(David Fulton Books) (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Robbins, S., & Judge, T. (2021). Organizational Behavior, Updated 18e, Global Edition (18th
ed.). Pearson.
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LESSON 5
COMPENSATION AND REWARD MANAGEMENT

Dr. Sneha Chaudhry
Assistant Professor
Gitarattan International Business School
Sneha2261@yahoo.com
STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Concept of Compensation
5.3.1 Objectives of compensation planning
5.3.2 Need for and Importance of designing effective compensation plan
5.3.3 Factors influencing compensation
5.3.4 Theories of Motivation appreciating compensation
5.4 Compensation Management
5.4.1 Principles of compensation management
5.4.2 Importance of Compensation Management
5.4.3 Compensation management and other HRM functions
5.4.4 Components of compensation management
5.4.5 Job Evaluation method
5.5 Types of Compensation
5.5.1 Monetary Compensation
5.5.2 non-monetary compensation
5.5.3 Compensation Process
5.5.4 Total Compensation equation
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5.5.5 Challenges in Compensation Design

5.6 Reward Management
5.6.1 Types of Rewards
5.6.2 Objectives of reward management
5.6.3 Principles for setting proper reward management system
5.6.4 Designing Effective Reward System
5.6.5 Total reward system
5.6.6 The significance of total reward
5.7 Summary
5.8 Answers to In-text questions
5.10 References
• To be familiar with the notion of compensation and its administration

• To elucidate the elements, types and theories of compensation
• To comprehend the relevance of compensation management in organisational HR
strategies
• To classify the various components of compensation system
5.2 INTRODUCTION
The determination of monetary compensation rates is one of the most critical and challenging
aspects of human resource management. Employee compensation decisions are critical to the
success of any organisation because of the total operating costs, effective employee
compensation management is critical from a financial perspective alone. Another rationale for
studying compensation from an organizational point of view is to examine its impact on a wide
range of employee attitudes and behaviours, and, ultimately, the organization's and its units'
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effectiveness. Compensation can influence employee attractiveness, retention, performance,

job satisfaction, skill acquisition, cooperation, and flexibility. The remuneration that an
employee receives in exchange for their efforts to the organisation is referred to as
compensation. A good remuneration strategy encourages people to work harder and more
zealously. Compensation policies should be well integrated with HRM practices. It also assists
firms in establishing employment criteria that are relevant, realistic, and measurable.
5.3 CONCEPT OF COMPENSATION
“Compensation is a comprehensive term which includes everything an employee receives in

return for his work such as wages, salaries, allowances, benefits and services. “
Cascio has defined compensation as “Compensation includes direct cash payments, indirect
payments in the form of employee benefits, and incentives to motivate employees to strive for
higher levels of productivity.”
Dale Yoder believes, “Compensation is paying people for work.”
Keith Davis stated, “Compensation is what employees receive in exchange for their
contribution to the organization.”
According to Edwin B. Flippo, “The function compensation is defining as adequate and
equitable remuneration of personnel for their contributions to the organizational objectives.”
Compensation is a form of trade in which both employees and organisations contribute
something in exchange for something else. It is an essential consideration in human resource
management decisions. Employees regard a pay package to be fair if it meets basic living needs
while also saving some money for, possibly for retirement and recreation. HRM determines
remuneration using strategies such as job evaluation and performance appraisal. Compensation
is described as money received in exchange for labour performed, as well as a variety of
services and benefits supplied to employees by an organisation. Designing an efficient
compensation programme is a crucial function of organisational effectiveness in the
globalisation period, where the corporate environment has become increasingly complicated
and tough.
5.3.1 Objectives of compensation planning:
Compensation matters were frequently kept private in the past and were governed by individual
employer preferences and choices. Employees now make their own judgments based on the
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remuneration package, and compensation policies are more transparent. Balancing salary costs
and retaining personnel has become a significant challenge for organisations.
Edwin B. Flippo believes, “as far as the organisation is concerned, employee compensation
programs are designed to do three things:
• To attract capable employees to the organisation.
• To motivate them towards superior performance.
• To retain their services over an extended period of time.”
The objectives of compensation are:
• Ensure Equity: It covers income distribution by reducing inequities, raising the wages
of the lowest-paid employees, protecting real wages, and the principle of equal pay for
equal effort. Internal equity requires that remuneration be tied to the relative worth of a
work in such a way that comparable pay is guaranteed for similar tasks.
• Enhanced Efficiency: Attempts to link a portion of salaries to production or profit,
group or individual performance, skill acquisition and application, and so on.
Preparations for efficiency are equitable if they appropriately reward performance, but
inequitable if the incentive is perceived to be unfair.
• Macro-economic stability: An excessively high minimum wage would have a
negative influence on employment numbers. Low inflation contributes to
macroeconomic stability. Two of the many factors that influence economic stability are
compensation and compensation policy. They either help or inhibit balanced and long-
term economic development.
• Efficient allocation of labour: It relates to the idea of labour/employee leaving a
position for a net benefit. This migration could be from one location to another, within
or outside of an enterprise, or between two locations. Employers evaluate staff attrition
while employees consider net gain.
• Attracting competent personnel: A competitive salary and other benefits helps an
organisation attract qualified candidates.
• Complying with regulations: A good wage and salary system takes into account the
legal challenges imposed by the government and guarantees that firms follow the law.
• Controlling costs: A practical compensation system assists the firm in obtaining and
retaining employees at a fair cost.
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• Enhancing administrative efficiency: A well-designed good wage and salary scheme

aids in the efficient management of human resource information systems.
• Facilitating understanding: The compensation management system should be really
clear and understandable
• Retaining employees: When pay levels do not meet employees' expectations, attrition
may rise.
• Motivating desirable behaviour: Compensation is likely to promote desired
behaviours from employees and act as an incentive for behavioural adjustment and
future.
• Retaining talent: Properly designed compensation helps in retaining the competitive
employees in the organisation.
• Self-assurance to the organisation to compete in the employment market
• Promote flexibility in the pay structures offered to employees
• To administer pay equitably and consistently
• Ensure achievement of organisational objectives by aligning compensation with
employee performance
5.3.2 Need for and Importance of designing effective compensation plan:
A company's most valuable asset is its human resources. To get the best out of each employee,
pay and compensation must be handled exactly like any other function. It goes without saying
that competitive remuneration will assist to attract and retain great individuals. It is now time
to study executive and strategic compensation. Over time, compensation plans and procedures
have evolved substantially. Traditional employees were relieved to receive their pay checks
and little bonuses. They only needed to obey commands, carry out managerial orders, and
produce outcomes to obtain job-related rewards. Their expectations were also low, but
behavioural specialists have radically changed the scenario. As a result of the Industrial
Revolution, work became monotonous, uninteresting, and exhausting thus comes the need to
lure the talent with competent pay.
Compensation is one of the most critical components of human resource management, and it
can make or break a business. A competent compensation plan can assist organisations in
thriving and competing in their respective markets. Some of the benefits of offering a
competitive wage plan to employees include:
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• Ensures equity
• Encourage desired behaviour
• Control HR costs
• Attracting competent personnel
• Adhere to regulatory requirements
• Enhanced employee motivation in the workplace
• Enhanced employee efficiency
• Increased productivity and profitability through employee loyalty
• Improves staff engagement and job satisfaction
• Enhanced organisational efficiency
• Aids in the retention of exceptional employees
• Goodwill in the employment market
• Improved industrial relations
5.3.3 Factors influencing compensation:
The main issue that any organisation faces is establishing a fair and equitable compensation
system. This requires understanding of the various factors that influence compensation, such
as the composition of decision-making bodies. The emphasis of an employee may be on higher
pay to offset their increased cost of living and the price they demand in a competitive job
market. One of the most common differences of opinion between employers and employees is
compensation. An employee's pay is determined by the amount of effort he puts in, the nature
of his job, and his competence. In addition, various other internal and external factors influence
compensation directly or indirectly. Thus, the numerous elements impacting pay are as follows:
• Labor supply and demand: Wage rates rise when labour demand exceeds supply, and
vice versa.
• The ability to pay refers to the employer's financial situation and willingness to pay
the employee.
• Employee’s relative worth: The maximum output that workers achieve on average
based on their ability to execute. Compensation based on the employees’ worth plays
an important role in motivating employees to increase their worth too.
• Cost of Living- Wage rate changes can be caused by the cost-of-living index,
considering that if the cost of living is high, wages and salaries will be higher.
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• Government regulations intended to provide justice and fairness in compensation

payments.
• Prevailing market rate: Compensation rates set in accordance with competitors' wage
levels in order to achieve both external and internal equality.
• Psychological and Social Factors: People feel that equal work should carry equal
value and wages should be commensurate with their efforts.
• Skill Levels Available in the Market: There is a shortage of skilled workers in many
parts of the world. The wage levels have to keep up to meet the needs of the industry's
need-to-achieve workforce.
• Employee union: Wage levels are also influenced by trade unions' collective
bargaining power.
• Nature and worth of job: Organizations base pay levels on the value of a job. Wages
and incomes are greater in vocations that need mental strength, jobs with a lot of
responsibility, positions that require innovation, and technical jobs.
• Organizational strategy and attitude: An organization's pay approach is heavily
influenced by its business strategy; Companies that implement a defensive approach,
for example, will maintain salary levels that are average or lower than the market
standard.
• Organizational culture: Compensation decisions are influenced by organisational
characteristics such as management philosophy, remuneration plans used by enterprises
in the same industry, manner of compensation, equality criterion, performance
appraisal, and so on.
5.3.4 Theories of Motivation appreciating compensation:
Theories, in general, provide a solid foundation and framework for implementing thoughts and
ideas. These theories have created a number of excellent suggestions for providing a foundation
for implementing compensation systems in businesses. According to Goodin, the employee
compensation system is critical in efforts to improve human resource management. Every
component of compensation has a behavioural purpose and seeks to meet a need and achieve a
goal. It is necessary to understand some motivational theories in order to understand how
compensation contributes to motivation.
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Figure 1: Motivational Theories

• Need Hierarchy theory: the base pay is a means of satisfying only the lower order
needs like: Physiological, Safety and Social needs but it goes further. Therefore, the
compensation has to be a perfect combination of monetary and non-monetary
components in order to carter to the different needs of the employees.
• Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory: According to ERG Theory, if a
higher-level need is not met, a person may regress and seek to meet lower-level needs
instead. For example, if an ambitious employee is not given possibilities for
advancement, their motivation would suffer, and they may feel disillusioned. Thus, the
form of compensation to be reimbursed for the employees' efforts in accordance with
their expectations.
• Herzberg's Motivation Theory: also identified as the Two Factor Theory, identifies
two elements that influence workplace motivation. These are both hygiene and
motivating elements. If hygiene variables are not present, an employee will work less.
If motivating stimuli are available, they will be encouraged to work harder. He stated
that money is not the primary motivator for employees.
• Equity theory: According to this theory, employee perceptions of their contribution to
the firm and what they receive in return impact how fair they believe their work
relationships are. Employees will adjust their job behaviour to create equity if they
perceive there is imbalance.
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• Expectancy theory: This idea is based on the assumption that human behaviour is
driven by perceived requirements. This theory defines motivation strength as the value
of the consequence of doing behaviour and the anticipated likelihood that the outcome
would materialise as a result of the activity undertaken. The possibility that a certain
behaviour will result in a specific first level consequence is defined as expectancy.
Employees are asked to prioritise important personal goals and instruments in order to
determine valence. The more certain employees are about their expectations, the more
likely it is that their behaviour can be predicted properly.
• Reinforcement theory: The repercussions of an individual's behaviour, according to
this theory, will affect the level of motivation.
• Achievement motivation theory: This theory distinguishes three types of basic needs:
the need for power, the need for affiliation, and the need for achievement. The
significance of these non-monetary requirements should not be underestimated when
developing compensation plans.
5.4 COMPENSATION MANAGEMENT
“Compensation management is an integral part of human resource management and helps in

motivating the employees and improving organizational effectiveness.”
Managing compensation is a complex process. An effective compensation management
programme can be segregated into various sub-goals. These include equitable compensation
based on relative work to the organisation; Payment consistency among comparable
occupations; Individual capability and proficiency are recognised; Procedures for solving
compensation issues logically.
5.4.1 Principles of compensation management:
In his book, “The Management of People at Work”, D.S. Beach outlines seven principles of
compensation management:
1. The organisation should have a defined mechanism in place for determining differential
pay levels based on divergent job needs such as differing abilities, effort, responsibility,
and working conditions.
2. An attempt should be made to keep the overall wage and salary levels of the firm in
accordance with those obtained in the labour market or industry.
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3. Adequate precautions should be made to keep people separate from occupations.

Although workers are compensated based on the rate of pay for certain duties,
professional and executive people should be compensated based on their abilities and
accomplishments.
4. Care should be taken to achieve equal pay for equal labour, subject to job flexibility;
variances within a pay range may be acceptable.
5. A strategy for developing an equal process for recognising individual differences in
ability and contribution, such as rate ranges with in-grade increments, wage incentive
schemes, and a job promotion system, should be in place.
6. A mechanism for dealing with salary grievances should be established. This might be
successfully represented in the enterprise's standard grievance procedure.
7. There should be no confidential wage issues, and each employee should have a clear
grasp of his or her unique wage or salary structure. Adequate attention should be made
to notify employees and, if applicable, unions about the mechanism used to determine
wage rates.
5.4.2 Importance of Compensation Management
An effective compensation plan is vital for every business organisation since it provides an
incentive for employees to stay with the company. A corporation benefits from structured
compensation management in the following ways:
• It strives to adequately compensate employees for their contributions to the company.
• It sets a foundation for employee happiness and satisfaction, which decreases labour
turnover and provides a solid organisation.
• It is meant to comply with several labour acts, avoiding difficulties between the employee
union and management. This promotes a positive working connection between the
company and the employees. It boosts employee morale, efficiency, and cooperation
while also ensuring their satisfaction.
To summarise, compensation management is vital since it drives individuals to do better and
demonstrate their excellence while also giving competent personnel with possibilities for
growth and development.
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5.4.3 Compensation management and other HRM functions:
Source: NOUV Brosh

Figure 2: Relation between Compensation management and other HRM functions
5.4.4 Components of compensation management:
The full compensation process should proceed as follows: An organization's HR initiatives
must be consistent with its entire business plan, and compensation strategy, as an essential
component of HR strategy, comprises outlining what strategic HR objectives can be met.
Compensation is designed and implemented in the organisation in accordance with the
compensation strategy and inputs from the external environment and internal reality. If
effectively designed, compensation leads the organisation to the targeted performance levels.
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Figure 3: Total Compensation process

Compensation management is to equip employees with equal compensation based on their job
nature, job position, and responsibilities. As a result, comprehension is split into compensation
management components, they are:
Job
Description
Policies and
Job analysis
Regulations Components
of
Compensatio
n
Salary Management Job
Surveys Evaluation
Pay
Structure
Figure 4: Components of compensation Management

1. Job Descriptions: A job description is an important component of both pay and
selection systems since it outlines the functions and responsibilities of a position.
Employment descriptions define out all the responsibilities, requirements, functions,
duties, location, environment, and other features of the job. Work descriptions can be
created for individual occupations or for entire job families.
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2. Job Analysis: The process of assessing employment in order to create job descriptions.
It entails acquiring information on the incumbent's responsibilities. Interviews,
questionnaires, and observation are all methods of job analysis. The job analysis
process entails obtaining information about the incumbent's duties, the nature and
conditions of the employment, and some basic qualifications.
3. Job Evaluation: It is a systematic method for determining the worth and value of each
job within a company. Ranking, classification, factor comparison, and the point method
are the four main strategies. To obtain a sensible job, remuneration organisations
typically compare similar jobs to industry standards.
4. Pay Structures: The pay structure is designed in accordance with job evaluation. Most
pay structures include numerous grades, each with its own minimum and
maximum salary/wage and grade range. An organisation with a defined compensation
structure aids in the development of human resource branding. It can also be used to
standardise pay methods.
5. Salary Surveys: Conducting surveys to acquire market data is part of compensation
management. Salary budget averages, inflation indicators, cost of living indicators, and
typical salaries may all be included. Companies can either purchase the results of salary
surveys conducted by survey suppliers or conduct their own wage surveys for a certain
sector or geographic location.
6. Policies and Regulations: Government policies and regulations are another crucial
component of compensation management since they describe all of an organization's
rules and regulations, as well as its do's and don'ts. Furthermore, these decibels affect
the operation and limitations of an organisation.
5.4.5 Job Evaluation Methods:
A job evaluation is a systematic way of determining the value/worth of a job in relation to other
jobs in an organization. It tries to make a systematic comparison between jobs to assess their
relative worth for the purpose of establishing a rational pay structure.
For example, how would one measure how well your staff performs its duties? How would you
measure if an IT person is doing enough to justify his cost to the company? How would you
measure if a Production in charge is effectively utilizing the resources? It is done through a
process called job evaluation.
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Job evaluation and the methods you use are vital to determine employee output. Measuring
productivity is relatively easy when there is a tangible output of measurable material. However,
it can get quite tricky when that isn’t the case.
The methods of job evaluations used to set compensation levels are point factor, factor
comparison, job ranking and job classification.
1. Ranking Method: This approach of job rating rates jobs based on how valuable they
are thought to be in comparison to other jobs. The market worth of the jobs is not
considered. This approach is effective for smaller enterprises. Larger firms typically
have more positions and might call for grouping the jobs. This approach, for instance,
might be used if all level "A" personnel were put into one section, and the same for
level "B" staff, regardless of what tasks their professions required of them.
2. Grading/Classification Method: Jobs are categorised using this form of job appraisal
based on specific traits. One factor is the degree of expertise required to perform the
task. The second factor is the responsibility an individual has while performing their
work. The time required to complete this job evaluation approach is not as great as it is
for the other methods on the list. Lists of qualities for the job are developed by the
auditor. After that, he assigns ratings or classifications to the jobs.
3. Point-Factor Method: This type of job evaluation looks at particular aspects of the job
to assess how much value they provide to a job function. These elements are broken
down into other categories, such as abilities, obligations, and necessary work.
Then a numerical weight is ascribed to these factors. In order to determine the value of the
occupations, all of the contributing elements or points for a certain work are summed
together and compared to other jobs. This approach makes a job's internal value clear
without taking market value into account.
4. Factor Comparison Method: Each component is given a monetary value rather than
just a numerical weighting. Due of its complexity, this strategy isn't used by many
businesses. The job values that are given to employees might also be difficult to convey
because they are often arbitrary.
5. Competitive Market Analysis Method: A corporation uses a job evaluation approach
to assess where it stands in relation to the competition. This implies that comparable
employment on the market is taken into account, and the knowledge may originate
through job ads. It's crucial to decide what your firm offers in terms of compensation
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because different companies within an industry may give varying salaries for the same
function.
Organizations can better understand the demands of each role and what goes into maintaining
employee pay satisfaction by using job evaluation methodologies. Employees are sure to
appreciate it if a corporation makes the effort to assess the value each person offers and
gradually improves that employee's salary in accordance with their effort or competence.
CASE STUDY 1
Compensation Management
Leena is a new human resource supervisor at a huge and modern Mumbai hospital. The
hospital is a medium-sized institution with cutting-edge health-care services. It has a total of
500 employees, including 15 executives, 10 consultants, 20 managers, and 50 supervisors.
There are 25 technicians, 200 nurses, and 180 administrative and support staff. The majority
of these workers have bachelor's degrees in medical, paramedical, business, or liberal arts
fields.
Leena graduated with honours from a prestigious college five years ago with a bachelor's
degree in human resource management and began working at the hospital as an HR assistant.
After two years on the job, she was promoted to HR specialist in recruitment. She is overjoyed
with the advancement and intends to attend graduate school to get a Master of Business
Administration with a concentration in Hospital Administration. While working as an HR
assistant in the same company, she faced a variety of compensation administration issues and
complaints, including delayed salary adjustments, wage distortions, an uncompetitive pay
scale, and poorly constructed job analysis and job evaluation programmes. She also saw a
high turnover rate, particularly in the technical and professional ranks, which she attributed
to insufficient salary and benefits packages. Because the HR manager was often preoccupied
with labour relations issues, she felt worthless and confused of what to do.
She also suspected that her country's low economic conditions, along with a subpar human
resource management system, were to blame for these issues. She believes that now that she
has the authority to make recommendations and influence management, she must devise a
strategy for establishing a compensation system.
Question:
1. What do you think of Leena's suggestion? What other suggestions do you have for
Leena to improve management?
2. What are the many considerations that organisations examine when creating a
compensation system?
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5.5 TYPES OF COMPENSATION
According to R. S. Schular “Compensation is such an activity through which organization on

the basis of its ability and within law reasonably assesses the contribution of employees
directly and indirectly for the distribution of financial and non-financial remuneration.”
According to Wayne F Cascio “Compensation which includes direct cash payments, indirect
payments in the form of employee benefits and incentives to motivate employee to strive for
higher level of productivity is a critical component of the employment relationship.
Compensation is affected by forces as diverse as labour market factors, collective bargaining,
government legislation and top management's philosophy regarding pay benefits.”
Compensation is the entire amount of cash and non-monetary payments made to an employee.
It is usually one of the most expensive expenses for organisations with employees.
Compensation is more than just an employee's regular pay. It also includes a wide range of
other pay and benefits.
Employee compensation administration is known as compensation management or wage and
salary administration. It entails developing and implementing policies and programmes for
wages, salaries, and other kinds of employee remuneration. Wage and pay administration's
primary goal is to maintain a fair wage structure and labour cost structure. Compensation
management is primarily concerned with providing fair, beneficial, and rational compensation
to employees and employers. To comprehend how compensation works, it is divided into two
components, each with its own set of objectives and expectations. The following are the
numerous types of compensation in compensation management:
Direct monetary Compensation:
Financial compensation is a monetary payment offered to an employee in exchange for his
work. Basic salary, bonus pay, incentives, overtime pay, commission pay, and variable pay are
all included. Wages and wages are a significant component of the cost of conducting business.
Salary is a fixed, non-incentive payment based on hours worked. Wages could be paid hourly,
daily, weekly, or monthly. Incentives are a sort of compensation approach in which
remuneration is linked to output or profitability. It could be related to an individual's, a team's,
or an organization's overall performance. Bonuses, profit-sharing schemes, variable pay, and
stock options are all examples of incentives.
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Indirect monetary Compensation:

Pensions, insurance, paid holidays and other benefits are examples of indirect monetary
compensation. These are further subdivided into mandatory and voluntary benefits. A
provident fund, a gratuity scheme, a health plan, maternity leave, medical leave, and other
perks are examples of mandatory benefits that a business is compelled by law to provide to its
employees. Voluntary benefits are optional and provided by the employer freely. These include
unpaid time off, paid holidays, family-friendly benefits, retirement benefits, and so on.
Employees can now take sabbaticals, work from home possibilities, health/life/accident
insurance, company-sponsored education facilities, free transportation, subsidised meals, and
free concierge services.
Non-monetary compensation:
These are psychological benefits offered to employees who have the impression that their
abilities are valued. Employees at the senior and medium levels who prefer to work with
cutting-edge technology want to be empowered. Aside from recognition and service awards,
modern firms provide essential non-monetary incentives to their employees.
Total Compensation
Non- Monetary
Monetary Compensation
Compensation
Direct Compensation Indirect Compensation Rewards &

Recognition
Employee services
Pay for time not
Overtime policy
Insurance plans
Security plans
worked
Base pay Incentives

Stock Options
Gains sharing
Profit sharing
Commissions
Piece rate
Bonuses
Salaries
Wages
Figure 5: Components of Compensation
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5.5.1 Monetary Compensation:

1. Wages and Salary:
Wages and salaries are typically paid on a monthly basis, while wages are frequently paid on
an hourly or daily basis, whereas in the case of pay, the number of hours worked is not taken
into account. Wages and salaries are subject to annual raises. They vary each employment,
based on the nature of the profession. They also vary each employee, based on the nature of
the work, seniority, and merit. Employees in the same position, such as instructors, clerks, and
so on, receive the same income; nevertheless, salaries may fluctuate from employee to
employee when the number of hours worked varies.
2. Incentives:
Employees receive incentives, sometimes known as 'Performance based pay,' in addition to
wages and salaries. Incentives are based on worker productivity or efficiency, sales achieved,
profit made, or cost-cutting efforts. Individual reward schemes and group incentive schemes
are the two types of incentive schemes. Individual incentive schemes apply to specific
individual employee performance, whereas group incentive schemes apply to a group of
workers who are obliged to fulfil a specified task collectively in a given period. The incentive
money paid to the group is distributed equitably among the group members. Incentives are
monetary or non-monetary benefits given to employees in exchange for contributing more
efficiently. Piece rate wages are common in the industrial industry. The fairness of
compensation is entirely determined by productivity rather than any subjective element. They
are an excellent stimulator or motivator since they stimulate personnel to increase their
efficiency and achieve the goal. The types of incentives are:
• Profit sharing: A typical incentive for employees to work efficiently, the organisation
offers a share of the earnings to them. Profit sharing plans often require firms to set a
percentage of profits as a target, and if profits exceed that target, the surplus profits are
distributed to employees. It encourages employees to work efficiently in order to
increase the company's revenues and share in the profits.
• Co-operation / stock option: Employees do not acquire ownership rights by sharing
profits. Several organisations offer shares in management or participation in
management paired with a profit share as an incentive to encourage efficient work from
employees. The co-partnership is offered by the issuance of shares if a defined target is
exceeded.
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• Bonus: one-time extra reward given to an employee in exchange for sharing good
performance. Generally, when employees meet or surpass their targets, they are paid an
additional amount known as a bonus. Bonuses are also given in the form of free
international excursions, paid holidays, or gold, among other things. Some businesses
have a bonus programme during the holiday season.
• Commission: a popular incentive given to employees who work in the sales
department. In general, salespeople are paid a base pay in addition to their efforts. More
orders imply a higher commission.
• Suggestion system: Employees are compensated under the suggestion method if the
organisation benefits from the idea made by the employee. For example, if an employee
offers a cost-cutting measure, the person is compensated for making the idea. it is a
very good incentive to maintain employees' initiative levels high.
• Productivity linked wage incentives: These are wage rate plans in which higher
wages are offered in exchange for increased productivity. In a piece pay system,
efficient workers are compensated more than inefficient workers. Employees must
perform effectively in order to get higher pay.
• Retirement benefits: To motivate employees, several firms provide retirement
benefits such as pensions, provident funds, and gratuities. These incentives are
appropriate for employees that require protection and safety.
3. Allowances:
Allowances are amounts of something that are authorised, usually within the confines of a set
of rules and regulations or for a specific purpose. Other allowances are granted to employees
in addition to their base income to help them meet their basic needs. Among these benefits are:
• Dearness Allowance (DA): a benefit given to employees to protect their real income
from price hikes. Dearness allowance is determined as a percentage of base wage.
• House Rent Allowance (HRA): Employers who do not provide employees with living
accommodations pay a house rent allowance. This allowance is calculated as a
percentage of the employee's salary.
• City Compensatory Allowance (CCA): This is mostly granted to employees who
work in metropolitan areas and other large cities where the cost of living is higher. For
municipal employees, the city compensating allowance is often a predetermined
monthly sum, such as 30% of base pay.
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• Transportation Allowance/Conveyance Allowance (TA): Some firms provide a

transportation allowance to cover the employee's commute from home to work.
4. Fringe Benefits/Perquisites
Employee benefits include medical treatment, hospitalisation, accident relief, health and group
insurance, canteen, uniform, recreation, and so on. In recent years, there has been a lot of
emphasis on developing compensation systems that go beyond monetary compensation. We
can assert that all aspects of pay management have a substantial impact on an employee's life.
Pay-for-performance has grown in popularity among management and professional employees,
particularly among executive and senior management. Money is the primary motivator for the
majority of employees.
Perquisites are allowances granted to executives and other higher-ranking officers. They
include amenities such as a corporate car, club membership, paid vacation, furnished residential
bungalows, stock option plans, overseas trip benefits, and so on.
5.5.2 Non- monetary compensation:
1. Awards – include cash, gift certificates, movie tickets, family party and food coupons,
travel discounts to popular destinations, and other items.
2. Recognition– includes Employee of the week, month and year awards presented at a
colourful event has the potential to push staff to perform better. Individuals that make
a positive contribution to society, go above and beyond the call of duty, or have an
impact on business are recognised.
3. Service awards – A loyalty award is given to employees who have worked for the
company for a certain number of years.
4. Appreciation – When an employee completes a task to the complete satisfaction of
superiors, the acknowledgment of higher authority in the presence of colleagues is a
quite certain reward.
5. Challenging task – The assignment of a difficult task to promising individuals has the
ability to unearth dormant brilliance in those employees.
6. Deputation for foreign assignment – The selection of the top performers for training
and significant overseas trips will definitely inspire them and raise their value and
standing among their colleagues.
7. Seeking consultation – Consultation with key individuals on strategic issues and
eliciting candid input has a tremendous impact on morale and positive energy.
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8. Participatory opportunity – Employee participation in decision-making would

undoubtedly heighten up their interest and motivate them to contribute positively to the
organization's goals, whether through a joint decision-making autonomous workgroup,
consultative committees, kaizen management, collective bargaining, quality circles,
suggestion committees, or other means.
9. Power delegation and decentralization – Employee empowerment through
decentralisation of power, emphasis on accountability, and delegation of authority has
the potential to awaken previously dormant potentials in employees.
10. Conducting of refresher training – Periodic training to renew employees' knowledge,
skills, and competencies has the potential to empower and rejuvenate enterprises.
11. Provision of a pleasant working environment - The provision of a pleasant work
environment, such as separate cubicles, the latest electronic communication gadgets,
air-conditioned rooms, secretarial facilities, a comfortable desk and chair, pleasant
interior decoration, clean drinking water, relaxation facilities, and so on, can assist
employees in maintaining a pleasant mood and creating a mind-set for churning out
quality work.
12. Alternate work schedule – Alternative work schedules, such as past time work, job
sharing, flexi time, cancelled work hours, work from home, the possibility to work in
day shift, and so on, contribute significantly to employee loyalty.
13. Liberal holidays – One of the most significant motivators for employees is the
provision of various types of holidays and sabbaticals.
14. Services for career counselling and mentorship – The provision of career counselling
and guidance coaching has the potential to inspire modern employees to realise their
full potential.
15. Conducting events – Organizing numerous activities such as Independence Day,
festivals, New Year’s Day, sports events, literary events, Family Day, and so on fosters
a sense of unity among employees.
16. Status: relates to a job's rank, authority, responsibility, recognition, and reputation.
Managers can inspire employees with esteem and self-actualization needs by promising
increased position or rank in the organisation.
17. Organizational climate: relates to the relationships between superiors and
subordinates. These are the characteristics that define a company. These attributes have
a direct influence on a member's behaviour. Employees are always motivated in a
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healthy organisational environment. A positive approach adopted by managers

generates a better organisational climate, but a bad approach may spoil the climate.
18. Career advancement: Managers must give employees with possibilities for
advancement. When there are prospects for advancement, employees enhance their
skills and efficiency in the hopes of being promoted to a higher level. Promotion is a
powerful stimulant or motivator that encourages people to achieve at their peak.
19. Job enrichment: Employees become bored while completing monotonous tasks. They
want professions that provide variety and allow them to demonstrate their abilities.
Employees are satisfied and motivated when they are given demanding jobs, job
autonomy, and intriguing jobs. A profession that is interesting, enriching, and difficult
in and of it is a great motivator or stimulant.
20. Transparency – Transparent performance appraisal reward system, award system,
transfer system, career development practise promotion, and so on all contribute to a
positive attitude toward the company.
21. Job security: It entails a long-term relationship between personnel and the
organisation. A permanent or confirmation letter demonstrates work security. Although
work consistency gives safety and security, it can also have a negative impact. Once
hired, employees lose interest in their work.
22. Well-developed communication system – Conducting regular meetings, ensuring a
free flow of communication, setting deadlines, establishing clear-cut regulations, well-
defined policies, processes, and strategies, in-house news illuminating the dynamics in
the firm and in the sector, and assisting staff in remaining optimistic in the facility
5.5.3 Compensation Process
With regard to present and future projections for monetary capacity, compensation
management describes an organization's efforts to maintain a competitive compensation
position within its local labour market. The environment, culture, business, and human
resources strategies of the organisation all influence how compensation is managed. It includes
several processes related to job appraisal, market rate analysis, and job analysis, developing
and maintaining pay structures, paying for performance, skills and competence, and
performance management, as well as the methods required to manage these activities.
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Organisation's Strategy
Compensation Policy
Job Analysis and Evaluation
Analysis of contingent Factors
Design and Implementation of Compensation Plan
Evaluation and Review
Figure 6: Compensation Process

Organisation's Strategy: Companies that operate in various market/product types with
differing levels of maturity implement various tactics, corresponding compensation schemes,
and a combination of various compensation techniques. As a result, it is clear that organisations
adopt various tactics depending on the state of the market and match their pay plan and content
to these strategies. An organisation can increase its business in a developing market by taking
over, merging with, or acquiring other businesses in the same industry, or by combining both
of these strategies. In a mature market, the organisation stabilises and grows by making the
current investment more effective rather than by making new investments.
Compensation Policy: The basis for setting basic pay, bonuses, benefits, and various kinds of
perks for different levels of employees is the compensation policy. The organisational
philosophy about human resources and strategy should be connected to the policy. The
foundation for job evaluation, which establishes the relative value of the various jobs within
the organisation, is provided by job analysis.
Job Analysis and Evaluation: It is important to conduct a job analysis to ascertain the
specifics of each position's functions, responsibilities, and accountability. Following an
analysis of the jobs based on the statements in the job descriptions, the positions' worth is
determined from multiple angles. When designing the compensation structure for various
positions, an appropriate job evaluation technique is used to ensure internal equity.
Analysis of contingent Factors: The operation of the human resource management system is
affected by a number of elements, both internal and external, while formulating compensation
plans. The state of the labour market, cost of living, economic development, social
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considerations, pressure from trade unions, and numerous labour laws governing pay
management are examples of external influences.
Design and Implementation of Compensation Plan: A company may be able to create a
compensation plan that includes base pay with provisions for wage or salary increases over
time, various incentive plans, perks, and perquisites. These are occasionally chosen by outside
parties, such as pay commissions for government workers and public sector businesses.
Evaluation and Review: Compensation management should have a provision for evaluating
and reviewing the compensation plan. A compensation plan is not a rigid and fixed one but is
dynamic since it is affected by a variety of factors. If it does not work as intended, there should
be review of the plan necessitating a fresh look.
5.5.4 Total Compensation equation
On the basis of the research conducted in the University of Michigan Business School on MBA
students’ expectations from their workplace, John E. Tropman devised a new concept of pay
based on the total compensation equation with 10 variables. To recruit the greatest talent, this
equation blends traditional salary with educational, emotional, and psychological benefits. It
combines the monetary and non-monetary benefits to create effective, employee focused
compensation package.
TC = (BP + AP + IP) + (WP + PP) + (OA + OG) + (EI + QL) + X
Wherein,
TC = Total compensation
BP = Base pay (salary)
AP = Augmented pay (one- time payment)
IP = Indirect pay (benefits)
WP = Works pay (employer subsidized equipment)
PP = Perks pay (special benefits)
OA = Opportunity for role advancement
OG = Opportunity for growth (training)
EI = Emotional income
QL = Quality of life
X = Any unique element
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5.5.5 Challenges in Compensation Design

1. Establishing Fair and Equitable Remuneration: Employee remuneration should be
fair both internally and externally. Comparable remuneration for comparable work is
referred to as internal equity. In other words, wage differences between positions should
be proportional to differences in work value. External equality implies that a position's
wage should be equal to the pay for a comparable job in another organisation. Payment
is determined by job needs, employee performance, and industry levels, reducing
favouritism and pay discrepancies.
2. To Improve the Company's Public Image: The wage and compensation programme
seeks to portray a progressive employer while conforming to legal wage and pay
regulations.
3. Cost Control: Labour and administrative expenditures can be handled in accordance
with the company's ability to pay by utilising effective wage and compensation
administration. It simplifies payroll administration and control. The company may plan
and regulate labour expenditures in a methodical manner (payroll budgeting).
4. Attracting Competent Personnel: Wage and salary administration that is well-
managed aids in the recruitment of qualified and diligent workers by assuring enough
pay for all occupations.
5. Clarity: To ensure uniform and consistent application, wage and salary plans should
be established explicitly in writing.
6. To enhance the Union-Management Relationship: Wages and compensation based
on systematic job analysis and current pay levels are more acceptable to trade unions.
As a result, good wage and salary management streamlines collective bargaining and
pay talks. It lessens complaints about wage disparities.
7. Wage Policy Development and Implementation: Management should ensure that
employees are aware of and understand the company's wage policy. Workers should be
involved in the development and implementation of wage policies.
8. Flexibility: Wage and salary plans should be adequately adaptable or sensitive to
changes in the organization's internal and external conditions.
9. Retain Current Employees: The corporation can retain its staff by giving a
competitive wage. It can reduce employee turnover and boost employee loyalty.
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10. In Both Interests: Wage policies should be created with the interests of employees,
employers, customers, and the community in mind.
11. Increase Production: Good wage and salary administration improves employee
motivation and morale, which leads to increased productivity.
12. Compensation Decision: All pay, and salary decisions should be reviewed against the
wage policy criteria.
13. Periodic Changes: Wage policies and programmes should be evaluated and altered on
a regular basis to reflect changing needs.
14. Consistent: Wage and wage plans should be aligned with the overall strategies of the
company. Financial planning should incorporate compensation planning.
15. Wage and salary plans should simplify and expedite the administrative process.
16. For compensation determination and administration, a suitable database and an
appropriate organisational structure should be constructed.
CASE STUDY 2
Paid time off: Too Little or Too Much?
You recently completed an analysis of data for the current salary and benefits scheme. You
discover that certain modifications should be done because the majority of your employees
(120 in total) are dissatisfied with the services provided. In truth, the plan had not been
amended in almost fifteen years, putting it out of date and in desperate need of updating.
One of the key sources of disagreement is the organization's PTO policy. Employees believe
that the current system of sick and vacation leave provides too few possibilities.
"I frequently come to work unwell, so I can still have my vacation time for my holiday," one
employee explains. "I have given nine years to this organisation, yet I only get three days
more than someone who has just started," another employee complains. Here is the most
recent PTO offer: 7 days for 1 year or more, 10 days for 5 years or more, and 14 days for 10
years or more
1. What cost concerns would you consider when modifying this component of your
compensation plan?
2. What other factors would you examine while designing a new PTO plan?
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Components of wage & salary are __________
a. Basic wage b. Overtime wage c. Dearness allowances d. All of these
2. Job analysis is used in compensation to identify or determine ______
a. Skills level b. Responsibilities c. Required level of education d. All of these
3. Job description identifies for a job ______
a. Tasks b. Duties c. Responsibilities d. All of these
4. Compensation management is the establishment and implementation of sound
policies and practices through ______
a. Job evaluation b. Surveys of salaries and wages c. Both d. None
5. Compensation should be ____ to efficiency and result.
6. Payment by result is an ______ scheme.
7. Compensation is the money and other benefits received by an employer for
providing _______
8. ______ is the method and practice of ordering the jobs with respect to their vale
and worth to the organization.
9. ______ states the duties, responsibilities, and mandatory conditions of a specific
job.
5.6 REWARD MANAGEMENT
In today’s cutthroat economic environment, organisations are focusing on cost-

effective quality improvements. A strong economy has also led to a competitive job market.
Therefore, businesses need more from their employee’s; those same employees want more in
return. Programs for rewarding and recognizing employees are one way to encourage staff to
alter their work habits and essential behaviour in the interest of any organisation. Thus, Reward
management is concerned with the policies, strategies, and procedures necessary to make sure
that people are valued and rewarded for their contributions to the accomplishment of
organisational goals. It contributes to the overall climate and culture of an organisation,
depending on how reward system is developed, administered and managed. Employees need
rewards and compensation because it will help them meet their basic financial needs while also
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giving them a sense of job security and appreciation for their efforts. Reward system not only
attaching value to the employees but also adding value to the employees.
When investing in human capital, which requires a reasonable return, it is appropriate to pay
people differently based on their contributions. The reward management philosophy
acknowledges that it must be strategic in the sense that it addresses more long-term issues
regarding how people should be valued for what they accomplish. Reward strategies must flow
from the business strategy, as must the procedures needed to implement them. Reward is a
composite of all organisational mechanisms used to finally acknowledge behaviour and
performance of employees. It includes all forms of compensation, non-monetary awards and
training opportunities, recognition, promotions, working conditions, assignments etc. It is a
part of enhancing motivation, loyalty and satisfaction emphasizing on career job security,
opportunities, learning opportunities, recognition, achievements etc. It is more potential in
focus to unleash the underlying potentials of employees, to secure command and control and
create persistent commitment.
5.6.1 Types of Rewards:
1. Extrinsic rewards
Extrinsic rewards are those that aren't directly related to the job, like salary or working
conditions. In their study, Gupta and Shaw (1998) came to the conclusion that monetary
incentives are indeed effective. They adopted the stance that not all jobs are engaging
and difficult by nature; in an ideal world, everyone would be intrinsically motivated
and rewarded, but this is frequently not the case in workplaces. They came to the
conclusion that because of the symbolic and practical value that money carries, it
matters to the majority of us and motivates us. Money's symbolic value summarizes
how we and others view it, whereas its instrumental value refers to the benefits we can
obtain from exchanging it.
2. Intrinsic rewards
Intrinsic rewards are the intangible, non-financial benefits that come with a job, such
as the tasks, interesting and challenging work, and training opportunities that are
available to employees. Acknowledgment and praise are the most effective intrinsic
rewards an employee wants to hear because they want to feel like they are contributing
at work, and they get motivated to work more enthusiastically.
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5.6.2 Objectives of reward management:

In India, the main goal of employee rewards is to support the achievement of organisational,
strategic, and immediate goals. This aids in guaranteeing the availability of qualified,
competent, devoted, and highly motivated individuals. The majority of organisations in India
believe that rewarding employees is the only effective way to encourage them to perform better.
▪ Reward employees for the value they create.
▪ To give employees sense of job satisfaction.
▪ Reward the proper actions to send the proper message about the behaviour and results
that matter.
▪ Reward employees according to what the organization values and wants to pay for.
▪ Create a culture of performance in an organisation.
▪ To motivate employees and acquire their commitment towards organisation.
▪ Aid in attracting and keeping the top talent the organisation requires.
▪ Align reward practices with both organisation goals and employee’s values.
5.6.3 Principles for setting proper reward management system:
Most organisations employ a variety of rewards. Money, trophies, certificates of achievement,
public acclaim, official perquisites, special assignments, get-togethers, and other meaningful
considerations are a few examples of recognition and rewards. The most prevalent ones are pay
or salary, incentive programmes, perks and benefits, and awards. The majority of employees
consider their pay to be the most significant reward for their labour and some employees might
not actually be motivated by money. Surprisingly, there isn't any solid proof that higher salaries
inevitably result in better performance. Therefore, the benefit of a well-designed reward
management system will lead to increase in performance and motivation.
▪ Operate fairly: biasedness should not be there. All employees should believe they are
treated fairly and are valued accordingly.
▪ Apply rightfully: People within the organisation are appropriately rewarded in
comparison to others; job relativeness is measured as objectively as possible and equal
pay is offered for work of equal value.
▪ Preference of employees: The rewards that are offered must appeal to the employees.
Cash awards are preferred by many employees. Some employees enjoy having their
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names appear in the company newsletter. Others enjoy the attention that award
ceremonies and public recognition.
▪ Consistent process: Pay decisions do not vary arbitrary or without explanation among
employees. It should be a consistent process.
▪ Transparent: employees should be aware of the reward process. The system must be
simple and easy to understand.
▪ Performance standard: Establish performance guidelines that the team can control.
▪ Employee’s involvement: Include employees in the reward process and give them the
authority to carry out the necessary tasks to ensure participation in the reward system.
5.6.4 Designing Effective Reward System:
While designing reward system four main points arises that- Whom to reward, what to reward,
how to assess the rewards winner and how it should be given.
▪ Whom to reward?
1. Individual employees
2. Teams
3. The organisation
4. Outsiders like customers, suppliers, vendors etc.
▪ What to reward?
1. Performance at organisational level / Department level/ individual level
2. Speed and Efficiency
3. Loyalty
4. Innovation
5. Upholding values
6. Technical solutions
7. Learning
8. Good behaviour
9. Event management
10. Social concern etc…
▪ How to reward?
Rewarding employees depends upon organisation to organisation. It can be given at
organisational level or department or individual level.
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▪ How to assess?
Assessment can be done by the senior by assessing once performance project wise/
yearly basis, filling of survey forms or questionnaire can be filled by the team leaders
or peer group depending upon the type of organisation.
▪ What to reward?
1. Empowerment
2. Recognition
3. Career growth
4. Development
5. Celebration and fun
5.6.5 Total reward system:
It includes both monetary and non-monetary components, such as salary, variable pay, a
demanding work environment, employee benefits, growth opportunities, and so on. It
encompasses both indirect and direct benefits, as well as internal and extrinsic rewards. Each
facet of reward is connected together and addressed as an integrated and logical whole,
including basic pay, contingent pay, employee benefits, and non-financial incentives, which
include intrinsic rewards from the work itself. Total reward combines the influence of the two
major reward categories:
1) Transactional rewards: concrete rewards resulting from pay and benefit transactions
between the employer and employees.
2) Relational rewards: intangible rewards related to learning and growth and work
experience.
A whole reward approach is universal; confidence is not placed in one or two reward
mechanisms acting in isolation; instead, every method in which employees can be
rewarded and find job satisfaction via their work is considered. The goal is to optimise
the combined impact of a variety of reward efforts on job commitment, motivation, and
engagement.
5.6.6 The significance of total reward:
The idea of total reward basically asserts that rewarding people involves more than just giving
them money. A total reward strategy, according to O'Neal (1998), is essential for addressing
the problems brought on by hiring and retaining employees as well as for influencing
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behaviour: "It can help create a work experience that meets the needs of employees and
encourages them to contribute extra effort, by developing a deal that addresses a broad range
of issues and by spending reward dollars where they will be most effective in addressing
workers' shifting values."
The advantages of a comprehensive incentive system are as follows:
• Greater effect - the combined impact of the many sorts of awards will have a deeper
and longer-lasting influence on employee motivation and commitment.
• Improving the job connection - A total rewards approach to work makes the best use
of both relational and transactional rewards.
• Flexibility to accommodate employee’s needs –Milkovich and Bloom (1998) in their
study stated that ‘Relational rewards may bind individuals more strongly to the
organization because they can answer those special individual needs’.
• Talent management – Relational rewards aid in the creation of a favourable
psychological contract, which is much harder to replicate than individual pay practises
and can act as a differentiator in the recruitment market. The company can develop into
an "employer of choice" and "a great place to work," luring and keeping the talented
individuals it requires.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
10. _____ is a comprehensive system to compensate and reward employees fairly
and consistently.
11. Which of the following is an example of a non-financial reward:
a. Bonuses b. Commissions c. health insurance d. employee recognition
programmes
12. A reward management strategy is essential for:
a. Job evaluation b. Human resource planning
c. motivating employees d. compliance with employment laws.
13. Performance-related pay systems:
a. tie rewards to firm profitability b. are easy to implement and measure
c. tie rewards to employee effort d. result in negligible increases in output
14. _____ result in negligible increases in output
15. Rewards may be of two kinds_______and ________rewards.
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5.7 SUMMARY
Compensation is a reward that the organization provides to employees. As a result, the parties
must have a common understanding. Attractive remuneration allows a company to attract,
retain, and motivate skilled employees. Employees examine the fairness of the link between
their performance and the rewards associated with that performance. Remuneration is the single
most important HR activity, with an impact on all other tasks such as recruitment, promotion,
and job appraisal. Because employee compensation consumes a large portion of the corporate
budget, a compensation package is an important component of the overall strategic HRM plan.
Salary, bonuses, health-care plans, and other forms of compensation can all be included in a
compensation package. The purposes of pay are to attract people to work for your organisation
and to keep the ones who are currently there. Compensation is often used to encourage
individuals to perform at their best and boost morale. Employees that are appropriately
compensated are more likely to deliver excellent customer service, which can lead to
organisational growth and development.
1. d 9. Job Analysis
2. d 10. Reward Management
3. d 11. D
4. c 12. C
5. Proportional 13. C
6. Incentives 14. Wage rate
7. Services 15. Intrinsic, Extrinsic
8. Job evaluation
1. What are the fundamental concepts of compensation administration?

2. What kinds of compensation systems often inspire executives?
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3. Explain briefly the essential components of India's industrial wage system.

4. Compare and contrast performance bonus systems at the individual, group, and
organisational levels. What similarities do they share? and/or Distinct?
5. “Compensation must fulfil the Intrinsic and Extrinsic needs of the employees” Discuss.
6. Explain the factors affecting compensation decision.
7. “Compensation programme must be fair to both the employer and the employees”
Justify
8. Describe in detail the different steps in a compensation management process.
9. Assume your company is growing and wants to build a sales unit in another country.
What compensation elements would you be concerned about?
5.10 REFERENCES
1. Amos, T., Ristow, A., Ristow, L., & Pearse, N. (2008). Human Resource Management,
JUTA and company ltd.
2. Armstrong, M. (2007). A Handbook of Employee Reward Management and Practice,
Kogan Page
3. Durai, P. (2010). Human Resource Management, Pearson
4. Pande, S., & Basak, S., (2015). Human Resource Management Text and Cases, Vikas
publishing house
5. Sanghi, S., (2014). Human Resource Management, Vikas Publishing house
6. Singh, B.D., (2012). Compensation and Reward Management, Excel books
7. Tamanna, S. Components of Employee Compensation (with Benefits). Retrieved from:
https://www.businessmanagementideas.com/human-resource-management-
2/employee-compensation/components-of-employee-compensation-with-
benefits/19228
8. Nakshita R. Employee Compensation Retrieved from:
https://www.businessmanagementideas.com/human-resource-management-
2/employee-compensation/employee-compensation/20570
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1. Milkovich, G. T. (1987). A strategic perspective on compensation management.

2. Bhattacharyya, D. K. (2009). Compensation management. Oxford University Press.
3. Patnaik, B. C. M., & Padhi, P. C. (2012). Compensation management: A theoretical
preview. Trans Asian Journal of Marketing and Management Research, 1(1), 39-48.
4. Kanungo, R. N., & Mendonca, M. (1992). Compensation: Effective reward
management. Butterworths Publishers.
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LESSON 6
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT: SYSTEMS AND

STRATEGIES
Ms. Shalu Garg
Assistant Professor
shalugarg11901@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Concept of Performance Appraisal
6.3.1 Definition of Performance Appraisal
6.3.2 Nature of Performance Appraisal
6.3.3 Objectives of Performance Appraisal
6.3.4 Significance or Importance or Benefits of Performance Appraisal
6.3.5 Limitations of Performance Appraisal
6.3.6 Comparison between Performance Appraisal and Job Appraisal
6.3.7 Steps in Performance Appraisal System
6.3.8 Essentials of a Sound Performance Appraisal System
6.4 Methods of Performance Appraisal
6.4.1 Traditional Appraisal Methods
6.4.2 Modern Appraisal Methods
6.5 Performance Management and Potential Appraisal
6.5.1 Performance Management
6.5.2 Potential Appraisal
6.6 Summary
6.7 Glossary
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6.10 References
After reading this lesson, the students will be able to:

• Understand the definition, nature, objectives, significance, and limitations of
Performance Appraisal
• Interpret the Comparison between Performance Appraisal and Job Appraisal
• Learn steps in Performance Appraisal System
• Analyse the essentials of a Sound Performance Appraisal System
• Explain the Traditional Appraisal Methods and Modern Appraisal Methods
• Learn the terms like Performance Management and Potential Appraisal.
6.2 INTRODUCTION
In the last lesson we have learnt the meaning of job analysis, how to deal with the problem of
over staffing, how to hire the new employees, how to create a fit between the right people and
the right job. We have gained knowledge about how the job analyser analyses the job, develops
job descriptions, and prepares job specifications.
Performance appraisal has turned into an extremely critical action in most of the undertakings.
It gives information about past, present, and expected performance of the employees which is
supportive in taking choices on determination, preparation and improvement, salary raise,
promotion and transfer. These days a lot of cash is spent on performance appraisal by most
organizations.
6.3 CONCEPT OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Individuals differ in their capacities and aptitudes. These distinctions are normal and cannot be
dispensed with even by giving similar fundamental schooling and training to them. In this way,
it is important for the top management to know these distinctions so the workers having better
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capacities might be compensated and some inefficient workers can be found and compensated
accordingly. The worker may likewise prefer to know the level of his performance in contrast
with his colleagues so he might improve it. Along with this there is a need to have reasonable
performance appraisal framework to know the general value of every worker.
6.3.1 Definition of Performance Appraisal:
Performance Appraisal can be known by different names like merit appraisal, merit rating,
progress rating and performance appraisal. In simple words, performance appraisal means
evaluating how the employee is performing during the job and what is the scope for his
development. The various authors gave the different definitions in their own words for
performance appraisal. The definitions are given underneath:
According to Beach, “Performance appraisal is the systematic appraisal of the individual with
regard to his or her performance on the job and his potential for development.”
According to Randall S. Schuler, "Performance appraisal is a formal, structured system of
measuring and evaluating an employee’s job, related behaviour and outcomes to discover how
and why the employee is presently performing on the job and how the employee can perform
more effectively in the future so that the employee, organisation, and society all benefit."
According to Heyel, "It is the process of evaluating the performance and qualifications of the
employees in terms of the requirements of the job for which he is employed, for purposes of
administration including placement, selection for promotions, providing financial rewards and
other actions which require differential treatment among the members of a group as
distinguished from actions affecting all members equally."
According to Dale Yoder, ''Performance appraisal includes all formal procedures used to
evaluate personalities and contributions and potentials of group members in a working
organisation. It is a continuous process to secure information necessary for making correct and
objective decisions on employees. Performance appraisal from employee point of view - "A
performance appraisal is meant to help employees realise their strengths and shortcomings and
receive a compensation accordingly."
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ACTIVITY
At the point when you have gone through every one of the definitions by well-
known authors, give your perspectives on the meaning of the performance
appraisal.
6.3.2 Nature of Performance Appraisal:

The primary attributes of performance appraisal are:
a) Evaluating Performance- Performance appraisal is a course of assessing the
performance of workers.
b) Gaining Knowledge about Employees- It is the assessment of a worker’s strengths
and weaknesses.
c) Ongoing and Continuous Process- It is a progressing or consistent cycle wherein the
examinations are done intermittently as per a positive arrangement.
d) Making decisions- The fundamental reason for performance appraisal is to get data
important for going with genuine choices like transfer, promotion and increment.
e) Basis of Appraisals- Appraisals of workers depend on clear cut criteria, for example,
➢ Capacity to accomplish the work.
➢ Quality and amount of result.
➢ Relations with bosses, companions, and youngsters.
➢ Individual characteristics like reliability, versatility, drive, authority, and so on.
ACTIVITY
Assuming you have been given the opportunity what else focuses would you
have included in the basis for performance appraisal?
6.3.3 Objectives of Performance Appraisal:

The performance appraisal program might be executed to accomplish the accompanying goals:
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a) Determination of Wages and Incentives- To give a record of every worker's

performance to decide wages and motivation pay.
b) Suitability of Employees’ Jobs- To recognize the workers who have been put on
difficult tasks to move them to the positions for which they are more qualified.
c) Identification of Employees’ Strengths and Weaknesses- To know the nature of
performance of every worker and recognize their strengths and weaknesses.
d) Training Programmes- To plan training program to improve the nature and quality of
work of staff.
e) Knowing the Employees’ Performance Level- To work with the employee to make
him realize his performance level and how can he improve on that.
f) Finding Employees with Potential for Development- To find workers who have
sufficient potential for promotion and improvement.
g) Helping in Decisions- To act as the premise of work force choices like transfer and
promotion.
Examples of Performance Appraisal Objectives-
1. Business (Work) related Objectives-
a. To have an overview regarding work done by employees.
b. To help the managers in allocating workers as per their ability, interest, fitness
and capabilities
c. To further develop proficiency.
2. Communication Objectives-
a. To know what is generally anticipated of every employee regarding
performance ana the future tasks.
b. To give criticism to workers with the goal that they come to know where they
stand and can further develop their work performance.
c. To give training, guiding, and inspiration to employees.
d. To foster positive prevalent subordinate relations and accordingly lessen
complaints.
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3. Organizational (Hierarchical) Objectives-

a. To act as a reason for choices like transfer and promotion.
b. To act as a reason for compensation and pay organization and considering pay
increments and augmentations of workers.
c. To act as a reason for arranging reasonable preparation and improvement
programs.
4. Career (Profession) Development Objectives-
a. To evaluate serious areas of strength in the working of the employees and
proposing solutions for overcoming weaknesses.
b. To decide profession capability of every worker.
c. To design career related objectives and ways for improving every worker.
ACTIVITY
You are appointed as a chief in the ABC organization which is FMCG company,
and you have been given the task of making goals for the performance appraisal
which will occur in the approaching month. Thus, presently you should set up the
one goal from each category given under:
a) Business (Work) related Objectives
b) Communication Objectives
c) Organizational (Hierarchical) Objectives
d) Career (Profession) Development Objectives
6.3.4 Significance or Importance or Benefits of Performance Appraisal:

The advantages of performance appraisal are as per the following:
a) Periodic and Systematic Appraisal- It assists the manager with assessing the
performance of his employees. It likewise assists him with allotting that work to people
for which they are the most ideal.
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b) Guiding and Correcting Employees- Rating helps in directing and adjustment of

workers. The boss might utilize the consequences of rating with the end goal of
helpfully directing the employees in the productive presentation of work.
c) Recognizing Ability of Staff- The capacity of the staff is perceived and can be
satisfactorily compensated by giving them extra benefits in the form of promotion.
d) Basis of Sound Personnel Policy- Performance appraisal can be utilized as a premise
of sound personnel strategy in connection to transfer and promotion. If the presentation
of an employee is superior to other people, then he can be promoted, but if he is not
working up to the yardsticks then he can be transferred to some other job.
e) Effectiveness of Training Programmes- Ratings can likewise be utilized to assess the
adequacy of training programs. Weaknesses of workers are identified by performance
appraisal and the training projects can be altered appropriately.
f) Acts as Incentive- Performance examination gives a motivating force to the workers
to better their performance in a bid to work on their rating over others.
g) Preventing Grievances and Developing Confidence among Employees- Systematic
performance appraisal will reduce the number of complaints and foster a certainty
among the workers since they are persuaded of the unprejudiced premise of assessment.
ACTIVITY
What all benefits could be achieved through performance appraisal in your
organization? Think and write down the advantages what you can imagine.
6.3.5 Limitations of Performance Appraisal:

The Performance appraisal may not yield the ideal outcomes in light of the accompanying
inadequacies:
a) Selection of Wrong Factors- If the elements chosen for the appraisal are unessential,
the consequence of performance appraisal will not be precise.
b) Weightage to Different Qualities- Different characteristics to be appraised may not
be given appropriate weightage in specific cases.
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c) Differences in Personality of Employees- Some of the elements are profoundly

distinctive like motivation, personality of the employees because of which the rating of
the performance may not be on the same logical lines.
d) Biasness in Appraisal- Supervisors frequently don't have the basic capacity in
evaluating the presence of their subordinates. Mostly, they are directed by their own
feelings and preferences. So, the appraisals are probably going to be partial and biased.
ACTIVITY
Scrutinizing all the shortcomings during the process of performance appraisal,
what all weaknesses do you consider can be there? Mention them.
6.3.6 Comparison between Performance Appraisal and Job Appraisal:

S.No. Basis Performance Appraisal Job Appraisal
1. Meaning Performance appraisal means Job appraisal is assessing the
reviewing the work done by the value of a particular job in
employees and ranking them comparison to the various other
accordingly. jobs in the organization. It
considers the value of each job to
know the rational pay structure of
each job.
2. Basis It thinks about the capacities and It thinks about the necessities of
performance of people. different positions with regards to
sets of expectations.
3. Purpose The reason for merit rating is to The motivation behind job
assess the performance of people appraisal is restricted that is to
to take choices like salary raises, decide the value of the job based
transfers, promotions, and so on. It on requests made by a specific
likewise fills in as a rule for the work on the normal labourer. This
administration to consider the kind helps in fixing wages for various
of training which should be jobs.
provided to the employees.
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4. Person vs. Performance appraisal rates the Job appraisal examines the task to
Job employee and not the occupation decide their general work and fix
as it is worried about surveying the a pay level that are fair and even-
capacities of the people. It handed.
estimates the value of various
workers to the association.
5. Policy It helps in making decisions It helps in making the wage policy
Decision regarding transfer and promotion. of the organization.
6.3.7 Steps in Performance Appraisal System:

For fostering a powerful performance appraisal program, the accompanying steps ought to be
followed:
1. Assurance of Purpose- Before any performance appraisal program is started, deciding
its objectives is fundamental. The goal of the appraisal program might be either to
assess the real performance of people in their current positions or to decide the
capability of people to do higher positions or both. Now and again performance
appraisal programs are related to explicit targets like promotion, transfer and
promotion, salary raise, and so on.
2. Laying out the Criteria of Performance Measurement- Principles of appraisal ought
to be positioned to quantify the presence of different people in their occupations. The
guidelines of appraisal should be in clear-out terms and put in writing. The subordinate
ought to be made to comprehend the principles which will measure the performance.
The standards to be utilized for the estimation of performance will shift from one
occupation to another. Some of the models which are usually utilized in modern
enterprises are:
(i) optimum use of accessible assets,
(ii) productivity,
(iii) reduction in cost,
(iv) improvement in productivity,
(v) realization of big business targets, and
(vi) improvement in items and administrations.
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3. Assurance of Frequency of Appraisal- Performance appraisal is an ongoing process.

Yet, in most of the organizations, formal appraisal programs are executed once or twice
a year. The recurrence of appraisals will be not entirely settled by the goals of appraisal
and the degree of employees to be assessed.
4. Choice and Training of Appraiser- For the most part, the appraiser or the evaluator
is the superior of the individual to be assessed because he is generally acquainted with
the individual concerned and his work. Yet, there are sure restrictions of appraisal by
one individual on the grounds of the critical job of the appraiser. The appraiser might
be one-sided towards specific attributes about which he personally does not know. To
keep the biasness away, the proper training should be provided to the appraiser. In fact,
opinion of two appraisers can be taken to have objective results.
5. Planning of Appropriate Forms- Since the aftereffects of appraisal are to be utilized
for most significant choices like a transfer, promotion, and so on, it is fundamental to
track performance appraisal. For this reason, appropriate forms should be prepared for
appraising all types of employees, for example, supervisory, administrative, clerical,
and managerial and operative. The items in the forms are determined by the purpose of
appraisal.
ACTIVITY
Numerous new workers joined your organization, so in a similar setting you need
to keep an appraiser. So, what steps you really want to continue in picking the
ideal individual for the performance appraisal system. Mention them.
6.3.8 Essentials of a Sound Performance Appraisal System:

A sound arrangement of performance appraisal should satisfy the accompanying basics:
a) Simple and Easy to Understand- The presentation appraisal framework ought to be
easy to work with and straightforward. At the point when the appraisal framework is
concerned, employees may not comprehend it completely, furthermore, may check out
the arrangement with doubt. The arrangement ought not to be very tedious.
b) Fair and Uniform Appraisal System- The performance appraisal framework ought to
be performance-based, uniform and non-variable, fair, just, and even-handed. It ought
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to be guaranteed that the appraisers tell the truth, judicious and objective in their
methodology, judgment, and social direction.
c) Awareness to the Employees about the Goals and Objectives- The employees ought
to be made mindful of the presentation concerning objectives, targets, furthermore,
conduct expected of them. An individual condition between the appraiser and worker
must be created to accomplish common comprehension of the standards of assessment.
d) Prepared in Consultation with Subordinates- The appraisal framework ought to be
conceived in a conference with the subordinates. This will expand their obligation to
the arrangement and their comprehension of anticipated performance.
e) Considering Prevailing Practices- The examination framework ought to consider the
appraisal works in different units in the business as well as the most recent reasoning
on performance appraisal. It ought to fit into the design and tasks of the association.
f) Creating a Reliable Appraisal Environment- The top administration should establish
an environment of dependable examination all through the association. Objective
direction, open interchanges, common trust casual connections, and so forth are the
essential components of such an environment.
g) Designed to Achieve Specific Objectives- The appraisal framework ought to be
intended to accomplish explicit targets. The goals of the examination framework might
be to assess current performance at work and to decide the potential for higher positions.
Now and again, performance appraisal relates to explicit targets like a salary increase,
training, promotion, transfer, and so on. The number of elements to be thought of and
the information to be gathered ought to be tailormade to accomplish the goal of the
appraisal.
h) Appraisers should be Selected and Trained Properly- The appraisers ought to be
chosen and prepared appropriately so they have no private predisposition and have the
fundamental abilities for the true assessment of workers. In request to objectivity in the
examination, an individual might be evaluated by additional people autonomously.
i) Provision of Appeals against Appraisals- There ought to be an arrangement of
requests against appraisals to guarantee certainty of the workers and their affiliations or
organizations. The results of appraisal should be talked about with the rates so they
might get a potential chance to communicate their sentiments on their progress reports.
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ACTIVITY
In your enterprise, you have fund that an unfair and biased measures of appraisal of
performance have been take. How will you help them in taking corrective
measures? Will you guide them to use essentials of a sound performance appraisal
system?
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
17. Performance Appraisal is an ongoing and _____ process.
18. The performance appraisal and job appraisal are same. True/False.
19. The Performance Appraisal should be fair and ________ in nature.
20. Proper training should be provided to the appraiser for appraisal of the
performance. True/False
21. Does performance appraisal help in bringing confidence and motivation among
the employees? Yes/Np
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CASE STUDY
Performance Appraisal at ABC Ltd.
Recently, three employees working at the Head Office have been denied annual
increments due to comparatively low score. They have gone to the Chief Executive of the
company expressing their dissatisfaction with the appraisal system and insisting that
community service is not apart of their job, and it should not influence their ratings. The
employees seem to organise a union and demand that annual increments should be
granted automatically.
ABC Ltd. is a reputed advertising agency having 5 branches in different parts of the
country. Its staff includes 180 operative employees and 35 executives. The company has
a performance rating plan under which the staff members are checked at the end of each
financial year by a committee of two executives by means of checklist method. The
qualities considered are responsibilities, initiative, dependability, leadership potential,
cooperative attitude and community service. After the performance is evaluated, the
check points are discussed with the concerned employees by their immediate boss and
are used to counsel them and arrange further training for them. The check points are also
used for granting or withholding of increments of staff with poor performance and
granting of additional increments to and promoting of deserving staff.
The Chief Executive feels that performance appraised is a dangerous source of friction
and so it should be discontinued altogether.
Questions:
1. If you were the Human Resource Manager of the advertising agency, how would
you solve the issue?
2. How far do you agree with the Chief Executive's view that performance
appraisal should not be continued?
3. On what lines would you recommend improvement or changes in the
performance appraisal system of the company?
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6.4 METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
There are different strategies for merit rating which might be ordered into: (i) Traditional
Techniques, and (ii) Modern Methods. The techniques contrast for different clear reasons. To
start with, they contrast in the characteristics to be appraised. The characteristics may vary
because of contrast in work necessities, factual prerequisites, and assessment of the
management. For example, 'collaboration' may not be viewed as at all important by the
management. Then, at that point, it is troublesome additionally to rate such factors as
collaboration dependably. Second, they contrast the inclusion of who is being evaluated, e.g.,
chiefs, sales reps, and processing plant employees. Third, varieties might be caused because of
the level of accuracy in the assessment. Lastly, they might contrast techniques used to acquire
weightage for the different attributes.
To the extent that is practicable, merit rating ought to be founded on true factors; it ought to be
a nonstop cycle and made at standard stretches. Any great strategy for merit rating ought to
evaluate the accompanying individual characteristics of the employees:
(i) Knowledge of work.
(ii) Ability to accomplish the work.
(iii) Quality and amount of result.
(iv) Personal characteristics like constancy, versatility, drive, and so on.
(v) Special characteristics like certainty, administration, and so on.
6.4.1 Traditional Appraisal Methods:
Traditional methods are exceptionally old methods of performance appraisal. They are based
on the methods of appraisal which are followed since years. Appraisal of workers is done based
on principles of individual characteristics or characteristics like mentalities, judgment,
flexibility, drive, reliability, authority, faithfulness, dependability, and information on work.
and so on. There are six traditional methods which are talked about underneath:
1. Confidential Report- Under this, the appraiser is expected to record his impression of
the individual being assessed in an unstructured manner. In any case, in certain
organizations, remarks are expected to be gathered under unambiguous headings like
nature of occupation, performance, reasons for explicit work ways of behaving,
character attributes, and promotion needs. This framework is exceptionally abstract and
has its legitimacy in its effortlessness and is still being used particularly in general
society area and government offices.
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Majorly, there is no standard configuration for the confidential report. It relates to the
performance, capacity, and working of the employee during the earlier year. Extremely
easy-going feedback is found among evaluators while filling confidential reports of the
employees working under them. No criticism is given to the worker being evaluated
and accordingly, its validity is exceptionally low. The worker who is evaluated never
knows his shortcomings and the open doors accessible for defeating them.
2. Ranking- Ranking is a team-oriented assessment strategy that includes the setting of
workers in a position as per their work performance. It grants examination of all
workers in any single rating group no matter what the kind of work is, all specialists
are decided on similar elements also, they are evaluated on the general premise
concerning their work performance rather than an individual appraisal of
characteristics. Along with it, the best is put first in the position and the poorest possess
the last position. The trouble with this framework is that the evaluator is asked to think
about an entire man.
Paired comparison is an improvement over simple ranking. Under this, each worker in
is contrasted with other worker to figure out which is better in his work. The evaluator
is furnished with booklets containing two names on each page. Clearly, the number of
rank requests would be n(n-1)/2, where n is the total number of people to be thought
about. Along with it, each employee is contrasted and each other worker in a similar
work family.
Fortune 500 Focus (Contd.)

In a forced distribution system, like the one used by GE, employees are ranked in
groups based on high performers, average performers, and nonperformers. The trouble
with this system is that it does not consider that all employees could be in the top two
categories, high or average performers, and requires that some employees be put in the
nonperforming category.
In a paired comparison system, the manager must compare every employee with every
other employee within the department or work group. Each employee is compared with
another, and out of the two, the higher performer is given a score of 1. Once all the pairs
are compared, the scores are added. This method takes a lot of time and, again, must
have specific criteria attached to it when comparing employees.
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3. Forced Distribution- A few evaluators experience the poor effects of a consistent

mistake, i.e., they either rate all employees as incredible, normal, or poor. The forced
distribution system is perceived to compel the evaluator to fit the workers being
evaluated into pre-decided scopes of scale. It enjoys an upper hand over the matched
examination framework in that at least two workers can be given equivalent appraisals.
This framework depends on the assumption that workers can be isolated into five-point
scale of outstanding, above average, average, below average and poor. In this
framework, the appraiser is approached to disperse the employees into these
classifications so that 10% of the men are in group ‘outstanding’, 20% ‘above average’,
40% ‘average’, 20% ‘below average’ also, 10% 'poor'.
This strategy clearly gives the chance of judgment with respect to managers. Other than
this, the framework is straightforward and direct. The goal of this method is to look out
performance as an ordinary activity. Commonly, this strategy is not found in groups
especially when the group is small.
4. Graphic Rating Scale- Under this strategy, scales are laid out for various explicit
elements and characteristics. Five degrees are laid out for each variable and general
definitions show up at focuses along the scale. For the most part, the evaluator is
provided with a printed structure, one for every individual to be evaluated. The choice
of factors to be evaluated on rating scale is a significant point under this framework.
These are of two kinds:
(i) qualities, like drive and reliability.
(ii) commitments, like the amount and nature of work.
Since specific regions of occupation performance cannot be impartially estimated, all things
considered, a realistic scale will proceed to utilize a combination of the two qualities and
commitments.
Graphic rating scale forces a significant weight upon the superior. He should report and assess
the presentation of his subordinates on scales including upwards of five degrees on maybe ten
distinct variables. The primary downside of this framework is that the evaluator might be one-
sided. In any case, one method is to leave space on the structure after each component and
expect him to make sense of the justification behind his rating. Essentially, he is approached to
give an illustration of the rate's way of behaving that justifies the appointed rating. Generally,
appraisals will generally group on the high side under this framework. A supervisor might
generally rate his subordinates high to keep them away from analysis.
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The graphic rating technique is straightforward and simple to utilize. It allows the statistical
tabulation of scores in terms of measures of central tendency, skewness, and dispersion. It
allows a ready comparison of scores among workers. The scores apparently tell the merit or
worth of each person.
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5. Checklist Appraisal- Different statements are prepared in such a way that they portray
different sorts of conduct of a person in a specific occupation. Every statement is joined
to a scale value. During the hour of rating the workers, the supervisor simply remembers
and check all statements. After all the values are attached to the singular qualities
furthermore and appraisal up to this level is assembled on the rating sheet. Then the
average is calculated, and employee is evaluated. The weighted checklist ought to be
ready by the people completely familiar with the job and acquainted with planning.
When this process is finished, appraisals are put on separate cards for future reference.
6. Critical Incident- A critical incident means when an employee exceeds or fails any
requirement of his job. It addresses an exceptional way of behaving of an employee at
work, concerning example:
(a) Resisted the implementation of change.
(b) Became upset about work.
(c) Refused to help colleague.
(d) Suggested an improvement in the work technique.
(e) Tried to get an individual specialist to acknowledge the administration's choice.
(f) Acknowledging new thoughts.
This strategy requires each manager to keep all such critical incidents in each employee's way
of behaving which demonstrate powerful or effective activity and those which show the
insufficient or unfortunate way of behaving. These are kept in an extraordinarily planned
notepad which contains classifications for qualities under which different ways of behaving
can be recorded. Instances of such sorts of occupation prerequisites for employees are
judgment, learning skills, efficiency, precision of work, obligation, and motive. Day-to-day
recording of these things is by all accounts fundamental because any other way, the boss might
fail to remember the incidents with his subordinates.
The primary issue with this strategy is that the extraordinary incident occur so rarely that
singular examination may not differ. It has been seen that often the workers have neither
positive nor negative occurrences. In cases, where the basic occasion does not occur, rating an
employee will be troublesome. Additionally, it might be hard for a manager to conclude what
is a basic or excellent incident. Here again, the human choice might show up in recording the
basic incident.
The limitations of the critical incident method are as per the following:
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(i) Outstanding occurrences may not occur consistently.

(ii) Negative occurrences are, for the most part, more observable than positive ones.
(iii) The manager may not record an incident right away and fail to remember it later.
(iv) It might likewise be extremely challenging for a manager to conclude whether an
incident is basic or on the other hand not.
(v) This strategy requires close oversight which may not be liked by the employees.
7. Essay Method- Under the essay method, the superior composes a report about the
worker which depends on his appraisal of the workers' performance. The superior
constantly observes the subordinate and composes his appraisal in the report. While
setting up a paper on the worker, the evaluator by and large thinks about the
accompanying variables:
(i) Job information and capability of the employee.
(ii) Employee's qualities and mentalities.
(iii) Employees interpretation about the organization's projects, arrangements, goals,
etc.
(iv) Employee relations with youngsters, colleagues, and managers.
(v) Development needs of the employee.
Essay appraisal is a non-quantitative method of examination. It gives a fair plan of data
about the employee being assessed.
Essay appraisal might experience the side effects of individual and human
predisposition in view of likings or on the other hand disliking of the manager. An
appraiser will most likely be unable to communicate his judgment in proper words and
it will restrict the utility of examination reports.
8. Group Appraisal- Under the group appraisal technique, the workers are evaluated by
an appraisal group, comprising their supervisor and three or four different people who
have some information on their presentation. The gathering then, at that point, examines
the guidelines of performance for that work, the real performance of the worker, and
the reasons for their specific degree of performance and gives ideas for future
enhancements, if any.
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This technique is without any trace of partiality since appraisal is done by multiple
judges. Besides, it is an extremely thorough and basic strategy. The main disadvantage
is that this technique is tedious.
9. Field Review Method- Under this strategy, the supervisors are consulted by a specialist
from the HR or staff division. The specialists question the manager to acquire all the
appropriate data on every worker and takes notes in his journal. Consequently, there is
no evaluating structure with variables where appraisals are acquired. The specialists are
generally grouped into three classifications remarkable, agreeable, and unacceptable.
The evaluator questions the supervisor about the prerequisites of each work in his unit
and about the performance of each man in his work. He tests to know how the
employees are working and how can his performance be improved.
The supervisor is expected to offer his perspective about the promotion of his
subordinates, the level of the performance of each subordinate, his weaknesses, valid
statements, capacity, promotability, and the potential game plans in cases requiring
further thought. The questions are asked and responded to verbally.
The progress of the field survey strategy relies on the capability of the questioner. If he
knows his work, he can contribute essentially to precise examinations. The field audit
technique lets the supervisors free from the tedious work of filling in examination
structures. Superficial judgment can be eliminated.
Criticism of Traditional Methods:
The overall analysis of traditional performance appraisal systems is that they are as well
abstract in nature since every one of them depends on the private judgment of the evaluator.
Individual judgment is constantly exposed to partiality or bias from certain different regions.
The appraiser will most likely be unable to pass judgment on the skill of the employees because
of the absence of preparation.
As a result of the critical job of the supervisors under the traditional methods, performance
ratings are much of the time subject to various blunders and shortcomings which are talked
about underneath:
1. Halo Error- This sort of mistake happens when the evaluator permits one part of a
man's character or performance to impact his whole assessment. It is the inclination of
numerous evaluators to let the rating, they give importance to one characteristic
excessively which impact their appraisals. Numerous managers will generally give an
employee around similar ratings on all elements. This mistake can be perceived
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effectively on factor scales. The rating scale strategy is defective because the supervisor
tends to concentrate on one single factor more than the others before going on the next.
In this way, he can think about every one of the subordinates compared with a norm or
to one another on every characteristic.
2. Central Tendency Error- This blunder happens when the evaluator is uncertain about
the subordinates or has lacking data about them or is concentrating on the rating
process. Because of these reasons, by and large, the evaluators are hesitant to rate
individuals at the external closures of the scale. The evaluator realizes that he needs to
assess his subordinates at intermittent spans. If the evaluator is new to the system or
does not have adequate knowledge regarding the system in the organization, it would
be difficult for him to evaluate the subordinates.
3. Leniency or Strictness Error- Managers tend to be simple evaluators, what is more,
others tend to be strict in their appraisals. Tolerant or simple evaluators allot reliably
high qualities or scores to their subordinates and severe or strict evaluators give reliably
low appraisals. Both the patterns can emerge from changing guidelines of performance
among managers and structure various understandings of what they see in worker
performance. This mistake can be somewhat overwhelmed by teaching the supervisors
and arranging meetings between them with the goal that they might reach settlement on
exactly what they anticipate from their subordinates.
4. Recent Behaviour Bias- Often some evaluators assess people based on their
performance in the new couple of weeks, a normal consistent way of behaving is not
checked. Some workers monitoring this inclination show improved results when they
feel that they are being noticed and the report of their presentation is to be arranged
soon.
6.4.2 Modern Appraisal Methods:
There are some important methods of appraisal which the modern organizations use which are
Managing by Objectives (MBO), Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS), 360-degree
appraisal. All these methods are explained underneath:
A. MANAGING BY OBJECTIVES (MBO):
Concept of Managing by Objectives (MBO):
The way of thinking of 'Management by Objectives' (MBO) was presented by Peter Drucker
in 1954 and later created by different journalists like John Humble, Dale McConkey, George
Ordiorne, Edward Schleh, and Douglas McGregor. Noticing that even many is critical years
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before 1954, goals were underscored by traditional administration authors like Fayol, Urwick,
and Barnard.
John Humble defined overseeing by targets as a powerful framework that coordinates the
organization's need to accomplish its objectives for benefit and development with the
administrator's need to contribute furthermore, foster himself. Ordiorne likewise focused on
that MBO isn't simply a group of rules, a progression of techniques, or even a set strategy for
making do, however, it is a perspective about administration.
Features of Managing by Objectives (MBO):
The wide attributes of MBO are as per the following:
(i) Operational Technique- The Management by objectives is a practical technique. The
objectives must be set in quantifiable or quantitative terms. As Drucker puts it,
"Objectives should be functional, and they should be equipped for being changed over
into explicit targets and explicit tasks. They should be fit for turning into the premise
as well as the inspiration for work and accomplishment".
(ii) Comprehensive Technique- MBO addresses an extensive instrument of management.
It is not just a tool of human resource management but an overall management
technique for realizing the various objectives of the organization.
(iii) Participative Management- MBO underlines a participative way to deal with the
management. The goals are set with the help of subordinates. MBO isn't just an
agreement, yet the creation of objectives and their performance working together.
(iv) Result Oriented- MBO is performance arranged. That is the reason, its other name is
Management by Results. This approach focuses on ends instead of means and is
demonstrative as opposed to correctional in character. The presentation of an individual
or unit is assessed as per the outcomes acquired.
(v) Concentration on Key Result Areas- The focus in MBO is on performance
improvement in the areas which are of basic significance to the association overall. By
distinguishing proof of key outcome regions, MBO guarantees that due consideration
is given to the need regions which are significant for good performance and
development of the association.
(vi) Systems Approach- MBO tries to coordinate the person with the organization and also,
the association with its current circumstance. It looks to guarantee the achievement of
both individual and undertaking objectives by making objective consistency.
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Benefits of Managing by Objectives (MBO):

The important advantages of MBO are as per the following:
(i) Better Planning- Overseeing goals includes laying out objectives and targets through
the dynamic interest of the two bosses and subordinates. Such shared objective setting
further develops objective clearness and results in reasonable designs to which the
subordinates become committed. MBO makes goals coordinated towards these targets.
(ii) Better Organization- When objectives are revised under MBO, then the whole
structure of the organization also changes and what all are expected from different
position holders also changes.
(iii) Means of Control- MBO fills in for control. There is a sense of control in the
organization which helps in fulfilling the goals of the organization.
(iv) Higher Productivity- There is an improvement in efficiency as everybody focuses on
significant activities instead of wasting energy on less significant issues.
(v) Better Appraisal of Performance- The most common way of characterizing the
outcomes anticipated lays out exact rules for the appraisal of performance. Clear
comprehension of obligations or measures of assessment strengthens responsibility.
MBO gives a tool for assessing the actual performance against pre-determined
performance. An appraisal is result-arranged and not quality situated. An individual can
likewise assess himself by the consequences of his own performance.
(vi) Executive Development- MBO encourages the long-term development of the
executives in the organization. It calls for tracking down new techniques to think about
arising circumstances. Thus, MBO is an instrument for the self-improvement of leaders.
That is, every leader gets the information and abilities at work as a result of his meeting
requirements of the performance.
Limitations of Managing by Objectives (MBO):
The MBO suffers from certain disadvantages which are discussed underneath:
(i) Difficulty in Setting Quantitative Targets- The executive by goals is fruitful if the
goals are set in quantifiable terms. It is challenging to pass judgment on the performance
of people where the goals cannot be set in quantitative terms. In this manner, it will not
be possible to successfully carry out MBO.
(ii) Emphasis on Short-term Goals- Under MBO, objectives are set for a brief period, say
for six months or one year. The subordinates might focus on their nearby objectives
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without really focusing on the long-range targets of the undertaking which is certainly
not a solid indication of hierarchical proficiency and adequacy. Since the performance
of the subordinates is to be evaluated after six months or one year, they will generally
focus on their nearby targets.
(iii) Resistance to Change- The arrangement of MBO seems, by all accounts, to be
straightforward, yet it requires changes in conventional reasoning and practices. By and
by, it is frequently opposed by both leaders and operative workers.
(iv) Lack of Training- There is an absence of training and information on the part of the
supervisors in executing the program. Many are inclined to sit down with the
subordinate, direct the objectives and focus with no info allowed from the subordinate,
and then, at that point, the request might be met in a predetermined time. No thought is
given to any external elements over which the subordinate has no control or impact. In
such circumstances, there can be no two-way correspondence due to the external forced
goals.
(v) Lack of Follow-up- The absence of follow-up by the predominant at the fitting time is
one more obstacle in the fruitful performance of MBO. The prevalent should get with
the subordinate at the proper time. The subordinate is ready to precisely tell the chief
what has been achieved and how. If the superior postpones the meeting, then the
subordinate also starts taking the program lightly.
(vi) Rigidity- The management by objectives often presents inflexibility in the association.
Since objectives are set after at regular intervals or one year, the superior may not like
to alter in the middle between on account of fear of opposition from the subordinate.
There may emerge a need to change the objectives at lower levels to accomplish the
long-range targets of the venture. The director should deal with such a circumstance
appropriately.
(vii) Limited Application- The management by objectives isn't fitting for all levels and for
everybody. It is reasonable just that the two chiefs and subordinates feel great about
taking part in it and are willing. The heavy demands made by it make MBO valuable
generally to managerial and professional employees.
(viii) Costly Process- MBO is an expensive and time-consuming process. The setting and
valuation of targets are finished over such a brief period that it will most likely be unable
to accommodate sufficient connection among all superiors and subordinates in the
association. MBO requires an extraordinary arrangement of investigation for which
senior leaders don't have sufficient time.
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Steps in Managing by Objectives (MBO):

The following steps needs to be followed for MBO which are explained underneath:
1. Setting of Goals- The objectives of each subordinate for a predefined period are set up by
the subordinate himself. Such objectives ought to be harmonious with the authoritative and
departmental goals. The subordinate will fix the objectives for himself for a predetermined
period which might be a half year or one year. He will likewise list the assets expected to meet
the objectives. The objectives set somewhere around the subordinate are the beginning stage
of overseeing by goals.
2. Approval of Goals- The superior will sit with the subordinate to talk about the objectives
set. The objectives might be revised, if required. When this process is finished, there will be
better opinions with his subordinate as to what is to be achieved by the subordinate. The
concluded adaptation of goals and responsibilities regarding the subordinate ought to be
diminished into writing to avoid any confusion. This record is named as the Key Result
Analysis.
It will consist of the following data:
(i) The general goals of the subordinate's work.
(ii) The key targets he should achieve.
(iii) The present moment and long haul need of his work.
(iv) The norms by which his presentation will be assessed.
3. Establishment of Check-Points- The executive's goals represents the delegation of
power to the subordinate to take care of his business. However, the superior should lay
out specific checkpoints to check that authority is exercised properly, and necessary
steps are taken to complete the job. This will help in monitoring the subordinate's
performance.
4. Periodic Review of Progress- The superior should make an occasional survey of the
progress in accomplishing the subordinate's objectives. For this, the superior should
look for progress reports from the subordinate occasionally, say fortnightly or month to
month. He ought to likewise contact the subordinate to distinguish the issues looked at
by him and make suitable moves to solve the problem. Indeed, even the objectives
might be checked to overcome difficulties in the. Continuous contact between the
superior and the subordinate will guarantee that things do not go out of control.
5. Appraisal of Performance and Counselling- Formal appraisal toward the finish of
the target period is done by the superior through appraisal of the subordinate's
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performance. Under this, accomplishments are examined and the goals of the
subordinate.
Making MBO Effective:
The following guidelines can be followed for making MBO objective:
1. Top Management Support
2. Education about MBO
3. Active Participation in Goal Setting
4. Decentralisation of Authority
5. Orientation of Executives
6. Integration of MBO Programs.
CASE STUDY
Management by Objectives
The Branch Manager of a FMCG company attended a seminar on Management by Objectives.

His enthusiasm was very high and was so excited about it. He then decided to introduce this
concept in his next meeting with staff. The branch manager highlighted the key benefits of this
technique and discussed the advantages which the branch can get with the application of this
technique. He told his subordinates to think upon it so as to adopt this technique in the branch.
However, introducing a whole new concept was not easy and it led to many objections and queries
like- are the goals of the branch for the next year assigned by the chairman? So, there was no list
of the expectations from the branch manager regarding this concept yet but he himself made his
list of goals and objectives which the branch will thrive to achieve in the future.
When these goals were achieved, the executives were so impressed with the branch manager that
he made such clear objectives and also achieved them with assurance. They were so impressed
with his hard work and sincerity towards his branch. Now, he wanted every department to make
his own goals and objectives which are verifiable and clear.
Questions:
1. Can the Branch Manager develop verifiable objectives when they have not been
assigned to him by the Chairman? How?
2. Do you justify the Branch Manager's approach is setting goals? Give reasons for your
answer.
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B. BEHAVIOURALLY ANCHORED RATING SCALE (BARS):

BARS is intended to evaluate the performance of employee on the pre-determined statements.
Performance is assessed by asking the evaluator to record explicit observable work of behaving
of an employee and afterward to contrast these perceptions and a “behaviourally anchored
rating scale". Subsequently, the supervisor is in a situation to look at the employee's real way
of behaving with the way of behaving that has not been set to be successful.
The Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) moves toward consolidating components
of the traditional rating scales and critical incident method. Utilizing BARS, work ways of
behaving from basic incidents successful and inadequate ways of behaving are depicted more
equitably. This strategy utilizes people who know all about a specific task to recognize its major
parts. They are approached to rank and approve explicit ways of behaving for each of the parts.
BARS approach quits estimating abstract individual characteristics and on second thought
measures perceptible, basic ways of behaving that are connected with explicit work aspects.
Development of a BARS requires the following steps:
(i) Generate Critical Incidents- Specialists who realize the occupation being assessed
(work holders as well as managers) are approached to portray explicit delineations
(basic occurrences) of compelling furthermore, inadequate performance.
(ii) Develop Performance Dimensions- These individuals then, at that point, group the
incidents into a more modest arrangement of performance aspects (express 5 to 10).
Each group (aspect, for example, good faith is in this manner characterized.
(iii) Reallocate Incidents- One more gathering of specialists who likewise know the work
then, at that point, redistributes the first basic occurrences. They are given the group
definitions and the basic occurrences and are approached to reassign every incident to
the group they think it fits best. Regularly, a basic occurrence is held if some rate
(normally half to 80%) of the second group assigns it to the same cluster as did the first
group in step (ii).
(iv) Scale the Incidents- The subsequent group is by and largely requested to rate the way
of behaving portrayed in the incident regarding how really or insufficiently it addresses
performance on the fitting aspect (seven or nine-point scales are commonplace).
(v) Develop Final Instrument- A subset of the incidents (typically six or seven for every
cluster) is utilized as conduct secures for each aspect.
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The benefits of BARS are as per the following:

(i) Engagement of Experts- Experts are engaged in developing the BARS. The outcome
ought to in this way be a decent and precise measure of performance at work.
(ii) Clarifying Performance- The basic occurrences along the scale help to explain what
is implied by incredibly great performance, normal performance, etc.
(iii) Providing Feedback- Critical incidents might be more helpful in giving criticism to
employees than essentially educating them regarding their performance rating and not
giving specific behavioural examples.
(iv) Making Dimensions Independent- Systematically clustering basic incidents into five
or six performance aspects helps in making the aspects more autonomous of each other.
(v) Consistent and Reliable- BARS assessments appear to be somewhat steady and solid
in that unique evaluators' appraisals of a similar individual will generally be
comparable. This method isn't one-sided by the experience and assessment of the
evaluator.
C. 360-DEGREE APPRAISAL:
The 360-degree appraisal includes the rating of an employee or administrator by everyone
above, alongside, and below him. Corporates like General Electric India (GE), Reliance
Industries Ltd. (RIL), Crompton Greaves, Godrej Soaps, Wipro, Infosys, Thermax, and
Thomas Cook are utilizing this instrument to figure out bits of insight about their supervisors.
Even though conveyed generally as a reality finding procedure, 360° appraisal is likewise used
to plan promotion and reward framework in the association.
As per Milliman and others, "360-degree appraisal is the course of methodically gathering
information on an individual's abilities, capacities and ways of behaving from an assortment of
sources-the manager, peers, subordinates and even customers and clients".
Accordingly, the appraisal of a worker is finished by his superior, his peers, his subordinates,
and clients or untouchables with whom he connects over his work performance. In 360-degree
appraisal, other than evaluating the performance of the assessee, his different properties, for
example, initiative, interpersonal skills, decision-making, customer orientation, values, and
specialized capacities are likewise evaluated.
Components of 360 Degree Appraisal:
The components of 360-degree appraisal are portrayed as under:
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1. Self Appraisal- Self-examination is a vital piece of the 360-degree appraisal

framework since it gives the worker an outright opportunity to take use his strengths
and a valuable chance to evaluate his performance. In a deep-rooted framework,
employees utilize the device of self-appraisal really and organizations likewise find that
employees frequently are their own most grounded critics and show an exceptionally
serious level of objectivity. Self-examination additionally gives an open door to the
worker to communicate his vocation moves for what's in store. Nonetheless, this is just
for social event data, and under the given hierarchical imperatives, it might not be
imaginable to give the profession movement wanted by the worker. By the by, it is to
the association's advantage to at least know on a direct premise the desires of its
employees.
2. Superior Appraisal- This is, obviously, the main part of the 360-degree appraisal
framework. In any case, here the centre is to give helpful criticism on the employee's
performance and his improvement needs. It is the obligation of the better than guarantee
that the employee puts forth objectives in the space of business performance as well as
in the areas that are indispensable to the association. These are called corporate thrust
areas and may incorporate relationship management, well-being, and quality
development. If the superior finds the way of working of the subordinate inappropriate,
then he might set standard which will act as yardsticks for him.
3. Peer Group Appraisal- Peers assume a significant part in the existence of an employee
in the association. They can give the feedback of the employee attitude and the working.
For better results, choosing the right peer group is essential for giving the true feedback.
They should incorporate companions both from inside the division as well as from
different divisions which are straightforwardly associated with the working of worker's
specialty. The idea of interior clients comes conveniently here. Three to five interior
clients ought to regularly be picked for peer appraisal. Peer examination should try to
get feedback on:
(a) employee's functioning style
(b) awareness towards others
(c) spirit of co-activity and joint effort
(d) capacity to function as a colleague.
4. Subordinates' Appraisal- The most particular component of the 360-degree appraisal
is the job of subordinates in appraisal. It implies two things. It, first and foremost, is a
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clear expression from the association that it empowers transparency, and that input is a
two-way process. Furthermore, it is a foundational acknowledgment of the way that a
worker's subordinates truly do play a crucial job in his appraisal. In this manner, the
reason for subordinate's appraisal is to get a direct appraisal of how the subordinates
see their superior to be as far as:
(a) designation of power
(b) directing and preparing subordinate
(c) inspiration of subordinates
(d) group building, etc.
Advantages of 360 Degree Appraisal:
There are various advantages of 360 Degree Appraisal which are given underneath:
(i) Reveals Employee's Strengths and Weaknesses- It uncovers the qualities and
shortcomings of the employees.
(ii) Gap can be Reduced- The gap between self-appraisal and the perspectives of one's
colleagues is decreased.
(iii) Teamwork- When peer group appraisal is considered for performance examination,
cooperation flourishes.
(iv) Initiation of Self-Change- Inflexible administrators are compelled to start self-change.
(v) Improving overall Quality of Staff- It works on the by and large nature of the staff on
the grounds that every part is helping the others to move along.
Drawbacks of 360 Degree Appraisal:
There are various limitations of 360 Degree Appraisal which are given underneath:
(i) Biased Response- Response from peers (colleagues) and subordinates might be one-
sided.
(ii) Ignored Goals- Performance as far as achieving objectives is overlooked.
(iii) Frustration among Employees- Feedback might cause disappointment and
resentment among the employees.
(iv) Time-Consuming Process- 360° examination is a complex and tedious appraisal
procedure.
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Example of Performance Appraisal Types:

Summarised form of Performance Appraisal Methods:
Type of Performance
Advantages Disadvantages
Appraisal Method
Inexpensive to develop Subjectivity
Graphic Rating Scale Can be difficult to use in making

Easily understood by employees
compensation and promotion
and managers
decisions
Subjectivity
Writing ability of reviewer impacts

Can easily provide feedback on the
Essay validity
positive abilities of the employee
Time consuming (if not combined

with other methods)
Does not allow for detailed answers or

Measurable traits can point out
Checklist scale explanations (unless combined with
specific behavioural expectations
another method)
Provides specific examples

Critical Incidents Tendency to report negative incidents
Time consuming for manager
Work Standards Ability to measure specific

Does not allow for deviations
Approach components of the job
Can create a high-performance

work culture
Ranking Possible bias
Validity depends on the amount of
interaction between employees
and manager
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Type of Performance
Advantages Disadvantages
Appraisal Method
Can negatively affect teamwork
Open communication
Many only works for some types of
MBOs
Employee may have more “buy- job titles
in”
Focus is on desired behaviors
Scale is for each specific job

BARS Time consuming to set up
Desired behaviors are clearly

outlined
Difference Source: 11.2 Appraisal Methods – Human Resource Management. (2016, March
22). Pressbooks. Retrieved October 21, 2022, from
https://open.lib.umn.edu/humanresourcemanagement/chapter/11-2-appraisal-methods/
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
16. The other name of Management by Objectives is _______.

17. Name any two traditional methods of Appraisal.
18. The full form of BARS is __________.
19. The 360-degree method is a traditional appraisal method. True/False
20. The Confidential Report is a traditional method of appraisal. True/False
6.5 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AND POTENTIAL

APPRAISAL
6.5.1 Performance Management:
Performance management is a tool that incorporates recognizing and focusing on objectives,
characterizing what is progress towards objectives, setting norms for estimating results,
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following promotion toward objectives, trading criticism among organizational parts, routinely
evaluating progress, supporting viable objective arranged exercises, and intervening to make
upgrades when required.
Performance management has other implications than performance appraisal which gives input
about employees' job performance. Other than getting input, performance management also
incorporates performance interviews, archiving of performance data, and use of appraisal data.
These components have been talked about underneath:
1. Getting Feedback- It includes an orderly assortment of worker's performance
information concerning the amount of result, nature of the result, the practicality of
result, helpfulness, and so on. Such information should be gathered formally. It tends
to be incorporated from performance reports documented by the employee and his boss,
and furthermore reports of value auditors.
2. Performance Appraisal Interview- A sound appraisal framework ought to
incorporate the post-appraisal interview. In this meeting, criticism on performance is
given to the employee. The evaluator makes sense of his appraisals of the worker and
the characteristics he has taken into thought for appraisal. The meeting likewise gives
an open door to the employee to make sense of his perspectives about performance
guidelines, rating scales, appraisals, the variables hindering his performance, and so on.
The evaluator can give direction, training, and ideas to the worker for working on his
performance.
The post-appraisal interview is intended to accomplish the accompanying goals:
(a) to tell the employee where he stands.
(b) to assist the worker with going about his business by explaining what is generally
anticipated of him.
(c) to give an open door to the worker to remark upon his appraisal.
(d) to strengthen prevalent subordinate connections.
(e) to trade significant data for vocation promotion; and
(f) to advise the worker for additional turn of events.
Appraisal interview can be of the following types:
(i) Tell and Sell Interview- The motivations behind this interview are:
(a) to let the employee, realize how well he is doing,
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(b) to acquire the worker's acknowledgment of the assessment, and (c) to draw up
an arrangement of progress for him.
It depends on the understanding that workers have few deficiencies, yet they
should be persuaded about these inadequacies, the evaluator's appraisal, and
ideas for development. The questioner requires tolerance, understanding
furthermore, and the capacity to persuade the employee about his assessment
and ensuing medicinal measures without utilizing his positional power. This
sort of interview is fitting for youthful and new workers who are unpractised,
unreliable, and need the counsel of the unrivalled. The predominant can deserve
admiration because of his more prominent information and experience.
(ii) Tell and Listen Interview- The target of this interview is to impart the appraisal to the
worker and afterward listen thoughtfully to his responses. Such a meeting is separated
into two sections: The initial segment covers serious areas of strength for the worker's
work performance, and the subsequent part is utilized to investigate completely the
employee's sentiments about the appraisal. With the help of precautions, taking full
advantage of pauses, and answering sentiments to show understanding are the abilities
expected in this kind of interview. One benefit of this technique is that it makes a great
connection between the superior and the subordinate. The subordinate fosters a positive
mentality towards the superior. Another benefit is that it will generate support and
correspondence.
(iii) Problem-tackling Interview- In this meeting, the point isn't appraisal but
improvement of an employee. Hence, the questioner removes himself from his standard
job as an appointed authority and places himself in the job of a partner. He doesn't
convey (tell) the examination to the employee. He doesn't call attention to the areas of
progress. Maybe he tries to copy the employee into contemplating working on his own
presentation. He doesn't supply cures or arrangements in spite thinks about all thoughts
on work improvement proposed by the employee. This process is done by capable
inquiries.
3. Archiving Performance Data- The records of performance appraisal and performance
interviews should be put away for use in the future. The HR supervisor ought to be
capable to recover this data for taking faculty choice in the future. Such choices may
include pay hikes, promotions, training, etc. For instance, assuming a worker is given
or denied promotion, such choice should be supported by performance data.
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4. Use Appraisal Data- Performance management includes the utilization of appraisal

information for taking sound staff choices. The areas of HRM where such information
can be utilized incorporate the accompanying:
(i) Validation of selection strategy.
(ii) Training and improvement programs.
(iii) Transfer and lay off choices.
(iv) Promotional choices.
(v) Compensation organization, e.g., the choice about stoppage or yearly increment,
or giving development increases.
(vi) Taking care of grievances.
6.5.2 Potential Appraisal:
For the most part, individuals acquire promotions based on their past performance. The
previous performance is viewed as a decent mark of future work achievement. It would be ideal
for this to be valid if the jobs are comparable. In any case, in real practice, the jobs that a task
holder has done in the past may not be something similar that he expects an alternate work after
his transfer or on the other hand promotion to another position. Past performance, in this way,
may not be a decent sign of the reasonableness of a marker for a higher job. To overcome this
deficiency, organizations should start the course of potential appraisal.
The potential appraisal is a means of surveying the secret characteristics of a worker for the
motivation behind setting him up for releasing higher obligations in the future. The essential
reason behind potential appraisal is that each individual has specific secret characteristics to
changing extents. These characteristics might be an innovative creative mind, capacity to work
in different climates, enthusiasm for high accomplishment, critical thinking, independent
direction abilities, etc. This large number of characteristics comprise the capability of a person.
It is through potential appraisal that this large number of characteristics are distinguished.
These characteristics of an employee might be considered to foresee whether the worker is
capable for taking higher responsibilities.
Objectives of Potential Appraisal:
The primary motivation behind a potential appraisal is to recognize the capability of employees
to reach the top management positions in the organization and who can take the responsibilities
of the higher positions in the hierarchy.
The potential appraisal can serve the accompanying goals:
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(i) To provide advice to the workers about their future possibilities.

(ii) To provide advice to the employees about how they should further develop their career
possibilities.
(iii) To assist the organization in making the plan.
(iv) To refresh training programs occasionally.
Mechanism of Potential Appraisal:
Potential appraisal assumes the presence of obvious work or job depictions and work or job,
i.e., characteristics expected to perform the job. The components that could be utilized for
potential appraisal are talked about underneath:
(i) Rating by Superior- The capability of a competitor could be evaluated by the
supervisor who is familiar with the competitor's work and furthermore his specialized
capacities.
(ii) Psychological Tests- Administrative and conduct aspects can be estimated through
various mental tests.
(iii) Games- Simulation games and activities (appraisal focus, business games, in-basked,
role play, and so on) could be utilized to reveal the capability of the applicant.
(iv) Performance Records- Performance records and appraisals of the applicant on his past
positions could be inspected cautiously on different aspects like drive, imagination,
risk-taking capacity, and so on, which could assume a key part in releasing his
obligations in a new position.
Benefits of Potential Appraisal:
Potential appraisal is being utilized by enormous business firms as it offers the accompanying
advantages:
(i) Identification and Grooming of Candidates- The firm can distinguish and prepare
possibilities for promotion to higher situations in the future.
(ii) Career Planning and Development- It gives significant contributions to vocation
arranging and improvement.
(iii) Better use of Human Assets- It empowers the association to utilize its human
resources.
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(iv) Satisfaction of Needs and Aspirations- It assists with fulfilling the necessities and
desires of the workers with incredible potential.
(v) Helps in Succession Planning- It works with progression arranging by distinguishing
talented staff who could involve in higher posts when the current occupants move out
of the association.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
25. These are the types of Performance Management Interviews- Tell & ____ and
tell & ____.
26. Potential Appraisal and Performance Management constitutes one and the same
thing. True/False.
27. The Performance Management helps in getting inputs in the form of _____
28. Does Potential Appraisal help in succession planning? Yes/No.
29. Potential Appraisal help in career development. True/False.
6.6 SUMMARY
In the lesson we have learnt how important is the timely survey of the performance of the
employees to provide them with just, equitable, uniform and fair wages and incentives. The
regular survey of the employees’ jobs also contributed widely to the growth of the organization.
It helps in understanding the needs of the employees and also helps in taking various important
decisions related to the job of the employees like increase in pay, transfer, promotion, etc.
6.7 GLOSSARY
Yardstick: It implies the guidelines set on an earlier premise.

Unprejudiced: It implies making a decision about anything fairly, with next to no earlier
mentality.
1. Continuous 9. False
2. False 10. True
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3. Uniform 11. Sell and Listen

4. True 12. False
5. Yes 13. Feedback
6. Management by Results 14. Yes
7. Ranking and Essay Method 15. True
8. Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scale
20. Consider yourself as a Human Resource Manager and answer the following questions
based on your knowledge of Performance Management:
(a) What is the objective of your performance review?
(b) Who should participate in your performance review?
(c) What should you measure in your performance review?
(d) What type of questions will you ask your team during your performance review?
21. Review each of the appraisal methods and discuss which one you might use for the
following types of jobs and discuss your choices.
a. Administrative Assistant
b. Chief Executive Officer
c. Human Resource Manager
d. Retail Store Assistant Manager
22. Consider yourself as an employee of the company and answer the following questions:
(a) Do you have everything you need to perform your job? Or what resources or
support do you need from the department to reach your goals?
(b) What are your long-term career goals, and how can the organization help you
in achieving them?
(c) Which of the organizational goals do you think are more aligned with your
personal goals?
(d) What is your biggest strength and weakness?
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(e) In what ways do you think you can contribute to the company?
23. Why is performance appraisal necessary in modern organisations? Discuss any two-
techniques of performance appraisal.
24. What do you mean by Performance Appraisal? Discuss its benefits to an industrial
organization.
6.10 REFERENCES
271
Amos, T., Ristow, A., Ristow, L., & Pearse, N. (2008). Human Resource Management, JUTA
and company ltd.
India Publications, New Delhi.
Pande, S., & Basak, S., (2015). Human Resource Management Text and Cases, Vikas
publishing house
Chhabra, T. N., & Chhabra, M. S. (2016). Essentials of Human Resource Management (2nd
ed.). Sunindia lashers.
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LESSON 7
INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
Dr. Malavika Srivastava
Associate Professor
Institute of Information Technology & Management
GGSIPU
Malavika.iitm@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

7.2 Industrial Relations
7.2.1 Nature of Industrial Relations
7.2.2 Aspects of Industrial Relations
7.2.3 Objectives of Industrial Relations
7.2.4 Systems Approach to Industrial Relations
7.2.5 Environmental factors to Industrial Relations
7.2.6 Evolution of Industrial Relations
7.2.7 Answers to In-Text Questions
7.3 Dynamics of Employee, Employer and the State
7.3.1 Parties to Industrial Relations
7.3.2 The Workers’ Association: Trade Union
7.3.3 Employer’s Organization
7.3.4 State/Union Government
7.4 Trade Unions
7.4.1 Trade Union: Past
7.4.1.1 Emergence of Labour Leader
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7.4.1.2 Formation of First Labour Organization

7.4.1.3 Post-Independence Scenario
7.4.2 Trade Unions: Present
7.4.3 Trade Unions: Future
7.5 Industrial Harmony & Worker’s Participation
7.5.1 Industrial Harmony
7.5.2 Worker’s Participation in Management
7.5.3 Importance & Objectives of Worker’s Participation in Management
7.5.4 Modes of Participation
7.5.5 Worker’s participation in Management in India
7.5.6 Worker’s Participation in Management in India
7.5.7 Success of Worker’s Participation in Management
7.5.8 Industrial Harmony & Worker’s Participation in Management
7.6 Collective Bargaining
7.6.1 Significance of Collective Bargaining
7.6.2 Functions of Collective Bargaining
7.6.3 Process of Collective Bargaining
7.6.4 Collective Bargaining in India
7.6.5 Obstacles in Collective Bargaining in India
7.7 Summary
7.8 Glossary
7.10 References
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1) Explain the concept of Industrial Relations and its emergence.
2) Elaborate the nature & objectives of Industrial Relations
3) Enumerate the stages of Evolution of Industrial Relations
4) Identify the three important parties and their roles in Industrial Relations
5) Explain the effects of environmental determinants on Industrial relations
6) Define Trade Unions and their emergence, its present condition and its future.
7) Understand the concept of Industrial Harmony and Worker’s Participation in
Management.
8) Understand the concept, significance & functions of Collective Bargaining
7.2 INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
Starting from the medieval period, when the relations between the master and servant were not
complex, moreover it was direct and personal hence it was easy to secure cooperation from the
workers. Relations between them was easy as the masters were approachable, and they were
enough to take workers out of their difficulties. Then the situation underwent a change with the
emergence of factory system after England’s Industrial Relations in the 18th Century. In this
system the old philosophy didn’t work as the workers faced many economic, social and
psychological problems and what was majorly needed was their Welfare and Wellbeing. This
gave birth to the concept of Industrial Relations to tackle with the workers insecurities and
unrest at the industries as there was high need for cooperation between labour and employers.
The term Industrial Relations consists of two words “Industry” and “Relations”.
Relations co-exist with humans and Industry is a place where number of humans, initially
unknown to each other, meet, work, compete & cooperate, which makes it even more important
to tie them in a harmonious relationship to maintain Industrial Peace. Therefore, after Industrial
Revolution, which mark the emergence of factories and labour- management relations,
industrial relations evolved to regulate and harmonise their relations and to safeguard the labour
from all sorts of exploitation at the industries and also to ensure their complete welfare and
wellbeing.
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We shall now understand the concept of Industrial Relations more comprehensively with the
help of some definitions:
H. Henry Richardson asserts “Industrial Relations is an art, the art of living together for the
purpose of production”. To work together it becomes a necessity for them to learn this art by
acquiring the skill of adjustment.
On the other hand, H.A. Clegg emphasised the regulation and institutionalization of industrial
relations when he asserted that “The field of Industrial Relations includes the study of workers
and their trade unions, management, employers’ association, and the state institutions
concerned with the regulation of employment”
National Commission on Labour (NCL) also emphasised that “Industrial relations affect not
merely the interests of the two participants-labour and management, but also the economic and
social goals to which the State addresses itself. To regulate these relations in socially desirable
channels is a function, which the State is in the best position to perform”.
The above definitions clarify that Industrial Relations emerges out of employee employer
relations in industries which are regulated by the Government/State in various aspects.
7.2.1 Nature of industrial Relations:
1. Industrial Relation is interdisciplinary in nature: As the study of conditions like
level of wages and security of employment is related to economics, if we study their
origin and evolution, it comes under history, resultant social conflicts due to these issues
comes under sociology, study of attitude of various parties to Industrial Relations comes
under the purview of psychology, state policies bearing on the issues under political
science, the legal aspect of the issue under law, the technological aspect under the study
of technology and the quantitative assessment of losses incurred by the parties and the
country's economy under mathematics.
2. Industrial Relation is multidimensional in nature: Having three major dimensions
as determinants, namely:
a. Institutional factors such as government policies, labour laws unions of workers
and employers, power, structure, community etc.
b. Economic factors such as type of economic ownership like capitalist, socialist,
company ownership etc.
c. Technological factors such as techniques of production, capital structure,
rationalization etc.
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3. Industrial Relations as “Web of Rules”: Formed by the interaction of the government,

the industry and the labour are influenced by the existing and emerging institutional,
economic and technological factors.
ACTIVITY
Industrial Relations is a multifarious topic. Like the above points, think of some
more points in nature, features, characteristics of Industrial Relations that you have
observed or experienced through your exposure to any industry or organization.
7.2.2 ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS:

“Cooperation is as common in human nature as Conflict”. Therefore, Douglas McGregor
considers both to be the two most important aspects of Industrial Relations.
Cooperation: Cooperation between union & management, the two actors in the industrial
relations drama, differing in economic power, wealth and education, depends primarily on their
ability and willingness to make contacts at points of mutual concern. In a nutshell “Union-
Management cooperation will be a function of two forces- the behavioural pattern of union and
management, and the balancing of union rights with management rights. This will require a
tough exercise in the demarcation of joint and exclusive areas of the two parties”
Conflict: In Labour-Management relationship, conflict is inevitable. To some extent it also
forms the base for their survival and is not always destructive. But the same conflict when
becomes recurring in nature can be hazardous. Hence, a timely realization and redressal is
necessary to maintain industrial harmony.
7.2.3 OBJECTIVES OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS:
According to the Labour management Committee of the Asian Regional Conference of the
International Labour Organization (ILO) along with the primary objective of improving the
economic conditions of the workers, increasing productivity and achieving industrial
democracy in industrial enterprise, have also identified following as the fundamental objectives
of Industrial relations:
i) To enable employers and trade unions to deal with their mutual problems freely,
independently and responsibly.
ii) Facilitating the maximum use of collective bargaining for mutual accommodation.
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iii) Enabling workers’ and employers’ organization to associate with government agencies
in consideration of general, public, social and economic measures affecting employers’
and workers’ relations.
iv) Timely redressal of Industrial conflicts and policing the occurrence of strikes and
lockouts.
v) To provide higher job satisfaction to the workers to minimise labour turnover and
absenteeism.
vi) To promote workers participation in management.
vii) To encourage government control in regulating production and industrial relations.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Industrial Relations is an _______________ of living together.
2. Industrial Relations came into being in 20th Century. True / False
3. Following is not one of the Aspects of Industrial Relations:
a) Cooperation b) Confidence
c) Conflict d) None of the above
4. Facilitating maximum use of ____________________ is the objective of IR.
5. Concern towards Employees ____________________ are major objectives of
IR.
7.2.4 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS:
John Dunlop proposed System’s Approach to Industrial Relations. This approach focuses on
participants in the process, environmental forces and the output. It also studies inter-relations
among different facets of Industrial Relations system.
Environmental Forces Participants in the System Outputs
Market of Economic Union

Restraints
Technology Management Rules of the Workplace
Distribution of Power
Government
in Society
Fig 1.1 Systems Approach to Industrial Relations
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The basic elements of the system:

1. Participants in the System: Workers & their organization, management and their
representatives, and government. These sub-systems interact with each other within the
economic, social and politico-legal framework of the country.
2. Environment: Dunlop referred to these components as: “technological subsystem”,
“economic subsystem” and “political subsystem”.
a) Technological characteristics: Industrial relations would be very different in a
labour-intensive industry than a capital-intensive one. Changes in technology
enhances the employers’ expectations about the skills of workers. The work
processes and methods with modern techniques reduce the manual work and
workers acquire greater control over their work, thus, higher production can be
achieved.
b) Market or economic constraints: These factors influence industrial relations
because the need for labour is closely related to the demand of products. As the
competition rises up the market share of an enterprise becomes uncertain which
influences the industrial relations both in long and short terms.
c) The locus and balance of power: The locus and balance of power in a society
also influences the relationship between labour and management. The
regulatory role of Government is an important factor in shaping the pattern of
Industrial Relations.
3. Output: The output is the result of interaction of the parties/actors of the system which
is manifested in the network of rules, policies and agreements etc. This facilitates the
workers.
7.2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL FRAMEWORK OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS:
Relations at the workplace are influenced by various environmental factors. These factors
shape these relationships, they even reinforce them in the course of developing Industrial
Relations:
1. Economic Forces: There are numerous economic factors as difference in wages,
unemployment, relative status, which has a direct relationship with the industrial
relations. If the demands for higher wages and improvement in standard of living will
not be met, conflict is inevitable.
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2. Social Factors: In the initial stage of industrialization various social factors such as
social groups, social values and norms, social status influence industrial relations,
which gives rise to the existence of class in industries. But with the progress in
industrialization, such factors lose their importance.
3. Psychological Forces: Lack of motivation, lower morale, loss of personal identity, lack
of interest and dissatisfaction due to dissatisfaction at work give vent to the worker’s
protest and to fight the same, employers form their organizations. Thus, an environment
of ‘power relationship’ is created which might culminate in collective bargaining.
4. Politico-Legal Forces: The system of Government, political institutions, judiciary etc.
influence the industrial relations in the country to a great extent. For ex. The philosophy
of the political party in power influences the state of industrial relations by enacting
and enforcing various statutes for the protection of the interest of the workers.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Society is the participant in system. True / False

7. Systems Approach to Industrial Relations was proposed by _______________.
8. Which is not one of the factors in the Environmental framework of IR:
a) Economic b) Biological
c) Social d) Legal
9. Motivation, Morale, Personal Identity are ____________________.
10. ____________________ are considered to be outputs in Systems Approach.
7.2.6 EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS:

History of India marks the evolution of Industrial Relations in three distinct phases. First phase
begun from the middle of the 19th Century and ended by the end of the First World War.
Thereafter commenced the Second Phase and lasted by the attainment of Independence in 1947
and the post-independence era represents the Third phase.
First Phase: It commenced with the British Government attempt to minimise the competitive
advantage of indigenous employers against the British employers by regulating the condition
of work in their ways, a series of legislative measures were adopted, which worked as the
beginning of industrial relations in India. The establishment of International Labour
Organization (ILO) in 1919 had a great effect on industrial relations in India. With budding
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trade unions in India, foundation of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920 also was
an important event in the history of Industrial Relations in our country.
Second Phase: As an extension to the First Phase, after the First World War, a number of laws
were enacted. For Ex. Trade Dispute Act, 1929, provided a conciliation machinery for
settlement of disputes. Also, a survey was conducted by The Royal Commission on Labour
(1929-31) to assess labour problems in India related to their working conditions with respect
to health, safety and welfare of the workers and made recommendations to make further
modifications in policies, acts and laws.
Third Phase: The Industrial Truce Resolution adopted in 1947 was the major development in
this phase. This encouraged “the labour and management to assist the Government to secure,
promote & guarantee such agreements between the parties as will usher in a period of
contended and orderly advancement towards a cooperative commonwealth”. Under this phase
more importance is given to the need for respecting the mutuality of interests between labour
and capital in industrial development and recommended to the parties the method of mutual
discussion of all problems, common to both and the determination to settle all disputes without
recourse to interruption in or slowing down of production”.
In the end it can be stated that as far as evolution of Industrial relations in India has been
gradual. It went through phases from traditional to modern times of its existence. The evolution
took place also to bring about change for the betterment of working conditions of the workers
in terms of their health, safety and welfare at the workplace. Finally, it took a turn towards
importance to mutuality of interest and role of Government in practicing law for dealing with
industry related issues.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. There are ____________________ phases in the Evolution of Industrial
Relations.
12. A major development in Third phase is ____________________.
13. ILO conducted a survey to access labour problems in India. True / False
14. Trade Dispute Act, 1929 was enacted in the _______________ Phase of IR
Evolution.
15. When was All India Trade Union Congress formed:
a) 1920 b) 1820
c) 1944 d) 1947
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7.2.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Art 9. Psychological factors
2. False 10. Rules of the workplace
3. Confidence 11. Three
4. Collective Bargaining 12. Industrial Truce Resolution
5. Participation 13. False
6. False 14. Second
7. Dunlop 15. 1920
8. Biological
7.3 DYNAMICS OF EMPLOYEES, EMPLOYER & THE STATE
Industrial Relations is made of two terms, out of which more important is relations. When it
comes to relationship, their existence is possible only when there are two or more parties to it.
In Industrial Relations this relation is “employment relationships” in industry i.e., between
employers and labour which is secured under the great influence of government of the nation
or state.
Therefore, there are three major parties to industrial relations: Workers and their organization,
Employers & their organization and Government/State.
They have their own unique role to play in regulating industrial relations in the interest of
industry and largely of the nation.
Employee Employers'
Association Organization
Parties
to IR
State
Fig 1.1: Parties to Industrial Relations

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7.3.1 PARTIES TO INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS:

The three major variables in Industrial Relations are:
a. Workers & their organizations: The diverse workforce with various differences in
their characteristics, culture, attainment, qualifications, skills and attitude, forms a very
important element of this industrial relations network. Workers organization, to be
more specific, the Trade Unions are political institutions and are formed for
safeguarding the political and social interest of the workers. They are the worker’s
representatives and moreover works as mediator between workers and the employers.
Its major objective is to strengthen the workers position to support the fulfilment of
their organizational objectives, and to secure management cooperation for the same.
b. Employers & their organizations: The other important thread in the network of
Industrial Relations is the Employer. In fact, the industries exist because of employers,
as they are the creators. They create industries and employment for the workers. They
are the one who regulates the employment related factors such as worker behaviour,
attitude, satisfaction/dissatisfaction for securing higher productivity from them. Similar
to workers organizations, employers also sometimes have their association in order to
increase their bargaining power to be utilised in the times of disputes with the workers.
Employers’ association can create pressure on workers as well as Government as and
when required to regulate industrial relations.
c. Government/State: An Influential partner in the industrial relation system which bears
powers over and above workers association and employers’ organization, is the
Government/State, whose role is to intervene in the working relationships and
regulating working conditions through various laws relating to labour in the interest of
employers, workers as well as the nation.
ACTIVITY
Above we have talked about the Three major parties to Industrial Relations. You
are supposed to draw three columns and enumerate the 5-5 functions each of
Employee Association, Employer’s Organization & the State/Government.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
16. There are _______________ parties to IR.
17. Trade Unions are formed to safeguard the recreational interest of the workers.
True / False
18. Which is NOT a party to IR:
a) Trade Unions b) Courts/Tribunals
c)Employer’s Organization d) ILO
19. ____________________ bears power over & above Employees Association &
Employer’s Organization.
20. ____________________ regulates employment related factors.
7.3.2 THE WORKERS ASSOCIATION: TRADE UNION

Unlike traditional, less complicated, less technological relation between workers and
employers, the modern industrial organizations, using modern technology and large number of
workers led to the development and growth of Trade Unions not only in advanced economies
but also in developing economies like India.
‘The emergence of trade unionism is spontaneous and inherent in the growth of capitalism. The
origin of trade unionism lies in the Industrial Revolution which disrupted the older way of life
and created a new society forged by the shop, the mine and the industry’.
According to Flippo “A Labour Union or Trade Union is an organization of workers formed to
promote, protect and improve, through collective action, the social, economic and political
interests of its members”.
Following are some important features of Trade Unions:
a. It is an organization formed by employees or workers.
b. It is formed on a continuous basis. It is a permanent body and not a casual or temporary
one.
c. It is formed to promote and protect all kinds of interest, most importantly economic.
d. It achieves its objectives through collective action and group efforts.
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OBJECTIVES OF TRADE UNIONS:

1. Steady Employment: Steady i.e., stable, stability in employment can be achieved only
with the equity between word and pay (economic benefit). An important objective of
Trade Unions is to achieve this equity between the two, which should also be
competitive in market and beneficial and satisfactory for workers.
2. Regulating personnel policy: The organization runs with various policies related to
selection of employees for lay off, retirement, transfer & promotion, assigning
employees to job and disciplining them. These decisions shouldn’t be subjective rather
it should be transparent and fair to all. Driving management towards maintaining this
transparency in the whole organizational process is also one of the objectives of Trade
Unions.
3. Making their voice heard in decision making: Managing an organization is all about
crucial decisions taken at the right point of time in the most appropriate manner. Hence,
in this vital process, workers voice will be heard, their inputs will be taken only when
they will have strength and strong views. Trade Unions are for the purpose of providing
that required strength to workers so that they can also put forward their suggestions in
important decision which will affect them in industries.
4. Recognition & Participation: When alone recognition is difficult, but as an
association recognition and participation can be sought easily. Same lies with Trade
Unions, workers join trade unions so as to gain position of equal partners with
management in the task of production.
5. Securing Legal sanctions: In order to secure a permanent position in the contract
between employers and workers, the worker’s demands need to avail a legal sanction.
For the same to happen unions may take recourse of political backing or forming their
own political party.
Also, modern trade unions engage in achieving many more objectives like providing
educational, medical recreational and other facilities for the welfare and wellbeing of families
of members of trade unions, is the have sufficient funds.
FUNCTIONS OF TRADE UNIONS:
There are broadly THREE categories of functions performed by Trade Unions, viz., (i) Militant
Functions, Fraternal Functions, and Political Functions.
a) Militant Functions: Although Collective Bargaining and Negotiations are the major
weapons in the hands of Trade Unions, in certain situation when they, along with their
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other rights, also try to secure share in productivity gains, greater contribution in
management decision making or even control of industry, they can adopt certain
agitational methods like, strike, lockouts, gherao etc. increasing unrest in the industry,
for fulfilment of their demands.
b) Fraternal Function: Fraternal responsibility is about standing in support in
unfavourable times. This is what this function of union addresses. In the period of work
stoppages due to strikes gheraos, or in times of illness, employment injury or when they
are temporarily unemployed, unions are always willing to provide financial assistance
and support.
c) Political Functions: Unions also sometimes attempts to improve the political status of
its leader, members and union itself through associating them with political parties and
sometimes contesting as political parties themselves in order to have influence over
government and the labour policies.
7.3.3 EMPLOYERS’ ORGANIZATION:
Employer’s Organizations in India have a three-tier structure viz. local associations, regional
industrial associations and All India Federation. Of the three, the local associations which
operate mainly through the chambers of commerce covers all industries in an area. Their
activities in the labour field are comparatively less extensive. The industrial associations are
the general patterns of organization of employers in India. They are formed at the area or
regional level as also at the all-India level and are generally affiliated to the central industrial
organizations. At the national level, there are federations namely All India Organization of
Employers (AIOE) formed in 1932, Employers’ Federation of India (EFI) formed in 1933 and
All India manufacturers’ Organization (AIMO) formed in 1941, which have been given
representation on different tripartite labour consultative bodies.
ROLES OF EMPLOYERS’ ORGANIZATION:
Employers’ Federation of India (EFI): The main objectives of the establishment of EFI are:
a) To protect and promote the legitimate interests of employers engaged in industry, trade
and commerce.
b) To maintain harmonious relations between management and labour and to initiate and
support schemes that would increase productivity and give labour a fair share of the
increased return.
c) To collect and disseminate information affecting employers and to advice members on
their labour/employer relations and other related problems.
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All India Organization of Employers (AIOE): The main objectives are:

a) To take all steps which may be necessary for promoting, supporting or opposing
legislative and other measures affecting or likely to affect directly or indirectly,
industries in general or particular
b) To nominate delegates and advisers etc. to represent the employers of India at
International platform
c) To promote and support all schemes for the general uplift of labour and to take all
possible steps to establish harmonious relations between capital and labour.
All India Manufacturers’ Organization (AIMO): Addresses the following objectives which is
not much different from that of EFI and AIOE:
a) To help bring about the rapid industrialization of the country through sound and
progressive economic policies
b) To help increasing the aggregate wealth of India
c) To utilise to the fullest possible extent all the available national resources and talent in
the country to uplift the standard of living of the people.
FUNCTIONS OF EMPLOYERS’ ORGANIZATION:
A major function of an employers’ organization is to protect & promote the interest of its
members. Economic, commercial and fiscal matters and policies are crucial for them. They
seek for legislative support for the realization of their objectives. Other than the above there
are some more functions of employers’ organization towards labour are as follows:
a) Communication: Communication regarding developed or developing labour
legislations, regarding changes in labour policy, significant court decisions on labour
matters as well as proceedings of important tripartite deliberations etc. has to be clearly
and completely made by employers’ organization to its members.
b) Advisory Functions: Employers’ organizations build up an expert advisory service on
labour matters to advise their affiliates.
c) Educational Efforts: Employers’ Federation of India conducts various seminars,
conferences, and training programmes to discuss important issues in the labour
management relations.
d) Social Responsiveness: Participating in National Plans for Economic Development,
eliciting responsive cooperation from the unions, improving levels of production and
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productivity, pursuing policies, adopting neighbourhood villages etc. are various social
responsibilities shouldered by Employer’s organizations.
e) Representational Roles: They also represent employers on various significant
platforms as wage boards and various committees formed by the Government to place
their point of views before them.
7.3.4 STATE/UNION GOVERNMENT:
Among the THREE parties to Industrial Relations, the apex governing body is the STATE,
which has the responsibility of correcting correct any kind of imbalance or disrupted social and
economic order so that the complex socio-economic system of industries. In various instances
of disputes and indiscipline which goes out of the hands of the management, and they fail to
resolve it through mutual agreement, bargaining and negotiation.
THE ROLES OF STATE IN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS:
a) The major role played by the State is to lay down the Labour Policy, as guiding
principles for the labour related issues such as wage payments, regulation of health and
safety, welfare and social security, union management relations etc.
b) Labour policy is directed towards the achievement of various goals like industrial peace
and harmony, reducing inequalities, increasing standard of living of workers, increasing
productivity, providing social security, providing a fair wage, etc.
c) To achieve the above State also has the responsibility of keeping in place the industrial
relation policy, welfare policy, social security policy etc.
d) Concern for planned development and rapid economic growth.
e) Fulfil requirements of a welfare stare as included in Directive Principles of State Policy
f) Addressing to the socio-economic imbalances in the society, depressed conditions in
the working class as observed by the Royal Commission on Labour and the Labour
Investigation Committee
g) Addressing to the imbalances in between unions and employers and the weaknesses of
both the social partners, leading to preference for adjudication despite known
appreciation of the merits of free and fair collective bargaining.
h) To achieve the commanding heights of the economy as per the Industrial policy
resolution, 1956.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
21. Trade Unions are formed on continuous basis and are permanent in nature.
True / False
22. Among the three parties to IR, the Apex body is _______________.
23. Which is not one of the functions of Trade Unions:
a) Fraternal b) Maternal
c) Militant d) Political
24. Full form of AIOE is ____________________.
25. Labour Policy is directed to achieve ____________________.

16. Three 24. All India Organization of Employers
17. False 25. Industrial Peace & Harmony
18. ILO
19. State
20. Employer’s Organization
21. True
22. State
23. Fraternal
7.4 TRADE UNIONS
With the emergence of Industries after Industrial Revolution between 1750 and 1825 AD, that
resulted into modern factory system. It was characterised by large scale production and
employment and separation of management from ownership, because of which personal touch
has been lost and the relations between workers and management became very formal and
complex.
The desire for higher profits by employers and weak bargaining power in the hands of workers
led to the exploitation of working class. After a long time, they realised that if the workers will
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not strengthen their position before employers, they will be in great danger of serious
exploitation by the employers. Hence Trade Unions came into existence. After emergence, with
the passage of time and changes in situation, the face and form of Trade Unions also changed
leaps and bounds.
“Trade Unions owe their origin to class struggle between the capitalist employers and their
workers. To get more and more profits employers exploit the workers, who because of their
common interest to get more wages unite in trade unions and then resist the employers”.
To be more specific, “the origin and growth of trade unionism is the result of the increased
complexities of economic structure. Industrial Revolution made it all the more essential to
organise workers to protect their economic rights and secure better working environment”.
Thus, trade unionism is the child of industrialization born out of the stresses and strains of
Industrial Revolution.
7.4.1 TRADE UNIONS: PAST
Initially, it was some social workers, philanthropist and other religious leaders who started their
efforts towards retaining worker welfare in industries. Social reformers under the leadership of
Sorabjee Shapurjee Bangali started an agitation to draw the attention of the Government
towards deteriorating conditions of workers in industries specially those of women and children
and to appeal to the authorities to introduce legislation for bettering their conditions in
industries.
Such pressure from social reformers and the traders compelled the Government to move ahead
on this path and on the basis of the reports of Factories Commission, the first Indian Factories
Act was enacted in 1881. The Act was a cause of great disappointment due to its
inappropriateness in terms of its insufficient provisions for women and child labour raised
demands for its amendment which led to an atmosphere of agitation.
ACTIVITY
Talking about trade unions here, write your own definition to Trade Unions and
list down the names of Trade Unions you have ever heard of.
7.4.1.1 Emergence of a labour leader:

Shri Narayan Meghaji Lokhandey who was influenced by Mahatma Phooley of Maharashtra
emerged as a first labour leader in India. He devoted his whole life to the cause of labour
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movement. Shri Lokhandey organized a conference of workers in Bombay and drew up a

memorandum sighed by about 5300 workers which was presented to the Factory Commission.
It contained the following demands:
a) Complete day of rest after a week.
b) Work should begin at 6:30am and end at sunset.
c) ½ hour rest at noon.
d) Payment of wages not later than 15th day after the due date.
e) Payment of wages for the period of employment injury.
7.4.1.2 Formation of First Labour Organization:
The first workers’ organization in India was the Bombay Mill Hands Association organized in
the year 8190 by Shri N.M. Lokhandey, a factory worker himself. He was its first president
also. However, The Bombay Mill Hands Association had no roll of membership, no funds and
no rules. Hence, it is more correctly called as a philanthropic promoter of workers welfare
rather than a labour organization. Shri Lokhandey, President of Bombay Mill-Hands
Association present the petition again for resuming with the previous demands, which was
followed by a bigger petition signed by 17000 workers and based on this recommendation to
Factory Commission the Indian Factory Act of 1981 was passed.
The important provision of the Act was:
a) Regulation of hours of work for women labour to 11 hours a day with rest intervals for
one and a half hours.
b) Raising of minimum and maximum ages of children to 9 and 14 respectively.
After the inception of Factory Act, 1891 a large number of labour associations were started.
Some more important of them were:
1. The Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants of India, 1897
2. The Printers Union, Calcutta, 1905
3. The Bombay Postal Union, 1907
4. The Kamgar Hitvardhak Sabha, Bombay, 1910.
7.4.1.3 Post-independence scenario:
Trade Union movements in Punjab & Bengal was adversely affected by the partition of country.
The THREE Central Trade Union Organization of that time were AITUC, IFL & INTUC.
Among the three IFL was adversely affected. The IFL lost one of its big constituent unions in
Calcutta, the Bengal Chamber of Labour with membership of over one lakh, as most of the
workers were Muslims who migrated to Pakistan.
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When the socialist started Hind Mazdoor Sabha in December 1948, the Indian Federation of
Labour existed then, and they both merged together. Still there were disagreements towards
principles and objectives of Hind Mazdoor Sabha. Therefore, United Trade Union Committee
was formed. The Committee called a conference of various leaders at Calcutta on 30 th April
1949 where the United Trade Union Congress was formed.
By 1949, four Central Trade Union Organizations were functioning in the country:
1. The All-India Trade Union Congress
2. The Indian National Trade Union Congress
3. The Hind Mazdoor Sabha
4. The United Trade Union Congress
With increasing Industrialization, a number of industries emerged, and organized sector started
growing rapidly. With the increasing number of workers, number of trade unions also
increased. The industries were in a better capacity to pay, and unions could negotiate and
extract better wages and facilities through collective bargaining. That era witnessed a
continuous increase in the number of registered trade unions.
Another important reason responsible for this increase in the Political Influence. Various
parties with the intention of being in good books of workers tried to bring workers within the
folds of unions, which also increased the extent of unionization and made workers aware of the
usefulness of this instrument.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
26. Trade Unions owe their origins to _______________.
27. Mahatma Gandhi was first labour leader in India. True / False
28. First Worker’s Organization in India was:
a) Calcutta Mill b) Andhra Mill
c) Bombay Mill d) All of the above
29. Pre-Independence three Central Trade Union Organizations are
____________________.
30. ____________________ was an important reason for the increase in number
of unions post-Independence.
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7.4.2 TRADE UNION: PRESENT

About the present state of the Trade Unions, we can only say that it is in its twilight state. The
emergence and dominance of private sector governed by mostly information technology and
artificial intelligence bring us to the “decreasing bites” of trade unions in the industrial system.
Unionization of employees are now considered to be traditional methods of regulating
employee’s working condition. With the increase in modern industries the employees have
developed a distastefulness towards unionization. Issues like wage fixations for today’s
generation are not done through agitational methods, as it’s an old school method. Now fixing
salary is much related to the market conditions, the competition in the market, and goodwill of
the company and so on.
If we talk about providing adequate facilities and working conditions. Today belief that
“employees are the first consumers” has worked wonders as everyone believe in keeping
customers happy. So, they try to provide the best facilities, the most conducive environment to
work in order to maintain their edge over the other competitors and to retain the best talent with
them in the competitive market. So, for all these they really don’t need to depend on trade
unions for bargaining and negotiating on their behalf leading to fewer grievances on the
employee front.
On the positive side, businesses became more proficient in dealing with employees. In large
Indian corporates supervisors have become far more understanding and respectful of their
teams. In any case, for the bulk of the workforce, instead of supervisors and IR officers are
finding ways to motivate employees rather than ways to exploit them.
Still in various industries in the country we may witness work stoppages and industrial unrests,
but those are symbolic. The back breaking stoppages that used to happen traditionally is out of
scene now.
7.4.3 TRADE UNION: FUTURE
Uncertain! Is the future of Trade Unions just as the future of work. The sea change brought
into the labour markets due to globalization, demographic factors, environmental and
technology are going to continue changing, and the COVID-19 crisis has increased the
challenge to the next level by shutting down number of factories and making labours sit at
home jobless. This also witnessed a dip in trade union membership leading to a downfall in
trade unions.
In future also the organizations are believed to become even more human centric, widening the
bridge between industries and need for unionization for the employees. The scenario in future
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will also showcase that how industries make efforts to keep employees highly motivated. The
future only talks about, Talent acquisition, talent management, Intellectual capital
management, human resource as business partners and the like, leaving no room for employees
to bind themselves as unions, or feel the need to unite for better bargaining and negotiation
with the management, and the agitational methods like work stoppages, strikes, gherao and so
on has only found a place in books and have become only symbolic.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
31. At present Trade Unions are in ____________________ stage.
32. Due to modernization of industries employees have developed
____________________ towards unions.
33. In Future organization will try to keep employees more motivated. True / False
34. Employees are the first _______________.
35. In future organizations are believed to become:
a) production centric b) human centric
c) Both d) None

26. Class Struggle 34. Consumers
27. False 35. Human Centric
28. Bombay Mill
29. AITUC, IFL, INTUC
30. Political Influence
31. Twilighting
32. Distastefulness
33. True
7.5 INDUSTRIAL HARMONY: WORKER’S PARTICIPATION
Harmony is where equality is. In the industry where all citizens are treated as equal and are
allowed to participate freely in industrial affairs, they are treated as responsible partners of the
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enterprise and are allowed to participate in the decision making process, where they are also
given the rights of self-expression and an opportunity to communicate their view on framing
the policies of the company and in return what is needed is the service that they are expected
to render in industry, in such kind of a setup Industrial Harmony can prevail for long. Worker’s
participation in management in a nutshell is prerequisite to industrial harmony. There are
various objectives, modes and levels of workers participation in management.
7.5.1 INDUSTRIAL HARMONY
Industrial harmony synonymously used for the term Industrial Peace. There is certain requisite
to Peace & Harmony in industries. When there is non-existence of situations of unrest in
organizations, no-existence of strike by labour unions in organization resulting into competent
and productive, harmony persists. The dimensions that contribute towards Industrial Harmony
also involve nonexistence of industrial dissatisfaction, presence of consensus, trust and respect
between work teams and unions, good connection between unions delegate and administration
of the organization, employee positive attitude towards his or her impact to the organization,
commitment and retention.
Today’s modern philosophy of management, that strives to maintain harmony in industry, is
based on considering workers not merely a wage earner, but also as equal partners in the
productive process. They should be given the opportunity to participate in the management of
the enterprise. Their views and suggestions should be given due consideration while taking
decisions by the management. It is rightly suggested that management of industrial unit will be
smooth and efficient if workers are associated with the management.
Merits of Industrial Harmony:
a) It brings effective communication between workers and management.
b) It leads to cordial labour-management relationships.
c) It gives higher status to workers and drive then towards higher participation
d) It develops spirit of cooperation among workers and management both.
e) Workers feel committed to the decisions taken by them jointly with the management.
For the above harmony to be maintained in industries there are various contributing factors,
and an important one is “Worker’s Participation in Management”. Further in this chapter we
will majorly focus on this aspect.
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ACTIVITY
In modern organizations various efforts are made to increase Worker’s
Participation in Management. Enlist any such FIVE trending activities along with
the name of organizations practicing it.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
36. Harmony is where _______________ is.
37. Industrial Harmony is unrelated to Worker’s Participation in Management.
True / False
38. Which is NOT one of the merits of Industrial Harmony:
a) develops better communication b) develops cordial relationship
c) drives them towards recreation d) develops commitment
39. Harmony persists with non-existence of ____________________.
40. Worker’s Participation in Management is a ____________________ to
Industrial Harmony.
7.5.2 WORKER” S PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT

Worker is someone who work in a particular job or in a particular way. Worker participation
in any organization is important because 80% of the organization’s success depends on the
worker’s performance. According to the claims made in literature that modern management
should and is ‘empowering’ the ordinary employees in new potential ways. Also, employee
involvement and their techniques may enhance management communication and increase their
motivation. According to Malcolm Leary, involvement of worker improves quality of thinking
which is beneficial for decision making.
Keith Davis has defined the term “participation” as the mental and emotional involvement of
a person in a group situation which encourages him to contribute to group goals and share
responsibilities in them. This definition shows three important elements of participation.
Firstly, it means mental and emotional involvement rather than only physical activity, secondly,
participation must motivate a person to contribute to a specific situation to invest his own
resources such as initiative, knowledge, creativity, ingenuity in the objectives of the
organization and thirdly, it encourages people to share responsibility for a decision or activity.
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7.5.3 IMPORTANCE OF WORKER” S PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT

From the above discussion we can conclude that for a smooth functioning of any organization.
Industrial Harmony & Peace are the basic requirements, and it can be achieved through
Worker’s Participation in Management. Now let us discuss that what is its importance in the
organization:
Reduced Industrial Unrest: By cutting at the very root of industrial conflict, workers
participation minimizes the conflicting interest between the parties, and substitute it with
cooperation, homogenous objectives, and common interest by making the decision arrived at
become “Ours” instead of “theirs”,
Reduced Misunderstanding: A common reason for misunderstanding among workers and
managers is their outlook towards each other. They both believe that the other is working only
with the intention of maximising their own profits. This can be resolved through worker’s
participation in management, so that they are aware of the decisions and also have the feeling
of belongingness.
Increased Organizational Balance: In an environment where employees are free to share their
problems and work towards common solution to those problems. There will be high degree of
balance because of decreased misunderstandings and conflicts.
Improved Communication: With decreased misunderstanding there will be a free flow of
communication. Many a time because of certain barriers important information gets restricted
from flowing freely. Participation tends to break this barrier and make the available to
managers for better decision making.
Higher Productivity: Co-operation between Labour and Management is the key to higher
productivity. This was empirically tested that poor “labour management relationship” never
encourage the workers to perform any more than the minimum requirement to retain their job.
Therefore, participation becomes important to increase productivity.
Increased Commitment: Higher commitment comes from higher involvement, and
opportunity to express oneself, contributing to the decisions, putting forward constructive
opinions, getting acknowledged, accepted and appreciated for the same contributes to increased
commitment and higher participation.
Industrial Democracy: Democracy is about reducing class conflict between capital and
labour. Democracy is about encouraging people to have their own individuality and confidence
in themselves to take a stand, putting point of views forward and participate in decision making
process.
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Developments of individuals: Opportunity to express enhances creativity and ability to face

job related challenges. When they enjoy freedom to give suggestions rather just following
instructions their self-confidence improves and there is higher room for further growth and
development.
Less resistance to change: When the changes are just introduced without explanation, they
moreover become compulsion leading to high amount of resistance. On the contrary if the
changes are discussed and planned collectively there will be lower resistance and higher
acceptance and cooperation for its execution.
7.5.4 MODES OF WORKER” S PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT
There are various methods through which workers participate in management of industrial
enterprise:
1. Works Committee: Matters associated with wage payments, bonus, training, discipline
etc. are discussed in works committee. It consists of equal number of representatives of
both employers and workers, who meets frequently for discussion on commonly
identified problems of workers and management, joint decisions are taken on such
issues and are binding on both the parties. Works Committees are very popular in
France and England but are not proved to be effective in India.
2. Joint Management Council: It involves setting up of joint committees represented by
the workers and the management to discuss and give suggestions for improvement on
matters of mutual interest. The decisions taken by such committee are not binding on
either party but are implemented if they reach consensus in decision. Matters relating
to wages, bonus and incentives are generally kept out of the reach of joint management
council. Issues relating employee welfare, safety measures, grievance redressal,
training, working hours etc. are dealt under joint management council.
3. Collective Bargaining: It is a process where employees through their elected leaders
participate intermittently with management with the purpose of negotiating on labour
agreements for redressing the grievances of the workers.
4. Co-partnership: By purchasing shares of the company the employees become co-
owners so that they can participate in the management of the company through their
elected representatives on the Board of Directors. They can also attend general meetings
of shareholders and exercise their voting rights.
5. Suggestion Schemes: Here the workers are encouraged to give their suggestions to the
management on various administrative matters, which are accepted if found suitable.
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Those providing constructive suggestions are also rewarded. This method is executed
with the help of suggestion boxes. These suggestions are collected every month and
suitable decisions are taken jointly by the committee comprising representatives of
workers and management.
6. Grievance Procedure: In Indian context, Sec 9C of Industrial Dispute Act provides
that in every establishment in which 100 or more workers are employed or have been
employed on any one day in the preceding twelve months, the employer shall setup a
time bound grievance redressal procedure.
7. Quality Circle: First originated in Japan during 1962 and then spread to many other
countries including India. They are autonomous units of about 10 workers led by a
supervisor. The workers who have a shared area of responsibility, meet weekly to
discuss, analyse and propose solution to an ongoing problem, such as, reducing defects,
scrap, rework and downtime leading to higher productivity.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
41. Only 20% of Organization success depends on Worker’s performance. True /

False
42. _______________ defines Participation as Mental and Emotional
Involvement.
43. Which is NOT one of the Modes of Worker’s Participation:
a) brainstorming b) works committee
c) suggestion schemes d) collective bargaining
44. Worker’s Participation decreases resistance to change. True/False
45. Becoming co-owners of the company is termed as ____________________.
7.5.5 WORKER” S PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

Around 1910 it was introduced in Textile Industry. Soon after the First World War, Tata Iron
& Steel Company at Jamshedpur set up a Works Committee with workers cooperation, but it
wound up after few years as it was not effective.
The Royal Commission on Labour in India recommended Works Committee at the plant and
industry levels for consultation and resolution of disputes, but they also could not make much
difference. After 1940, with the emergence of Indian Labour Conference, trade unions and
political leaders made demands for labour association with management. It took a legislative
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form only when the Government of India enacted Industrial Disputes Act in 1947, which made
it obligatory for all units employing more than one hundred workers to constitute works
committees.
The idea of associating labour with management is even found in the Directive Principles of
the State Policy in the Indian Constitution. The Industrial Policy Resolution of April 1956 made
it clear that “in a socialist democracy, labour is a partner in the common task of development
and should participate in it with enthusiasm……”
7.5.6 SUCCESS FOR WORKER’S PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT:
Following requirements should be fulfilled in order to make Worker’s Participation in
Management Successful:
i) Enterprise should have a progressive management which is conscious of obligation and
responsibilities towards its stakeholders and the country as a whole.
ii) Presence of strong trade union, which is a true representative of the workers.
iii) Unanimity regarding organizational objectives between management and labour as well
as mutual recognition of their rights and responsibilities.
iv) Atmosphere of trust should be there both on management and worker’s side.
v) Both management and workers should be aware of the benefits of participation. Merely
as an action participation cannot be effective, till the time workers, management and
the Government will not feel committed and determined, participation will remain
fruitless.
vi) Single union should work as representative of workers in the participation process so
as to prevent inter-union rivalry, which can adversely affect the industrial growth.
7.5.7 INDUSTRIAL HARMONY & WORKER’S PARTICIPATION IN
MANAGEMENT:
In simple terms it can be explained by saying that Worker’s Participation in Management
crystalizes the concept of Industrial Harmony. On the other this is also a fact that
managers/employers are really fascinated with this concept, but in most of the cases they are
clueless about what should be done to achieve harmony through worker’s participation and
how worker’s participation can be achieved.
We can say that worker’s participation is the basic requirement for Industrial Harmony &
Peace. In order to achieve the same an effective system of communication and consultation
between the employees and workers is required. Industrial Harmony that can be achieved
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through Industrial Democracy is an Attitude, which can be given a clear and concrete shape
only through Worker’s Participation in Management.
There is absolutely no conflict between the two concepts. In fact, they both complement each
other and are supplementary in character.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
46. Worker’s Participation in Management was introduced in India in
____________________.
47. Unanimity regarding ____________________ success of Worker’s
Participation in Management.
48. Worker’s Participation in India started in India in a Coal Mine. True / False
49. _______________ made it obligatory to constitute Works Committee for all
units employing more than 100 employees.
50. Industrial Harmony is an:
a) bias b) myth
c) perception d) attitude

36. Equality 44. False
37. False 45. Co-partnership
38. Direct them towards recreation 46. 1910
39. strike 47. Organizational Objectives
40. prerequisite 48. False
41. False 49. Industrial Dispute Act, 1947
42. Keith Davis 50. Attitude
43. Brainstorming
7.6 COLLECTIVE BARGAINING: INTRODUCTION
In the early stage of Industrialization, when workers and management attempt to negotiate with
each other on frequent basis in order to increase their own gains, individual negotiation became
difficult in such large-sized labour market. Employers found it much convenient to negotiate
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with a group of employees at a time rather than dealing with them individually. This gave birth
to the phenomenon of ‘collective bargaining’. It began from local bargaining at the plant level
to the regional level and finally to the national level. There are various aspects related to this
process which will be discussed further in this chapter.
Famous historians of British Labour Movement, Sidney and Beatrice Webb originated
the term “Collective Bargaining” in the end of nineteenth century. The term denoted a
procedure under which two parties, namely, workers and management, reach an agreement
about wage rates and basic conditions of employment.
In the words of Flippo, “Collective Bargaining is a process in which the representatives of a
labour organization and the representatives of business organization meet and attempt to
negotiate a contract or agreement, which specifies the nature of employee-employer union
relationship”.
Another important definition of Collective Bargaining according to a manual issued by the
International Labour Office in 1960 defines the term as “negotiations about working conditions
and terms of employment between and employer, a group of employers or one or more
employers’ organization, on the one hand, and one or more representative workers’
organization, with a view to reach an agreement”.
John T. Dunlop is of the view that “the term collective bargaining connotes multiple meanings.
“Collective Bargaining is (i) a system which establishes, revises and administers many of the
rules which govern the workers’ place of work; (ii) a procedure which determines the quantum
of compensation which employees should receive and which influences the distribution of
economic benefits; (iii) a method of settling disputes during the pendency of agreement and
of determining, after its expiry, whether a dispute should be reopened or whether a strike or a
lock-out should be resorted to or not”.
From the above definitions, some essential features of Collective Bargaining can be extracted:
(i) It is a collective process.
(ii) It is a continuous process.
(iii) It is a flexible and a dynamic process.
(iv) It is a method of partnership of workers in management.
(v) It is based on give and take approach and not in take or leave approach.
(vi) It is an attempt in achieving and maintaining discipline in industry.
(vii) It is an effective step in promoting industrial jurisprudence.
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7.6.1 Significance of Collective Bargaining:

Collective bargaining has its importance and benefits to Employees, to Employers and Society
at large. The description of the same is as follows:
Importance to Employees:
(i) Collective bargaining develops a sense of self-respect and responsibility among the
employees.
(ii) Collective bargaining increases the strength of the workers. Their bargaining capacity
as a group increases.
(iii) Collective bargaining increases the morale and productivity of employees.
(iv) It restricts management freedom for arbitrary action against the employees,
(v) Effective Collective Bargaining machinery strengthen the trade union management.
Importance to Employers:
(i) The workers feel motivated as they can talk to the employers on various matters and
bargain for higher benefits, leading to higher productivity.
(ii) It is easier for the management to resolve issues at the bargaining table rather than
taking up complaints of employees individually.
(iii) Collective bargaining promotes a sense of job security among the employees and
thereby tends to reduce cost of labour turnover to management, employees as well as
the society at large.
(iv) Collective Bargaining opens up the channel of communication between the top and the
bottom levels of the organization which may be difficult otherwise.
Importance to Society:
(i) Collective Bargaining can facilitate industrial peace in the country.
(ii) Collective Bargaining results in the establishment of a harmonious industrial climate
which supports nation’s economic and social development.
(iii) It is the most significant aspect of labour-management relations and extends the
democratic principle from the political to the industrial field.
(iv) The exploitation of workers by the management can be checked.
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(v) Collective Bargaining is a measure to distribute equitably the benefits derived from
industry among all the participants including the employees, the union, the management, the
customer, the suppliers and the public.
7.6.2 Functions of Collective Bargaining:
Arthur D. Butler identifies three important functions of Collective bargaining, which carries
over the process of decision-making and balancing the power between the employers and the
employees. The functions are as follows:
(i) Technique of long-run social change: As a process of social change collective
bargaining in more than the direct clash between employers and unions. It refers to the
rise in the political and social power achieved by workers and the organization. With
gradual rise in social and political power, workers gain greater recognition and ability
to assert against employers.
(ii) Peace Treaty or Temporary Truce: In various cases Collective Bargaining can be
viewed as a struggle between the workers and the management which is smoothened
by the compromises. This compromise can happen in two major ways, i.e., Compromise
with combative aspects and Compromise without combative aspects.
(iii) Industrial Jurisprudence: It means introducing civil rights in industry i.e.,
management be conducted by rules rather than arbitrary decisions. It establishes rules
which define and restrict the traditional authority exercised by management.
7.6.3 PROCESS OF COLLECTIVE BARGAINING:
Collective Bargaining is a process in which through negotiating workers & management
attempts to arrive at an agreement on wages and other economic benefits and other terms and
conditions of service. In this context The Indian Institute of Personnel Management has
suggested the following steps that constitute the process of Collective Bargaining.
Composition of Maintain Develop a

Make a good Encourage Bring in other Contract
Negotiatig Continuity of Problem-Solving
begenning Leadrship Managers Administration
Team Talks Attitude
1. Composition of the Negotiating Team: The team should consist of the representatives
of both the workers and the employers, with adequate qualities, job knowledge and skill
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for negotiation, they should have full knowledge of the issue and must have full
authority to speak for them and take complete decision.
2. Make a good beginning: Well, begun is half done and is true for Collective Bargaining
too. It will be better to have a perfect clarity of the issue and both the parties begin with
a correct mindset so that mutual co-operation can be secured.
3. Maintain continuity of talks: It is very important for a collective bargaining process to
have continuity in discussions. What needs to be taken care of is that the discussion
should not end mid-way because of any roadblock or confusion or should side-track.
As long as the talk continue, a solution will be possible ultimately.
4. Develop a problem-solving attitude: To solve a problem it is important to have correct
attitude and will to solve it. Both the parties in Collective Bargaining must proceed with
the expectation of solving the problem, only then agreement will be easy to reach.
5. Encourage Leadership: More practical and easier is to deal with a few representatives
of a strong and organized body than with a heterogenous mass of disunited individuals.
To participate in collective bargaining not only management but union also must have
a strong leadership.
6. Bring in other managers: Issues being discussed in collective bargaining may require
diverse knowledge and expertise. Not necessarily every manager is a master in all
fields. Therefore, managers of different field can be consulted to reach at the best
possible solution of problem under discussion.
7. Contract administration: The final phase in the process of Collective Bargaining is to
administer the contract which has been agreed upon between management and union.
There should be unanimity of agreement and harmonious relations between the two
parties for an effective administration of the contract.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
51. The term “Collective Bargaining” has been originated by _______________.
52. Collective Bargaining is a Tripartite system. True / False
53. What does not stand true for features of Collective Bargaining:
a) Collective process b) Not Flexible
c) Continuous process d) Based on give and take
54. ____________________ is the first step in the process of CB.
55. CB is an ineffective step in promoting industrial jurisprudence. True / False
7.6.4 COLLECTIVE BARGAINING IN INDIA:

Collective Bargaining is not that popular in private sector, but it takes place in public sector as
bipartite agreement in India.
Some frequently occurring trends of Collective Bargaining that are found in India are as
follows:
(i) Trend of counter-demands. When trade unions submit their charter of demands for
negotiation, management also push forward their charter of demands as counter –
demands.
(ii) Use of coercive tactics by unions, especially when it is militant union. Even in
management, some officials were found following coercive approach to collective
bargaining.
(iii) Industry wise bipartite committees are there for agreement on issues like wages and
other terms of employment.
(iv) The scope of Collective Bargaining has expanded to cover in itself issues such as
dearness allowance, retirement benefits, retrenchment benefits, bonus, annual leave,
production norms, performance evaluation, workers’ participation in management etc.
(v) Collective bargaining agreements in India have been concluded to settle a variety of
issues at various levels-plant level, industry level and national level. On the whole it
has been appreciated and was successful in some industries in India.
7.6.5 OBSTACLES TO COLLECTIVE BARGAINING IN INDIA:
Collective Bargaining process is not much encouraged in industries of India and where it also
faces certain obstacles. They are as follows:
Multiple Unions: No union enjoys the support of the majority of workers in the plant. Inter
Union rivalry does not allow a conducive atmosphere for Collective Bargaining.
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Non-Recognition: In case of multiple unions there is problem in recognizing union to serve as

a bargaining agent on behalf of the workers.
Political Orientation: Leaning towards political parties is found to be easier by unions, hence
they are not much in favour of collective bargaining.
Defective Laws: When the provides an easy access to adjudication, the parties lose faith and
patience to enter into the process of bargaining.
Mediation of Political Leaders: In most of the industrial disputes the settlement is driven
through political leaders inhibiting the growth of collective bargaining.
7.6.6 SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE COLLECTIVE BARGAINING:
(i) Presence of strong and stable representative union in every plant.
(ii) Recognition of representative union should be provided by law.
(iv) Political leadership should be replaced by internal worker leadership.
(v) Political leaders should not interfere in industrial relations.
(vi) Both trade unions and management must have faith in peaceful methods of issues
between them like Negotiation & Collective Bargaining.
(vii) Adjudication should be resorted to only when all other remedies have failed.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
56. Collective Bargaining is commonly used in Private sector in India. True / False
57. A common trend of collective bargaining in India is _______________.
58. What is not one of the obstacles to collective bargaining in India:
a) Multiple Union b) Complex adjudication procedure
c) Political Orientation d) Non-recognition of Unions
59. ____________________ should not interfere in Collective Bargaining Process.
60. Inter Union rivalry is an obstacle to Collective Bargaining. True/False
1. Sidney & Beatrice Webb 6. False

2. False 7. Counter Demands
3. Not Flexible 8. Complex adjudication procedure
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4. Composing a Negotiating Team 9. Political Parties

5. False 10. True
7.7 SUMMARY
Industrial Relations can better be termed as a “complex system” formed with the three major
parties i.e., Employer, Employee and the Government. These parties interact with each other
in the functioning of an industry with their specific and unique roles. In the absence of even
one of them the survival of industry will come under question. Therefore, it becomes even more
important to maintain harmonious relations among them so as to secure industrial peace,
satisfaction and higher productivity. Hence, the presence of machineries to manage industrial
relation is inevitable.
The vital part of Industrial Relations is the one who constitutes Industrial Relations i.e.,
the parties to Industrial Relations and their association with each other. They have their own
representative groups, having their specific and unique roles to play. The analysis of the above
content also shows that these parties co-exist and one without the other will have no significant
role to play. The Employer’s Organization is the representative group for employers and
similarly Trade Unions are for employees.
Trade Unions can be considered as child of Industrial Revolution. It was when the
employers started exploiting the workers, it orders to secure their rights and dignity and to get
them the share due to them in industries, the social reformers came forward with the concept
of uniting the workers to strengthen their position before the management and get their due
share in in terms of monetary benefits as well as respect in return of their service. Along with
that an objective of Industrial Relations is to maintain Industrial Harmony and Peace through
Workers’ Participation in Management. We can say that it is Worker’s Participation because
of which we achieve Industrial Harmony & Peace. Management also plays a very significant
role in securing worker’s participation in management, by providing them liberty to put
forward their ideas and suggestion, rewarding the constructive ones, considering them to be
equal partners and not mere workers, accepting their contribution in decision making and so
on. Worker’s Participation in the form of works committee, joint management council,
suggestion schemes, co-partnership etc. always contributes to Industrial Democracy leading to
harmony.
In an industry peace and harmony can also be maintained when problems can be
resolved collectively and peacefully among the conflicting parties. Therefore, the concept of
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Collective Bargaining was originated. It has been given different definition and meaning by
different theorist. Collective bargaining has its own benefits for Employees, Employers and
Society. It is a process with well-defined steps, which needs to be followed to increase the
effectiveness of the process. In India Collective bargaining is less popular as compared to some
other countries because of the presence of certain obstacles, which can also be prevented easily
with the help of some corrective measures.
7.8 GLOSSARY
System: A set of idea or rules for organizing something.

Locus: A particular position or place where something is situated.
Politico-Legal: Pertaining to policy or the administration of the government.
Truce: An agreement to stop fighting for a period of time.
Legal Sanctions: Legal approval
Human Centric: Higher concern towards humans in organizations.
Amalgamated: Process in which separate organizations unite.
Harmony: Peaceful existence together.
Collective Bargaining: Procedure under which two parties reaches an agreement.
Industrial Jurisprudence: Introducing Civil rights in Industries.
Combative: Ready to fight or argue.
25. What do you mean by Industrial Relations? Explain its nature & objectives.
26. Discuss the systems approach to industrial relations and state the actors in Industrial
relation system.
27. Explain the phases of Evolution of Industrial Relations.
28. Explain the various parties to Industrial Relations along with their specific roles.
29. Write an Essay on Trade Unionism in India.
30. “State is an important participant in Industrial Relations in the country”. Comment &
discuss the role of State in Industrial Relations.
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31. What is an Employers’ Organization? State the origin and growth of employers’
organizations in India.
32. Explain the concept of Collective bargaining and discuss its salient features.
33. Explain the Process of Collective Bargaining.
34. Comment on “Collective Bargaining in Indian context”.
35. What is Trade Union? Comment on the beginning of Trade Union Movement in India.
36. What is meant by Industrial Harmony? What are the prerequisites for its success?
37. What do you understand by Worker’s Participation in Management? Is it necessary to
improve the relationship between workers and employers? Explain.
38. Write a comprehensive note on the role of Worker’s participation in Management in
maintaining Industrial Harmony & Peace.
7.10 REFERENCES
Dunlop John T., (1958). Industrial Relations System, Henry Holt and Company, New York,
p.98.
Report of Royal Commission on Labour, 1931, p. 26.
Webb Sidney and Webb Beatrice, (1932), Methods of Social Study, Longmans, Green & Co.,
New York.
Clegg, H.A., Industrial Democracy and Nationalization, Blackwell: Oxford, 1951.
Richardson, J.H., An Introduction to the Study of Industrial Relations, George Allen, London,
1961, p. 26.
Flippo, Edwin B., Personnel Management, Mc-Graw Hill, Tokyo, 1984, p. 443
Butler, Arthur D., Labour Economics and Institutions, American Publishing Co., New York,
1961.
Indian Institute of Personnel Management, op. cit., pp. 194-96
Tannenbaum, Frank, (1951). A Philosophy of Labour.
Flippo, Edwin B. (1984). Personnel Management, McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 378.
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Yoder, Dale and Staudohar, Paul D., Personnel Management and Industrial Relation, Prentice-
Hall, New Delhi. Pp. 418-19.
Dunlop, J.T., 1948. “The Development of Labour Organization: A Theoretical Framework” in
Lester, R.A. and Shister, J. (Ed.), Insights into Labour Issues, pp. 164-65.
Planning Commission, Five Year Plans, (1951-92)
Alexander, K.C., (1973). Worker’s Participation in Management, in Thakur, C.P. and Sethi,
K.C. (Ed.) Industrial Democracy, Some issues and experiences, p. 159.
Chhabra, T.N. and Suri, R.K. (2009). Industrial Relations-Concepts & Issues, Educational &
Technical Publisher.
Mhetras, V.G. (1966). Labour Participation in Management, Indian Journal of Social Work,
Vol. XXI, No. 4.
Kesari, J.P., The System of Worker’s Participation in Management, Indian Journal of Social
Work, Vol XXI, No. 4.
Flippo, Edwin B., Personnel Management, Mc-Graw Hill, Tokyo, 1984, p. 443
Chhabra, T.N. and Suri, R.K. (2009). Industrial Relations-Concepts & Issues, Educational &
Technical Publisher.
Dunlop, John T., (1958). ‘Industrial Relations System’, Henry Holt & Co. New York.
Butler, Arthur D., (1961). Labour Economics and Institutions, American Publishing Co., New
York.
Report on National Commission on Labour, 1969.
Clegg, H.A. (1951). Industrial Democracy & Nationalization.
Blumbery, Paul, (1968). Industrial Democracy, Constable, London.
Alexander, K.C., (1973). Worker’s Participation in Management, in Thakur, C.P. and Sethi,
K.C. (Ed.) Industrial Democracy, Some issues and experiences.
Flippo, Edwin B., (1984). Personnel Management, McGraw Hill, Tokyo.
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LESSON 8
GRIEVANCE, CONFLICT MANAGEMENT &
INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF HRM
Dr. Jyotika Bahl
Assistant Professor
Gargi College
University of Delhi
submittojyotika@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Grievance
8.3.1 Understanding of Grievance and its features
8.3.2 Causes of Grievance
8.3.3 Consequences of Grievance
8.3.4 Importance of Handling Grievance
8.4 Discipline
8.4.1 Understanding of Discipline
8.4.2 Principles of Discipline
8.5 Conflict Management and Dispute Resolution
8.5.1 Understanding and Nature of Conflict
8.5.2 Adverse impact of Conflict
8.5.3 Modes of Handling Conflict
8.6 Employee Engagement
8.6.1 Introduction and Understanding of Employee Engagement
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8.6.2 Factors affecting Employee Engagement

8.7 International Dimensions of HRM
8.7.1 Understanding the International HRM
8.8 Summary
8.9 Glossary
8.12 References
The objective of this chapter is to understand

• The concept of grievance, causes and importance of handling grievance
• The importance of Discipline to maintain good work relations and attain organisational
goals
• The term conflict whether intra-individual or inter-individual, its impact on the
organisation and its members and the measures to resolve disputes
• Employee engagement, its importance and factors affecting employee engagement
• International dimensions of HRM, difference between traditional HRM and
International HRM
8.2 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is designed to provide an understanding of the terms- grievance, discipline,

conflict and employee engagement which assume importance due to new challenges thrown by
globalisation, work force diversity and economic uncertainty.
With human relations approach to management, organisations need to constantly address the
issues of grievance, identify grievance and devise methods of handling grievance. They need
to engage the employees in the managerial processes like planning and decision making in
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order to keep them satisfied and involved in the job. Additionally, each organisation
experiences some level of conflict, whether inter-individual or intra- individual. Newer
methods of handling conflicts need to be adopted keeping in mind the dysfunctional impacts
of conflict. The need for discipline cannot be undermined in the achievement of organisational
goals and maintaining good work environment. Going global has also increased the necessity
of understanding the aspects of International HRM.
Clearly the unaddressed issues of grievance or conflict can create frustration, stress and loss of
interest in work. Understanding the need to address grievance and conflict can go a long way
in building employee-employer relation. Engagement / involvement of employees and
maintenance of disciplinary environment can also reduce the chances of grievance or even
conflict. The new challenges and opportunities created by International HRM need an
understanding so as to ensure greater and better mobility of work force.
8.3 GRIEVANCE
8.3.1 Understanding Grievance and its features- Grievance is the feeling of injustice or
discrimination in treatment or an experience of unfair treatment or exposure to unfavourable
situation or any dissatisfaction from the job or any aspect of the job. An employee can
experience grievance in job related matters like performance evaluation, promotion, leave,
transfers, training or even compensation.
According to Michael J. Jucius, Grievance is “any Discontent or dissatisfaction,
whether expressed or not and whether valid or not, arising out of anything connected
with the company that an employee thinks, believes or even feels, is unfair, unjust or
inequitable.”
Keith Davis defines grievance as “any real or imaginary feeling of personal injustice
which an employee has concerning his employment relationship.”
The following are the features of Grievance:

1. Discontentment with some aspect of the organisation- The dissatisfaction or the feeling
of injustice must be related to the organisation in which a person is engaged. For
example, it can relate to unclear authority responsibility relationships, reporting to
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multiple bosses, violation of rules or procedures of the organisation, treatment by the

supervisor, etc.
2. Discontentment arises out of employment- Grievance is something that is related to the
job and personal difficulties, or issues are not part of the term industrial grievance.
Thus, discontentment due family or marriage or personal financial issues does not
qualify to be grievance. It can include dissatisfaction from wages or salaries, denial of
leave, lack of recognition for work, biased performance evaluation by supervisor.
3. Dissatisfaction may be expressed or implied- Grievance may be expressed in words
either in gossip or arguments or by communicating with supervisor. It may be implied/
conveyed by the conduct of an employee through his behaviour, which can include
absenteeism, tardiness, daydreaming. Organisation should promptly identify and
handle the grievance as it can have unfavourable consequences for the organisation.
4. Dissatisfaction may be real, imaginary, justified or unjustified, valid or invalid-
Grievances that are genuine, real or justified, should be removed by the management.
Employees may also be faced with grievance which are emotional in nature or based
on distorted perception, imaginary or lack of proper thinking. These grievances may be
difficult to handle.
5. Feeling of injustice – In instances of grievance workers feels that there has been unjust
or unfair treatment. For example, employee might feel that the supervisory style is
biased, or a self- motivated employee might not perceive autocratic leadership
favourable.
6. Grievance, if not handled in time, may lead to low morale and productivity- Grievances
when identified in the employees should be handled appropriately. If not handled on
time, grievance may hamper progress of work or motivation to work or morale or even
efficiency to complete the task. Thus, grievance if not removed in time can negatively
impact the organisational goals.
8.3.2. Causes of Grievance – Grievance can occur from two broad factors (1) Management
policies or (2) Working conditions. The possible causes of grievance are discussed below.
Management Policies Working Conditions
Discriminatory Wage rate or scale of pay Non- availability of machines, tools or other
equipment required for doing the job
Overtime
Denial of Leaves
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Unreasonable transfers or improper Lack of proper facilities for work like rest
matching of employee with job rooms, drinking water, ventilation
Subjectivity in Seniority, promotion and Tight production standards
discharge
Lack of career planning and employee
development plan
Lack of role clarity
Hostility with trade unions
Autocratic style of leadership
8.3.3. Consequences of Grievance – Grievance, if not addressed on time may have adverse
effect on the employees and the organisation. The consequences of unaddressed grievance are
discussed below.
(1) The employee experiencing grievance may witness a sense of frustration, disloyalty
and non-cooperation.
(2) They may lose interest in work and show signs of disengagement.
(3) There may be indiscipline in the form of absenteeism, work-to-rule, demonstration,
strike or even mass casual leave.
(4) The quality and quantity of output may suffer in the organisation.
8.3.4. Importance of Handling Grievance – It is pertinent to handle and redress grievance on
time so as to ensure that grievance does not have unfavourable impact on the organisation. The
importance of handling grievance is discussed below.
1. Organisations must collect genuine feedback on company policy, practice and
procedure. This feedback can ensure better employee-employer relation and instil a
feeling of engagement among employees. The involvement of employees in framing or
revising of policies or practices can reduce the chances of grievance from policies,
procedures or practices.
2. Organisation can benefit from keeping grievance within tolerable limits so timely
detection and redressal of grievance is essential.
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3. Constant monitoring of cases of grievance assists management to understand the

behaviour of superiors towards subordinates.
4. If grievance handling mechanism is in place, then employees know that their issues
would be resolved to their satisfaction, and this would boast their morale.
5. Timely handling of grievance can help create a favourable work culture.
6. The reputation of the organisation improves when management gives due attention to
human aspect and respects the dignity of employees. The organisation would be sought
for employment when prospective candidates know that management treats employees
with dignity and respect.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Grievance can be (1) real or imaginary (2) justified or unjustified (3) valid or
invalid (4) all of the above
2. Which of the following is not the cause of industrial grievance (1) denial of
leave (2) discriminatory compensation (3) family issues (4) lack of proper
working conditions
3. Grievance can be ____ from the conduct of an employee through his
behaviour
4. Every employee expresses his grievance (True or False)
.
8.4. DISCIPLINE
8.4.1. Understanding of Discipline- Any organisation needs to cultivate the environment where
there is orderly behaviour of employees for the achievement of goals of the organisation. In the
absence of discipline there will be chaos, irregularity, disorder or even confusion in the
organisation. Existence of discipline encourages the employees to follow the rules, procedure
and practice and behave responsibly. Indiscipline was associated with punishment for long.
But today organisations have realised that discipline should be followed voluntarily and not
because of threat of punitive action. Thus, concept of self-discipline by education and training
should be encouraged. If an individual is in conflict with the disciplinary process, then it might
be difficult to maintain good human relations. Thus, discipline needs to be developed from
within.
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According to Ordway Tead, “Discipline is the orderly conduct of affairs by the members of
an organisation who adhere harmoniously in forwarding towards the end which the group
has in view, and willingly recognise that.”
8.4.2. Principles of Discipline - Discipline is the essence of our life. The prerequisites of any
disciplinary policy in an organisation are discussed below.
1. The objective of industrial discipline should be clearly understood by workmen. They
must clearly specify the standards expected from the workmen.
2. Clear and unambiguous rules and regulation must be set in consultation with workmen
which serve as a code of conduct. Participation of workmen in designing rules and
regulations would ensure their prompt acceptance.
3. The code of conduct must be made know to all those who need to follow them and all
those who need to monitor the observance of this code in the same sense. The newly
recruited employees should also be given orientation regarding the same.
4. These rules should also contain the provision for investigation and settlement of
grievance and conflict arising during the course of work.
5. The policy should emphasise on observance of the code and prevention of breach of
disciplinary rules rather than penalties for indiscipline.
6. Code of conduct should specify the authorities to be approached for grievance related
to discipline and also appellant authorities. The code should also state the quantum of
punishment for violation of disciplinary conduct.
7. Disciplinary committee may be established for looking into the causes of indiscipline
and devising measures for removal of indiscipline.
8. Implementation of disciplinary code of conduct should be objective and consistent.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. Discipline can be voluntarily followed or may be observed due to punishment.

(True or False)
6. Observance of discipline can avoid
(a) chaos or disorder (b) regularity (c) clarity of goals
7. Every organisation should devise a code of conduct so as to ensure uniformity
and consistency in observance of disciplinary rules. (True/ False)
8. Disciplinary code of conduct is devised to ensure
(a) prevention of indiscipline (b) victimises the employees (c) unfair treatment
to employees.
8.5 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND DISPUTE RESOLUTION
8.5.1 Understanding and Nature of Conflict - Conflicts are indispensable in our everyday life.
It is present in our personal life and professional life. Especially in case of organisations the
manager needs to understand the consequences of conflict and learn to deal with it. Conflict
can have adverse impact on the organisation like inefficiency, loss of interest in work,
absenteeism, low productivity, stress, tension, depression and demotions. The conflict at work
may have a spill over effect in personal life of the employees.
Conflict is a situation of imbalance or difference. It can be inter-individual (among individual)
or intra individual (within individuals). In case of intra individual conflict the individual is in
state of conflict in his mind as he is not in a situation to make decision in a particular situation.
He is in dilemma over a particular issue. For example, an employee may not be able to decide
whether to opt for lump-sum pension or NPS. Taking another example, there might be conflict
of interest in the mind of employee as organisational and individual interests are different.
But an individual is in inter-individual conflict when there is a conflict with some other
individual or group of individuals either because of difference of opinion or breakdown of
decision making. For instance, in teamwork the delegation of responsibility may be difficult
due to differences in opinion of team members on fixation of task responsibility.
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In the light of above discussion Pondy (1967) defines conflict as ‘a breakdown in the
standard mechanism of decision making.’
Follett defines conflict as “the appearance of difference, difference of opinion, of interest”.
Conflict is indispensable as individuals are unique in their way of thinking, perceiving and
interpreting situations. It is present at all levels with varying degrees between different persons.
The nature of conflict is discussed below.
1. Conflict exists when there are alternative courses of action available and there is
difficulty in selection of the best alternative in a given circumstance.
2. Conflict among individuals implies that there is conflicting perception, beliefs or goals.
3. Conflict is a dynamic process as it involves various stages or events. A conflicting
situation does not occur overnight, its presence is due to a series of events occurring
over a period of time.
4. It should be perceived by the parties standing in conflicting situation against each other.
If there is no such perception, then there can be no conflict between the parties.
8.5.2 Adverse impact of conflict
Conflict may be bad as it has the possibility of affecting the efficiency, productivity and
willingness to work. Every employee or member of group is required to deal with the conflict
with strength and courage. It may demand a change in perception and even attitude. The
dysfunctional aspects of conflict are discussed below.
1. Resignation of personnel- an individual may be encouraged to leave the job to avoid
the situation of conflict. An individual may witness inter-individual conflict because of
difference in philosophy between the management and himself or difficulty in getting
along with group members due to difference of orientation or interest or because of
biased attitude of the supervisor. Whatever may be the reason for inter-individual
conflict, the individual employee may resign if he feels dissatisfied or strongly feels
that he might not be able to continue with the organisation. This might lead to loss of
key personnel of the organisation.
2. Tensions- conflict may lead to a situation of stress and even tension. In extreme cases
the management may find it difficult to deal it. Timely action should be taken to avoid
anxiety, frustration, depression and sense of insecurity.
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3. Discontentment- conflict presents circumstances of dissatisfaction/ discontentment

among the two opposing parties. This difference can accelerate if the management fails
to take corrective measures. In this win-lose situation the parties at dispute may seek
opportunity to settle scores which can adversely affect the productivity of the
organisation and attainment of goals.
4. Creation of distrust- the opposing parties might lose trust upon each other which has
tendency to cause work delays. Also, in such a situation there may be loss of
cooperation and coordination among the members of the team. It gives rise to negative
feelings and the parties may avoid interaction with each other.
5. Goal displacement- conflicting parties may concentrate on winning the conflict, thereby
causing wastage of time and effort in looking for tactics. This may distract the members
from focusing on organisational goals and rather encourage the conflicting parties to
concentrate on personal goals.
6. Weakening of organisation- the organisation may become weak because of the
conflicting situation. The management trying to supress the conflict may have to deal
with gigantic proportions later on and non-interference with the conflict may also
increase unnecessary trouble for the organisation. Frequent conflicts may cause
tensions and distrust among the members of the organisation which can cause
resignation of key / skilled personnel.
8.5.3 Modes of handling conflict
In order to avoid dysfunctional aspect of conflict, every organisation should devise strategies
to effectively deal with it. The following are some suggestions to deal with conflicts.
1. Avoidance and repression- avoidance means ignoring the conflict and repression calls
for putting down of this conflict by the manager. This strategy includes
a. Avoidance or ignoring the conflict- it requires a manager to avoid the conflict
and pretend as if there was no existence of a conflict. This method is advisable
for insignificant matters and matters relating to anything other than work like
religion, caste, politics, etc. this method is useful when differences are not
related to organisation’s task.
b. Reorganisation of groups- management can also look at reorganisation of the
groups so as to place people together on some common ground. Grouping
people with some similarity can help build their relations and assist in building
cooperative work relations.
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c. Reduction of inter-dependence between groups- the existence of

interdepartmental dependency among various groups in any organisation can be
a cause of conflict. This interdependency can be because of resource limitations
or sharing resources. The reduction of dependence may reduce inter groups
differences.
d. Dominance or repression of difference- it means the conflicting parties gets a
chance to redress the conflict by solution given by higher level. This method of
resolving conflict is appropriate when delay in handling conflict can be costly,
for instance, in cases when alternative project proposals are discussed and
selected by top management and delay would result in resources remaining idle.
This method may be viewed as an autocratic response to conflicting situation.
e. Regulation of inter-personal contacts through transfers- transfers of employees
participating in conflicting situations to different departments or branches or
locations can help keep the conflict at bay.
2. Containment of conflict- the managers surface the conflict, regulate the issues to be
discussed in a conflicting situation and manner of resolution. The strategies include
a. Compromise or bargaining- it is a form of set off in which two conflicting
parties exchange concessions until compromise is arrived. In this arrangement
both parties stay consistent with their stand but slowly reach an agreement when
both parties are willing to alter their stand and compromise to terminate the
situation of conflict. Bargaining continues until mutually satisfactory
arrangement is reached.
b. Restructuring interactions between the groups- encouraging formal
communication of those groups which are dependent on each other for resources
can reduce conflicting situations. Involvement of third parties can also be
utilised for resolving the conflict as open discussion of conflict could further
increases the conflict.
3. Confrontation- in this method manager permits both parties to face each other and sort
out the differences. This method involves dangers of spreading ill will against each
other and should be used with caution. In this method the parties get a chance to
understand their differences, the procedure to resolve the conflict and their roles in
resolving conflict. For example, the removal of Cyrus Mistry from the post of chairman
of Tata group lead to a confrontation between Tata and Cyrus in the media. It helped
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understand their perception of conflict and deliberate on the friction. This helps identify
the real reason for the conflict.
4. Problem solving- in this method the focus is on transforming the negative feelings of
discontent and frustration by diverting energy towards creativity. The manager plays
the role of communicator who recognises the conflict among the parties, their
relationship and feelings. The management may engage an insider consultant to assist
the two conflicting parties to identify the conflict and mutually decide a solution to
remedy the situation.
5. Conflict stimulation- this strategy is based on the assumption that moderate level of
conflict is essential for existence of creativity and innovation. The tactics involved in
this strategy are
a. Communication- manager can send threatening messages to the groups
involved in conflict with each other to stimulate the conflict. Messages may
include threats to downsize. However, planting such messages in the
communication network should be done diligently to stimulate conflict.
b. Encouraging competition- Conflict can be utilised to encourage healthy
competition among the groups and individuals in the organisation. Additionally
incentive schemes, bonus or awards can act as motivators for outstanding
performance in this competition.
c. Bringing in new employees- addition of new employees to the existing groups
at workplace having different attitude, beliefs, background and values can
enhance disequilibrium or conflict. This disturbance because of disequilibrium
will cause members to struggle for new equilibrium.
d. Restructuring the organisation- the management can restructure the
organisation- its rules or practices to increase the inter-dependence among the
groups. This will help in stimulating conflict, disturb the status quo and demand
adjustments.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
9. Which of the following is not the adverse impact of conflict
(a) stress and tension (b) enhance creativity (c) resignation (d) weakness for
organisation
10. Avoidance of conflict is suitable for
(a) insignificant matters (b) significant and important matters
11. An individual experiencing conflict due to discriminatory treatment given by his
colleagues, experiences (a) inter-individual conflict (b) intra-individual
conflict
12. Conflict is a (a) dynamic process (b) static process
8.6 EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
8.6.1 Introduction and understanding of employee engagement

With growing competition, globalisation, uncertain economic conditions, demand for talented
workforce, the need for employee engagement is gaining significance. Engaged employees are
committed, passionate and attached to their jobs. They help increase productivity, attain
organisational goals and provide competitive advantage to the organisation. It is an important
aspect of employer-employee relationship where leadership plays an important role.
Employees, in general experience three levels of engagement- engaged, not engaged or
disengaged. Engaged employees are those who work with passion towards organisational
goals, not engaged employees are those who participate in work but without passion and energy
while disengaged employees are those who are unhappy with work and display incomplete role
performance. Clearly maintaining engaged employees is essential to avoid situations of job
hopping, absenteeism, labour turnover or even low productivity. Engagement helps increase
morale, loyalty, motivation of workforce, greater retention, high level of creativity and better
customer service.
Different views were presented by different authors to give an understanding to employee
engagement. According to one school a need satisfying approach in the understanding of
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employee engagement is essential. The employees are disengaged when three needs are not
satisfied namely- meaningfulness (feeling of achievement), safety (work conditions related to
the job) and availability (presence in the job). While the other school suggests a satisfaction-
engagement approach. When employee feels exhausted or fatigued or burn out at his job, he
may have a negative influence on the team members and may experience individual conflict.
Burnout is associated with exhaustion while employee engagement is associated with
satisfaction, emotional involvement, participation, enthusiasm and vigour. This approach links
the employee engagement with business outcomes (such as productivity, profit and turnover).
According to Durand Crosby, “Employee engagement is described as the degree to which
an individual is attentive and absorbed in the performance of his/ her job which in turn leads
to fulfilling, positive experience and state of mind. These positive work-related experiences
are likely to result in desired work outcome, such as increased commitment to the
organisation.”
Robinson defined employee engagement as “a positive attitude held by the employee
towards the organisation and its value.”
Gallup “The term employee engagement refers to an individual’s involvement and
satisfaction with as well as enthusiasm for work.”
8.6.2 Factors affecting employee engagement

Several factors have been identified by researchers which affect the engagement of employees
at work. Some such factors are discussed below:
1. Career development – Employee engagement is high in organisations providing
opportunities for career advancement. Thus, organisation providing opportunities to
learn more skills enhance ability or even knowledge assist the employee to reach their
potential. Such organisations are sought by employees seeking career advancement and
employers can retain them through training and development.
2. Leadership – Engaged workers seek leaders who recognise their effort and work and
encourage them to reach their potential. A leader should be a visionary, influencer, good
communicator and future oriented. He should involve the employees in the process of
decision making, articulation of vision and maintain good leader member exchange to
ensure engagement. Effective leader should positively consider feedback from
employees to ensure participation and engagement.
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3. Effective management of talent – There is diversity in talent of the employees engaged

in the organisation due to job requirement, task demand or individual factors. Engaged
organisation recognise the diversity in talent and skill and encourage each individual
employee to reach a higher vision of themselves. They provide training or skill
development workshops to ensure continuous development of talent required to fulfil
task in turbulent situations. For example, with initiation of AI, banks are training staff
to understand the use and advantages associated with AI enabled banking solutions.
4. Clarity of company values, policies and practices – In order to engage employees, there
needs to be clarity of values, policies and practice to ensure the trust of employees in
the system. If values or policies are ambiguous, employees may feel a biased treatment
towards them. Thus, clarity of values and practices is essential to gain trust of the
employee and engage him.
5. Equal opportunity and fair treatment- There is high employee engagement when they
are treated equally, fairly and justly. Thus, employer must ensure equal opportunity for
career advancement, training, promotion and fairness in pay, performance evaluation
and entitlement to leave. In cases on inequity or discriminatory treatment, employees
would show withdrawal symptoms and hence disengagement.
6. Communication- Effective upward and downward communication ensures good
relations between employer and employee as instructions pass easily and feedback is
accepted well. Open door policy in context of communication plays a significant role
in employee engagement. When the employee understands the policies, instructions and
rules, he performs better in comparison to a situation when he is lacks the
understanding.
7. Quality of work relationships with peers, supervisors and subordinates – The relation
shared with colleagues whether supervisors, subordinates or peers determines
engagement level in the organisation. An employee sharing friendly, transparent,
cooperative relation with peers, supervisor or subordinate will encounter higher level
of engagement. On the other hand, employees experiencing exhaustion or strained
relations may experience low level of engagement. Thus, it becomes essential for
management to maintain good quality of human relations with personnel.
8. Performance appraisal- A just, objective and unbiased evaluation of performance of
employees can retain high level of engagement in the employees. A clearly defined and
transparent performance evaluation mechanism can increase commitment and
participation of employees. While a biased system of performance appraisal may give
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rise to dissatisfaction and grievance leading to withdrawal from participation and

involvement.
9. Pay and benefits- An appropriate mix of monetary and non-monetary benefit would
ensure engagement of employees in the life of the organisation. Employer should strike
a balance between work done and compensation rewarded. When pay is directly related
to work, the worker would stay motivated to work. Any ambiguity or inequity in pay
and benefits may be a cause of disengagement among the employees.
10. Health and Safety – Ensuring health and safety of employees at work can increase the
levels of engagement. Thus, working conditions, compensation for accidents during the
course of work, reasonable work hours, installation of precautionary measures,
insurance policy ensure engagement of employees. Employees exhibiting low level of
engagement might be exposed to higher level of risk of health and safety.
11. Job satisfaction- Satisfied employees are more inclined to express high level of
engagement and involvement. Dissatisfied employees slowly disengage from the
organisation life. Thus, organisations must ensure proper work-life balance and
integration of individual goals with the organisation goals.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
13. Which of the following is not a need in the understanding of employee
engagement (a) meaningfulness (2) burnout (3) availability (4) safety
14. Employee engagement can be linked to __________
15. A disengaged worker is one who is (a) attached to the job (b) unhappy with
the work (c) not passionate about his work.
16. Not Engaged worker lacks (a) energy and passion for work (b) will work (c)
skills for work.
8.7 INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF HRM
8.7.1 Understanding the International HRM- with the mobility of human resources and
globalisation, business expands beyond their domestic boundaries to provide goods and
services to people spread in different geographic locations belonging to different culture with
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MBA
demand. Organisations going global manage human resource not only in their domestic
boundary (parent country) but also in host country and other countries (who may be the
suppliers of human resources). HRM involves the functions of recruitment, selection, training,
development, compensation, when organisations are operating only in parent country. These
functions in case of international HRM would be performed in three countries- parent, host and
other countries. Thus, international HRM is the interplay among the three dimensions namely,
human resource activities, types of employees and countries of operation.
International HRM involves broader functions than domestic HRM. International HRM can be
distinguished from domestic HRM on the following points:
1. Broader HR activities – International HRM involves an understanding of international
taxation, international relocation, orientation, relations with host government, dealing
with expatriates.
2. Different tax laws – Expatriates working in a country other than home country is faced
with different tax structures. The HR department is required to design the compensation
such that there is no tax incentive or disincentive. The tax liability usually arises when
the task/ project is complete. Thus, designing suitable compensation plan is essential.
3. International relocation and orientation – challenges such as pre-travel training,
immigration, housing, medical, travel details, relocation allowance, international
allowance, etc. need to be worked out.
4. Host-Government relations – Its essential to maintain relations with host country as
parent country would need work permits, clearance to set up business, etc. The
compliance with legal framework of host country is essential for operation of business
in countries other than parent country.
5. Extensive involvement of HR personnel in personal life of employee – The HR
personnel may need family details to arrange family visa for relocation or may be
required to constantly explain the housing/ medical facilities extended by employer or
may need to arrange schooling if employee is posted in remote areas. Thus, the scope
of functions of HR department may expand.
6. Risk – There is a risk that the employee may not be able to settle in the foreign country
and may want to return back to its parent country. In such cases the cost of relocation
may be huge, and the employer may have to bear the loss of such failed experiment.
Additionally, the risk due to terrorism, virus or economic uncertainty can also be
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immense. It is the responsibility of HR department to place the right candidate on a

foreign project/ assignment.
7. Cultural Environment – when people are posted in a foreign country, they might
experience a cultural shock. It happens when an individual stays away from his culture
and slowly appreciates a different culture where he witnesses different beliefs, attitude
and value system.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
17. International HRM involves operation in (a) parent country (b) host country (c)
other countries supplying human resources (d) all of the above
18. International HRM involves interplay of ____
19. Which of the following is an argument for International HRM being distinct from
domestic HRM (a) relations with host country’s government (b) selection (c)
planning the quantity of HRM required
8.8 SUMMARY
This chapter is an eye opener for both employees and employers as generally employers focus
on organisational goals and ignore employee centric issues of grievance, conflict and
engagement. Any employee can be suitably motivated if his employer can satisfactorily redress
his grievance, maintain the discipline, resolve conflict and engage employee at different stages
of management process. This understanding can create harmonious relations between employer
and employee and benefit the organisation by enhancing the quality of work. The
understanding of different aspects of International HRM can help the reader to appreciate the
importance of this arena.
8.9 GLOSSARY
Grievance: any real or imaginary feeling of personal injustice which an employee has
concerning his employment relationship.
Discipline: orderly behaviour of employees for the achievement of goals of the organisation.
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MBA
Conflict: the appearance of difference.

Employee engagement: an individual’s involvement and satisfaction from work.
International HRM: the interplay among the three dimensions namely, human resource
activities, types of employees and countries of operation
1. All of the above 11. Inter- individual conflict

2. Family issues 12. Dynamic process
3. Implied 13. Burnout
4. False 14. Business Outcome
5. True 15. Unhappy with the work
6. Chaos or disorder 16. Energy and passion for work
7. True 17. All of the above
8. Prevention of indiscipline 18. Human resource activities, types of
employees and countries of operation
9. Enhance creativity
19. Relations with host country’s
10. Insignificant matters
government
1. Harsha, manager of ABC perceives that only inter individual conflict can occur in an
organisation. Comment on the above statement and discuss the modes of handling
conflict.
2. Engagement of employees is receiving attention today. Explain the concept of
employee engagement and the factors affecting employee engagement.
3. Discuss the causes of Grievance and the importance of handling grievance.
4. Explain the concept of International HRM, its need and the difference between
domestic HRM and International HRM.
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5. Molie, is a HR manager proposed to be transferred to a newly opened company branch

located in Singapore. Molie feels that her Indian experience of handling HR is sufficient
to meet the new challenges in Singapore. Explain on your understanding of
International HRM, the preparation that might be required in comparison to traditional
HRM.
6. Samie an engineer and Anshu a sales representative is working on a launch of new
product. But they seem to have differences in ideas on promotion, highlighting product
USP, launch event, etc. Because of this difference there is a delay in submission of draft
launch proposal to the CEO. The project head is faced with the issue of resolution of
conflict between the two. Suggest ways in which conflict can be resolved.
7. Manu is an HR executive who is appointed to revise and review the disciplinary policy
in Timmy Ltd. This is his first just assignment, and he seeks your advice on the
principles for drafting a disciplinary policy.
8. Priya and Shashi are colleagues and are discussing their dissatisfaction associated with
workplace which includes non-recognition, discriminatory leave policy, no maternity
benefits, etc. They perceive that there is no platform to voice their feelings and have
started to look for better jobs. Explain to both of them, the concept of grievance, causes
and importance.
8.12 REFERENCES
Aswathappa, K. (2017), Human Resource Management: Text and Cases, Mc Graw Hill
Bernard Walker (2011), Employee- Employer Grievance: A Review, International Journal of
Management Reviews, 13, 40-58.
Chandani and Mehta (2016), Employee Engagement: A Review Paper on Factors affecting
Employee Engagement, Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 9(15).
Chhabra, T.N., Text and Cases in Human Resource Management, Dhanpat Rai &Co.
Crosby (2014), Improving Employee Retention in Public Sector by Employee Engagement,
proceeding of the fourth International Conference on Engaged Management Scholarship, Tulsa
Kalokar and Sahu (2022), Employee Engagement: A Review Paper, IJCRT, 10(2), 372-378
237 | P a g e

MBA
Mansoor and Hassan (2016), Factors influencing Employee Engagement: A study of

Telecommunication Network provider in Maldives, International Journal of Accounting and
Management, 4(1), 50-64.
Robbins, S.P, Organisation Behaviour, Pearson Education.
Sarangi and Nayak (2016), Employee Engagement and its impact on organisational Success-
A study in Manufacturing Company, India, Journal of Business and Management, 18(4), 52-
57.
Rao, Subra, P. International Human Resource Management, Himalaya Publishing House.
Rao, VRS. Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, Scholar Tech Press.
Aswathappa, K. (2017), Human Resource Management: Text and Cases, Mc Graw Hill
Chhabra, T.N., Text and Cases in Human Resource Management, Dhanpat Rai & Co.
Robbins, S.P, Organisation Behaviour, Pearson Education
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University of Delhi

Semester - I
Course Credit - 4.5
Editorial Board
Prof. Yogieta S Mehra
Mr. Tushar Marwaha
Content Writers
Dr. Ankita
Mr. Praful Nair

ISBN: .............................
1st edition: 2022
Published by:
Printed by:
Business Communication
UNIT OVERVIEW
INDEX
Unit: 1 Communication in organization…………………………………4 -40

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Introduction to Business Environment and Communication
1.4 Seven Cs of Communication
1.5 Corporate Communication
1.6 Listening Skills
1.7 Verbal, Non-Verbal and Presentation Skills
1.8 Legal Issues in Communication
1.9 Summary
Unit: 2 Written skills …………………………………………………….41-62

2.2 Introduction (Writing)
2.3 Writing communication
2.4 Writing Reports
2.5 Improving personal writing skills
2.6 Report Writing
2.7 Summary
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Unit: 3 Interpersonal communications …………………………………63 -93

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Understanding Interpersonal Communication
3.4 Communicating in Teams
3.5 Negotiation
3.6 Communication Skills During a Conflict
3.7 Mentoring and Appraisals
3.8 Communication in social media and Digital Communication
3.9 Summary
Unit: 4 Culture …………………………………………………………94 -122
4.2 Introduction
4.3 What is culture?
4.4 Studying culture
4.5 Cross-Cultural Communication
4.6 Communication across cultures through different mediums
4.7 Business Etiquette across Cultures
4.8 Strategizing for Effective Cross-Cultural Communication
4.9 Summary
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Unit: 5 Career management & communication ……………………123- 149

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Career Planning
5.4 Career Management and Communication
5.5 Résumé Writing
5.6 Cover Letters
5.7 Group Discussions
5.8 Interviews
5.9 Communication during Exit Interviews
5.10 Ethics and Communication
5.11 Summary
INDEX
Unit: 1 Communication i
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LESSON 1
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Introduction to Business Environment and Communication
1.3.1 What is communication?
1.3.2 Basics of Communication
1.4 Seven Cs of Communication
1.5 Corporate Communication
1.5.1 Functions of a Corporate Communications Department
1.5.2 Tools of Corporate Communication
1.6 Listening Skills
1.6.1 Stages of Listening
1.6.2 Listening Skills / Techniques
1.6.3 Types of Listening
1.7 Verbal, Non-Verbal and Presentation Skills
1.7.1 Verbal Skills
1.7.2 Non-Verbal Skills
1.7.3 Presentation Skills
1.8 Legal Issues in Communication
1.9 Summary
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After a thorough reading of the lesson, you will be able to:
 Understand the importance of communication in business environment.
 Define communication and describe the process of communication.
 Understand the seven key characteristics of effective communication, also known as

the 7Cs of communication.
 Appreciate the importance of listening.
 Identify and appreciate verbal, non-verbal and presentation skills.
 Identify and appreciate the key legal issues involved in communication.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Communication is the most frequent activity that we engage in throughout our lives.
Even the most challenging tasks can be accomplished with effective communication and
therefore, it is an indispensable asset to have irrespective of the domain that one operates in.
In this lesson, we will learn about communication and how it is used in the context of a
business organisation.
We will start with an understanding of communication in the business environment,

the basics of communication and the 7Cs of effective communication. This will be followed
by a discussion on the basics of corporate communication and communication skills,
including listening, verbal, non-verbal and presentation skills. We will conclude the lesson
with a discussion on the legal issues involved in communication.
As you go through the lesson, you will be able to relate to how exactly the
communication process takes place in your institution or workplace. You will learn to better
comprehend the messages that you receive from business organisations and also critically
examine the quality of the content and delivery.
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1.3 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT AND

COMMUNICATION
Business environment refers to the internal and external factors that affect the
functioning of an organisation. These internal and external things play-out in an organisation
on a continuous basis and need to be addressed to maintain smooth operations.
Communication is the mechanism which ensures that an organisation keeps functioning
smoothly within the business environment. Therefore, communication permeates an
organisation.
A business organisation is driven by communication to such an extent that its very

success and failure would hinge upon the effectiveness and seamlessness of communication.
It is true of both internal communications happening within the organisation, as well as
external communication with its clients, customers, suppliers, competitors, regulatory
agencies, business associates, the government, etc.
1.3.1 What is communication?
The word is derived from communicare in Latin, which means ‘to share’ or ‘make
common’. Communication can be defined in many ways. Some define it as the process of
sharing and understanding meaning (Pearson & Nelson, 2000) and others use a more
mathematical definition that views communication as a process of coding and decoding
messages. Using a blend of the various definitions of communication, the process of
communication can be depicted as below.
Fig 1.1: The Communication Process (Source: https://www.papertyari.com/)

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The definition given by Pearson & Nelson is a practical one and intuitive. Let us try
to break it down to have more clarity on the keywords appearing in the definition.
 Process
Communication is a “process” which means that some activities are involved in it,
including arranging your thoughts, coding your thoughts into signs, symbols, and words,
sending out the coded message through a channel and receiving feedback from the receiver.
At the other end, the received message is decoded by the receiver who, in turn, encodes the
feedback and sends it out. The process of communication is influenced by many factors,
including the context, language, audience, age group, etc.
 Sharing
You would agree that it is difficult to share your thoughts and ideas exactly as they
originate in your mind. A process of coding and decoding is required for sharing the same.
Language, signs, symbols, sounds, etc. help us in sharing our thoughts, feelings and ideas.
You can see that sharing of thoughts, ideas, feelings, etc. is the primary purpose of
communication.
 Understanding
Understanding refers to the process of interpreting or decoding the message by
relating it to the knowledge possessed by the receiver. If the communication does not lead to
understanding for the receiver, it is not communication at all.
Two hunters are out in the woods when one of them collapses. He’s not breathing
and his eyes are glazed. The other guy whips out his cell phone and calls 911.
“I think my friend is dead!” he yells. “What can I do?” The operator says, “Calm
down. First, let’s make sure he’s dead.”
There’s a silence, then a shot. Back on the phone, the guy says, “OK, now what?”
Source: Reader’s Digest
 Meaning
Meaning refers to what is being shared through communication. As you will see later,
context has a lot to do with meaning. The same words may mean different things in different
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cultures. For instance, bike is a term used for bicycles in the US whereas a bike taken to
mean a motorbike in India.
1.3.2 Basics of Communication
From the discussion so far, it is clear that the purpose of communication is to

exchange ideas, thoughts and information, express feelings and to influence. Now let us list
out the components of communication that will help you develop a deeper understanding of
the process. The components can be identified using the mathematical model of
communication referred to above and are listed below.
 Source or Sender
Source is where the idea / through / feeling / etc. originates and is coded into a
message. So, the sender decides on what to share, how much to share and how to share. How
well the message is articulated will depend on many factors, such as the knowledge / level of
intellect, language skills, psychological state, level of preparation, etc. of the sender.
 Message
Message is an embodiment of the idea or thought and the meaning intended to be

conveyed to the receiver. The message is codified by using language, signs and symbols, etc.
whether spoken, non-verbal or written. The manner in which the message is delivered is also
of great importance as it may turn the literal meaning of the message on its head.
For instance, if you tell your boss that you are very enthusiastic about additional work
with your head down and avoiding eye contact it would most certainly be taken the other way
by him.
 Channel / Medium
The channel or medium of communication refers to the delivery method which is

used by the sender. The sender can select the spoken channel or the written channel or the
non-verbal channel based on the importance of the message, sensitivity, context, etc.
Some common spoken channels are – face-to-face conversations, telephonic

conversations, radio and television broadcasts, conference calls over the Internet, etc.
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Whereas the popular written channels are – letters, emails, memorandums, newspapers,
mobile application-based chats, messages sent on social networking sites, press releases, etc.
 Receiver
The receiver is the other party in the communication process who receives and
decodes the message. One of the major challenges in communication occurs because the
sender has little control on whether the message will be interpreted in the manner intended by
him. However, the sender must analyse her audience or the receiver before deciding on the
choice of words, language, tone, etc. to increase the probability of the message being
received and interpreted in the intended manner.
 Feedback
The response, whether intentional or unintentional, to the sender’s message

constitutes feedback. The feedback is a message in itself composed by the receiver and sent
back to the source. Feedback can be verbal or non-verbal. The feedback tells you how well
the meaning of your message was understood by your audience. Therefore, with an increase
in feedback, the effectiveness of communication increases. Due to this, feedback is
considered to be one of the most critical aspects of communication.
 Environment
Environment refers to the ambience in which the communication takes place which
can be both physical as well as psychological. For instance, if you are in a modern-day café
that plays loud music there is no way you can have a serious business negotiation. Therefore,
it is important for you as a communicator to decide the place of communication to ensure that
it is effective and successful.
 Context
The setting, situation, occasion, culture, timing, nature of relationship between the
parties, etc. constitutes the context, which is the turf, so to speak, on which the
communication takes place. You must remember that communication does not take place in
vacuum, there is always a background and variables involved that complicate things in terms
of expectations. For instance, if you meet a business associate at a funeral you will refrain
from discussing business in front of the gathering, as the social context is inappropriate for it.
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We can see that context dominates what people would come to expect from each other and
what would be considered appropriate and acceptable behaviour.
Fig 1.2: Importance of Context in Communication (Source: https://www.boredpanda.com/)
 Noise
Anything that acts as an obstacle to communication, thereby leading to distortion in

the understanding of meaning as intended by the sender is called noise. Noise can come from
various sources, including the sender’s psychological state, the ambient environment and the
receiver’s perceptive biases, etc.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is not a key component of the process of
communication?
a) Encoding messages b) Decoding messages
c) Interrupting d) Feedback
2. The _____________ of communication refers to the delivery method which is
used by the sender.
a) Sender b) Receiver
c) Channel / Medium d) Message
3. Feedback can be both intentional as well as unintentional. True / False
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1.4 SEVEN Cs OF COMMUNICATION
We communicate with people all the time whether it is with family, friends,
colleagues, clients, and so on. It can hardly be taken for granted. The seven Cs of
communication are a set of seven principles that your communication must follow in order to
be effective. You can think of the 7Cs as a checklist of seven characteristics that your
communication or message must possess to communicate successfully. Let us get down to
each of these 7Cs and study what they mean.
i. Clear
Your message should be clear without any room for subjective interpretation by the
receiver. It means that it should not leave room for your audience to read between the lines
and misunderstand. No beating about the bush, get straight to the point. The best thing to do
is to introduce only the bare minimum number of ideas in a sentence.
Clarity is all the more important in business communication as the same message may
be relayed across media. For instance, say, a bank is initiating a drive to update the Know
Your Customer (KYC) details of the account holders whose accounts have been lying
dormant for more than a year. The following notification is sent out through text messaging:
Dear Account Holder,
Please update your Know Your Customer (KYC) details to avoid temporary suspension of
your accounts.
XYZ Bank Ltd.
If the message does not indicate that it is meant only for the account holders whose
accounts are dormant, the bank will be flooded with calls and branch visits. Even if the
message is sent only to those with dormant accounts, still it may reach the other account
holders through word-of-mouth and panic may still set it as the message itself is not clear. It
will not only cause great inconvenience to the millions of account holders of the bank but
also to the officials of the bank. Therefore, we can see that a lack of clarity in business
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communication can potentially lead to misunderstanding, unhappy clients, resentment among

employees and heavy costs for reversing the damage.
ii. Concise
The message has to be brief and to the point, however it should not be at the cost of
leaving out important information. You can do it by following the strategies given below.
 Avoid repetition of information. If you have already mentioned something, there is no

need to repeat the same as it will not add any value to the message. It will only end up
making the message long-winded.
 Weed-out any unnecessary sentences and “fillers” from the message, the removal of
which will not cause any loss of meaning.
iii. Concrete
The message should be concrete which means that it should have all necessary details
presented in a focussed manner readily consumable and easily understood. In other words,
the message should be solid in content without compromising on details. There is no room
for embellished, flowery language in a concrete message.
Fig. 1.3: Why Correctness Matters in Communication (Source: From the Internet)
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iv. Correct
The message should be factually correct and free from errors in order to be effective.
Correctness implies correct in terms of facts and language. This principle of effective
communication is most obvious and self-explanatory and therefore, does not require further
elaboration.
v. Coherent
The message should be composed in a logical fashion to make it easily

comprehensible to the receiver. It is important as the receiver may not have any interest
whatsoever in putting together the pieces of information in a poorly composed message. In
“The Adventure of Wisteria Lodge” by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Sherlock Holmes gives a
very interesting advice to John Scott Eccles, his client in the story, which goes like this:
“Come, come, sir,” said Holmes, laughing. “You are like my friend, Dr. Watson,
who has a bad habit of telling his stories wrong end foremost. Please arrange your
thoughts and let me know, in their due sequence, exactly what those events are
which have sent you out unbrushed and unkempt, with dress boots and waistcoat
buttoned awry, in search of advice and assistance.”
Extracted from the short story “The Adventure of Wisteria Lodge” by Sir Arthur
Conan Doyle
The above advice is a perfect one as it beautifully addresses the concept of coherence
of messages in communication.
vi. Complete
The message has to be complete in all respects to convey the intended meaning. This
characteristic will ensure minimum follow-up questions. It will also help the receiver to
immediately swing into required action, if any. For instance, a recruitment notification to be
published in newspapers needs to be complete in all respects to enable interested candidates
to prepare their applications without the need for any clarifications.
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vii. Courteous
Your message should be polite and positive, giving due consideration to the receiver.
It is important, for it impacts the receptivity of your target audience. A courteous message
will always be embraced by the receiver as it is open and candid. Therefore, a conscious
effort has to be made to avoid a confrontationist tone and adopt an empathetic tone to be
effective while communicating.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
4. In order to make your message concise, which strategy will you use?
a) Avoid repetition of information b) Weed-out fillers
c) Both (a) and (b) d) None
5. Which of the following is not a part of 7Cs of communication?

a) Coordination b) Courtesy
c) Correctness d) Coherence
1.5 CORPORATE COMMUNICATION
Corporate communication refers to the activity of an organisation communicating

with its internal and external stakeholders. A business organisation functions in a highly
dynamic and competitive environment. It has to kindle the interest of its target customers in
its products and services and carve-out a space for itself in the market to remain profitable
and grow overtime. It should have the ability to outwit your competitors.
On the other hand, an organisation has the rather difficult task of keeping its
workforce motivated enough to keep productivity high and attrition low. All this requires
continuous engagement with internal and external stakeholders through effective
communication. The major internal and external stakeholders are depicted in the image
below.
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Source: Mark-Herbert, Cecilia & Carolina, Herbert &Schantz, Von. (2007)
Fig. 1.4 A Model of the Internal and External Stakeholders in Corporate Communication
The medium and instrument of corporate communication would vary depending upon
the target and the objective which is to be achieved through the communication effort.
1.5.1 Functions of a Corporate Communications Department
There is a wide variety of communication activities for which the corporate

communications department is responsible. These activities can be better understood if we
group them based on the purpose. Accordingly, the major functions have been classified
below.
 Public Relations (PR)
PR is a broad term that refers to how a business communicates with the public in
general, including the media. As a part of the PR function, the communications professionals
will be responsible for investor relations, media relations and so on. The activities undertaken
by PR professionals include organising press conferences, planning and executing product
launch events, drafting and circulating press releases, liaising with the media and other
agencies, etc. The PR communication exercise involves regular communication of the major
and minor events pertaining to the company through proper channels so as to help generate a
favourable public opinion about the brand.
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 Communication during Crisis
The strategic communication steps that a company takes at the time of a crisis which
can potentially damage the reputation and the brand value of the company. Any unanticipated
event with the potential to cause damage to the organisation requires swift response to
minimize the damage or to prevent the damage from occurring. Such unanticipated events
include factory / workplace accidents, product defects, oil / chemical spills, frauds involving
a company, etc.
CASE STUDY
A Case of Duplicate Venue Booking

A leading exhibition venue provider in India was startled to discover that the halls
inside the venue had been leased out to two different event organisers, namely A Ltd. and
B Ltd., for the same dates. At the time of discovery of this mistake, the event dates were
less than four months away. This was a case of duplicate booking and there was no way
two events could be held in the same exhibition halls on the same dates.
Both event organisers were given allotment letters around two years earlier for the
same dates and they had started with their respective publicity campaigns. They had even
finalised the participation and allotment of booths to individual exhibitors.
When this error was discovered by a junior officer of the venue provider, he
immediately informed the matter to his reporting manager and quickly the matter was
escalated to the senior management. The management of the venue immediately
constituted a crisis management team of four seasoned officers to deal with the crisis.
The team convened an internal meeting to deliberate upon the matter and develop a
strategy for dealing with the crisis. The very first decision by the team was that the issue
had to be communicated to both event organisers without losing any time. This would be
followed by negotiations with the organisers to persuade one of them to consider changing
the dates of the event. Breaking this development to the organisers was a challenge and the
medium of communication for the same had to be chosen carefully. Written
communication in the form of email or letter or even communication through telephone
was ruled out, as it would have been perceived by the event organisers as an indifferent
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approach to the crisis by the venue provider. The crisis management team agreed that it
would be best to invite the two event organisers separately for in-person meetings to
communicate the same.
During the meeting, event organisers were very upset as their events were in serious
jeopardy. The venue team acknowledged the error and assured of all support and
cooperation to deal with the issue. Both organisers were requested to consider changing the
dates of the exhibition. However, none of them agreed and A Ltd. even threatened to take
the matter to court.
After the initial meetings, the crisis team realised that since one of the two would get
to keep the originally booked dates, it would be best to pursue the matter with B Ltd. as A
Ltd. was already thinking of filing a lawsuit. Meanwhile, to prevent the latter from filing a
lawsuit, a formal communication was immediately sent by the venue team giving
assurance of a swift resolution of the matter. The same day, the crisis team invited B Ltd.
for another meeting to understand if there were any circumstances under which they would
consider rescheduling the event.
The crisis team had a series of meetings with B Ltd. at various levels and it got
inkling that the event being organised by B Ltd. did not have enough participation as
expected. The crisis team immediately formulated a strategy and went back to the
management to consider offering a 25 percent discount on the venue rentals to B Ltd. and
becoming a sponsor of the event in return for rescheduling the event. The sponsorship
from the venue provider was much valued in the industry. The management empowered
the team to negotiate with B Ltd. on similar lines and to issue a joint statement for
rescheduling of the event.
With this leverage, the crisis team again communicated in-person with the
management of B Ltd. and made the offer. The crisis team also advised that the change of
dates of the event can be jointly announced in a press conference by the Venue provider
and the event organiser. With this kind of support from the venue provider and the offer of
joint communication, B Ltd. realised that it would be much easier to persuade its
stakeholders for change of dates. B Ltd. was reassured with the gesture of the venue
provider to take the onus and ownership of the mistake and support it in a crisis situation.
In order to complete the deal and prevent a change of mind by B Ltd., the crisis team
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immediately engaged the Legal team of the venue and formalised the legal contract. As
soon as the contract was signed, A Ltd. was informed that their allotment was unchanged
and that their cooperation was appreciated. A press conference was soon arranged and the
venue provider and event organiser jointly addressed the media and assured the industry
that the event will be strengthened with the on-boarding of the venue as a sponsor and that
the event will turn out to be a resounding success.
The venue provider constituted another team from the operations and IT departments
to fix the loopholes in the booking system to prevent such instance of duplicate bookings
in the future.
Discuss the key learning from the above case.
 Marketing / Customer / Client Communications
Though marketing communication is considered to be in the realm of marketing

department in most companies, corporate communication function does involve engagement
with the customers by means of strategic marketing content developed in collaboration with
the marketing departments. Such content includes brochures, flyers, newsletters, posting
content on social media platforms, and blogs, etc. So, it involves directly communicating
with your customers and clients to create a favourable image of your brand and instigate
desired behaviour.
 Internal Communication
The role of the corporate communication department in internal communication is to

sensitise the employees with the latest developments and decisions taken in the company,
create literature for use by the employees, conduct training sessions and manage the internal
publications of a company. Internal communication is a small part of the overall corporate
communication function as a majority of the work is focussed on communication with the
external stakeholders.
1.5.2 Tools of Corporate Communication
 The Written Mode
It is the most commonly used corporate communication strategy and can take the
form of reports (both internal and external), press releases, emails, advertisements,
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advertorials, memorandums, notices, website, blogs and promotional materials. The written
mode tends to be more formal and requires careful planning and strategizing before it is
released to the intended audience.
 Spoken Mode
It consists of press conferences, conference calls, meetings, seminars, symposiums,

interviews, panel discussions, televised messages, and television commercials (TVCs), etc.
The spoken mode requires a lot more preparation and trained people for execution.
 Non-Verbal Communication
In the context of corporate communication, non-verbal or non-spoken communication

refers to the posting of infographics, photographs and other such illustrations. Such
communication is typically delivered through the digital medium. For instance, an
automobile manufacturer posting pictures of its newly launched SUV from an off-roading
event is an example of non-spoken communication.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. In the context of corporate communication, which of the following is not an
external stakeholder?
a) Shareholder b) Customer
c) Supplier d) Regulator
7. Which of the following is not a function of the corporate communications
department?
a) Public Relations b) Accounting
c) Marketing Communications d) Internal Communication
1.6 LISTENING SKILLS
In the communication process, listening refers to the act of receiving and interpreting
messages sent by the source or sender. You must distinguish between listening and hearing
before we proceed further. Hearing is just the ability to perceive sound by means of receiving
vibrations through the ears and is confined to your sense of receiving the stimulus of sound.
Whereas, listening involves being attentive to what is being communicated and to hear with a
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conscious mind to interpret the message for a complete understanding of the same. You may
note that your mind is constantly active when you are listening to something.
Fig 1.5: Stages of Listening (Source: http://kell.indstate.edu)
1.6.1 Stages of Listening
a. Receiving
The first stage involves merely hearing the message of the speaker by focusing on the
sounds coming from the source and filtering out the other noises. At this stage, as depicted in
the figure above, only your ears are involved.
b. Understanding
This is the most critical stage of the listening process as there are so many factors
involved which can potentially distort understanding of the message. It may be due to
language issues, differences in knowledge level, use of jargons, etc.
c. Remembering
At this stage, you will try to memorise some of the key details mentioned in the
message to enable you to engage in the communication process.
d. Evaluating
The evaluation stage involves making your value judgement as to the message.
Different people will evaluate the same message differently due to differences in perception,
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biases, knowledge levels and so on. In the second, third and fourth stages of listening, the
mind is actively involved.
e. Feedback
Feedback is the final stage of the listening process and involves codifying your
response into a message and sending it to the source. Please note that feedback “completes”
the listening process and without feedback, listening does not mean much.
1.6.2 Listening Skills / Techniques
The ability of paying attention to what the speaker is saying to effectively interpret
and understand the message is known as listening skill. Effective listening skills can be
cultivated and learnt over time. Some of the techniques used for effective listening are
mentioned below.
a. Prepare
In case the communication is a planned one with clarity on the agenda, you must
prepare yourself for it by reading from various relevant sources to develop a basic
understanding of the subject matter. It will equip you to handle the communication better as
you will be in a position to quickly grasp the speaker’s messages.
b. Pay attention
Give your full attention to the speaker without being distracted by environmental
factors and use non-verbal signals to acknowledge that the message is being received. You
can do this by maintaining eye-contact, nodding occasionally and adopting an alert posture.
c. Do not interrupt
You must not interrupt the speaker as it would be perceived as being rude and can
send out the signal that you do not value what the speaker is saying. The best thing to do is to
wait for the speaker to complete and then seek whatever clarification is required.
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d. Empathize
An effective listener has the quality of being empathetic and considerate towards the
speaker. It simply means that you encourage the speaker to share her perspective and then
understand the emotions involved. Empathizing with the speaker would invariably have the
effect of turning the situation in the positive direction.
e. Ask Questions
Asking questions will help the listener to clarify any doubts or gaps in understanding.
It will also let the speaker know that you are actually interested in the conversation and act as
an encouragement for him.
f. Refrain from making premature judgement
A good listener would wait and listen patiently before he has enough evidence to
make a judgement call. However, jumping to conclusions too early is a characteristic of poor
listeners. The issue with jumping to conclusions too early is that the judgement may be
completely incorrect. Besides, it can be potentially risky to jump to conclusions and also
unfair to the speaker.
g. Feedback
Feedback does two very important things – (a) It shows the speaker that you were
indeed listening genuinely, and (b) It helps improve your understanding of the message in the
manner that the speaker intends.
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SOME COMMONLY USED PHRASES / STATEMENTS ASSOCIATED

WITH ACTIVE LISTENING
“I see what you mean…” OR simply “I see”.
“I agree with your assessment…” OR simply “I agree”.
“You mentioned that…”
“It is encouraging to hear from you about…”
Citing Similar Experiences: “I had a similar experience while visiting one of

the distributors.”
Paraphrasing: “So, you think that the increase in interest rates may cause a
decline in the credit offtake for the next two quarters”?
1.6.3 Types of Listening
a. Active Listening
Active listening is the process of listening to the verbal and non-verbal messages and
cues of a speaker, asking questions for seeking clarification and providing feedback with the
objective of understanding the message by the receiver as intended by the sender. It is the
most ideal form of listening.
b. Pseudo-Listening
Pseudo-listening refers to the act of portraying as if one is being attentive in a

conversation, whereas in reality he may be completely ignoring what the speaker is saying. It
may be because of plain disregard for the topic under discussion or it may be an attempt to
deceive the speaker for some vested interest. The mechanism followed in pseudo-listening is
to send out non-verbal signals, such as nodding, smiling, etc. to signal that you are attentive.
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c. Selective Listening
Selective listening refers to the filtering of the incoming messages to let in only the
part that interests the listener. The listener selects only as much information as he considers
relevant for his interests.
d. Insulated Listening
It is the act of avoiding certain information from the communication is known as

insulated listening and hence, it the opposite of selective listening.
e. Stage Hogging
Some people seem to be interested only in conveying their own feelings, ideas, etc. in
order to be the centre of attraction. This is done by planning interruptions every now and then
to hog the limelight.
1.7 VERBAL, NON-VERBAL AND PRESENTATION SKILLS
You must have noticed in your day-to-day life that before you start a conversation
with any person, the subconscious mind makes an assessment as to that person’s ability or
expertise in the matter that you wish to talk about and other aspects, such as cultural
background, profession, etc. Accordingly, you will customize and calibrate the message to
suit the receiver’s capacity to understand the same. Your skill lies in how well you can
strategize and customize the message to suit the requirement and ability of the receiver.
These skills can be classified into the following three sets: -
1.7.1 Verbal Skills

The use of words, whether spoken or written, for the purpose of sharing information,
ideas, thoughts, etc. is known as verbal communication. Some of the key verbal
communication skills are listed below.
 Knowledge about your Audience

Before you start preparing your message you must think about who your target is.
Some of the relevant questions that you need to answer for this purpose are – What is the
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cultural background of the target? What language does the target speak? What is the level of
education of the target?
The answers to these questions will help you design and plan your communication in
a much better way. For instance, if you have been assigned to design a sensitization
programme on the vision and mission of your organisation, you will have to develop
different modules for, say the executives and the factory workers. It is simply because the
two target groups have different level of education and hence require customisation of the
content to cater to each group.
 Clarity of Thought
In order to be an effective communicator, clarity of thought is an attribute that one
cannot do without. Before you start speaking or drafting your message, you should be able to
clearly recognize the relevant thoughts, understand the importance of each one based on the
context and organise them in a logical and interesting fashion to compel the audience to
listen or read through the message.
 Articulation
Closely related to clarity of thought is articulation, which means how clearly the
thoughts are expressed in words. Articulate communicators build coherent and concise
messages which stand out for their sharpness and focus.
 Intonation and Modulation of Voice

This particular skill is a great asset for any kind of public speaking, whether it is
delivering a speech, speaking in a conference or seminar, delivering a presentation to a
potential investor, negotiation meetings, and so on. It lends a sort of musical touch to speech
and is a treat for the ears. Intonation is a part of pronunciation and includes attributes, such as
accent, stress and cadence. Modulation of voice means to control your voice to make it sound
louder, emotional, thrilling, dramatic, and so on.
 Receptivity
Receptiveness is a skill that is essential for the communicator to understand the point-
of-view of the other party and reorient the messages to improve understanding. It means that
you have to listen actively to communicate better with your audience. However, receptivity
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should not be confined to the verbal responses or feedback. In fact, the non-verbal signals are
equally important, if not more. The non-verbal signals help you recalibrate your
communication to prevent the audience from losing interest.
 Engaging the Audience

Very few communicators have the ability to establish a rapport with their audiences.
It is actually a difficult skill to master as every time it will be a different audience and a new
setting. Nevertheless, there are many techniques that will help you in connecting with others.
Firstly, you have to be genuine and authentic in your communication. Nothing works better
than an honest message. Secondly, you must us your body language and gestures to convey
that you are open and receptive. You must also read the non-verbal cues of the other party as
it is the best feedback you can receive. Thirdly, sharing experiences with your audience helps
you connect with them as some of them may have had similar experience and will be able to
relate to it.
1.7.2 Non-Verbal Skills

People are quite comfortable when it comes to verbal communication, however, non-
verbal communication often takes place at the subconscious level. It is a source of
information that tells the observer many important things that even spoken words may not. In
this part of the section, we will learn about non-verbal communication skills and how we can
interpret them. Let us first look at the types of non-verbal communication.
1.7.2.1 Types and Techniques of Non-Verbal Communication

 Proxemics
It refers to the study of how people think the physical space around them influences
their behaviour and communication. It should be noted here that people from different
cultures perceive and use the space around them differently. Further, there is also marked
difference in the way people from different cultures use the space between the persons they
communicate with. Other factors that influence personal space include setting, gender and
individual preferences. The space is classified into the following categories.
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Fig. 1.6: Edward T. Hall's Depiction of Interpersonal Distances of Man(Source:

https://www.researchgate.net)
 Intimate – For embracing, touching, etc.

 Personal – For communicating with friends and family
 Social – For socialising and communicating with acquaintances
 Public – For public meetings, speeches, etc.
 Body Language
Body language is one of the most important type of non-verbal communication that
includes the following:
Kinesics
It refers to the use of body or facial expressions to convey messages. The different types
of kinesics are given below.
 Facial expressions – There are numerous facial expressions that convey some
messages or the other. These include smiling, raising eyebrows, winking, etc.
 Gestures – The movements made with hands and other body parts, including head,
fingers, arms and legs, etc. are referred to as gestures. Common gestures include the
thumbs-up, beckoning gesture, the OK gesture, and so on. You must remember that
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the same gesture can mean very different things in different cultures. For instance, the
OK gesture which is used in the Western cultures to indicate that something is very
good, whereas in the Arab culture it is a very vulgar gesture.
 Posture – It refers to the way the body is positioned by a person while communicating
with his counterpart or his audience. Postures also convey some meaning, for
example, the arms akimbo posture is considered as a dominant posture.
Oculesics or Eye Contact
In the field of communication, oculesics refers to the study of eye-contact, duration of

eye-contact, intensity, and eye movement. Again, eye contact has different connotations in
different cultures. For instance, in the western culture, maintaining eye contact is a sign of
honesty and showing interest in communication. Whereas, in eastern and oriental cultures,
direct eye contact especially with elders is considered a sign of disrespect or rudeness.
Haptics
In some cultures, touching is also a means of expressing one’s feelings. For instance,
you pat somebody’s back to appreciate his / her achievement. However, as is the case with
most types of body language, touching can be taken very differently in different cultures. For
instance, the American culture is a “no touch” culture, whereas, in Arab culture, touching
your friends is common.
Paralanguage
The non-verbal characteristics of spoken messages is known as paralanguage. In other

words, the acoustic features of speech that include tone, modulation of voice, pitch, accent,
loudness, etc. are part of paralanguage. It is also known as prosody.
1.7.2.2 How to Interpret Non-Verbal Signals
People use body language all the time consciously or subconsciously. Since these non-
verbal signals are very useful for understanding the verbal message, knowledge of how non-
verbal signals can be interpreted becomes essential. Given below are some of the strategies
for interpreting body language.
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 Observe
It is quite obvious that observation is key to interpretation of non-verbal signals. It is

being reiterated to emphasise that as a communicator, you must develop a habit of keenly
observing the postures, gestures, pitch of voice and so on that will help you get a great deal
of insight into the other person’s state of mind.
 Track the Eye-Movement
Eye-movement and eye contact convey a great deal of information. During a meeting,
if your counterpart keeps looking away, it possibly means that the latter may not be
interested. Please remember that paying attention to the eye movement should be in a manner
that the other person does not feel uncomfortable. Because the other person may perceive
your constant tracking of his / her eye movement as intrusive or even threatening.
 Observe the Posture
The position in which a person is sitting or standing can tell you something about his
interest in what is being said. For instance, if a person is standing in a straight posture it
indicates that he is listening and engaged in the conversation.
 Pay Attention to Hand Gestures
Gestures can be both voluntary and involuntary. For instance, the open palms gesture
suggests that the speaker has nothing to hide. Another example is that of clenched hands
which may indicate that the person is under stress or angry. As a skilled reader of body
language, you will learn to observe these seemingly unimportant things and utilise them to
have a successful engagement.
 Pay Attention to Facial Expressions
Facial expressions are the most commonly used and read non-verbal signals simply
because faces are in focus during any conversation. You will notice facial expressions
changing often during a conversation. For example, when people are focused and listening
intently, their eyebrows are lowered and centred.
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 Observe the Legs and Feet
You will notice that when people are feeling bored or restless, they tap heir feet on
the ground. If you see a person sitting with his legs and arms crossed, it indicates that the
person may be creating a barrier with the speaker and may not be very receptive.
1.7.3 Presentation Skills
Making effective presentations is a skill that is essential for survival in the corporate
world. Generating great ideas is simply not good enough unless you are able to present it in a
manner that is compelling and persuasive to those who matter.
There are two aspects of making great presentations, namely:

a. Planning and putting together great presentations
b. Delivering the presentation
1.7.3.1 Features of an Effective Presentation
 Customised content based on the audience
The content should be designed based on the understanding level of the audience. In
case the content is too difficult, the audience may not understand anything and if it is too
simple the audience would not gain anything out of it.
 Brevity
The content has to be crisp and to the point. The length and detail of the presentation
would depend largely on the purpose for which the presentation is taking place. You must
also avoid cluttering the slides with text and instead use keywords and images that you can
elaborate upon.
 Language to Match the Audience
The selection of language of the presentation has to be in consonance with what the
audience would easily understand. The objective is not to make a superfluous masterpiece
out of the presentation but to deliver the point across in an impactful manner.
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 Sequencing of Information
In order to keep alive the interest of the audience, you must design the slides in a
sequential manner, revealing little by little. This will help the audience digressing to the next
idea or though in the presentation before completing the present one.
 Sprinkle it with Appropriate Humour
If used in the right manner, humour can help you establish an instant rapport with the
audience. Once a rapport is established, it can be a pretty smooth journey afterwards.
 Delivery
The delivery has to be in a clear and audible voice with the presenter’s body language
conveying confidence. The presenter must use voice modulation and intonation to make it
appealing to the audience.
1.7.3.2 How to Put Together an Effective Presentation
In order to prepare a good presentation, you need to find answers to five questions. If
you can answer these five questions precisely, you can be sure of making an effective
presentation.
These questions have been discussed below.
Who?
The question we start with is - who is the target group for whom the presentation is
being planned. There are a few more question that logically follow from this, which are listed
below:
 How many people will be attending?

 What is their age group?
 What is their education?
 How aware is the target group about the topic of presentation?
 What is the nature of relationship between the speaker and the audience?
 What language is the audience accustomed to?
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The answer to each of the questions above will impact content planning and delivery.
For example, if the audience is a group of school children who are being given a
presentation on inflation, the content will be different and if the audience is a group of
economists, the content will be entirely different, though the topic of the presentation is the
same.
Why?
The reason for making the presentation is the next key question that needs to be
answered before planning the content. Is the presentation merely informational or is to
introduce a change in an established system that the audience is accustomed to? Or is it a
presentation to raise funds from potential investors? The responses to these questions will
shape the content further.
Where?
This question looks at issues, such as – Where is the presentation being planned? Is it
going to take place at a client’s premises? How large is the venue? What are the facilities and
visual aids available at the venue? What is the level of ambient noise? How comfortable is
the seating? Is there power back-up available? - and so on. The responses to these questions
will help you not only plan the content but also arrange the necessary logistics and support
for the presentation.
When?
The question here is when or at what time of the day is the presentation scheduled. Is
it a single presentation or one of a series of presentations during the course of the day? Is it
immediately preceding or post lunch? Is it the first or the last presentation of the day? You
will have to be very tactful in planning the content and delivery based on the responses to
such questions.
For instance, it has been seen that if your presentation is in the last slot just before the
day is going to be over, the audience will already be drained with all the activity during the
day and hence you will have to plan the content carefully to not include too many heavy
concepts. You may also use appropriate humour to keep the audience’s interest alive.
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What?
With this we come to the all-important question of WHAT. It directly addresses the
issue of what should the content of the presentation look like. The series of questions that
need to be answered to decide the content are –
 How much detail is required?

 What will the audience be interested in?
 Is there something sensitive about the topic that needs to be avoided?
 What examples will the audience relate to?
 Will the audience like more visual content?
Once the above questions are answered, you will know what to include and how
much to include. The length of the presentation is a critical aspect which calls for a general
strategy of developing and keeping multiple presentations on the same topic at readiness, just
in case you have to, say cut-short the presentation. In such scenarios, using the same
presentation may not be a good strategy.
Therefore, it is advisable to have at least three separate presentations on the same

topic of varying lengths. The shortest will have the core ideas that you cannot do without.
The middle length will have a little more detail and the longer version will be a
comprehensive one with as much detail as possible.
1.7.3.3: - Effective Delivery of a Presentation
 Keep Notes
If it is a lengthy presentation, you will do better with short notes that mention the key
ideas that you will be speaking about. Keeping notes handy will help you deliver the
presentation in an orderly fashion without having to take long pauses to remember what
would come next. You should not feel embarrassed to refer to the notes as generally it is
acceptable to use the same. However, it would depend on the situation and the context, on
whether your audience would accept you reading from notes. Therefore, if you are expected
not to use notes, you should prepare accordingly and speak from memory.
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 Eye Contact
The best way to connect with your audience is to strike eye-contact with the audience.
However, the eye-contact should be with the entire audience and not concentrated towards a
particular zone or spot or an individual. It demonstrates your confidence and sincerity with
which you are delivering the presentation.
 Dressing for the Occasion

Your attire will play an important role in how seriously you will be taken by your
audience. The best thing to do is to avoid clothes that can potentially distract the attention of
the audience. You should also avoid wearing dresses that you do not feel comfortable in, as it
may interfere with your focus.
 Voice
The most important aspect of delivering a presentation is your voice and how you
control it. In case there is no public address system or microphones and speakers available,
you will have to put in a lot more effort to be loud enough to the entire audience. You must
use voice modulation and intonation to your advantage. Intonation and modulation lend a sort
of music to your speech which makes it sound much more impressive. You should think of
the presentation as a usual conversation that you have with your colleagues. The presenter’s
job is to convince people and therefore, he must be convinced of himself. Unless you have
conviction in what you are saying, you cannot expect the others to get convinced. Another
important aspect is the rate of speech. Do not go too fast as your audience may have
difficulty in understanding your messages.
 Posture
Your posture during a presentation should be relaxed and composed. There should
not be any stiffness in the body as it would impair your movement and you may not be able
to utilise the stage. You should not remain tucked away from the view of your audience
behind the lectern. Rather, you should use the space on the stage to your advantage. Moving
around the stage, while you deliver the presentation, will make you appear confident and
comfortable. It will also help you overcome any nervousness that you may experience.
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 Gestures
Hand gestures, when used properly and naturally, convey confidence and conviction
in what you are communicating. However, overdoing it can often distract the audience and
impair understanding. Some things to avoid include keeping your hands inside your trouser
pockets, locking them at the back or folding hands as these are closed / defensives gestures
and are not considered professionally appropriate.
1.8 LEGAL ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION
Organisations communicate with stakeholders on a routine basis. These stakeholders

can be internal as well as external as explained earlier in the lesson. The communication that
goes out has to be carefully drafted as the image and goodwill of the organisation are at
stake. In fact, the actions and statements of the employees of an organisation may have legal
implications. Insensitive and incorrect communication can potentially lead to lawsuits against
the company. Litigations can mean huge costs in the terms of money and human resources
for businesses. Therefore, an organisation must be serious and diligent about the
communication that it has with the stakeholders and the public in general. The employees of
an organisation must be trained to act in an informed and responsible manner.
Many aspects of business communication are regulated by law. The enactment of the
Right to Information (RTI) Act and several initiatives in the area of corporate governance
have ushered in an era of greater transparency and accessibility. This means that internal
documents and records can be produced in the court of law and other such forums. Therefore,
a sound understanding of the legal framework is essential for business communication to
ensure that all communication passes the check on the parameter of legal appropriateness.
Let us get down to the various issues involved in different types of communication
and how an organisation can prevent or minimize legal trouble.
a. Marketing Communication
There exist several provisions in the law that cover some aspects of marketing
communications. In case of advertising, which is a major medium of marketing
communication, there is self-regulation in the form of guidelines for ethical and professional
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conduct. These guidelines have been codified by self-regulatory organisations, such as the
Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI). The guidelines of ASCI are aimed at
maintaining legality, decency and truthfulness of advertisements. It ensures that the adverts
are in the spirit of fair competitions and not hazardous or malicious in content. Therefore, the
crux of the matter is that there should not be any misrepresentation, deception or
manipulation of facts in the marketing communications rolled out by a company.
b. Disclaimers
Companies must develop suitable product / service disclosures warning about the
risks and dangers of misuse in order to get sufficient protection in the event of misuse or
misunderstanding by clients / customers. These disclaimers need to be prominently displayed
in advertisements, product packaging and should ideally be a part of the sales pitch. For
instance, all toys for children have indication for the age group that it is intended for. The
package clearly displays if it is not safe for children below a certain age. You must have
noticed the warning at the end of every advertisement of mutual fund which goes like this:
“Mutual fund investments are subject to market risks, please read the offer
document before investing”.
It is an example of a disclaimer used by the mutual fund companies from the Banking and
Financial Services Industry (BFSI).
You will also notice that even in the emails that you receive from companies, at the bottom
of the email, there is a disclaimer, which goes something like this:
“This Communication is for the exclusive use of the intended recipient(s) and
shall not attach any liability on the originator. If you are the addressee, the
contents of this email are intended for your use only and it shall not be
forwarded to any third party, without first obtaining written authorization from
the originator. It may contain information which is confidential and legally
privileged and the same shall not be used or dealt with by any third party in
any manner whatsoever without the specific consent of the originator”.
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c. Disclosures
Disclosures are made in order to release all relevant information about a particular
aspect of business often as a part of regulatory requirement. Several disclosure requirements
are a part of financial reporting standards. You must be aware of the mandatory conflict-of-
interest disclosure requirement for stock market analysts. There are non-disclosure
agreements which are often a part of the contracts between two organisations entering into
some sort of business relationship in which one or both of them agrees not to share
information outside of the contractual relationship.
d. Financial Reporting
Financial reports are one of the most strictly regulated areas of business
communication as it involves presenting of key information about the company to investors,
shareholders, regulators and the public in general. Misrepresentation or manipulation of
financial information will lead to penalties, criminal proceedings and irreparable damage to
the reputation of the company.
e. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
There are many types of intellectual properties, including patents, writings,

trademarks, etc. Unauthorised infringement of the intellectual property of others will invite
litigation. Organisations have to be very careful in the drafting of their communication
material so as not to infringe the intellectual property right of others, whether wilful or
innocent.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
8. Which of the following refers to the study of eye contact and movement
of eyes?
a) Proxemics b) Haptics
c) Facial Expression d) Oculesics
9. _____________ refers to the study of how people think the physical
space around them influences their behaviour and communication.
10. Humour should never be included in presentations as it is
unprofessional. True / False
11. Which of the following is not a feature of effective presentations?
a) Very comprehensive and detailed b) Sequenced flow
c) Crisp and to the point d) Language to match audience
12. Which of the following will help in effectively delivering a presentation?
a) Use of gestures b) Maintaining eye contact
c) Intonation and modulation of voice d) All of these
13. You can interpret non-verbal signals by:
a) Tracking eye movements b) Observing hand gestures
c) Observing position of legs and feet d) All of these
14. ________________________ gives a musical touch to your speech?
a) Clarity of Thought b) Articulation
c) Intonation and modulation of voice d) Receptivity
15. Which of the following helps in avoiding particular liability on account
of misuse of a product / service?
a) Disclosure b) Disclaimer
c) Financial Reporting d) None of these
1.9 SUMMARY
 Communication is the process of sharing and understanding meaning. The purpose

of communication in general is to exchange ideas, thoughts and information, express
feelings and to influence.
 The seven Cs of communication are the characteristics that a message should

possess in order to be effective. It says that the message should be clear, concise,
coherent, concrete, correct, complete and courteous.
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 Corporate communication refers to the activity of an organisation communicating

with its internal and external stakeholders. The internal stakeholders include the
employees, the management and the Board of Directors. The external stakeholders
include customers, suppliers, vendors, governments, regulators, professional bodies, trade
associations, etc.
 The functions of corporate communication include – marketing communication,

internal communication, public relations and communication during crisis.
 Listening is the act of receiving and interpreting messages sent by the sender.
Listening is different from hearing. Hearing is the ability to perceive sound and is
confined to your sense of receiving the stimulus of sound. On the other hand, listening
refers to hearing with a conscious mind to interpret the message for a complete
understanding.
 Many aspects of business communication are regulated by law. The marketing

communications and the routine communication that an organisation and its employees
have with various stakeholders need to be carefully drafted to avoid legal trouble.
1. c 9. Proxemics
2. c 10. False
3. True 11. a
4. c 12. d
5. a 13. d
6. a 14. c
7. b 15. a
8. d
1. Explain the process of communication.
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2. What are the What are the 7Cs of effective communication?

3. What is corporate communication? Discuss its functions?
4. How important is communication during a crisis? Discuss with an example from the
corporate world.
5. What is the difference between hearing and listening? What are the different types of
listening?
6. What are the key questions to answer in order to plan and draft an effective
presentation?
7. Discuss some of the legal issues involved in communication.
1. Hall, Edward T. (1963). "A System for the Notation of Proxemic Behavior".
2. Kapur, Radhika. (2020). The Principles of Communication.
3. Mark-Herbert, Cecilia & Carolina, Herbert &Schantz, Von. (2007). Communicating

Corporate Social Responsibility–Brand management. EJBO Electronic Journal of
Business Ethics and Organization Studies.
4. Monippally, Madhubuti M. (2001). Business Communication Strategies, Tata

McGraw-Hill Pub.
5. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication:

Understanding and sharing, McGraw-Hill.
**************LMS Feedback:lmsfeedback@sol-du.ac.in**************
School of Open L
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Unit-2
Written Skills
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
16. Examples of Oral communication ………………
A). Letter B). E-mail
C). Telephone D). Fax
2.2 Introduction (Writing)
2. Reports from the subordinates to the superiors take the form of………
2.3 Writing communication
A). Upward communication B). Downward Communication
C). Face
2.3.1 to face Communication
Advantages D). Person to person Communication
of writing communication
2.3.2 Disadvantages of writing communication
2.3.3 Planning Message
2.3.4 Executive Different types of messages
2.3.5 Different types of messages
2.4 Writing reports
2.4.1 Objectives of reports
2.4.2 Types of reports
2.4.3 format of report writing
2.4.4 steps to write a report
2.5.1 Sentence structure
2.5.2 Paragraph construction
2.6 Report Writing
2.7 Summary
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In this chapter we will:

 Engage in writing skills after being introduced with the definition and importance
of written communication in detail
 Learn how to Plan and execute messages even before drafting a written message
 Learn about different types of messages
 Know the significance of different types of reports in business world
 Improve our writing skills
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Enhancing one’s communication skills is of utmost importance. They can go a long way
in helping to prevent many mistakes that one may end up making in a business world.
The clear knowledge and understanding of various concepts such as verbal and
nonverbal communication, writing formal documents, and even correcting the basics
such as sentence structures and grammatical errors, can help build strong business
relationships. Lack of theoretical and practical knowledge of written communication can
lead to awkward situations. Therefore, proficiency in these aspects is highly required
which is the goal of this chapter to be brought forward to the students.
Communication is an activity which cannot be escaped. It is expected that after going
through the contents of this unit and the objectives laid down for the students, the
students will feel at ease and highly motivated to write clearly and enjoy the learning
process throughout. Not only will the various aspects of written communication make
the students confident, but they will also be comfortable with writing different styles of
writing by the time they reach the end of this unit.
This unit will make the students highly efficient in terms of producing writings which
would be complete in all aspects after gaining full knowledge and understanding of the
same. The various elements contained in this chapter will aid the student in learning
about written communication in depth.
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2.3 Writing Communication
Written communication is a type of verbal communication. It refers to the transfer of

messages through the written or printed word. It can be used both formally and
informally. Some of the examples of formal written communication are letters, reports,
circulars, business proposals, and notices. Whereas informal letters, text messages with a
friend, and handwritten notes are some of the widely used informal forms of written
communication.
2.3.1 Advantages of Written Communication
 A written document is precise.
 It is helpful in maintaining records.
 It is useful for future reference.
 It holds legal validity.
 It can be read as many times as the reader wants to gain clarity of thought.
 Charts and tables can be used in this form of communication.
 Written documents are used widely by organizations to convey their vision, policies,
rules and regulations to the employees.
 It offers scope for editing and proofreading a message.
2.3.2 Disadvantages of Written Communication

 It is time consuming. It requires careful planning and execution in order to make the
receiver comprehend the message entirely.
 Immediate feedback is not available.
 It amounts to a lot owing to the large use of stationery.
 It involves a lot of paperwork. It becomes challenging to maintain a record of the
same.
 Non-verbal cues of communication are absent.
2.3.3 Planning Message
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The transmission of messages from one person to another should be carefully planned in
order for the process of communication to be effective. There are some essentials which
heighten this effectiveness while creating a message and result in intended feedback
from the receiver. Following are the prerequisites for a strong and impactful message to
be observed by the sender of a message:
1. Complete: The sender must ensure that the message does not lack any relevant
information which is required to be sent to its audience. It should be complete in all
respects. In case a detail is missing from the message, it can lead to
misinterpretations. The feedback may not as be intended by the sender. The facts and
figures demanded by the subject of the message must be present entirely in the
message.
2. Clear: If the writer does not think clearly and plan in advance regarding what s/he
wants to convey to the receiver, the message runs the risk of losing its meaning. It
will result in bad impression. In other words, the writer must be clear about the
purpose of drafting a particular message. The language of the message should also not
be ambiguous. It may lead to doubt and confusion in the mind of the receiver.
3. Correct: The details provided in a message should be accurate. The statements
should not be misleading. The message should be grammatically and syntactically
correct. No room should be left for any sort of mistake as they cause inconvenience.
Messages such as reports, notices, or letters should be edited and proofread before
they are finally sent to the receiver.
4. Concise: Brevity is the key to effective communication. A writer with clear thought
knows exactly what to write without exaggerating any detail. A message that is short
and to-the-point leads to clear transmission of message. Each statement is meaningful
and relevant to the topic in a concise message.
5. Concrete: Facts and figures should be used to support the message and make it
impactful. These details should also be organized in a systematic manner so that its
meaning is clearly communicated to the receiver.
6. Coherent: A message must flow logically. In many of the written forms of
communication, a proper structure is followed which contains the introduction, the
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body, and the conclusion. Within this structure, all the details must be organized in an
order depending upon the subject matter and the needs of the readers.
7. Courteous: The tone of the message should be polite keeping the audience in mind.
The message should be considerate about the feelings, issues, and sensibilities of the
audience before choosing the appropriate words. The message must convey respectful
attitude towards the receiver. Offensive words and rude tone should be avoided to
have a positive response from the receiver.
2.3.4 Executive Different Types of Messages
After careful and successful planning, it is even more challenging to successfully

execute a message. There are different types of messages which a sender has to keep
in mind that can garner either a positive, neutral or a negative response from the
audience. But even before coming to this understanding, the sender must first
understand the audience. The sender’s knowledge of the audience with reference to
their age groups, the culture that they belong to, their economic level, their needs and
expectations will help in getting a closer look at their point of view in any given
scenario. It is imperative that a “you” or the “reader-centred” approach must be
essentially followed in business communication. It is this approach that will provide
the sender the experience of dealing with them regularly. Here, a writer-centric or the
self-centred approach while preparing messages will not lead to positive feedback
from the audience as it will only be focusing on its own needs. However, the reader-
oriented approach builds trust and confidence in the creator of the message. It builds a
healthy business atmosphere between a seller and a buyer, for instance. The use of
courteous tone in the message promotes encouragement and results in desired
feedback from the recipient. Simultaneously, a positive impression of the
organization gets created. It is therefore highly recommended that the readers’
interests should begiven the utmost priority.
While planning effective business messages, writers are faced with innumerable
questions that they need to first ask themselves before executing them completely:
 What will be my reaction if I were in the receiver’s place?
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 How would I have expected the tone of the letter to be while being explained the
issue?
 Should I have expected more clarity on the matter?
 Will I be expecting more accuracy in the content?
2.3.5 Different Types of Messages
After having undergone this reflective process, writers execute the messages keeping
the expected feedback in mind. Based on the different types of messages, writers’
draft statements carefully so that the readers don’t get disappointed and maintain a
healthy business relationship.
1. Request Messages: They are claim letters which state direct requests in the opening
of the letter. They are followed by supporting arguments for the request so that
necessary action can be taken at the earliest. These arguments are followed by a brief
explanation which further heightens the need for quick action to be undertaken by the
company. For instance, an electronics company’s response to a claim letter seeking
replacement of a defective air conditioner recently bought from the company could be
“We understand your concern. Since the product is still within warranty, the issue
will be resolved. Thank you for giving us the opportunity to serve you better.”
Statements like these build trust of the buyer in the company and encourages them to
stay connected with them every step of the way.
2. Positive Messages: They are the messages that deliver good news, and the receiver is
expected to react in a neutral to pleased manner. Congratulatory messages, messages
of appreciation, appraisal messages, or apology messages are some of the examples.
Statements like, “We would like to congratulate you for your hard work and your
efforts that you showed towards the project which translated into the company
achieving a higher ranking”, or “We apologize for the inconvenience caused. The
matter will be looked into with immediate effect” result in a positive response.
3. Negative Messages: These are the messages where the reader is expected to be
annoyed and vexed. Some of the examples giving rise to such a situation can be a
company’s refusal to issue a refund or its inability to resolve a matter. It is here that
drafting a neutral response from the company proves to be useful. They have to
ensure that their conclusion is backed by strong arguments that facilitate acceptance
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by the receiver without hampering their business relationship. Instead of saying direct
“No”, the company can offer some positive suggestions in order to direct the receiver
to feasible alternatives. For instance, “Thank you for placing an order with us. We
appreciate your interest in our products. This is to let you know that due to an
unexpected demand of the same product, we would be able to serve you with a slight
delay of 5-6 days. Please find a gift utility coupon of Rs. 250/- in the “Coupons”
section. The coupon is valid for the next 21 days. We are thankful to you for choosing
us to serve you.”
4. Persuasive Messages: These messages are required to persuade an unwilling and
disinterested receiver. The language has to be convincing and confident to move the
receiver. At the same time, it has to be supported by evidence leading the receiver
towards the desired action. For instance, “The new bank portal must be downloaded
by the customer because it is more secure than the previous one. It may appear
incomprehensible at first, but it has various user-friendly features. The bank assures
you that once you start to explore, you’ll be immediately familiarised with it.”
After an understanding of the reader-oriented approach while planning and executing
different types of messages, it becomes clear how these stages play a crucial role in the
business realm. Communication thus is not a mere transfer of messages from the sender to
the receiver. It incorporates various other factors that go into making the whole process of
communication effective.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
17. Examples of Oral communication ………………
A). Letter B). E-mail
C). Telephone D). Fax
2. Reports from the subordinates to the superiors take the form of………
A). Upward communication B). Downward Communication
C). Face to face Communication D). Person to person Communication
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2.4 WRITING REPORTS
The term “Report” originates from the Latin word “report are”. It means to bring back or
carry back. A report, therefore, is a document which aims to bring back details of an
event in an organized manner for a definite receiver. As a form of formal
communication, reports play a vital role in communicating crucial information across
both intra and inter organizational levels. It is an important document which is required
by managers time and again. For instance, within an organisation, a manager relies
heavily on his employees for the collection of data, figures, or other specific information
with reference to an event which is further organized by them in the format of the report
and sent to the manager. The details contained within a report, in turn, can be used for
effective decision-making and problem solving. Similarly, sometimes governments form
separate departments which oversee a set of events specific to each department. In such
cases, the reports get communicated from each department to the government carrying
deciding particulars. Through such instances, it thus becomes clear that reports are
highly informative and help an organization strengthen professional relationships both
within and outside its domain.
2.4.1 Objectives of Reports
While identifying the various objectives of report writing, it is important to keep in
mind that the scope of reports is extensive. A report can be prepared for the following
purposes:
 To present information of an event, be it facts or figures, in an organized manner
 To disseminate details to a specific audience
 To inform the receiver about the progress and the underlying problems of an
organization
 To provide recommendations or proposed plan or solutions, wherever required, solely
based on the data provided in the report
 To record the event objectively for future reference
 To promote efficacious decision-making
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2.4.2 Types of Reports
Reports serve as efficient business tools. Business reports usually cover the issues
related to a company’s business. They cover a wide range of topics such as the review
of an issue or an event, the assessment of the business acquired over a period of time,
or the evaluation of the progress of some work assigned to a team of employees of the
company. They are extremely formal in nature. Such reports require inclusion of a lot
of factual data. As mentioned, owing to their manner of objective presentation and
communication of details, and their vertical and lateral movement in the business
world, reports get classified in several forms:
 Informational Report: While drafting informational reports, it is made sure that each
and every detail of an event is presented objectively. In other words, no personal
opinions, interpretations or suggestions are offered to maintain the nature of these
reports. Annual reports are a good example of informational report writing. These
reports provide information regarding a company’s growth in their respective sector
from the previous financial year to the current. Financial reports too serve as a useful
tool which inform a company about its business with the help of clearly tracking cash
inflows and outflows of a company.
 Analytical Report: These reports provide the analysis of the observations made by
the reporter along with the collection and presentation of data. This helps the receiver
of this report to understand the actual scenario. The reporter drafts an analytical report
with the aim of bringing to the receiver a description and an understanding of the
events in depth. As opposed to the informational reports, analytical reports tend to
provide interpretations and recommendations based as well in an attempt to solve
problems. A report identifying fall in the sales of a company product and analysing its
effects on the company and seeking recommendations simultaneously for countering
the fall in sales can be classified as an analytical report.
 Vertical Report: This refers to the direction in which a report travel. The reports
which follow the upward or downward flow of communication on the corporate
ladder are called vertical reports.
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 Lateral Report: Lateral reports, on the other hand, move horizontally at the same
hierarchical level. They help in coordination across different departments.
 Internal Report: The reports which move either horizontally or vertically within an
organization are called internal reports. They are also useful in clearly stating the
business objectives to its employees by keeping them updated on several factors such
as sales data or company turnover of the company. A report providing performance
details of a company’s crucial project to its employees with an aim of keeping them
informed is a good example of internal report.
 External Report: As opposed to the internal reports, the reports which move outside
the organization are called external reports. The purpose of these reports is to keep all
the stakeholders of an organization informed. For instance, annual report of a
company which clearly states the financial statements move outside the company by
being circulated to its various stakeholders.
 Progress Report: These reports are submitted by the employees to their superiors on
a weekly or a monthly basis. In other words, progress reports must be submitted at
regular intervals by the employees in order to keep a track of the work assigned to
them. Descriptive details such as the amount of work completed during a specific
period of time or the future course of action of the project at hand are mentioned.
Simultaneously, these help to keep in check the performance of the employees as
well.
 Periodic Report: These reports are required by the upper echelons of the
organization periodically to know precisely the performance of the entire
organization. It involves details of everyday affairs such as the problems that a
company might be facing, the solutions that have already been utilised to resolve the
issues and the proposed solutions which would be fruitful in countering similar
problems in the future. These reports are precise.
2.4.3 Formats of report Writing
Reports have been further divided into two based on the different formats they follow.
1. Letter Format: If a report is to be sent outside the organization, that is, if it is an
external report, the letter format is used for writing report. It is useful for drafting
long reports.
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Elements of Letter Format of Report:

1. Heading: Name and address of the organization of the reporter
2. Date: The date of sending the report
3. Receiver’s Address: along with receiver’s designation
4. Subject
5. Salutation
6. Body of the report: It includes introduction, observations and findings, and
conclusion based on the details given in the beginning. It may also include
internal headings and tables for a precise and clear understanding of the subject.
As far as the language is concerned, it can be written in first person.
7. Complimentary close
8. Signature
9. Enclosures (if any)
2. Memo Format:It is short for “memorandum”. It is a brief note or a record for future
reference that moves within the organization. Terms such as “Interoffice
Memorandum” or “Office Memorandum” are used while drafting the memo format of
the report.
Elements of Memo Format of Report:
1. Heading: Name and address of the organization of the reporter
2. Title: Interoffice Memorandum/ Office Memorandum
3. Date
4. To: Recipient’s Designation
5. From: Sender’s Designation
6. Subject
7. Body: The formal salutation which is an essential part of the letter format is not
required here.However, like in the letter format of report, personal pronouns can
be used in the Memo Format as well. It can also include recommendations and
suggestions.
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8. Signature: Complimentary close as present in the letter format is not required

here. Providing signature with name is sufficient here as the designation of the
reporter is already mentioned in the beginning of this format.
2.4.4 Steps to write a report
Writing a report can be a challenging task. A reporter has to make sure that taking
specific subject matters into consideration, the correct type of report should be chosen
and drafted with careful planning. One has to always bear in mind the audience of the
report so that it can be drafted accordingly for their understanding. There are some
steps that should be followed while drafting a report:
1. Introduction: A report must begin with a clear statement of purpose. Here, the
subject of the report can be introduced. At this step, the report should indicate the
readers what they could expect in the following body of the report.
2. Providing Information: All the relevant details including the context of the subject
matter being recorded in the form of a report must be provided to arrive at a logical
conclusion. The observations and findings regarding what happened need to be
included here.
3. Development: Based on the observations provided in the above step, the explanation
and analysis of the issues related to the subject matter is done at this step.
4. Conclusion or Recommendations: A reporter arrives at conclusions or proposes
some recommendations depending upon the details given in the report. If a problem
persists, the recipient can expect the reporter to provide recommendations from
his/her perspective. This will help the recipient to monitor the situation clearly.
5. Editing and Proofreading: After finishing the report, a reporter must ensure that the
correct format of the report is used other than the type of report. Any unnecessary
information has to be removed from the report. The statement of purpose should be
clearly mentioned. The report must be devoid of grammatical and syntactical errors.
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Sample Reports
A: Assistant Vice President of ABC Company has asked for a progress report from the
Manager. Draft a report clearly stating the status of the work assigned to you. Also, provide
your plan for the same over the period of next two months.
ABC Company
New Delhi
Interoffice Memorandum
Date: 17 August 2022
To: Assistant Vice President
From: Manager
Subject: Progress Report for July 2022 and Plan for August and September 2022
As per your requirement, I am sharing the report on the amount of work completed in the
month of July 2022 for the target assigned to me.
S. No. Client Name Date of Meeting Amount of Expected Closure Date
Business
1. Supreme Logistics 03 July 2022 Rs. 10 Cr Closed on 20 July 2022
2 Rajesh Auto Parts 05 July 2022 Rs. 2 Cr Closed on 15 July 2022
3 Kumar Auto Sales 15 July 2022 Rs. 7 Cr Closed on 30 July 2022
4 Smart Ventures Pvt 03 Aug 2022 Rs. 20 Cr Expected to be closed
Ltd on 27 Aug 2022
5 Tarachand & Sons Meeting to be Rs. 5 Cr Expected to be closed
held on 18 Aug on 03 Sep 2022
2022
(signature)
XYZ
B: You are the CEO of ABC Firm. Write a report sharing first quarter’s financial results for
the year 2022 and CFO succession to be sent to a stakeholder.
ABC Firm
Gurugram
Date: 17 August 2022
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179, Nariman Point,

Mumbai-400004
Subject: Half year 2022 financial results and CFO succession

Dear Stakeholder
Today, we are releasing consolidated financial results for ABC Firm's first quarter of 2022
(April 1 – June 30), as well as for our business segments. All our businesses have delivered
exceptional and record-breaking numbers, much ahead of the plans.
We reported revenue of approximately $8 billion, an increase of 5% as compared to the
prior-year second quarter. Adjusting for the impact of foreign currency, revenue growth was
2%. On an organic basis, which excludes the impact of foreign currency and any acquisitions
or divestures, revenue growth was 3.5%.
Our adjusted operating margin increased by 190 basis points and was 15% of revenue,
compared to 12% of revenue for the prior-year second quarter. And our overall free cash
flow results were $500 million.
Based on these strong results, it is clear that ABC Firm is well positioned to compete
vigorously across our businesses around the world. We are winning new business, bringing
the best to our clients and actively recruiting. And we are going to continue to innovate and
adapt to address evolving client needs.
Lastly, we are delighted to announce that the ABC Firm’s board of directors has
unanimously selected Mr. Vijay Sharma as the company’s new chief financial officer. Mr.
Vijay Sharma currently leads our Banking segment and will immediately take on the role and
succeed current Mr. Ankur Mehta in this role, upon his retirement on December 31, 2022.
Yours sincerely
(signature)
Mr. Umesh Singh
CEO
ABC Firm
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. …….. aims at making people work together for the common good of the
organization.
A). Communication B). Conversation
C). Combination D). Connections
4. Communication is a nonstop………
A). Paper B). Process
C). Programmed D). Plan
It is often found that despite having an understanding of what to write, how to organize
thoughts and execute them in the written format, written communication is full of
grammatical and syntactical errors. It is because of these mistakes that a company ends
up leaving a bad impression upon the receiver. This leads to a decline in an established
business relationship. Therefore, writing skills are of paramount importance. Before
moving on to composing long paragraphs and essays, it is essential to start from the
basics.
2.5.1 Sentence Structure
The knowledge of sentence structure can prove to be the steppingstone for creating
clear and correct messages. Broadly, a sentence has two parts: the Subject and the
Predicate. The subject indicates the doer of the action, while the predicate tells
something about the subject. For example,
Subject Predicate
 The police caught the thief.
 Anil kicked the football.
 The dog jumped over the wall.
Each of the sentences clearly state how a sentence can be broadly divided into two. Delving
deep into this, it is to be understood that each of the words used in a sentence has its own role
which in turn add meaning to the sentence. This brings us to the different parts of speech
which collaborate to make a sentence.
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1. Parts of Speech
 Noun: names of people, places, animals, things, the state of a person: for example,
Jia, crown, table, anger
 Pronoun: words that are used in place of a noun to avoid repetition: for example, I,
you, he, she, it, we, they
 Adjective: words that describe nouns or pronouns: for example, beautiful, vast,
enormous
 Verb: words that indicate action or state of being for example, dance, study, be
 Adverb: words that describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs: for example, very,
really, soon, sometimes
 Prepositions: words that are placed before a noun or a pronoun: for example, at, on,
for, with
 Conjunctions: words that link words, phrases and clauses in a sentence: for example,
because, but, and, either…or
 Interjections: words that express sudden emotion: for example, oh, alas, hey
After going through each of these details, one should be comfortable in identifying various
parts of speeches while framing a sentence.
Some of the most common mistakes found in writing styles in terms of Sentence structure
are:
1. Run-on Sentence:
a) Incorrect sentence-The manager asked for the report from Anil by yesterday he
has not sent it yet
This is an example of a run-on sentence which does not separate two independent
clauses with the help of any punctuation mark.
Correction-The manager asked for the report from Anil by yesterday. He has not
sent it yet.
b) Incorrect sentence- She loves to write stories she would write more often if she
had the time
Correction- She loves to write stories. She would write more often if she had the
time.
OR
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She loves to write stories, and she would write more often if she had the time.
2. Sentence Fragment:
a) Incorrect sentence-Because the manager fired Anil is an example of a sentence
fragment. Although it contains the main verb, it stands incomplete as it is
dependent on another clause indicated by the presence of the word “Because”.
Correction-Because the manager fired Anil, he had to advertise for the vacant
position.
b) Incorrect sentence-Shows no sign of declaring a bonus. (Subject missing)
Correction- The company shows no sign of declaring a bonus.
3. Parallel Structure:
It means that the same pattern of words is used throughout the sentence.
a) Incorrect sentence- Reena likes dancing, singing, and to hike.
Correction- Reena likes dancing, singing, and hiking.
OR
Reena likes to dance, sing, and hike.
b) Incorrect sentence- The company awards those employees who are diligent,
efficient, and who submit their work on time.
Correction- The company awards diligent, efficient, and punctual employees.
4. Lengthy phrases and sentences:
It is essential to avoid lengthy phrases and sentences to highlight clarity of thought in
the written content. Concise phrases and sentences should be preferred always.
Phrases
Due to the fact that- because
In the end - ultimately
Give consideration to - consider
Sooner or later - eventually
Sentences
a) When I started my own company, it gave me skills to handle problems on my own
and find their solutions.
Concise version:
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Starting my own company made me adept at solving problems.
b) There are two employees who have been selected for this year’s Best Employee
Award.
Concise version:
Two employees have been selected for this year’s Best Employee Award.
2.5.2 Paragraph Construction
Now that sentence structure and common mistakes with reference to the same have
been discussed, the next step of paragraph construction demands equal attention. It is
imperative for a paragraph to be dedicated to one central topic. All the sentences of
the topic should be connected to that same topic being discussed in a paragraph. It
must mention the topic sentence either in the beginning, the middle, or the end of the
paragraph. The rest of the sentences in the paragraph provide support using vivid
words, logical sentence order, and grammatically and syntactically correct sentences.
An effective paragraph lacks run-on sentences. It also uses transition words such as
‘then’, ‘in addition to’, or ‘finally’ to connect separate paragraphs coherently. The
concluding sentence of a paragraph summarizes the central idea discussed in the
paragraph.
As far as paragraph breaks are concerned, they offer a pause to the reader before
moving into a different set of ideas in the new paragraph. There is no fixed number of
sentences to be dedicated to one paragraph. The main idea is to stick to one chain of
thought while writing one paragraph. A good writer reflects these aspects in writing.
Look at the following group of sentences and try to compose them logically:
Since this is not the kind of experience, we want you to have, we've made a note of
your feedback on the driver-partner's profile. Please note that we have adjusted the
fare as per our thresholds and will not be able to make any further changes to the trip
fare. We appreciate you bringing this to our attention. We are sorry to hear that you
are not happy with the fare you have been charged for this trip.
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Solution:
We are sorry to hear that you are not happy with the fare you have been charged for
this trip. Please note that we have adjusted the fare as per our thresholds and will not
be able to make any further changes to the trip fare. Since this is not the kind of
experience, we want you to have, we've made a note of your feedback on the driver-
partner's profile. We appreciate you bringing this to our attention.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. Communication is a ………. skills.
A). Soft B). Hard
C). Rough D). Short
6. A business proposal from a branch manager of a company to the managing

director of the company is an example of horizontal communication.
(True/False)
2.6 Writing Composition
After understanding how to construct a paragraph, it is important to take the next big
step wherein paragraph will be seen as a part of a larger essay. Many paragraphs
combine to make one long essay. An essay composition requires three parts- the
introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Skilful writers remind themselves of these
three broad requirements as they continue to pursue writing essays. Other than one
paragraph dedicated to both introduction and conclusion, there are more than one
paragraphs which develop the key idea in the body of the essay. Just as creating a
paragraph requires supporting statements developing the key idea, essay composition
too demands the same through the inclusion of several paragraphs. The purpose is to
develop the thesis statement in an elaborate manner. There are some steps that can be
followed to compose an essay systematically:
1. Prewriting: it is the first step where a writer comes up with a topic. Various
methods such as making notes, brainstorming, or free writing are used in order to
finalize the main idea on which the body of the essay would be developed. The
whole plan and structure to execute its various themes and sub-topics is charted at
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this stage. The purpose of writing is made clear. Questions such as why, for whom,
and what are thought of and answered. After the topic has been decided, the thesis
statement has to be decided. Clarity in this regard expresses the author’s clarity of
thought. Ideas can be developed logically later in the essay once the thesis
statement is established in the beginning.
2. Writing: a) Introduction- The writer should capture the readers’ attention through
the introductory paragraph. The thesis statement should be carefully placed here so
that the readers become interested in reading further. The plan to incorporate
various themes, and sub-topics which were decided at the prewriting stage must be
divulged here. The reader should be directed towards the organization of the
writing.
b) Body of the essay- Ideas are developed here. Facts, figures, and other details
specific to the topic are provided. Body of an essay can have more than one
paragraph. The writer has to ensure that each paragraph is related to the thesis
statement and gets developed with the help of supporting ideas.
c) Conclusion- After systematically organizing the ideas throughout the
introduction and the body of the essay, the last paragraph that sums up the main
points is called the concluding paragraph. It gives the coherent shape to the whole
writing. Phrases such as, “After a thorough analysis of this, it is clear that…”,
“Therefore,”, “It can be concluded that…” or “Thus,” are used to conclude an
essay.
3. Editing: At the end, editing and proof-reading eliminate any errors present in the
writing. The writer can revise, replace, add or omit any phrase or sentence which
seems incorrect. This will help the readers receive a well-organized and completely
correct version of the essay.
It is therefore clear that writing is a challenging task. It requires dedication at every stage
right from the beginning, be it the sentence structure, grammar, paragraph construction, or
essay composition.
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2.7 SUMMARY
Each business relies heavily on the formal modes of communication. These include a
lot of written communication. Therefore, as seen in this unit, written communication is
put on a high pedestal. If a writer goes wrong even on the basic level, it will end up
leaving a bad impression on the receiver of their message and may also result in
hampering their established business relationship.
A thorough knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of written communication,
how to plan and execute different types of messages and their relevance in the business
world, the role of different types of reports, and how to improve one’s writing skills
beginning absolutely from the start, can help one achieve efficiency.
As shown through various examples of planning, executing, organizing data in a
systematic manner and correction to be made at the first level of phrases and sentences
will help a writer create highly impactful written communication in every field. Any
person who has to work in a vast business environment should attain fluency in
communication. It will help one attain the ability to perform all tasks without any
trouble.
1. Telephone
2. Upward Communication
3. Communication
4. Process
5. Soft
6. False
Q1. Try to identify some parts of speeches in the following sentences:

1. I admitted my mistake politely.
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2. The boy swam across the river.

3. The company rejected my application.
4. There has been a huge rise in the sales of our product lately.
5. The table is right behind you.
Q2. As Administrative officer of ABC College, you, as a part of routine inspection, visited
the college canteen. Write a report to the principal about the findings. Also include
recommendations in the report.
Q3. You are a woman activist. You carried out a survey to find out the reasons of escalating
crimes against woman in Delhi. Prepare a report on the outcome of the same. Also
recommend some measures.
Q4. Draft a report on the increase in sales in the first quarter of the current financial year to
be sent to the shareholders of your company.
Q5. Discuss the importance of written communication in the business world.
Q6. What should a writer keep in mind before drafting a formal document?
Q7. What are the different steps of writing a composition?
Garg, Manoj Kumar. (2020). English Fluency (Part 1). New Delhi: MKM Publishers
Pvt. Ltd.
Garg, Manoj Kumar. (2020). English Proficiency: A Handbook for Basic Learners of
English. New Delhi: MKM Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Halder, Deb Dulal, Dev, Anjana Neira, & Malhotra, Prerna. (2012). Technical Writing
and Communication: Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Book Age Publications.
Halder, Deb Dulal, & Malhotra, Prerna. (2020). Communication Skills: Theory and
Practice. New Delhi: Book Age Publications.
Markel, Michael H. (1984). Technical Writing: Situations and Strategies. New York:
St. Martin’s Press.
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LESSON 3
INTERNPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
STRUCTURE

3.2 Introduction
3.3.1 Principles of Interpersonal Communication
3.3.2 Theories of Interpersonal Communication
3.4 Communicating in Teams
3.4.1 Characteristics of a Team
3.4.2 Team Communication
3.4.3 Strategies to Improve Team Communication
3.4.4 Challenges in Team Communication
3.5 Negotiation
3.5.1 Types of Negotiations
3.5.2 Some Key Negotiation Skills
3.5.3 Key Strategies in Negotiation
3.6 Communication Skills During a Conflict
3.6.1 Communication Strategies for Conflict Situations
3.7 Mentoring and Appraisals
3.7.1 Objectives of Mentoring
3.7.2 How to ensure effective communication in a mentoring relationship?
3.7.3 Appraisals
3.8 Communication in social media and Digital Communication
3.8.1 Communication Using Social Media Campaigns
3.8.2 Social Media Communication as a Key External Communication Strategy
3.8.3 Challenges in Social Media Communication
3.9 Summary
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After completion of this lesson, you should be able to: -
 Define interpersonal communication, its principles and the major theories of

interpersonal communication.
 Understand the dynamics of communicating in teams and apply strategies for

improving your communication within the team.
 Understand the process of negotiation and apply communication strategies for

successful negotiations.
 Use communication strategies for averting and resolution of conflicts.
 Formulate a plan for mentoring and communicating with mentees for improved
transfer of knowledge and skills.
 Improve handling of appraisals through communication strategies.
 Understand the process of digital communication and social media communication.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Lack of communication ruins everything because instead of knowing how the

other person is feeling, we just assume.
- From the Internet
Humans are a gregarious species for whom communication is a tool of socialisation.

We communicate with each other all the time at the level of individual-to-individual,
individual-to-group and vice versa. In fact, communication is identified as a basic human
need which implies that people engage in interpersonal communication throughout their lives
starting from infancy till the very end of one’s life.
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Interpersonal communication is a very important and highly valued skill not just in
the professional context, but also in the personal and social context. It is through
interpersonal communication that humans develop and maintain relationships.
On closer examination of the concept of interpersonal communication, you will

realise that you simply cannot choose to opt out of it. There is no way you can choose not to
have interpersonal communication. So much so that making a conscious decision not to
communicate by ignoring somebody is also a type of communication. Your signal of
ignoring someone will be decoded based on the other non-verbal signals accompanying your
silence.
Interpersonal Communication refers to the exchange of thoughts, ideas and feelings

between two or more people through the means of verbal and non-verbal communication.
Interpersonal communication can be of the following types: -
a. Listening – The most important yet the most neglected communication type is that of
listening or active listening which is the cornerstone of interpersonal communication
as well as a relationship.
b. Verbal – It is the spoken word, including the language that you select, the manner in
which you speak, and so on.
c. Non-Verbal – In a face-to-face interaction, everything that gets conveyed without the
use of words is non-verbal communication. It includes gestures, postures, silence, eye
contact (or absence of it), expressions, pitch of voice, intonation and modulation, etc.
d. Written - This type includes the use of writing and involves codifying the message in
a particular language that the receiver understands.
3.3.1 Principles of Interpersonal Communication
There are certain principles of interpersonal communication that form the basis of our
understanding of the phenomenon. These principles will help a discerning individual to be an
effective communicator. The principles are mentioned below: -
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(i) You cannot do without interpersonal communication. In other words, interpersonal

communication is indispensable. It is quite evident that a life devoid of any
interpersonal communication is impossible. Any attempt to lead a life of complete
isolation is bound to fail, as the interdependence of humans for emotional, physical and
material needs is inescapable.
(ii) Interpersonal communication is irreversible by definition. It simply means that once

you communicate something, it is out there and cannot be taken back. You may regret
whatever you said or make a formal apology; however, the damage to the relationship
may already have taken place. Mahatma Gandhi famously wrote in his autobiography: -
“And I can now give myself the certificate that a thoughtless word hardly ever
escapes my tongue or pen”.
- Mahatma Gandhi
(iii) Interpersonal communication is a complex process due to the sheer variety of the
variables involved in it. There are the individuals themselves who choose a language,
words, symbols, body language, expressions, etc. followed by perceptions of the
individuals and then there is the all-important ‘context’, all of which have infinite
permutations and combinations causing interpersonal communication to be highly
complex.
(Source: https://redshoemovement.com/)
Fig. 3.1: Is communication really taking place
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(iv) Interpersonal communication occurs in a context that a communicator needs to be

aware about. In other words, the context help you determine how your messages will
be interpreted. The broad categories into which the context can be segregated are listed
below: -
a. Psychological: - Interpersonal communication is influenced by the state of mind

or the state of psychological well-being of the parties engaged in communication.
For instance, an individual under considerable work-related pressure may get
agitated on being asked completely harmless questions at home or yell at a child
who insists on him / her playing with the child.
b. Situational: - The place / situation / circumstance / occasion / setting where the
communication is taking place has a great impact on it. In simple words, people
communicate differently in different situations.
c. Relational: - The nature of relationship that exists between the communicating
parties greatly influences the communication process. For instance, two friends
would communicate so differently when compared to how each of them would
communicate with, his / her parents.
d. Cultural: - Every culture has certain set of unwritten rules that are manifest and
understood only by those initiated into that culture. The difference in cultures of
the people engaging in communication may cause them to interpret signals
differently due to ethnocentric bias or ethnocentrism.
3.3.2 Theories of Interpersonal Communication
There are several theories of Interpersonal Communication that provide very useful
framework for understanding the process. These theories are based on different perspectives
and accordingly help in the study and practice of effective communication.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Human beings are inherently uncomfortable with uncertainty and prefer
predictability. The uncertainty is classified into cognitive and behavioural uncertainties. The
former refers to the lack of clarity on the other person’s beliefs, thoughts, views and
opinions, etc. whereas the latter refers to the lack of predictability of an individual’s actions.
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The uncertainty reduction theory tries to explain the initial interaction among people
as an attempt to reduce the uncertainty as to their behaviour towards each other. The higher
the uncertainty the greater is the distance between people. The theory assumes that people
would cognitively gauge uncertainty and act with the objective of reducing it. Though, there
needs to be a trigger as per this theory that will prompt the individual to take steps to reduce
the uncertainty. This trigger is usually in the form of a social situation and / or the cognitive
process. The uncertainty reduction theory states that people tend to reduce uncertainty using
the approaches mentioned below: -
Active Approach
It involves an individual trying to gain information about the target by asking those
acquainted with the latter.
Passive Approach
As the name suggests, the passive approach entails gathering information about the
other person by observation.
Interactive Approach
This approach is also an active approach where an individual uses direct interaction
as a strategy to learn about the other person by probing and sharing.
Extractive Approach
The extractive information seeking approach was later added to the theory and is
about using online media to get information about a person.
Application of the Uncertainty Reduction Theory

The major application of the uncertainty reduction theory is in the area of
intercultural communication, recruitment, treatment of patients and computer-mediated
communication (CMC).
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Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)

The various forms of communication between people that happens through two
or more electronic devices connected through network, which can be
synchronous and asynchronous. The exchange can be one-to-one, one-to-many
and many-to-many through the medium of text messaging, voice and video.
Social Exchange Theory

The social exchange theory states that individuals choose social interactions that they
perceive to be beneficial for them. This theory postulates that human interaction is akin to
economic trade which is founded on cost-benefit analysis, with each participant vying for
maximization of benefits and minimization of costs. The process involves disclosure of
information between individuals as long as the costs of doing so are more than offset by the
benefits. As a consequence, the individuals progressively gain intimacy as long as they keep
receiving rewards. Marriage is an example of a social exchange where each individual in the
relationship feels content and comfortable as long as they feel that they are getting
reciprocated with benefits equal to the efforts put in by him / her. The failure of a marriage is
a result of decreasing level of rewards and reciprocity as perceived by one or both the
partners. A similar situation can be imagined in a professional context where an employee
will be discontent if he / she thinks that the remuneration is not commensurate with the
efforts and performance. It must be amply clear by now that the cornerstones of this theory
are the cost-benefit analysis and reciprocity.
3.4 COMMUNICATING IN TEAMS
A team is a group of individuals selected on the basis of possession of

complementary skills who work together and generate synergy to achieve a common
objective. Teamwork is based on sharing of responsibility and active communication.
How are Teams different from Groups?
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The simple difference between a group and a team lies in that, in the former, the
members coordinate their efforts in the pursuit of individual goals and in the latter, the
members coordinate their efforts towards achievement of a common goal.
3.4.1 Characteristics of a Team
Clarity of Goal
The fundamental aspect of teams is that before a team is put together, the goals /
objective and the desired outcomes have to be decided. It would help the team to work with a
clear direction. However, the team is often given sufficient flexibility to formulate strategies
for achieving the goals.
Interdependence
The team members are dependent on each other and are unable to achieve the goals
independently. There is considerable reliance of the team members on each other for the right
information and support in terms of expertise in a particular domain.
Responsibility and Accountability

The team members are collectively responsible for completion of the assigned work
and are collectively accountable for it. The risks and rewards are shared by the team
members.
Authority
The team as a unit is given the authority to make decisions pertaining to the activities
undertaken by it in the pursuit of the desired outcomes and goals.
Open Communication
Communication is the most important ingredient for an effective and successful team.
The way of communication, the methods adopted for communication within the team and the
frequency of communication, etc. determine how well the team is functioning. It is this
characteristic of teams that we will be focusing on.
3.4.2 Team Communication
Team communication refers to the exchange of information among the members of a

team working towards a common goal / objective. An overwhelming number of professionals
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would agree that the most common cause of failures in the workplace is ineffective
communication. Organisations rely on teams for getting the work done and therefore,
effective teams are valued very highly not just in the organisational context but also in
myriad fields, such as sports, research, etc.
Benefits of Improving Team Communication

Organisations and leaders are constantly on the lookout for ways of improving
communication within the organisation. These organisations have several teams that are
working on crucial projects. It is imperative for leaders to ensure that there is a culture of
open and effective communication for smooth functioning of the organisation and for the
achievement of organisational objectives. Improving team communication has the following
key benefits:
Rapport Building
During the initial phase of a team, improving communication within the team reduces
the uncertainty as to each other’s behaviour which helps break the ice. It leads to better
coordination and helps build trust and confidence within the team. A well-coordinated team
with no trust issues is better placed for achieving the goals and desired outcomes.
Fosters Innovation
Continuous exchange of information and feedback within a team can be the source of
creativity and innovation. It helps discover more efficient ways of doing things and arriving
at out-of-the-box solutions to work-related problems.
Conflict Management
Possibly the greatest advantage of better team communication is that it helps in early
resolution of conflicts within the team. It can even help in avoiding and averting potential
conflict situations. Active listening is a skill that is all important in team communication as it
improves shared understanding of each other’s perspectives, opinions, needs and emotions.
By paying attention to other’s perspectives and giving it a genuine thought, you will be able
to better comprehend and appreciate them and respond in a constructive manner thereby
minimizing the chances of conflicts. Active listening also includes “listening” to the body
language which can supplement your comprehension of the spoken word. Some very simple
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yet useful techniques that will come handy in handling situations of conflict are mentioned
below (Note how these are all closely connected with active listening):
Paraphrase: Restate what the other person has said in your own words. This will prompt the
other person to recognize that you genuinely listened to him / her and that you understand the
other person’s view.
Restate: It is plain repetition of what the other person has just told you. This again
demonstrates that you are actively engaging in the communication.
Reframe: It is a description of what you understand about the other person’s needs or
demands. If you use positive language to reframe, it will show your earnestness to overcome
the impasse.
Summarize: It involves a giving a brief of the situation in your own words also putting into
words the emotions that may have been manifest in the other person’s communication. It will
reassure them that you have the right understanding of the situation.
Improves Productivity
A team that communicates effectively gets to improve its productivity as there is a
clear understanding of each other and very few chances of an information blockage. We have
seen technology coming to the aid of teams in the form of applications that enable sharing of
screens, virtual meetings, etc. It has lowered the timeframe required for team members to get
in sync.
Work Culture
Communicating routinely as a trust and confidence building measure helps build a
work culture that appreciates and values teamwork. It helps create a healthy and transparent
work environment where employees put in their best with earnestness.
3.4.3 Strategies to Improve Team Communication
In an idyllic workplace, there is open communication with full professionalism and

close collaboration among team members. Each team member is aware and conscious of his /
her roles and responsibilities. There are no conflicts and all goals are achieved within the
given timelines.
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However, the reality is nowhere close to the above picture. Most workplaces are
characterised by mistrust, misunderstandings, conflicts, delays and cost overruns.
There are certain strategies that will help in improving team communication and
overcoming issues, such as misunderstandings, conflicts, delays, etc. Some of these strategies
have been discussed below:
Cultivate “Open-Door Policy”

Many organisations have been following the open-door policy which encourages
employees to ask questions, raise concerns, share experiences and put forward novel ideas.
Some have gone to the extent of removing actual doors and partitions as it is believed that it
would facilitate free exchange of thoughts and ideas. The open-door policy also helps create
an atmosphere of trust and confidence which is conducive for improvement in productivity.
This policy would help in immediate resolution of issues rather than waiting for a formal
meeting to be scheduled for it.
Exchange Feedback
The leaders must help develop a practice of exchanging feedback at various levels.
Feedback is a two-way process and the person receiving the feedback needs to develop a
receptive temperament. However, feedback has to be constructive rather than vindictive.
Documentation of constructive feedback can also help create resources that can be used for
future learning.
Team-Building Exercises
Team outings, excursions, games and other such fun activities go a very long way in
improving the communication between team members. A two-day trip with your colleagues
will help you learn about them more than years of working together in office. Such activities,
if planned at regular intervals, can be a great de-stressing experience. It will help the team
members rejuvenate themselves and the activities undertaken during the team-building
exercise will help expose hidden talents in some of the team members.
Use Technology
Technology has provided tools for teams to better coordinate and simplify workflow.
There are innumerable cloud-based applications available which aid in communicating
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better, especially when the team is not located at one place. Standardizing the use of some of
these applications will make it convenient for everyone and it would be easier to initiate new
members into the ecosystem. These applications enable collaboration, progress-review,
referring to workflow, deadlines, etc. in a much easier way than a conventional email based
communication.
Address Personnel Diversity

The industry is witnessing greater workforce diversity than ever before. Individuals of
different nationalities, regions, cultures, professions, sexual orientation, ideologies and
languages, etc. often come together to work in the same teams. Understanding each other’s
culture, language, accents, slangs, beliefs and humour will take time and concerted efforts at
team building. The leaders have to take charge and devise methods to enable greater
interaction and overcome difficulties due to a multicultural team.
Communication Training
Training the team members in communication-related modules / courses will equip
them with skills to function as a coherent unit by application of effective communication
strategies. The training programmes may be selected based on the nature of the work being
handled by the team and the existing skill sets, strengths and weaknesses of the members.
3.4.4 Challenges in Team Communication
There are many challenges that teams have to deal with in order to operate efficiently.
It is important for you to understand what these challenges are, so that you can detect issues
before they get out of hand and cause injury to the team fabric. Let us discuss some major
challenges that teams face.
Bias towards One’s Own Position
It is observed that sometimes a group member takes a position and defends it

unnecessarily in a bid to prove himself right. Such a situation arises when an individual keeps
his ego above the interest of the group. The solution is to orient the team members, right
from the time of induction into the team, to think for the common good of the team by
putting the interest of the team first.
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Lack of Trust
Trust deficit among members of a team is one of the most common causes of lack of
communication within the team. This lack of trust can manifest itself in the form of the
following behaviours:
 Members avoiding each other
 Avoiding team meetings
 Refusal to seek and offer assistance
 Low morale
 Lack of warmth
Groupthink
When the group members become too comfortable with each other, they tend to
desire group cohesion to such an extent that the group starts thinking of having a consensus
all the time. This is known as groupthink and it has the effect of driving out critical analysis
of ideas, opinions and alternatives. Groupthink retards proper communication within a team
as there is no exchange of fresh ideas, alternative positions and perspectives. Everybody
agrees to everything and eventually, nothing innovative comes out of the team.
Issues with Communication Tools
It is obvious that the members of a team may not be sitting in the same office. In fact,
some or even all team members may be working from different locations. In such a scenario,
the communication among team members is only as good as the tool(s) used for
communication. If there are hi-tech cloud-based tools for communication, it makes things
pretty seamless, however there may be members who may not be as comfortable with such
tools as others.
Information Overload
It has been observed that when a team makes use of multiple platforms for
communication, such as emails, phone calls, video conferencing, face-to-face meetings,
instant messaging, etc., there is so much of information being exchanged on a daily, even
hourly basis that keeping a track of things becomes a challenge. As you can see, issues in
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team communication can arise not just because of the lack of information exchange, but also
due to excess of it.
Hybrid Teams
After the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic, companies started forming Hybrid Teams.
A hybrid team one in which some members work remotely, and some may be working from
the office premises. Mostly, the facility of working from a remote location is rotated between
members so as to offer flexibility to all. Based on the workload and urgency, the arrangement
is adapted to suit specific requirements. Before the Covid-19 pandemic, the concept of hybrid
teams was restricted mostly to distributed teams. However, it is now used widely because of
obvious benefits, some of which are mentioned below.
 Cost-effective both for the employee as well as the employer
 Provides flexibility
 Companies can hire talent which may not be available locally
 Helps in attaining work-life balance
The above benefits notwithstanding, there are several issues with hybrid teams as
well. The most important thing is that in hybrid teams, physical connect is lost. Cohesion
among team members usually develops by means of face-to-face interactions. Especially
those informal conversations around the pantry area during coffee breaks. Further, whatever
important decisions are taken in the office is required to be communicated to the remote
workers to keep them abreast. These communication channels need to be worked-out and
formalised to ensure that the people for whom it is intended actually consume it.
3.5 NEGOTIATION
Negotiation refers to the back-and-forth communication or dialogue between two or

more parties to reach an agreement on issues that concern these parties where there may be
some common interests and some conflicting interests. People negotiate routinely in their
personal and professional lives. However, some negotiations are rather challenging that
require certain skill sets for achieving a mutually agreeable outcome.
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You will observe that most people are not very adept at negotiation; in fact, many
people fear negotiations. Though, one can pick up the required skills to be a good negotiator
by training, doing your homework and with some practice.
3.5.1 Types of Negotiations
 Distributive
There are negotiations in which the involved parties negotiate for the distribution of a
fixed value. In such negotiations, one’s gain is a result of the share foregone by the other.
These negotiations are like zero-sum games where the gain of one is the loss of the other. It
is also known as a win-lose negotiation.
 Integrative
The negotiations where multiple factors and interests are under discussion and
provide an opportunity to the negotiators to satisfy the needs of each party are called
integrative negotiations. It can potentially turn out to be a win-win situation for the parties
involved. Distributive negotiations also have the potential to be turned into integrative if the
issues are rethought and the parameters are reworked.
 Team Negotiation
The negotiations which is conducted by a team of negotiators from each side is called
as team negotiation. For instance, an automotive component manufacturer from India is
interested in entering into a Joint Venture (JV) with a Japanese company. The Indian
company sends a team of six negotiators with each of the negotiators having a specialised
expertise. The Japanese counterpart will also have multiple members to proceed with the
negotiations.
 Multiparty Negotiation
As the name suggests, multiparty negotiations involve multiple parties and the
interests of each other these parties is at stake which makes multiparty negotiation much
more difficult. For the same reason, multiparty negotiation requires more polished and wider
skills. A very good example is that of trade negotiations at the World Trade Organisation
(WTO), where the interest of all 164 member countries is involved and the representatives of
each of the member countries are experts in the domain.
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 One-Time or One-Shot Negotiation

Negotiations where the parties involved negotiate only once and have no intention of
any further dealings in the future. Since there is no intention of a long-term engagement, the
parties can potentially resort to unethical means. For example, suppose you are standing
outside a movie theatre and see the House Full sign and decide to purchase a ticket from a
black marketer. The latter may resort to unethical means to sell the ticket. His / her only aim
is to sell at a high price and yours is get it a cost as close to the window price.
3.5.2 Some Key Negotiation Skills
 Planning
Proper planning to work out the details of the short-term, medium-term and long-term
ramifications of the terms of negotiation will ensure that you are not caught by surprise in the
middle of the negotiation and will prevent you from exposing your position.
 Communication
Communication is an indispensable skill that becomes the medium through which
negotiations take place. During a negotiation, communicating the right messages in the right
manner so as to sound compelling and persuasive is a skill that is acquired over time. It
involves careful selection of words, observation of non-verbal cues and developing a deep
understanding of the context, especially in case of an intercultural setting.
 Resourcefulness
Resourcefulness and creativity are skills that come in handy during negotiations
where spot thinking is required to overcome new constraints.
 Problem-Solving
Most negotiations occur when there is an impasse, and no progress can be made.
Seasoned negotiators apply their problem-solving skills to overcome the situation and end the
stalemate.
 Active Listening
This skill helps you to perfectly understand the other party’s position and helps create
an atmosphere of trust and confidence which is a great catalyst for a successful negotiation.
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 Persuasiveness
The ability to convince the other party that the terms you have set forth are justified
and get them to agree to it is called persuasiveness. In other words, successful negotiators
have the ability to influence the other party.
 Identify Trade-offs
You must study the entire situation deeply to identify issues that are dear to the other
party but not very important for you. Such trade-offs can be exploited to your advantage by
allowing to take a step closer on that point in return for something of value to you.
3.5.3 Key Strategies in Negotiation
The naive approach to negotiation is based on a reactive tactic rather than taking the
proactive approach. The biggest downside of the reactive approach is that the outcomes or
possible outcomes of the negotiation will be a function of the proposals / demand coming
from your counterpart. The reactive approach may seem to work in simple situations, such as
haggling for a discount from a street vendor. However, complex negotiations require a well-
developed strategy that you can implement during the process. Some of the key strategies in
negotiation are discussed below.
 Engage with Stakeholders other than the Obvious Counterpart

Before you begin the negotiation process, think about all the parties other than the
counterpart that have an interest in the outcome of the negotiation. You may find some
stakeholder who could be your counterpart in bringing about the desired outcome without
even having to negotiate with the original counterpart. You will be required to think about
ways to engage with the new counterpart to achieve the desired outcomes. This strategy is
frequently used in legal cases where a hostile party is disciplined by using another related
party in the value-chain by negotiating with the latter to halt supplies to the former.
 Find out about potential allies at the planning stage

During the negotiation process, you may require the support of others to help with
your cause. You must complete the potential ally identification process at the planning stage
so that you can fall back on your ally for crucial support in negotiation.
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 Identify your potential Adversaries

Just as you identify your allies, the process of identification of potential adversaries
who can potentially derail the negotiation is equally important. If possible, address the
concerns of your opponents to prevent them from forming a damaging alliance and trying to
block the negotiations.
 Use your Leverage Effectively

Leverage is generally perceived as the negotiating power that one party has over the
other. It may be thought of as the extent to which one party wants the deal relative to the
other and the relative value of the best alternative available to each party.
 Work on your Best Alternative to Negotiated Agreement (BATNA)

BATNA is the next best deal available with you in case the negotiation with the party
fails. You will feel much more confident walking into the negotiation room if you have
prepared your BATNA. It will also give you the leverage to demand more from the other
party. The first step is to list down all your options and check how feasible and actionable
each one is. The second step is to make the same assessment for your counterpart’s available
and actionable options.
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Leverage and Negotiation

ABC Ltd. was in urgent need of appointment of a vendor to procure laptops for a new
batch of Management Trainees. A tender was floated for procurement and only one bid was
received for the same. This bidder had already worked with ABC Ltd. previously. The bid
was too high and there was no time to retender. The procurement manager of ABC Ltd. was
in a difficult situation. He decided to invite the bidder for negotiation of the prices received
in the bid.
The procurement manager had already checked the work record of the bidder and he
found that a substantial sum of the bidder was lying with ABC Ltd. as security deposit which
was not being released due to some issue with a document submitted in connection with a
previous work executed by the bidder. However, the work itself was completed satisfactorily.
The procurement manager had some leverage in hand to negotiate with. In the meeting,
the bidder refused to reduce the prices as he was aware that he was the only bidder. However,
the procurement manager told the bidder that he was considering retender as there was only
one bid and too was very high. It was communicated in a matter-of-fact manner and gave the
bidder an impression that he could lose the work despite being the only bidder. The
procurement manager also stated that he was aware that security deposit of the bidder lying
with ABC Ltd. and he could help in getting the matter resolved.
The offer seemed good to the bidder as there was some chance of getting the stuck
payment released in exchange for a reasonable reduction in the bid. The vendor readily
agreed to resubmit a lower bid.
3.6 COMMUNICATION SKILLS DURING A CONFLICT
Conflict can be defined as a disagreement or dispute between interdependent parties

that often arises due to incompatible goals, scarcity of resources or opposing point-of-view.
Interpersonal conflicts can be manifested by individuals over an interesting spectrum of
verbal and non-verbal expressions, ranging from complete withdrawal into silence to an
emotional and furious outburst. Interpersonal conflicts are bound to happen because
whenever individuals go out of sync in terms of information exchange, potential
misunderstanding can develop which can turn into a conflict, if not addressed in a timely
manner.
The importance of communication for preventing and resolving conflicts can hardly
be exaggerated. Poor communication, more often than not, causes misunderstandings that
soon balloons into a conflict. Therefore, communication as a tool will help you build
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relationships and help you in managing conflicts that will inevitably occur even in the
strongest of relationships.
Fig. 3.2: Communication is the answer (Source: https://www.readersdigest.in/)
3.6.1 Communication Strategies for Conflict Situations
 Active Listening
Active listening is one communication skill that we will keep talking about in this
course. Despite being one of the most potent skills in the entire process of communication, it
remains the most underutilised and neglected one. When in a conflict situation, lend an ear to
the other person and listen genuinely to what he / she has to say. This listening has to be
without any animated expressions, interruptions and loss of attention. The person being heard
will feel placated with your sincere effort. Use the pauses to restate or paraphrase what the
other person has been saying to confirm your understanding.
 Watch Your Tone and Pitch

A very interesting fact that you will notice during arguments is that when one party
begins speaking in a very loud pitch the natural reaction from the other party is to respond in
an equally loud pitch which leads to worsening of the situation. It can be deduced that on the
contrary, if you mellow down your pitch and volume during a heated argument the other
party will be compelled to do the same thereby de-escalating the situation. Therefore, you
can make use of this strategy in real life by controlling the pitch and tone of your speech in a
conflict.
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 Timing of Communication
Bad timing to attempt resolving a conflict can potentially prolong the conflict despite
the best of intentions. In interpersonal conflicts, sometimes it has been observed that one
party is so eager to resolve the conflict that an attempt is made even if the other party is
unwell or in an important office engagement or a social gathering. Such ill-timed
interventions can further worsen the situation and make resolution even more challenging
and painful. The best strategy is to ask the other person if he / she is comfortable and willing
to have a dialogue and take cues from the response, both verbal and non-verbal.
 Keep Your Non-Verbal Communication in Check

Improper non-verbal communication can cause as much damage in a conflict
situation as can poor verbal communication. The strategy to be followed here is to restrain
from expressing extreme emotions, such as walking out in the middle of a conversation,
withdrawing into silence, etc. This animated display will send the signal that you do not wish
the situation to improve, further reducing any chances of de-escalation and resolution of the
dispute.
 No Absolute Statements
In a conflict situation, one should avoid using absolute statements like “never”,
“ever”, “always” as an expression of emphasis because it can further aggravate the situation
and spark a fresh series of arguments on how the statement was unjustified.
 Avoid “You” Statements, Use “I” Instead

In a conflict situation, the communication has to sound like an attempt at reasoning
with the other party and not like an interrogation. Rather than using sentences that contain
“you”, such as “Why did you give away all the credit of success to Mr. X.” Instead, use “I”
statements, like “I felt dejected when all the credit of success was given to Mr. X.” You
statements sound more like blaming or accusing someone for something.
 Accept Responsibility
Admitting your mistake graciously is not actually a strategy rather it is plain honesty,
which would resonate well with the other party. Owning responsibility of one’s mistakes is a
trait found in leaders and is appreciated by all. It can be a profound experience for the one
owning responsibility and equally as overwhelming for the other party to see such a gesture
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of honesty and sincerity. It would have an immediate effect of the de-escalation of the
situation.
 Avoid Passing Judgements and Verdicts

Jumping to conclusions when you are extremely agitated and stressed is a bad
idea as rational thought would be missing from such conclusions. In fact, one should make a
conscious effort not to pass any judgements on the statement / behaviour / motive of the other
person as it is certain to backfire and would lead to a rapid deterioration of the situation. The
best strategy is to actively listen to the other person, process each thought with logic and
facts before summarizing the chain of events in your words. This can be followed by
presenting your account of the whole matter in an empathetic manner so as not to hurt the
sentiment of the already upset counterpart.
3.7 MENTORING AND APPRAISALS
Mentoring is a learning relationship between an experienced person and a relatively

junior person, where the former offers guidance, support and counsel for the long-term career
development of the latter. It is a one-to-one interaction between the “mentor” (the senior
person) and the “mentee” (the junior person). The mentee stands to gain a great deal of
knowledge and wisdom from the mentor without having to go through the slow learning
curve. The mentor, on the other hand, gets a fresh perspective on the business and possible
new solutions to old work problems.
3.7.1 Objectives of Mentoring
 To train and groom employees

 To fast-track the professional development of an employee
 To foster creativity and innovation
 To provide an opportunity for skill-transfer to the mentor
 For succession planning
Effective communication between a mentor and mentee is the key to a successful

mentoring programme. It is important to understand that the communication in a mentoring
relationship is often about imparting problem-solving skills to enable the mentee to learn to
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solve such problems without actual handholding. The mentee may just be learning to
communicate in a professional setting and would look up to the mentor for guidance.
3.7.2 How to ensure effective communication in a mentoring relationship?
Active Listening
A mentee may have a hundred questions for you simply because he is new to the
professional world or to the industry. You must make it a point to listen to him so as to
inspire and build trust in the relationship. Listening actively is also important for you to
interpret the issue in the right context so that your response caters to it adequately.
Speak in First Person

Speaking in first person conveys ownership of whatever advice you are giving as a
mentor and helps inspire confidence in the mentee. So, try to use more “I” statements like “I
have observed while working on similar assignments that...”
Ask Questions
Probing to gauge the understanding of the mentee on the underlying concepts of an
issue which is being discussed helps the mentor to calibrate the learning process
appropriately. Asking questions as you go along during a session is also important to
ascertain whether the mentee is grasping the nuances well.
Body Language
Make use of your knowledge of body language, including gestures, posture,
expressions and eye contact to supplement your reading of the mentees understanding. Any
divergence in the two will prompt you to interject and ask questions to clarify and improve
understanding.
Mind the Generation Gap

More often than not, there is some age difference between the mentor and the mentee
leading to potentially significant differences in the perceptions, metaphors and vocabulary.
Seeking clarification wherever you think your mentee has used a certain term which you find
to be out of place from your perspective is always a good thing to do to avoid divergence in
understanding.
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Use Technology to Communicate

After the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic there has been a significant increase in
work-from-home (WFH) option for employees. In such cases, the mentor and mentee may be
sitting far apart and physical meetings may happen rarely. Communicating through the
electronic media, i.e. email, instant messaging (IM), etc. may be a good idea for routine
issues. However, the more important issues are best discussed in person, or with the use of
video conferencing (VC) applications, such as MS Teams, WebEx, Zoom, etc. as per the
policy of your organisation.
3.7.3 Appraisals
Appraisal is a tool in the hands of the reporting managers to systematically track,

evaluate and document the performance of a team member based on which regular feedback
is provided to the latter to enable improvement in performance and deliverables. The
performance appraisal is also used as a document based on which pay hikes, job rotations,
promotions, etc. are decided.
Appraisal and Communication
 Confidentiality
The most important aspect of communication of performance appraisals is
confidentiality. Appraisal contains sensitive information as to the employee’s pay grade,
designation, roles and responsibilities, key performance indicators, timelines, etc. which
needs to be kept confidential. When appraisal forms are sent, they are kept in sealed
envelopes and handed over to the addressee only. However, these days the performance
appraisal systems are online application-based with each supervisor and employee getting
login accounts to keep it private and confidential.
 One-To-One Communication
Appraisal being such as a sensitive process needs to be conducted with due care and
diligence. Never conduct appraisals for your team members in a group as it would entail
ethical issues. Discussing one’s performance in a group can be insulting and humiliating,
besides you cannot expect a team member to be candid in front of others. Therefore, it has to
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be a one-to-one exercise and a focussed and detailed one at that, conducted in a dignified
manner.
 Listen and Discuss Openly

An appraisal is not complete without the employee agreeing to what the assessment
says. Therefore, the supervisor and the employee have to be in agreement on the performance
appraisal before it is formalised. In case the employee differs in opinion about your
assessment, sit down and discuss the points where the employee feels that the assessment is
not a true reflection of actual performance. Listen carefully without any preconceived notion
or bias as the employee may really have a point which requires rethinking of certain items in
the appraisal made by you. It will help clear any potential resentment which can even lead to
the exit of the employee from the organisation. It is a fact that attrition in many organisations
peak immediately after appraisals. This can be avoided if reporting managers are able to
communicate well during appraisals and listen to what the employees have to say and valuing
it on merits.
 Celebrating the Outcome

As a supervisor, you must make it a point to congratulate your team members on the
appraisals and promotions in a way that makes them feel appreciated. Many supervisors
spend some time with the employees at their workstations discussing and commending the
journey of the employees over the appraisal period. This recognition can be a great
motivation for the employees to continue to put in their best.
3.8 COMMUNICATION IN SOCIAL MEDIA AND DIGITAL

COMMUNICATION
Digital Communication
The process of communicating with people through various online channels,
including social media, emails, web-banner adverts, online adverts and advertorials, blogs,
podcasts, etc. is known as digital communication. The digital medium has gained huge
traction over the past decade.
Social Media
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A platform of interaction for people that they use to create, share and consume
information, ideas, thoughts, entertaining content, etc. is known as social media. The most
popular social media platforms include YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter LinkedIn
and blogs. Social media is used by a very large number of people on a daily basis for having
conversations, sharing thought and ideas, images and videos, advertising and marketing and
making new friends and relationships. Profiles are created on these platforms not just by
people for their personal use, but also by organisations, institutions and brands.
The biggest advantage of communication using Social Media is that there is hardly
any cost involved in it. Brands can reach a wide audience at negligible costs if they choose to
utilise the social media. In fact, there are many brands, such as Rolls Royce, Ferrero Rocher
and Zara that hardly spend any money on advertising through the conventional media of
television commercials (TVCs) and print adverts. Such companies rely almost entirely on
digital communication and social media for the purpose.
3.8.1 Social Media Communication as a Key External Communication Strategy
Social media has captured the imagination of marketing professionals and

communicators across businesses and organisations. The entire paradigm of external
communication has shifted in favour of social media. It has changed the way corporations
communicate with its external stakeholders, including customers, investors, distributors,
suppliers, etc. Managers use the social media platforms for story-telling, creating a buzz
around an event or a product, spreading awareness and so on. Organisations have started
realising that their priority is to continuously engage with their stakeholders and that social
media is too important a tool to be ignored.
The importance of social media for communication with external stakeholders can be
understood from the reasons mentioned below-
a. Social media facilitates direct and open communication with stakeholders. Brands can
rely on information discovery by stakeholders provided that they keep posting engaging
content.
b. Social media is a great tool for mobilising public opinion and.it is increasingly being used
for market research, surveys, opinions polls, product development, customer service, etc.
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c. Social media enables organisations in reaching a wide audience at negligible costs, which
would otherwise involve spending huge sums on advertising through conventional media.
d. Another great advantage of social media for communicating with external stakeholders is
that it provides a channel for direct feedback on a continuous basis which enables
communication professionals to adapt the company’s offerings to the evolving needs and
expectations of the stakeholders.
3.8.2 Communication Using Social Media Campaigns
Social media campaigns are presently the most preferred medium for businesses to
connect with customers. The primary reason is that social media is much more engaging than
the conventional media. Further, social media enables artificial intelligence (AI)-enabled
delivery of customized content based on the interests of various target groups and
individuals. Let us see how communication professionals build engaging social media
campaigns on various platforms.
 YouTube is a platform that is used by communications professionals for brand building

by partnering with influencers, creating how-to-videos for relevant brands, create behind-
the-scenes or making-of-something videos that creates a story around the evolution of a
product, etc.
 Brands utilize Twitter is many ways, including a direct marketing communication with
customers, conduct market research and surveys and provide customer support by setting
up full-fledged customer support handle. Many brands make use of trending handles to
communicate with its target market.
 Facebook is a great medium to engage with groups and social communities.

Professionals communicate with the communities through dedicated brand pages and
groups. Facebook Store feature also allows small businesses to create an online store on
their platform for free.
 Instagram is used by brands that rely on visual appeal to connect with its target market.
For instance, all brands connected to the fashion industry, celebrity marketing and so on.
 LinkedIn is a professional networking platform where people share and discuss their
thoughts, ideas, experiences, etc.
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 Blogs are internet sites that are written in the form of a journal where the author posts
entries in a sequential manner. Brands often use blogs as a part of their web content to
reach out to its target audience. Blogging is not just used for external communication, but
also for internal communication regarding policy changes, new initiatives, etc.
3.8.3 Challenges in Social Media Communication
Social media communication has great advantages for corporations. However, it is

also the most challenging medium of communication for the reasons discussed below.
Creating Content Frequently

People have very short memories when it comes to digital content. They need
something new for consumption every time they are online. Thus, social media
communicators have the gargantuan task of developing creative content too frequently. You
would appreciate that it is indeed a challenge, for human creativity cannot be forced.
Customising Content for Various Target Groups

Creating content on a regular basis is not good enough, there is also the need to
customise the content to suit the tastes of different target audiences. This task of
customisation can be equally enormous and time-consuming. The issue with customising the
content for too many audiences is that it becomes difficult to maintain the uniqueness of
content.
Timing
Timing the release of content and the duration for which the content is to be run on
various platforms is also one of the most challenging aspects of social media communication.
Social media communicators have to keep a close watch on how well the content is being
received in order to make the most out of it. If a popular campaign is withdrawn too early to
make way for a fresh campaign, the potential benefits of the former may be lost.
Lack of Expertise and Resources

Social media content creation is a highly skilled job and the expertise may not be
available in-house in most companies. Further, if you want to use multimedia content in your
posts, finding the right multimedia which is high-quality, fitting the specifications etc. can be
a challenge.
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Legal Aspects
Another key issue with social media communication is that of the legal implications
pertaining intellectual property rights (IPR). Therefore, social media communicators have to
be very conscientious when using multimedia content developed by third-parties.
3.9 SUMMARY
1. The exchange of thoughts, ideas and feelings between people through verbal and non-
verbal communication is called Interpersonal Communication.
2. Team communication refers to the exchange of information among the members of a
team working towards a common goal / objective.
3. Negotiation is the dialogue that two or more parties engage in for sorting out their
differences. Effective communication strategies help in successful negotiation and
finding a win-win solution.
4. A disagreement between interdependent parties that arises due to incompatible goals,
scarcity of resources or opposing point-of-view is known as a conflict. Proper
communication is the most potent solution for preventing conflicts from arising and also
resolving them without much damage.
5. Mentoring is referred to as the process of guiding, advising and supporting a junior by a
seasoned and experience senior within the organisation.
6. Appraisal refers to a continuous process evaluating and documenting the performance of
an employee in the execution of the duties assigned to him / her for a specific period of
assessment. The key performance indicators (KPIs), expected outcomes, etc. need to be
documented well and communicated for a fair and just assessment.
7. Digital communication and its major component, i.e., social media are the most
important communication channel for developing and nurturing relationships with your
stakeholders. The right communication mix using various digital media channels help in
reaching the right people and relaying the right message.
8.
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1. Discuss the benefits of improving communication within a team.

2. What is interpersonal communication? How would you use the uncertainty reduction
theory to help you transition successfully into your new study or work environment?
3. Identify some negotiation skills that you think are the most useful in turning the tide in
your favour?
4. Have you ever been embroiled in a conflict? Recall the strategies that you used to
resolve it and compare it with the strategies given in the lesson.
5. Why is so much emphasis given on confidentiality during appraisal communication?
6. What are some of the strategies that you use on your personal social media handles to
invite attention of people and engage with them?
1. Ann Chastain, (2013) “Use active listening skills to effectively deal with conflict”.
Michigan State University Extension - December 2, 2013
2. Carr, Caleb T.; Walther, Joseph B. (July 2014). "Increasing Attributional Certainty via
Social Media: Learning About Others One Bit at a Time". Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication. 19 (4): 922–937
3. Fisher, R., Ury, W. and Patton, B. (1991), Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement
without Giving In, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin.
4. Foss, K. & Littlejohn, S. (2008). Theories of Human Communication, Ninth Edition.
Belmont, CA.
5. Lisa Bottomley, Michigan State University Extension (2012), web article published on
https://extension.msu.edu.
6. McShane, S.L. & Von Glinow, M.A. (2009). Organizational Behavior (essentials) (2nd
Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
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7. Michael L. Moffitt and Robert C. Bordone, eds. (2005), The Handbook of Dispute
Resolution, Program on Negotiation / Jossey-Bass, Harvard University.
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LESSON 4
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
STRUCTURE
4.2 Introduction
4.3 What is culture?
4.3.1 Where can you start?
4.4 Studying culture
4.4.1 Structural Approach
4.4.2 Transaction Approach
4.5 Cross-Cultural Communication
4.5.1 Understanding Cross-Cultural Communication through Structure-View
4.6 Communication across cultures through different mediums
4.6.1 Active Listening
4.6.2 Verbal Medium
4.6.3 Non-Verbal Medium: Speaking Sans Words
4.7 Business Etiquette across Cultures
4.8 Strategizing for Effective Cross-Cultural Communication
4.9 Summary
4.10 References and Suggested Reading
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 Define culture and explain the evolution of culture.

 Enumerate the different approaches to study cultures.
 Define cross-cultural communication and appreciate its importance in the present
context.
 Enumerate the different mediums through which communication occurs across
cultures.
 Enunciate business etiquettes observed in different cultures
 Formulate strategies for successfully communicating across cultures using the
theoretical framework provided in the lesson
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Have you noticed that the world around us is getting more diverse and our
interactions with people from different cultures are growing at a rate faster than ever? The
interaction among people from different cultures has been on the rise due to industrialisation,
migration from rural to urban areas and improvement in technology, modes of transportation
and communication. Foreign trade is taking place at unprecedented levels and more people
are travelling to get their business done. Corporations are enthusiastic about having a
culturally diverse workforce and flaunt it in their presentations and annual reports.
Communication with people from different cultures within the country or different
nationalities can be a greater challenge than you imagine. Your chances of success in
business will be determined by how well you are able to overcome this challenge.
Cultural differences can be tangible and intangible. Food, art, costumes, etc.
constitute the tangible or visible aspect of cultural differences. However, it is only a minor
aspect when compared to the intangible aspect which basically stems from differences in
core values across cultures. Therefore, it is upon the intangible aspect of cultural differences
that we will be dwelling upon in this lesson.
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4.3 WHAT IS CULTURE?
Culture refers to the collective way of thinking and going about life. It evolves as a
consequence of the complex phenomenon of continuous communication between people. As
they go along, the people adopt certain ideas, values, beliefs, principles, rituals and customs
that are passed on from one generation to the next. This definition implies that culture is a
collective asset and is shared by each individual who happens to be a part of it. Those from
the same culture often feel an affinity for each other, especially when interacting in a
heterogeneous environment. A culture often evolves within a geographical region.
Members make conscious efforts to preserve it which means that culture becomes a
unifying factor for its members.
Every culture has certain unique attitudes which greatly influence the communication
patterns of its members. Culture has a deep impact on the style of communication, however
people frequently oversimplify it and create stereotypes which is a barrier to effective
communication.
4.3.1 Where can you start?
Acknowledge…The first step towards learning to communicate better in a cross-

cultural business environment is to acknowledge that there are differences in culture and that
there is nothing good or bad about it. The next step is to shed all preconceived notions about
a culture and start afresh.
Be curious…If you want to make a genuine attempt at communicating better with

people of different cultures, get curious like a child and start reading.
4.4 STUDYING CULTURES
The two key approaches to studying cultures are detailed below.
4.4.1 Structural Approach
Examining culture using the structural method entails studying its constitution and
forms. The structural approach is based on identifying the differences in cultures of various
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nation states, geographical regions not confined by national boundaries, faiths, ethnicities,
etc. based on differences in values, beliefs, customs, attitudes, expectations and goals.
For example, there are stark differences in the western and oriental cultures. The
culture of British people is distinct from that of the other mainland European nations which
in turn, have distinct cultures of their own.
The structural approach is the traditional way of studying cultures and offers great
insights in developing an understanding of how to communicate to be successful in our day-
to-day interactions with people from different cultures.
4.4.2 Transaction Approach
This approach views a culture being created as a result of the communication or the
multifarious interactions between people. In other words, culture emerges and evolves as
people go about transacting their thoughts and responses. The everyday communication
between people leads to creation of patterns which are distinguishable and over a period of
time these patterns get reinforced as the transactions continue to take place over and over
again.
The transaction-view of culture recognizes the importance of going beyond nation-

states and geographical regions to broaden the scope by encompassing groups which display
a certain distinctiveness in their behaviour and the manner in which they communicate. From
their communication it is said that the culture is symbolically transacted.
For instance, medical doctors, share brokers/traders, musicians and online gamers all
share a certain vocabulary and display common styles of communication which is essentially
an outcome of the daily transaction of their distinct businesses. Interestingly, studying and
adopting the styles of communication can potentially help one in gaining acceptance or even
membership of various cultural groups.
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EXERCISE 1
1 Look back at your personal and social life and try to pen down the number of
distinct cultures you have come across.
2 Based on the above, do you think cultures change strictly with nationality?
3 Try to remember the longest interaction you had with a person from a different.
4 Make an effort to isolate the key points of difference between your culture and the
other person.
4.5 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
The interaction between people of different cultures, whether between those from
different geographical regions, nation states, religions, etc. is called cross-cultural
communication or intercultural communication. The process of exchanging messages
between people of different cultures can potentially lead them to interpret the verbal and non-
verbal signs differently. Cross-cultural communication involves the study of culture mostly
from the structural perspective to identify the differences from one’s own culture to develop
strategies to align with the target to improve understanding and the probability of a
successful engagement.
Cross-cultural communication deals with how people from varied cultural milieus
interact and the that challenges they face in the process. These challenges are not confined to
differences in languages or dialects but extend much beyond to differences in non-verbal
signals, perceptions, metaphors, and so on.
The biggest hindering factor when it comes to cross-cultural communication is

perception and pre-conceived notions. You really don't know what to expect from the other
person because you are not aware of the values and accepted behaviours in his / her culture.
Due to this unawareness, perception and stereotypes dominate your thoughts thereby
potentially ruining the chances of success.
Another factor that acts as an impediment in cross-cultural communication is

ethnocentric bias or ethnocentrism. Ethnocentric bias compels people to see and judge other
cultures under the influence of one’s own culture.
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AN ILLUSTRATION OF ETHNOCENTRIC BIAS

An American and a Chinese were visiting a cemetery where their friend had
been buried. The American was carrying a beautiful bunch of flowers to put on his
friend’s grave. The Chinese was carrying a bowl of cooked rice and some fruits. The
American found it ridiculous that one would leave food at a grave. “Do you really
think”, asked the American, barely hiding his contempt, “that your dead friend will
come and eat the food you leave at the grave?”
“Yes, of course,” retorted the startled Chinese after a moment’s pause, “my
friend will come and eat the food around the same time your friend comes out to smell
the flowers you’re leaving for him.”
It was a friendly dig at each other’s culture. It grew from the difficulty the
American had in understanding the logic of a Chinese custom. Fortunately for the two,
the cultural differences did not threaten their friendship. However, one’s culture can be
a major block, especially in international communication.
Source: Monipally, M.M. (2001), Business Communication Strategies, p. 44.
For the purpose of this lesson, we will delve deeper into the structural construct of
culture to be able to develop strategies for successfully communicating in a cross-cultural
environment.
4.5.1 Understanding Cross-Cultural Communication through Structure-View of

Cultures
The structure-based approach leads us to classify cross-cultural characteristics into

the following divisions:
a. Context
b. Individual / Collective
c. Time
d. Conflict
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 Context
Context refers to the setting, environment, relationship, etc. in which the
communication is taking place. The extent to which this communication relies on being
explicit or implicit varies from culture-to-culture. The portion that is left unsaid is decoded
based on the situation and the relationship between the parties in communication. Based on
the degree of what is left unsaid, cultures are classified as high-context and low-context.
High-Context
Cultures that attach high importance to circumstances / setting / environment and are
not very explicit in verbal terms are called high-context cultures. Such cultures tend to be
ceremonial, and protocols exist for conduct in meetings and gatherings. In South Africa,
great importance is given to a person’s tribal lineage when comprehending a conversation. Its
culture considers it fair to assign higher priority to friends, family and close associates even
in business transactions. Therefore, what may seem unethical in, say American culture, is
regarded as ethical in South African culture.
Low-Context
On the other hand, in Low-Context cultures, the message itself does most of the
communication and the context and background are of no or very little consequence. In such
cultures, success would depend greatly on how well-prepared and logical your argument is
and how well it is presented. The relationships in such cultures are consciously removed to
make an unbiased decision, which is why it is common for people to step aside from making
decisions involving family and friends. In fact, such clauses are usually built into contracts
that make it an obligation for the contracting parties to declare any related individuals in the
business under negotiation.
 Collectivist / Individualist
There are collectivist cultures and individualist cultures based on whether importance
is given to individual identity or collective identity. It is common knowledge that eastern
societies tend to be more collectivist, whereas western societies are individualist.
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Collectivist
Societies in the east have been collectivist and assign enormous importance to groups.
Decision-making is a consensus-making exercise in such societies. In the villages of India,
the institution of panchayat is a perfect example of how the interest of the community is
assigned paramount importance and individual interests are often sacrificed for the larger
good of the community. In collectivist societies, focussed pursuit of personal goals only
would be considered selfish. It is quite common for the elders to intervene in such a situation
to bring the individual back on the “right” track. In collectivist cultures, much care is taken
not to hurt the sentiment of the community. Therefore, criticism is often very oblique,
especially when it is about seniors / elders.
Individualist
The societies that regard personal pursuits to be more important than collective
pursuits are called individualist cultures. Western societies are classified as individualist and
the aspirations of the individual combined with the liberty to make the decisions for
him/herself are regarded as fundamental to their existence. Individual achievement is
celebrated in such societies. The most remarkable of such societies is the American society
which is quintessentially individualist. In individualist cultures, such as American,
relationships are not diffused, but specific. It essentially means that a boss will just be a boss
and would not be perceived as, say an elder brother, the way sometimes it is in India. This
gives them the leeway to be direct in their criticism. The degree of straightforwardness or
bluntness would vary in Western cultures, for instance Americans are quite blunt whereas the
British would understate.
 Time
The views of different cultures on time is one of the most frequently quoted
characteristics of cultures. It is also perhaps one of the most common factors that acts as a
potential dealmaker or deal-breaker in a cross-cultural business environment.
How many times have you heard the cliché – “Time is money”?
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It precisely characterises the perception of time prevalent in the Western cultures,

such as the United States and the United Kingdom. Therefore, adhering to timelines goes a
long way in creating a favourable impression that lays the foundation for business to take off.
Cultures can be classified into the following two types based on their views on time:
Monochronism
Monochronic cultures take a linear view of time and essentially means that full
attention is focussed on one thing and multitasking is avoided. People from such cultures
strictly observe and respect timelines. They do not appreciate people reaching late for
meetings and digressing too much from the matter under deliberation / discussion. In such
cultures, time is an asset of great value and therefore there is little room for being “flexible”.
Polychronism
Polychronism is characterised by a flexible view as regards time and assigns greater

importance to relationships and multitasking. The objective is to get the job done, rather than
to complete the job within a strict schedule. Examples of polychronic cultures include South
American and Arab cultures. Polychronism is also characterised by members attempting
unrelated tasks simultaneously and switching frequently between tasks. The insistence of
people from monochronic cultures to adhere to timeline may be perceived in polychromic as
being too pushy and rude.
Table 4.1: Comparison ofMonochronic and Polychronic Characteristics
Monochronic Culture Polychrionic Culture
Focus on one thing at a time Focus on multiple tasks at a time
Builds schedules and timelines Importance on completion of task than

adhering to deadlines
Low context High context
Time is important Relationship-building is important
Task-orientation People-orientation
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An interesting scale was developed by R D Lewis that rates Eastern and Western
countries on what is termed as a Linear-Active and Multi-Active Scale. As the names
suggest, Linear-Active people focus on one thing at a time and are not too flexible. Multi-
Active, on the other hand, are known to multi-task and do not bother too much about time.
Most Linear-Active cultures, as per Lewis, were German, Swiss, American, Canadian and
British, whereas the most multi-Active cultures were Indian, Latin American, Arab, Pakistani
and Spanish.
CASE STUDY
A Lost Opportunity
Lindsey is a mid-level manager from a UK-based exhibition company that
wishes to organize a trade expo in New Delhi. She seeks appointment with the Manager
in-charge of a leading venue complex in the National Capital Region (NCR) and visits
his office at the scheduled time. To her surprise, Lindsey finds that the venue Manager
is in another meeting at the time that was allotted to her.
She waits for about 30 minutes after which the venue manager arrives in his
office. They start the meeting and Lindsey is perturbed to see that the venue manager
keeps engaging in brief conversations with his subordinates on matters unrelated to the
ongoing meeting with Lindsey. He also attends to walk-in guests and responds to phone
calls during the entire meeting. Lindsey had this unpleasant experience due to the
unawareness of the venue manager about the cultural sensitivities of his potential client.
The venue ended up losing the event to a smaller competitor in the city.
 Conflict
Different cultures deal with conflicts differently. An understanding of the various
attitudes towards conflicts can assist in managing conflicts in a better way. As per Martin and
Nakayama (2007), based on the writings of Augsburg (1992), there exist two different
cultural views to conflicts, namely conflict as opportunity and conflict as destructive.
It has been observed that individualist societies see conflicts as opportunities, whereas
collectivist societies view conflicts as destructive.
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Opportunity-Approach to Conflicts
The cultures that view conflicts as opportunities regard conflicts as normal and a
potentially useful process. Attempts are made to resolve the conflict through negotiation with
the underlying assumption that matters may change if confronted and negotiated.
Destructive-Approach to Conflicts
Conflicts are regarded in some cultures as aberrations that need to be addressed by

disciplining those responsible for the conflict. Such cultures see conflicts as unnatural, futile
and harmful for the general harmony and greater good of the community.
Conflict Management
There are five distinct conflict management styles identified by Rahim (1983): (i).
avoiding, (ii). obliging, (iii). compromising, (iv). integrating, and (v). dominating.
 Avoiding: This style of conflict management entails withdrawing from a conflict

situation.
 Obliging: It involves giving in to the demands of the other party to end the conflict
situation.
 Compromising: To arrive at a solution, both parties take a step back / forward due to
which neither feels fully satisfied.
 Integrating: It entails active negotiations by all parties involved to understand each

other’s positions and deliberate on alternative / available options. The idea is to arrive
at a solution that is acceptable to all.
 Dominating: It is merely coercing of one party by the other who may be in an

advantageous position. It may have negative consequences in the long run.
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EXERCISE 2
1 What is your view on time?
2 Would you classify yourself as monochronic or polychromic?
3 Find out using the table above that classifies the characteristics of monochronic
and polychromic cultures.
4 Do this exercise with your friends from different cultures and compare the results.
If you don’t have friends from other cultures, forget this exercise and get some!!!
4.6 COMMUNICATION ACROSS CULTURES THROUGH

DIFFERENT MEDIUMS
The most widely accepted mediums or channels in the context of cross-cultural

communication are - (a) Listening, (b) Verbal, (c) Non-Verbal, (d) Written. Out of these
different modes of communication, the verbal, face-to-face version is the oldest and the most
common.
4.6.1 Active Listening
Listening is one skill in communication that is usually underappreciated and

overlooked. Active listening warrants a person to be attentive to what the speaker is saying
and to align himself with the speaker to constantly validate and maximise the understanding.
In cross-cultural communication, listening becomes all the more important, as a

genuine effort at paying attention helps in building trust and rapport. However, in every
culture there are appropriate behaviours for listening that helps in building trust and gaining
acceptance.
How to be a good listener?
Prepare yourself! If you want to be a good, active listener, you should do some
homework and learn about the people that you are going meet. Better preparedness will give
you an edge over people who simply walk-in.
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Make an attempt to ascertain if the person you are communicating with comes from a
high-context or a low-context culture. (Go back to the section in this lesson on
Characteristics of Cultures under Structure-view)
Pay attention! If the speaker notices that you are not being attentive or showing signs
of losing interest, the communication will suffer and so will the business underway.
If the speaker says something that you find rude, do not take offence and try to
reconfirm if the non-verbal signals corroborate the spoken word.
4.6.2 Verbal Medium
Verbal communication is perhaps the most commonly used medium in a cross-

cultural environment. It comprises of spoken / oral communication and the written mode.
The verbal medium relies on language, dialects, tone and tenor, loudness, level of education
and so on.
 The Spoken Word

Spoken communication can happen face-to-face or through telephone, computer and
mobile phone applications that run on the Internet, radio, television, and so on.
In high-context cultures, such as Chinese, oral communication is decoded and

understood in the context of non-verbal signals manifested by the communicator. For this
reason, if the non-verbal cues are not consistent with the verbally coded message, the
receiver may go with what the non-verbal signals suggest. Therefore, the importance of non-
verbal medium can hardly be exaggerated, especially in the high-context cultures.
On the other extreme of the cultural spectrum i.e., American, a low-context culture,
the explicit verbal message is considered almost final for the purpose of interpretation. It
must be evident by now that two people from cultures far apart on the cultural spectrum will
do best by studying and understanding each other’s cultural nuances to have a successful
engagement.
Even within the Western culture, there are differences that warrant closer study to be
able to navigate successfully in a global business environment. For example, the British are
accustomed to being rather formal and polite in asking for things in contrast with, say the
Germans who are quite straightforward. The British enthusiastically follow courtesies and
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words and phrases such as, “please”, “sorry”, “thank you”, “beg your pardon”, etc. are used
very frequently.
THE “BRITISH WAY” OF ASKING FOR HELP
Source: From the Internet
 Written Communication
The written mode of communication is considered relatively easier than the oral mode
as the sender has more time at his disposal to strategize and encode the message. However,
the flipside is that one doesn’t get instant feedback as in verbal communication, that helps
you modulate and fine-tune your strategy during the conversation. In a global business
environment, the written mode is the most commonly used method of communication, and
hence becomes the most important to be mastered. The written word stays forever as it may
be preserved as record. It is reason enough for one to be extremely aware and thoughtful
when communicating through the written medium. The written medium includes letters,
emails, memorandums, reports, contracts, proposals, etc.
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How to write effectively in a cross-cultural context?
To write effectively and be impactful and clear to your reader, the first step is to be
aware of your own culture. An awareness of one’s own cultural characteristics and biases
will help in neutralizing the influence it would have on your communication with people
from other cultures. Once you clearly have your own culture in mind, you can compare it
with the culture of your target to have a strategy in place to write in a tone and tenor neutral
of ethnocentric biases.
The tone and tenor of the written communication should be consistent with what the
target would be expecting based on whether the latter’s culture is skewed towards low-
context or high-context. Therefore, a mix of theoretical and hands-on approach derived from
one’s own experiences or from that of your seniors / mentors should be employed when
writing to people of different cultures.
Extent of Detail
People from low-context cultures, such as Germany and United States prefer detailing
at minute levels because whatever is explicit is more important for them. Contrast this with
high-context cultures like Japanese, where the writer would expect the reader to have the
basic understanding of the subject matter and therefore will be less-than explicit. You should
have this at the back of your mind to avoid the reader from taking offence at being provided
excess or less information. However, this doesn’t hold true for the decision-making process
in the US and Japan. Corporations in the US tend to be quicker in decision-making as the
powers are sufficiently delegated as individual contribution is important to the Americans,
whereas in Japan the decision-making is a consensus-building process and may take
somewhat longer.
You must select your words carefully and arrange the text in a logical, organised
fashion after building-in sufficient context. Articulation is of much more importance in
written communication than eloquence.
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One should avoid using slangs, idioms and proverbs when writing to a counterpart or
a colleague who is from a different cultural milieu, as it can obscure the understanding of the
latter. Roundabout and ornate language is also best avoided in the written medium.
Use universally recognized conventions rather than the ones in vogue only in a
particular region or culture. For instance, the format of dates can cause confusions as shown
below
Table 4.2: Use a Culture-Neutral Convention
American British Neutral
08.02.2022 02.08.2022 2nd August, 2022
As you can see, the British and American conventions of dates differ which can cause
confusion between the month and date. Therefore, it is best to use the neutral convention
which is quite explicit.
Decoding the written communication received by you from somebody from a

different culture is also an art. Imagine that you had sent a request asking for something from
your business associate in Japan and if the latter wants to decline it, there are high chances
that you will not get a direct ‘no’. The Japanese tend to avoid using ‘no’ as an answer as it is
considered rude, so they would try to write obliquely hoping that the other party would get
the message.
4.6.3 Non-Verbal Medium: Speaking Sans Words
Non-verbal communication involves communicating without the use of spoken words

and instead using facial expressions, hand / body gestures, posture and physical distance. It
also refers to the communication that happens at a subconscious level while the oral
communication is underway. The most interesting thing about non-verbal communication is
that it can send out signals that are inconsistent which what is being said thereby leading an
intelligent listener to discover the contradiction. There are certain emotions that are universal
and culture-neutral, such as happiness, sadness, fear, anger, etc. which are expressed by
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means of non-verbal communication in similar ways throughout the world. However, there
are accepted cultural norms for how emotions are expressed in front of others. For example,
in Arab culture it is quite acceptable to mourn-out loud to express grief. Whereas, in China or
Japan expressing feelings of great happiness or grief openly is considered unacceptable.
CASE STUDY
Cultural Shock
A recent Indian migrant to the United States who was used to pulling cheeks of
even unacquainted kids back in India was shocked when a young American kid snapped
back aggressively saying, "You don’t wanna mess with me!!!," on getting his cheek
grazed by the Indian man with his hand. It is because the expression of affection
through non-verbal medium varies across cultures.
It is quite acceptable for friends to embrace in some cultures, whereas it is considered

inappropriate in others. Even the distance maintained by people during a conversation can
have a profound impact on the communication as we shall learn later in the lesson.
 Gestures (Kinesics)
Movements of the body made in particular ways carry meanings that are manifest and
clear only to those initiated into that culture. Most common gestures include the thumbs-up /
thumbs-down, the OK sign, the beckoning sign, etc.
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Table 4.3: Some Common Gestures and their Meanings Across Cultures
The thumbs-up or thumbs-down gesture are used to convey approval or

disapproval, respectively, in the US.
Whereas in some Arab cultures, it is a highly offensive gesture equivalent to the

middle finger in the US. In India, this gesture is used with the right hand to
disappoint and taunt somebody.
This is perhaps the most recognizable hand gesture. It means “OK” or approval of
something in the US.
However, it is an obscene gesture in Brazil and an insulting gesture in Turkey and

some Arab cultures.
This gesture is also known as the beckoning sign and can be made using just the
index finger or a curled palm. It is a common gesture used for beckoning.
However, in some Asian cultures, such as Japan and Philippines, it is an insulting

gesture considered fit only for beckoning animals.
This gesture is called the Moutza. It is used by spreading out all fingers of a hand
and showing it close to the face of a person. It is an insult gesture traditionally
used by the Greek. You will see the use of this gesture in demonstrations and
protests in Greece.
In India, especially in the northern states this gesture is used when cursing
(la’anat) somebody.
 Postures
Postures convey emotions and intentions and can be classified into open and closed
postures. Adopting certain positive postures will help you to make an impact on the people
you communicate with during the course of your professional and personal life.
The basic postures are standing, sitting, squatting and lying down (Hargie, 2011). Out
of these the most relevant for cross-cultural business communication are standing and sitting
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postures. In western cultures, putting one’s hands just above the hips in a standing position is
considered as an attempt to dominate and be assertive.
Open and Closed Postures
The open posture suggests friendliness or receptivity. It can be identified by a person

with his legs apart in a relaxed position with open arms facing outward. In the American
culture, people adopting an open posture are perceived to be more convincing than those who
adopt a closed posture. A closed posture involves folding your arms across your chest,
crossing your legs in the standing / sitting position, etc.
 Proximity and Personal Space (Proxemics)
The physical distance maintained by people communicating with each other is also a
function of the cultural background. The appropriate distance to be maintained in each
culture largely depends on the relation between the people in communication. In the Western
cultures, the personal distance is classified into – intimate, personal, social and public.
Intimate distance is close contact that is reserved for a person with whom you share a very
close relationship. Personal distance, around 1-1.2 metres apart, is the space between two
people shaking hands and is considered most appropriate for face-to-face communication.
Social distance is the distance between people who are in a social gathering or in a business
environment, for instance people working in an office. Public distance is maintained between
speakers and the audience in a public event, teachers and students in a lecture hall, etc.
For the Americans, the comfortable distance for conversation is about arm’s length to
around 3-4 feet. Any intrusion into this space will be perceived as either intimacy or
aggressiveness. Whereas Arabs stand closer to each other than the Americans and perceive it
as a sign of warmth.
 Para-Linguistics
Para-linguistics refers to the non-verbal cues that are sent out through intonation and
modulation of voice, pauses, rate of speech, etc. In fact, the famous English sarcasm is also a
para-linguistic medium of communication.
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 Oculesics
It is the study of communication through the eyes, for example eye-contact, blinking
of eyelids, gazing, etc.If you make eye-contact and keep nodding while listening to
somebody from the US, it would be appreciated. Whereas, if steady eye-contact is
maintained while listening to a Japanese person it will be construed as inappropriate and even
rude. The Japanese also perceive nodding as merely listening as opposed to valuing what is
being said. They also place great importance on silence and taking pauses as they speak, for
these behaviours connote earnestness and genuineness in the Japanese culture.
EXERCISE 3
1 Studying the idioms in a language can potentially assist in developing a better
understanding of the non-verbal cues in the culture that is associated with that
language. One such idiom been suggested below.
2 Keep at arm’s length – to avoid from getting close.
3 Find out if there are more in English and other languages that you speak.
4.7 BUSINESS ETIQUETTE ACROSS CULTURES
A code of conduct in the society, professional setting or a group in general with rules,
protocols, courtesies, conventions, customs, proprieties, etc. is called etiquette. It is a part of
culture and human behaviour and has variations across different cultures.
Table 4.4: How are etiquettes different from manners?
Etiquette Manners
The code of conduct that acts as a set of The way of behaviour consistent with the
guidelines for positive and polite behaviours in expected behaviour.
the society.
Set of rules of behaving in the society or in a It refers to the actions themselves.

group.
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Business Etiquette
A set of guidelines that helps people behave and interact in a business setting with
stakeholders, clients, vendors, etc. in a way that is professional and accepted by the fraternity
and helps portray the right image.
It is clear that business etiquette is a key social skill that is indispensable for success
in the business world. Business etiquette is also a function of the culture under study.
Therefore, in a cross-cultural setting, it is important for you to research about the culture of
the people with whom business is to be transacted.
Now, we will delve into the business etiquette followed in India and some of the
major countries / cultures in the world.
Table 4.5: Business Etiquette in India
Greeting The common way of greeting people is by shaking hands and it has
overtaken the folded hands greeting almost completely at least in
business.
The most appropriate way to greet women is to wait a moment to

see if they move their hands forward for a handshake, else the
folded hands gesture can be used. However, in most big cities it is
common for women to shake hands while greeting someone.
Eye Contact It is not considered appropriate in the Indian context to maintain eye contact
with seniors though it may be construed as being evasive or even dishonest in
other cultures.
Exchange of Though exchanging cards is not as ceremonious as it is in some other cultures,

Cards cards are formally presented with the right hand, sometimes with the left
hand under the elbow of the right which connotes respect.
Appointments Appointments can get cancelled even at the last minute, therefore it is best to
give as much warning as to your travel schedule as possible and confirm your
appointment before you leave your office or country!
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Time Indians tend to be flexible with time, especially for social events / gatherings.
However, the practice of punctuality may vary within India too from the north
to the south and so on.
Hierarchy Indians follow hierarchies in social as well as professional relationships. This

hierarchy is always there at the back of their minds. Those in positions of
authority will not be seen doing manual work even if it is their own. This is
more true of the public sector.
Dress Code The business dress code is mostly smart yet comfortable clothing. The dress
code varies based on hierarchy. Women tend to wear sarees, tunics and
western formal attire which is getting more and more common.
Meetings Meetings tend to start late and overrun the allotted time. A clear agenda may
not be there, and the meetings will usually commence with unrelated casual
banter.
Table 4.6: Business Etiquette in the United States
Greeting A firm and warm handshake with proper eye contact is offered while
greeting. If you are meeting a delegation, make sure that you don’t lose eye
contact with the person with whom you are shaking hands.
Eye Contact Maintaining proper eye contact during a conversation is perceived as a sign of
sincerity, genuineness and confidence.
Exchange of If interacting with someone for the first time, it is not appropriate to start a
Cards conversation by exchanging business cards, until the conversation turns
business oriented.
However, if it is a formal business meeting, the exchange of cards takes place

before the start of the meeting so that those attending are familiar with each
other’s names and roles.
Writing on the business cards is not considered inappropriate, in fact it may be

appreciated if you write your personal mobile phone number on the back of
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the card and hand it over.
Appointments People in America like to keep their appointments and there are hardly any
cancellations except in case of emergency.
Time US culture is monochronic and events are scheduled one at a time. They are
particular about punctuality and adhering to schedules.
Hierarchy The culture in US corporates is less hierarchical because of their inherent belief
in equality.
Dress Code Business Suits in navy blue or grey and tie with solid white shirts for formal
meetings. Women wear dresses or suits in classic colours of grey, white, navy,
etc.
Personal Space The US being a no-touch culture, Americans are very particular about their
personal space. In fact, there is concept of personal bubble within which no
intrusion is tolerated. So, at least an arm’s length distance is always
maintained.
Meetings Meetings are taken seriously and have clear agendas. Side-activity is not
appreciated at all and may be perceived as disinterest.
Table 4.7: Business Etiquette in England
Greeting Handshake is the norm for men as well as women.
Eye Contact Persistent eye contact should be avoided as it can make people
uncomfortable. The best thing to do is to make eye contact every now and
then.
Exchange of Card etiquette is quite relaxed in Britain. Business cards are considered as an
Cards easy way of handing out your contact details to a potential vendor or client.
Appointments Appointments are honoured, except in case of emergency or some genuine

reasons.
Time Punctuality is important. Arriving a little early is acceptable.
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Hierarchy British society had been traditionally class-based and hence, hierarchy is taken
seriously. Titles are very important. So, if a person has been knighted, he will
expect himself to be addressed as “Sir” followed by the first name.
Dress Code For business meetings or engagements, formal conservative attire is the norm,
which includes dark suits for men. Though for women there aren’t much
restrictions as to colour.
Personal Space For English people, personal space is important and touching in public is
considered inappropriate. Also, personal questions are to be strictly avoided as
privacy is very dear to English people.
Meetings Meetings are pre-arranged by taking appointments. Documentation of the

meetings, including circulation of agendas, minute-taking, etc. are of
importance.
Table 4.8: Business Etiquette in the Arab World
Greeting Handshakes are the norm, though they last longer than handshakes in the
western cultures. It is best to wait for your counterpart to withdraw his / her
hand before you do. Men are recommended not to initiate a handshake with
an Arab businesswoman unless she extends her hand.
Eye Contact Eye contact is acceptable.
Exchange of Please ensure to get your business cards printed in Arabic and English, keeping
Cards in view that the former is written from right to left.
Time Most of the Arab world follows a different working week from the rest of the
world. Weekends fall on Fridays and Saturdays, barring a few exceptions.
Business hours are truncated during the month of Ramadan, so it is advisable
to avoid business and meetings during this month.
The concept of time is more relaxed in the Arab world, and it is common for
people to be late for meetings. However, it is advisable for you to be on-time
as a visitor.
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Hierarchy Arab societies are hierarchical and organisational functioning is mostly top-
down with decision-making in the hands of the powerful few.
Dress Code Dark coloured business suits for men. Avoid wearing shorts and t-shirts when
travelling in the Arab world. Women are expected to dress conservatively and
modestly in the Arab world.
Personal Space Arabs stand closer to each other during conversations than Americans do.
Touching is also observed between members of the same gender and in fact,
Saudi men can be seen walking hand-in-hand in public, without being judged
as to their sexual orientation.
Meetings Meetings are not planned much in advance and need to be confirmed a few
days beforehand. Meetings usually start with an initial round of small-talk.
Interruptions during meetings are common as the Arab culture is polychronic.
Hospitality You may be offered refreshments during a meeting. Please accept it graciously.
There is a lot of socialising before the food is served. It is common for men and
women to dine separately. When socialising, avoid taking about religion and
politics, especially Israel, as it may be taken offensively.
Other As the month of Ramadan is for fasting and austerity for the Muslim people, it
is advisable to eat and drink indoors and away from the public eye, that is, if
you are in the Arab world during the holy month.
Table 4.9: Business Etiquette in China
Greeting Between people of the same gender, handshake and a nod at the time of
meeting and departing is the norm. Between people of the opposite gender,
a handshake or a nod is considered appropriate.
Eye Contact Eye contact is acceptable and considered polite.
Exchange of Make sure that your card is printed in Chinese on one side. Present your
Cards business card with both hands with the Chinese side up. Please see the card
carefully before you place it and never write on a card that is presented to you.
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Time Punctuality is valued so arrive for meetings on time or a little early.
Hierarchy Chinese corporates are hierarchical and based on age and position and each
individual has a specific position and role in the organisation.
Dress Code Formal business suits are the best for meetings with the Chinese as it conveys
respect.
Personal Space Chinese are comfortable standing less than arm’s length apart, though this
distance increases with strangers. Touching is not observed unless with family.
Meetings Meetings are a formal affair with a ritualistic approach. The senior member of
the host speaks first, introducing himself and his team, followed by the leader
of the visiting party. The Chinese like the visiting party to know who is in
command and the latter should make that evident too during the meeting.
4.8 STRATEGIZING FOR EFFECTIVE CROSS-CULTURAL

COMMUNICATION
Now that you are equipped with a sound understanding of the theory and practices in
cross-cultural communication, it is time to evolve a strategy to communicate effectively in a
cross-cultural context. Given below are steps that will assist you in developing a strategy and
fine-tuning it.
 Be Receptive
Your receptiveness and openness will help you in exploring and dwelling on certain
aspects of your own or the target’s culture that may help you overcome certain biases.
 Improve Your Awareness
Awareness of the existence of vast or subtle differences in cultures is crucial to get on

to the next step.
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 Always Prepare Well
Read as extensively as possible and watch a movie based on that culture. The movie
will help you understand the non-verbal communication styles and subtleties of the culture
under study.
 Decide on the Language
If you do not speak the language of your counterpart, hire the services of a competent
interpreter. However, if you are fluent in the language, make sure that you brush up your
skills based on the peculiarities of how it is spoken in your counterpart’s region or country as
a native speaker.
 Be Careful with Humour
You need to be extra cautious when it comes to using humour in a cross-cultural

context, for it can go wrong badly. For instance, the English use self-deprecating humour
combined with understated sarcasm, whereas for the Japanese humour is a private thing as
they want to avoid embarrassment for themselves or for the other party.
4.9 SUMMARY
 Culture refers to a set of ideas, beliefs and customs based on which certain norms are
evolved over a long period of time which becomes a way of leading life for the members
who are a part of it. A culture typically traces its origins to a particular geographical
region.
 There are two distinct approaches to studying a culture, namely Structure-based and
Transaction-based. The former involves examining the constitution and forms of cultures,
whereas the latter studies its evolution through the multifarious interactions between
people.
 Cross-cultural communication is the process of individuals or groups from different

cultural backgrounds interacting with each other, recognizing their similarities and
differences for a successful engagement.
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 The four characteristics of culture under the Structure-based approach of studying culture
are: -
o Context – Refers to the environment or setting
 High Context Cultures - Attach high importance to circumstances / environment

and less to verbal communication.
 Low-Context Cultures - the message itself does most of the communication and
the context and background are of no consequence.
o Individual / Collective – Based on whether importance is given to individual or

collective identity.
o Time – Classified as monochronic and polychronic cultures.
 Monochronic - Linear view of time, focus on one item and avoids multitasking.
 Polychronic - Flexible view on time, greater importance to relationships and

multitasking.
o Conflict - Individualist societies see conflicts as opportunities, whereas collectivist

societies view conflicts as destructive. Styles of conflict management:
 Avoiding
 Obliging
 Compromising
 Integrating
 Dominating
 The important mediums or channels in the context of cross-cultural communication are -

(a) Listening, (b) Verbal, (c) Non-Verbal, (d) Written.
 Cross-cultural business etiquette refers to observance of certain accepted rules, customs

and behaviours for mutual consideration of people interacting for an effective
engagement.
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4.10 REFEREMCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Duck, S. & McMahan, D.T. (2012). The basics of communication: A relational

perspective (2nd edition). SAGE Publications.
2. Hargie, O., Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice, 5th ed.
(London: Routledge, 2011)
3. Martin, J.N. & Nakayama, T.K. (2007). Intercultural communication in context (4 th

edition) New York: McGraw Hill.
4. Monipally, M.M. (2001), Business Communication Strategies, New Delhi: Tata

McGraw Hill.
5. Rahim, M. A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal

conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26(2), 368–376.
**************LMS Feedback:lmsfeedback@sol-du.ac.in****************
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LESSON 5
CAREER MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Career Planning
5.3.1 Steps in Career Planning
5.4 Career Management and Communication
5.5 Résumé Writing
5.5.1 Résumé Styles
5.5.2 How to write an eye-catching and convincing résumé?
5.6 Cover Letters
5.6.1 Structure of a Cover Letter
5.7 Group Discussions
5.7.1 Purpose of a Group Discussion
5.7.2 What are some of the key features of an effective group discussion?
5.7.3 Group Discussion as a tool in the recruitment process
5.7.4 How to communicate effectively in a Group Discussion?
5.8 Interviews
5.8.1 Non-Verbal Communication
5.8.2 Verbal Communication
5.8.3 Etiquettes for Interview
5.8.4 Stress Interviews
5.9 Communication during Exit Interviews
5.10 Ethics and Communication
5.10.1 What are the Principles of Ethical Communication?
5.11 Summary
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After a careful reading and understanding of the concepts in this lesson, you will be able to:
 Articulate your career objectives and prepare a career plan for achieving the objectives.
 Write compelling résumés and cover letters to ensure that you get an interview call.
 Perform well in a group discussion and interview.
 Communicate effectively in an exit interview.
 Understand the ethical aspects of communication and implement it in your career.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
A typical span of one’s career is around 35-40 years, which may seem like a long
time to enable proper planning to accomplish career objectives. Yet, very few people tend to
succeed in this endeavor. Career Management is a continuous process of orienting and
reorienting your career based on the evolving sets of goals and objectives. These goals and
objectives are embodied in certain milestones that one strives to achieve through career
management strategies.
"I always wanted to be somebody, but now I realize I should have been more specific."
- Lily Tomlin
The above quote from Lily Tomlin hits the nail right on its head as career
management starts with setting of specific goals and objectives. However, with for longer
time horizons, the objectives tend to become less specific which is quite understandable.
Therefore, the time scale is the most important factor when it comes to formulation of these
goals and objectives. Time-horizon based goals and objective are classified below.
 Short-Term goals tend to be rather specific as one has the advantage of less uncertainty
and therefore are easier to articulate. The time horizon for short-term goals would be up
to two years. Formulating the right short-term goals that align with your long-term
objective is of paramount importance.
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 Mid-Termgoals are larger in scope but less specific when compared with the short-term
ones. The time horizon for mid-term objectives is around three to twenty years. As the
timeframe increases, so does the uncertainty which makes mid-term and long-term goal-
setting much more difficult.
 Long-Term objectives are the most difficult ones to set due to very high uncertainty
about the future. Though these objectives are easily modified due to the time advantage.
The key takeaway is that the responsibility for your career advancement is entirely
yours. You cannot expect promotions, salary raises and so on to come your way simply with
time. It is sufficiently clear that setting of goals and objective for successive time horizons is
the crux of career management.
5.3 CAREER PLANNING
The ongoing process of goal setting, devising the means of achieving the goals, and
reviewing and assessing it continuously is known as career planning. It has to be borne in
mind that career planning is not just about the jobs and the positions that you see yourself
occupying in your career. It involves many more activities, including going for higher
education, taking professional certifications, joining membership of professional bodies,
networking, etc.
5.3.1 Steps in Career Planning
 The first step in career planning can be called - writing the preamble of your career
plan. So, how should the preamble of your career planning document look like? You
must clearly articulate your areas of interest; present skill sets and preferences. The
preamble will keep guiding you as to the overall direction of your career, though it is
quite possible that you may want to rewrite the preamble itself as you go along your
career path.
 The second step and the most important one is that of goal setting. Based on the
preamble that you have written, start by setting goals for the very short-term for it is
the easiest to do. The goals should be realistic and objective. You may also use the
SMART criteria of goal setting devised by George T. Doran.
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Exhibit 5.1: Doran’s SMART Criteria of Goal setting (Source: https://www.slingshotapp.io)
 The third step involves an analysis of the opportunities that are available to you. This
step would automatically be akin to making a career choice. An objective and
informed analysis of the opportunities would help you in making the right choice.
 The fourth step is to make a strategy and implement the plan. If the attainment of the
goals necessitates acquiring new skills, you must budget enough time for the same
and keep resources ready.
5.4 CAREER MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION
In the process of career management, one of the most important tools at your disposal
for success is effective communication. However, it can potentially turn out to be a perfect
recipe for failure, if not done properly. Therefore, learning to communicate for career
management should be an essential part of your career planning. There is a series of steps
involved in communicating with a prospective employer. It all starts with applying for a
position by means of a cover letter enclosing your résumé. This will be followed by
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interviews, group discussions, etc.The life cycle of communication involved for a job and
exiting from the job has been shown in the exhibit below.
Job Application -
Resume
Cover Letter
Group Discussion /
Exit Interview
Interview / Both
Resignation Acceptance of Offer
Exhibit5.2: The Life-Cycle of Communication in Career Management
5.5 RÉSUMÉ WRITING
Let us start with the correct pronunciation of the word résumé. The word is of French
origin and is pronounced as ˈrezjuːmeɪ. You will be surprised to learn that the first resume
to be drafted and sent to a prospective employer was from the Italian polymath Leonardo da
Vinci to the then de facto ruler of Milan, Ludovico Maria Sforza.
A résumé is a formal document containing information about your contact details,

educational qualifications, work experience, skills, achievements, accomplishments, etc. Its
purpose is to attempt to convince your prospective employer about your suitability for the
opening.
5.5.1 Résumé Styles
As mentioned earlier, a résumé is a summary of your educational qualifications and

work experience along with other details. This summary can be organized and presented in
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different layouts and styles. Please remember that it is a “summary”, therefore it has to be
brief and yet attention-inviting. The following styles of résumés are popular: -
 Chronological or Reverse-Chronological Résumés
This style of résumé is the most common and best for a work history that is free from
any gaps. The focus is obviously on your work experience. The practice is to start with the
latest job followed by the second most recent and so on.
 Functional
Functional style is adopted when a candidate does not possess the relevant experience
that is required for the job. This style of résumé writing focuses on the skills that are required
for the job that you have applied for, based on the details given in the job description.
 Hybrid / Combination
This style of résumé writing tends to utilize the best of both functional and
chronological styles. It is best when you have a sizeable work experience behind you along
with skill training / education. You may start with an objective seeking the right positions
followed by a summary of professional training and skills, which in turn will be followed by
a chronological history of work experience.
 Targeted
Targeted résumés are specifically designed for a particular opening that interests you.
These résumés are be written in any of the aforementioned styles, viz. Chronological,
Functional or Combination. The prior experience, education and skills are carefully
calibrated and drafted to suit the requirements of the position. Targeted résumés require you
to conduct in-depth research on the organization that you are applying to, its vision and
mission statement, the various business units in the organization, etc. Such résumés also help
in online job portals, where it is important that your résumé ranks higher in searches.
5.5.2 How to write an eye-catching and convincing résumé?
A complete résumé will include the following five parts with the length of each part
varying from individual-to-individual.
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Identification Details
 It should have your name, city name and contact details, including Email Address,
Contact Numbers and Address to your LinkedIn profile.
Objective / Résumé Caption / Introduction
 The career objective is usually seen in the résumés of those who are recent graduates
and who do not have much experience or achievement behind them for the objective
to be replaced with a résumé caption or introduction.
 You can fine-tune your career objective or introduction based on the nature of the
position and / or the company / industry of which you intend to be a part.
Education
 You must include the Degrees, Diplomas and Certificates along with the respective
Universities / Institutions attended along with the city name.
 Remember to include the month and year of award of the Degrees, Diplomas and
Certificates.
 Highlight special achievements, if any, in academics.
Experience
 Mention your work experience reverse-chronologically, i.e. starting with the present
on top, followed by the next latest and so on.
 If you are a fresher with no professional experience, you may include any part-time
work or summer internships, volunteering work, etc.
 For each entry under experience, add around 2-5 statements. You may write more for
the current position, if required.
 Try to use a bulleted format and use indenting for ample clarity and bundling of
relevant things together.
 The entry under the experience head should look like the following:
State Bank of India, Ahmedabad - Assistant Manager
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January 20XX- December 20XX
 In-charge of Banking Operations in the branch reporting directly to the Chief

Manager.
 Responsible for Alternate Channels, including Internet Banking (Retail and

Corporate), Mobile Banking, ATM, etc.
 ……………………………………………………………………………………
Skills
 Skills that are relevant to the position that you are applying for may be prominently
mentioned, including technical skills, soft-skills, foreign language, etc.
Awards / Honours
 Fellowships, awards, medals and other such recognitions may be listed.
References
 Based on whether the prospective employer has sought references, you may write the
names and details of the references. However, please ensure to take permission from
each of them before you go ahead and mention them in the résumé.
The one thing that you need to keep in mind at the time of writing your résumé is –
“What purpose is the résumé going to serve for the prospective employer? “The résumé as a
document will be used for shortlisting potential candidates for interview. Therefore, it has to
catch the attention of the HR Executive or Manager whose task is to sift through hundreds of
résumés. Your drafting should be an exercise in assessing the keywords and information that
your reader will be looking for. Therefore, you must add as many actionable words as
relevant and necessary in your résumé. It will also help your résumé to appear in searches on
online job portals, that is, in case you are applying for a job through an online platform.
What is a Curriculum Vitae (CV) and how is it different from a résumé?

The term Curriculum Vitae (CV) is more popular in the UK, whereas résumé is more
popular in the US. Though, there is a technical difference between the two. A Curriculum
Vitae is a more elaborate version of the résumé with details of your research work,
publications, seminars and conferences attended / delivered and so on. A CV is usually made
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for applying to research institutions, educational institutions, international jobs, etc.

Therefore, a CV has an academic orientation whereas a résumé is meant for applying to non-
academic positions.
Full Name
New Delhi, India
70420XXXXX
xxxxxx@xxxxxxx.com
LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/in/xxxxxxxxxxxx
PROFILE
Management Professional with 7+ years of experience in strategy building

and marketing of very large-scale international trade fairs, policy making for
events and marketing of the largest expo venue in India.
EXPERIENCE
2015-09 - till date Company Name, Location– Manager
 Instrumental in making the two flagship trade expos of Company - ABC

and XYZ - the highest revenue generators in the history of the
organisation.
 Worked on introducing policy-level changes to strengthen [Company
Name]’s flagship event ABC, the largest ever in the history of exhibitions
in India.
 Launched the Tender Desk for Foreign Events of for streamlining
appointment of vendors.
 Part of the core negotiations team for rescheduling exhibitions lined up in
the expo venue due to the ongoing redevelopment work.
 Conducting training on various topics, including transition to e-Office,
official drafting, soft skills, change management, etc.
2015-02 to 2015-08
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Company Name 2, Location–Deputy Manager
 In-charge of Banking Operations in the branch reporting directly to the

Chief Manager.
 Disbursement of Govtsubsidies to farmers & other target groups under
various schemes.
 Responsible for cross-selling of the PMSBY and other such schemes of the
government.
EDUCATION / QUALIFICATION
 Management Development Program (MDP) from Indian

Institute of Foreign Trade (IIFT), One-Week Programme in
Global Trade Management
 QualifiedUGC-NET in Management
 Post Graduate in Global Business Operations (2-yrs full time)

from Shri Ram College of Commerce (SRCC), University of Delhi
 MBA-International Business from Pondicherry University
 B.Sc. (Hons) Physics from University of Delhi
CERTIFICATIONS
 Certified Trainer from Indian Society for Training and Development

(ISTD).
 Certified Project Manager with an Executive Diploma in Project

Management (EDPM) from International Institute of Project and Program
Management (I2P2M).
AFFILIATION
Life Member of the Indian Society for Training and Development
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(ISTD).
Exhibit 5.3ASample Résume
5.6 COVER LETTERS
A cover letter is your first communication to a prospective employer that acts as an

introduction to your résumé, which is a mandatory enclosure with the cover letter. It is also
known as an application letter. Separate cover letters should be written for different positions
that you wish to apply for and should be demonstrative of your keenness for the job or the
employer or both.
The objective of a cover letter is to convince a prospective employer that you are
really interested in the opening and qualified for the job. You should avoid writing things in
the cover that you have already mentioned in the resume.
5.6.1 Structure of a Cover Letter
Just as any other formal letter, a cover letter is also divided into three parts, namely
introduction, body and closing. You need to present three basic ideas in the cover letter:
 Reason for your interest in the position and the prospective employer.
 Why should the prospective employer consider you?
 Contact details and plan for follow-up.
Let’s see how you can incorporate these ideas in an organized and interesting manner
so as to invite the attention of the hiring managers. Given below is the explanation of the
format of a cover letter with each item elaborated for ease of understanding.
Contact Details
The usual format is to mention your contact information on the top, followed by the
date and the name and contact details of the addressee, all aligned to the left-side of the page.
Salutation
The most widely accepted salutation is Dear Mr./Ms. [Last Name]. If the name of the
concerned hiring manager is not available, you may simply use Dear HR Manager.
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Introduction
The letter starts with an introduction where you have to try to captivate the attention
of the reader. You can briefly introduce yourself and mention the source from which you
learned about the position.
Body / Main Content

 Objectively describe your suitability for the position with corroborating facts from
your past job(s).
 Describe how your education and training have equipped you well for the job.
 Mention your successful projects and how your skills were pivotal in making them a
success.
 Focus on the skill sets that are required for the position being applied. This is where
your reading of the job description will be of great help to you.
 Be careful not to repeat what is already there in your resume.
Closing
 The closing must include the next plan for follow-up. Ensure that you observe the
courtesy of thanking the prospective employer for considering your candidature.
 The letter ends with “Sincerely”.
Your Name
Address 1
Address 2
City
State PIN
Email:
12th August, 2022
Ms./Mr. / Dr. [Full Name of the Addressee]

[Company Name]
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Address
City
State PIN
Dear Mr./Dr./Ms. [Last Name of the Addressee],
I am writing to express my interest in applying for the position of Deputy General

Manager (Corporate Strategy and Planning) available at [Company Name]. I learned about
the position from your colleague Mr. [Full Name] during the automotive aftermarket Buyer-
Seller Meet (BSM) that we attended last week in New Delhi.
I am a Strategy Professional with 12+ years of relevant experience in Strategy Planning

and Execution of Inorganic Growth (Mergers & Acquisition and Joint Ventures). I am
currently employed at the Corporate Headquarters of [Company Name]. Our function
provides captive strategy consulting services to our business units based in India and
overseas.
I was a part of the core team that established the Strategy Planning Process at
[Company Name]. I helped develop a robust framework for the Strategy function and devised
periodic review mechanisms for continuous assessment and evaluation of the approved
Strategy Plan. All this was accomplished with minimum intervention from external experts.
My strength as a seasoned strategy consultant has led me to work very closely with all
our business units and the senior leadership team in particular for assisting them in
identifyingpotential targets for acquisitions, joint venture and mergers. Based on my work,
over the past five years, two acquisition - [xxxx] and [yyyy], and one JV with a Japanese
brand were completed successfully. All three have been going strong and have emerged as
turnaround stories.
As an industry professional, I regularly read the literature of your company and I have
come to understand that the strategy function at [Company Name] would benefit from my
experience and expertise as having had hands on experience of multiple acquisitions / JV.
I would really appreciate an opportunity to discuss this more elaborately in person with
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you at the time. I am available at the contact details mentioned in my resume (enclosed).
Thank you for your consideration.
Sincerely
[Name]
Enclosure: Résumé
Exhibit 5.4: Sample Cover Letter
5.7 GROUP DISCUSSIONS
A Group Discussion (GD) is a type of group activity where the group is given a
common topic on which each individual is expected to exchange ideas, views and opinions
and try to arrive at a conclusion. A group discussion may be moderated or completely free
from any moderation and allowed to take its own course.
5.7.1 Purpose of a Group Discussion
 Generation of new ideas
 Arrive at a solution to a problem
 Recruitment / Selection of suitable candidate(s)
 Used in a training environment for learning new skill(s), etc.
Depending on the purpose of the GD, time and resources in hand, and so on, the
number of individuals in each group may vary. A typical group consists of around 6-10
persons. A group discussion is a just like a meeting, yet there are certain important
differences and are listed below:
 There is not fixed agenda in a group discussion.
 There are no roles and responsibilities that one has to fulfil. Though the group may be
asked to appoint a leader / moderator from among its members.
 The emphasis on the process rather than on the outcome.
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5.7.2 What are some of the key features of an effective group discussion?
 All individuals in the group have a chance to speak and express their ideas and views
about the topic of discussion.
 Members who are not sure about the topic under discussion or have not formed an
opinion, have the chance to hear what the others have to say and respond afterwards.
 New ideas and those that have not been fully developed can be tested.
 A wide variety of ideas and views can be obtained in a very short span of time.
 The discussion is not hijacked by one dominating member.
 There is a tacit understanding among members that the group has to arrive at a
conclusion which leads them to engage constructively even when confronted with
disagreements.
 Arguments are considered a healthy way of testing theories put forward by members.
 Feedback is exchanged in a constructive manner.
5.7.3 Group Discussion as a tool in the recruitment process
GD is a tool used in the recruitment process in campus recruitment, special

recruitment drives, recruitment to government organizations, etc. In some of these, GD may
be used as the first level of elimination that makes is a formidable challenge. You may be
allowed to attend the interview rounds only upon clearing the GD, therefore you must
prepare well for it.
5.7.4 How to communicate effectively in a Group Discussion?
Communicating in a group is always more challenging than communicating with an

individual, simply owing to the presence of more people, which can potentially make things
chaotic. With an increase in the number of members in a group discussion, the task becomes
even more challenging. Yet, by following some basic steps you can expect to perform well in
the group discussion and increase your chances of succeeding in the same. These steps are
discussed below: -
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 Prepare yourself
It is always a good idea to have some mock discussions with your friends so that you
get accustomed to a group setting. Selects a few current topics that you can discuss at length.
This little practice session will help boost your confidence level and will assist you in smooth
sailing on the day.
 Don a Positive Attitude

Thinking positively and being warm to the other candidates will help you break the
ice. A brief introduction with all participants will help you be more comfortable with them
and will positively impact your performance.
 Practice your pitch and tone

Group discussion is a type of public speaking where you have to be audible and clear
to the audience. Practice speaking at an appropriate pitch and learn intonation and
modulation of your voice which will make your speech appealing. The tone should be polite
but assertive. It will help you sound convincing.
 Take the leadership role and encourage others

Remember that it is a group discussion, and everyone has to speak. If you notice that
a fellow participant has not got the chance to speak even after a long time into the discussion,
you can interject and say “Before we carry the discussion forward, I think we should listen to
Mr. X.” Such initiatives will not go unnoticed, and you will get credit for encouraging others.
 Don’t Clamour
You should avoid clamoring for your turn to speak. Instead, you should smartly try to
initiate your speech between momentary pauses during the discussion. If the discussion is
degenerating into a clamour, somebody has to take the initiative to bring order back into the
discussion. It will be a great opportunity to demonstrate your leadership capabilities and
intellectual maturity.
 Maintain an air of sophistication

You should maintain your dignity throughout the activity and sound professional
throughout.
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 Don’t Speak too Much

Speaking just to hog the limelight is not a good strategy. After your opening remarks,
you should let others speak. Be an active listener and try to build further on the points being
discussed. Interject if you have something to add or a counter argument to make. Whatever
you speak has to be in articulate and professional language.
5.8 INTERVIEW
An interview is a formal conversation between an applicant for a job or an

educational programme in which the former responds to the questions put forward by one or
more members of the interview board. Interviews can be structured or unstructured based on
the objective to be achieved.
Interviews are formal occasions where verbal communication, non-verbal

communication and business etiquettes are all under scrutiny. Therefore, as a candidate you
must prepare well for it.
5.8.1 Non-Verbal Communication
 Knock the door before opening it and seek permission to let yourself in. Walk in
confidently with your head straight with a relaxed disposition.
 Greet the interviewer with a firm handshake and if it is a panel, you may offer a polite
and warm greeting collectively; say “Good Morning Everyone” or just “Good Morning”
warmly.
 Wait for the panelto ask you to sit down. Say thank you before you sit down and make
yourself comfortable yet attentive.
 The interview is to be conducted by the interviewer or the interview panel. Therefore,

after the initial greeting, wait for the panel to ask you something. Maintain the right
posture while sitting and do not slouch.
 No fiddling with the pen.
 Please try not to carry any coins or bunch of keys in your pockets to avoiding clinking.
 Maintain eye-contact with positive facial expressions conveying sincerity.

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 Refrain from responding to questions only with gestures or facial expressions as it will
be considered as rude and may convey that you are not interested enough.
 Using your hands in graceful and professional gestures while responding to questions
from the panel will demonstrate your self-confidence and that you are not nervous.
 Try to sport a gentle smile as and when deemed appropriate as it would assist you in
building rapport.
5.8.2 Verbal Communication

 You will get ample opportunity and time to speak, however you will have to wait for the
interviewer to finish the question. So, listen carefully to the question uninterrupted
before you go ahead and begin your response.
 Try to give concise and concrete responses rather than giving long-winded answers. Try
to come straight to the point without long introductions.
 Use formal language and avoid using short-forms and slangs, etc. It is considered
unprofessional to use slangs.
 Prepare yourself well, at least for those clichéd questions that most interviewers happen
to ask. Some of the questions are:
 “Tell me something about yourself.”
 “Five reasons for why we should hire you.”
 “Where do you see yourself in the next five years?”
 “Describe yourself.”
 “What is your biggest weakness?”
These questions are very common, and you should make it a point to prepare well for
these questions. If you falter with these questions, you will have no one else to blame.
 Incidental humour in a manner that is accepted contextually is considered acceptable. In

fact, the appropriate use of humour is always a great way of establishing rapport with the
interviewer.
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 If you do not know the answer to a question, simply regret by stating that “I do not know
the answer to that. However, I will try to find out”. No beating-about-the-bush. An
interviewer will appreciate your courage to say that you do not know. It is alright not to
know. Nobody knows everything.
 Refrain from making any sort of excuses and show the courage to accept your past
failure. Make a case of how you learnt from the failure and used it to work on your next
success.
 Refrain from using speech fillers, such as “you know”, “um”, “like”, “uh”, etc. as it may
sound annoying and unprofessional. The interviewer will, most certainly, view it as your
lack of fluency in the language. Instead, if you replace these fillers with pauses you can
possibly turn it into strength.
 Rate of Speech: Many people have a misplaced notion that speaking fast is the same as
being fluent. It is important that you speak at an optimum rate so as to enable your
audience to receive your messages and process them to have a perfect understanding of
the same.
5.8.3 Etiquettes for Interview

 Be on time
The most basic etiquette is to reach the interview venue on time. Start early so that
you get to the venue even if you have any hassle finding the route. However, avoid reaching
too early as there is a reason why you have been given a fixed time. The interviewer may
have other things to attend to before getting on with your interview.
 Remember Names
Make an extra effort to remember the name of the interviewer, i.e. if you have
corresponded or spoken before. Forgetting names reflects lack of preparedness and even
indifference.
 What if you are offered refreshments?
The best thing to do is to have a glass of water as it would help you rehydrate your
dry throat and help you in case you are nervous. For other things you may politely decline as
it would really be awkward.
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 No Mobile Phones
Keep your mobile phone off or on silent mode. It is very unprofessional if your phone
rings in the middle of an interview. In case it happens by mistake, please ensure that you
apologize genuinely and immediately switch it off.
 Do not share confidential details
You should never share confidential details about your previous employer as it is
unethical and will be taken adversely by the interviewers. Badmouthing or complaining
about your previous employer or job or reporting managers also reflects badly on you.
Employers are looking for professionals who have unquestionable integrity and are reliable.
 Express Gratitude
After the interview gets concluded, remember to thank the interviewer(s) for their
time and the opportunity to discuss your suitability for the position at length. It is also good if
you send a thank you email as a follow-up.
5.8.4 Stress Interviews
A style of conducting interview where a candidate is asked unsettling questions, using

a confrontational manner or using stressful conditions or a combination of all these to
understand how the candidate responds to stress.
Some of the tactics used in a stress interview are listed below.

 Using seemingly offensive questions
An interviewer may ask questions which you may find offensive, for instance “why
did you get fired from the previous employer?”
 Intimidating behaviour
The interviewer may show hostile body language in a way that is intimidating. You
may be asked questions in a demanding tone and your answers may be dismissed altogether.
 Aggressive manner
The interviewer may be aggressive in his / her manner and ask back-to-back rude
questions.
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These questions are used to gauge if they unsettle you and how well you are able to
handle the situation. The objective is to see if the candidate gets unnerved by the tactics.
CASE STUDY
Mr. X was attending an interview for the post of Management Trainee in a reputed
consulting firm. After his introduction, Mr. X was asked about his father’s occupation
which he found quite offensive. (Mr. X’s father was a stenographer and typist in a
government department)
The interviewer did not stop there, he continued, “Why don’t you become a
stenographer yourself”? Such questions are offensive and may dent the self-esteem of an
individual.
How should Mr. X have responded to these questions?
There are many ways in which one might respond to such questions. One of the
better ways to respond is in the manner mentioned below.
It is obvious that the interviewer has deliberately asked this question to see
whether it unnerves you. So, do not show any visible sign of you being upset or perturbed
by the offensive questions. Gather your composure and start responding in a way as if
nothing was amiss.
Try to be as logical as possible. Tell the interviewer that stenography is an art that
is hardly being used in the current context, expect in certain professions, such as legal /
judicial. Most of the younger executives prefer to do their own writing / typing.
Further, you may mention that you have a certain domain expertise which will be
best utilised in the positions such as the one that you are being interviewed for. Also,
mention that as a professional, your efforts are always directed at the actualisation of your
potential.
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5.9 COMMUNICATION DURING EXIT INTERVIEWS
An interview held between an employer and an employee who is getting separated

from the organization is known as Exit Interview. Through the exit interview, the employer
attempts to get feedback of the exiting employee on the key reasons for leaving, culture of
the organization, policies, work environment, learning opportunities, work-life balance,
management, reasons for joining the next organization and so on. The purpose of the exit
interview is to improve various aspects of the organization, devise strategies for retaining the
employees and thereby reducing employee turnover.
Some of the most commonly asked questions in an exit interview are mentioned below.
 Are there reasons for your decision to leave the organisation that we should know
about?
 The most satisfying aspect about your job was?
 The least satisfying as aspect about your job was?
 Is there anything about your own job that you would like to change?
 What is the best thing about working for the organisation?
 What is the one thing that you do not like about the organisation? How can we
improve?
 Is there anything that you’d like to change about the way the organisation functions?
 Was the management supportive during your service period?
 If a suitable opportunity comes your way to re-join the organisation, would you take
it?
 Would you recommend / refer your friends to join the organisation?
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Source: https://brainstuck.com
Exhibit 5.5: Exit Interview on a Lighter Note
5.9.1 How to communicate during an exit interview?

 Go with a neutral and balanced state of mind
You should aim at attending the exit interview with a balanced state of mind and try
to be objective in your responses. It is an occasion for the final formal interaction between
you and the management and should be seen as an opportunity to make sure that you leave
on a positive note.
 Be Candid, Not Virulent
Exit Interview is not to be considered as your chance to give your employer a piece of
your mind and to settle personal scores with your reporting managers. Criticism of your
managers is completely acceptable;however, it should be articulated constructively. If done
the right way, the employer may well take action as per your suggestions for improvement,
which will make life a little easier for your successor.
 Be Specific
Your points will be taken seriously depending on how specific your responses are,
and how you can supplement your responses with examples or actual instances. Please focus
on the larger picture of your Business Unit / Department and the organization as a whole
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rather than dwelling on petty personal issues. It will demonstrate that your responses are
valuable and insightful and may compel the employer to take action. The employer will take
it favorably and give you an excellent review and may even make a counteroffer.
 Don’t Give a Completely Negative Feedback
If you give only negative feedback, or even a fully positive one for that matter, it will
likely be taken as an unfair / uninterested / not-so-genuine response and may be simply
discarded. On the other hand, if you give a mixed bag of both positive and negative
responses, it will be taken as fair and honest.
5.10 ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION
As per the Oxford Dictionary, “ethics” are “moral principles that control or influence
a person’s behavior. “So, it is a set of “moral” principles. What is meant by that? Morality is
about the principle of whether something is right or wrong, good or bad and so on.
So, we can say that ethics are a set of principles which governs the conduct of an
individual or a group and indicates whether their actions or inaction, for that matter, are right
or wrong and whether the intent behind it is good or bad.
Ethics and Communication

Communication is an essential and inseparable part of your careers and there would
hardly be any day in your professional life when you do not make any sort of communication
with your bosses, colleagues, vendors, clients, prospective employer, etc. It is of paramount
importance that your communication passes the necessary scrutiny of being ethical, by which
you mean that it is honest and bona fide. The underlying thought behind it is that your
communication should not cause any harm or damage to the receivers. Therefore, your
communication should be free from any manipulation, obfuscation, misrepresentation,
discrimination, perception bias and exaggeration.
Why is ethical communication so important?

Ethical communication helps in building trust and credible relationships that are
essential for business. By following ethics in your communication, you will ensure that your
dealings are perfectly lawful. Business can take place only with trustworthy people which
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makes ethical communication all the more necessary to gain the confidence of your
stakeholders.
5.10.1 What are the Principles of Ethical Communication?

There are certain principles that guide us in communicating ethically. These
principles are listed below: -
 Honesty
Honesty is obviously the most common principle that comes to mind when we think
about communicating ethically. If you are honest in your interaction with people, you have
fulfilled one of the most important criteria of ethical communication.
 Transparency
The second principle is that of openness in your dealings and interactions. It is one of
the key principles on which building and maintaining the trust of your stakeholders rests.
 Confidentiality and Privacy
You must maintain confidentiality of information at all times and strictly refrain from
divulging any information that is sensitive and concerns other parties. There are some
industries where confidentiality is even more important, such as defense, industrial research,
etc.
 Acting Responsibly
Being responsible in your actions is seminal to the concept of ethics. At every point in
the process of communication, one must take ownership of things and think responsibly.
Wherever you think that things are going beyond your control, you should escalate the
channel of communication to put things back on track. You must also bear in mind conflicts
of interest that may arise every now and then in an organization.
Examples of how Ethical Communication is Critical in Business
 Suppose that you are a member of a committee whose job is to make recommendations
for appointing a vendor for providing Golf Carts to be used in the factory campus. If one
of your relatives who runs a Golf Cart company has bid for the job, it would be unethical
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for you to be on the Committee and therefore you should immediately communicate the
same to the appropriate authority.
 Ethical communication has great bearing on the marketing industry. Companies advertise
about their brands routinely and often they use hyperbole and deception in
advertisements. An interesting example is that of food photography used in
advertisements of popular burger chains. In the photographs, the burgers appear much
bigger and more stuffed that what it is in reality. It is a clear case of deception and
misrepresentation of facts. The companies engaging in such deceptive advertising tactics
should come clean about it to be fair to its consumers. Such companies risk losing their
market share as the consumers gradually become aware of the deception.
5.11 SUMMARY
 Career Management is a continuous process of orienting and reorienting your career

based on the changing sets of goals and objectives.
 The ongoing process of goal setting, devising the means of achieving the goals,
reviewing and assessing it continuously is known as career planning.
 A résumé is a formal document containing information about your qualifications, work

experience skills, achievements, contact details, etc.
 A cover letter is your first communication to a prospective employer which acts as an

introduction to your résumé that is a mandatory enclosure with the cover letter.
 A Group Discussion is a type of group activity where the group is given a common topic
on which each individual is expected to exchange ideas, views and opinions and try to
arrive at a conclusion.
 An interview is a formal conversation between an applicant for a job or an educational

programme in which the former responds to the questions put forward by one or more
members of the interview board.
 Interviews are formal occasions where verbal communication, non-verbal communication

and business etiquettes are all under scrutiny.
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 A style of conducting interview where a candidate is asked unsettling questions, using a

confrontational manner or using stressful conditions or a combination of all these to
understand how the candidate responds to stress is known as a stress interview.
 Ethics are a set of principles that governs the conduct of an individual or a group and
indicates whether their actions or inaction, for that matter, are right or wrong and whether
the intent behind it is good or bad. Ethical communication helps in building trust and
credible relationships which are essential for business.
1. Explain the concept of career planning and the steps in involved in it.
2. What is the purpose of a résumé and how is it different from a Curriculum Vitae (CV)?
3. How can you communicate effectively in a group discussion?
4. What are the etiquettes that you should follow in the interview process?
5. What is a Stress interview?
6. What are ethics? What are the principles of ethical communication?
1. Ball, B. (1997). "Career management competences – the individual perspective". Career

Development International. 2 (2): 74–79.
2. Bennett, Scott A. The Elements of Résumé Style: Essential Rules and Eye-Opening
Advice for Writing Résumés and Cover Letters that Work. AMACOM, 2005 ISBN 0-
8144-7280-X.
3. Calub, Cecilia. (2021). Ethics in Communication: A Focus on Verbal and Non-Verbal

Sexual Harassment. 10.13140/RG.2.2.24862.46400.
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University of Delhi

Semester - I
Course Credit - 4.5
Editorial Board
Prof. Ajay Jaiswal
Dr. Nikhil Rajput
Content Writers
Dr. Pratibha Aggrwal
Dr. Shefali Gupta

ISBN: .............................
1st edition: 2022
Published by:
Printed by:
Information Technology Management
INDEX
Lesson:1 Introduction to Computers ................................................................................... 1
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Computers: An Introduction
1.4 Computers in Business Organizations
1.5 Generations of Computers
1.6 Computer Languages
1.7 Elements of Information Technology
1.8 Personal Computers in Business
1.9 Planning an Information Technology setup for an organization
1.10 Emerging Technologies
1.11 Summary
Lesson:2 Indian Computing Environment ...................................................................... 20

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Growth of the IT sector in India
2.4 Trends in IT and ITes sectors
2.5 Applications of Information Technology in business and service organizations
2.6 E-Commerce: A Web-based business
2.7 E-Governance: A competent administration
2.8 Latest developments in Information Technology
2.9 E-Governance as a social transformational tool
2.10 Summary
Lesson:3 Management of Modes of Data Processing....................................................... 43

3.2. Introduction
3.3. Computer System Software
3.4. Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
3.5. Software Development Process
3.6. Data Design
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3.7. Report Design

3.8. Organisation Of Data Files
3.9. Master And Transactional Files
3.10. Relevance Of Database
3.11. Flow Chart
3.12. Input-Process-Output Analysis
3.13. Report Generation
3.14. Programming Concepts
3.15. Use of Data Files In Programming
3.16. Management of Data Processing System in Organizations
3.17. Summary
Lesson:4 Operating System, Spreadsheet and Presentations ......................................... 77

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Operating System – An Interface
4.4 Windows – An Operating System
4.5 Text Processing Software – An Introduction
4.6 Introduction to Spread Sheet
4.7 Spread Sheet - Applications
4.8 Data Base Functions in Spread Sheet
4.9 Graphics in Spread Sheet
4.10 Data Base Manager – An Introduction
4.11 Presentation Graphics - Introduction
4.12 Applications of Presentation
4.13 Applications of PC Package
4.14 Summary
Lesson:5 Management System Integration and Networking ......................................... 101

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Management System Integration
5.4 Application Portfolio Development
5.5 Internet
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5.6 Extranet
5.7 Intranet
5.8 Applications of Internet
5.9 Internet Technology in Organisations
5.10 Data Communications
5.11 Networking
5.12 Internet Service Providers
5.13 Application Service Providers
5.14 Summary
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LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Dr. Pratibha Agrawal

Assistant Professor
PGDAV (Eve) college
Delhi University
Pratibha.agrawal12@gmail.com
STRUCTURE

1.2. Introduction
1.3. Computers: An Introduction
1.4 Computers in Business Organizations
1.5 Generations of Computers
1.6 Computer Languages
1.7 Elements of Information Technology
1.8 Personal Computers in Business
1.9 Planning an Information Technology setup for an organization
1.10 Emerging Technologies
1.11 Summary
1.12 Glossary
1.14 References

• Explain the term Information Technology.
• About Computer generations & Languages.
• Elements of Information Technology & Computers.
• Usage of Information Technology & Computers for Business Organizations.
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• Emerging trends in Information Technology & Computers.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Information Technology (IT) is related to all Information and become a strategic necessity.
Nowadays computers and IT is part of the life of every human being such as used in
government, for commercial purpose, in-home, etc. Computers have many usages in business
organizations. Computers started in this world a long and describe five generations.
Computers are interacting with the help of main elements i.e., hardware and software. The
integration of hardware and software with the end users required different computer
languages for distinct purposes. Business Organisations are growing enough with the help of
information technology and the use of computers. New trends in business organizations,
planning an Information Technology as part of it working on growing pace. There are many
emerging technologies growing well and users are adopting them at a growing pace such as
Cloud, Social Media, IoT, Robotics, etc.
1.3 COMPUTERS: AN INTRODUCTION

Computers and IT is spreading rapidly all over the world and revolutionized business as well
as the personal activities of human beings. Either good or bad, computers have infiltrated
every aspect of our society. Today`s computers not only compute for which it was but do
much more. It works in every field or profession. As computers adopt in commerce and
governments new ways to harness their potential developed. So, a small unit becomes more
powerful, it is linked together or networked, to share software, memory space, and any kind
of data for communicating with society.
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data and instructions, processes the data and
produces the desired output. It can be said as data processing machine or a problem-solving
machine that accepts data, stores data, processes data and display results. Computers are
ahead to human beings for speed, accuracy, memory and diligence but cannot beat the human
brains, they are not intelligent.
Fig1: Processing diagram
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Computers can perform a variety of tasks. They are used for programming, graphics
presentation, data management, word-processing, spreadsheets, communications and much
more. The ability of computers to do all tasks i.e., processing is built around the two
operations of computers – arithmetic operations and logical operations. Functions of
computers have been done by software (a set of instructions written by human brains to
computers for processing). Software directs all the processing sequence to the computer and
allows it to perform specific tasks. So basic operations perform by any computer are:
1) Input function
2) Storage function
3) Processing function
4) Output function
5) Control function
1.4 COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS

The present computing era is playing important role for the growth of Business Organisations
and management of organization. Information Technology is very well designed to improve
the growth of business. It is seen that computers are an invaluable assistant for businesses
even for small ones also. Information Technology has many dimensions, e.g., mobility.
As business environment is no more as stable as previous era, nowadays much more
competitive. So, for the survival of businesses, it become mandatory to be techno savvy with
full use of IT. Most of the businesses are IT oriented taking help to plan any kind of critical
response activities for dealing with today`s consumer.
Due to changed policies of government, Business organizations are under pressure to be IT-
oriented over a long period of time. The Government gives enough time to respond to
changed policies but changes in the behavior of the consumers ask organizations to come up
with IT solutions fast. So, IT helps us to anticipate and stay ahead of problems. The
Organization can be with proactive measures instead of firefighting measures. Business
organizations are supported with strategic systems of IT to increase their market value/share.
Nowadays the most need of the Business is Business process engineering (BPR), where IT
and computers play a major role. Here, organizations work with the technology of
networking. Internet and Intranet are part of networking technique, it helps an organization in
changing their processes and reduce cycle time and time to market a product. Employees of
the organizations are also accessing information at different levels with the help of IT tools
and rising business. So, employees are more independent to take decisions for the business.
Through ERP (a major IT tool for business) integration process of an organization is very
easy.
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Information Technology means gathering, storing, organizing, and displaying of processed

data. Here, IT describes an integral part of it as a `Database`. Database is very important tool
of any business organization, which is a collection of related files, tables, relation, data etc.
that works for the growth. IT tools help organizations in accessing database and processing of
information further for communication and knowledge and facilitates business. So, it can be
said that IT is an important tool for the business and must be used properly.
1.5 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

A computer is such an electronic machine, which is present in this world since long. Now we
can say that computers passed many generations. Firstly, people know it only as a fast-
counting tool. But over the time, computer is characterized by major technological changes or
development. The characterized technological developments of computer fundamentally
changed the working of computers i.e., the way it operates, stores, processes, and results.
Then resulting it to increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, reliable and more efficient
as well as multi-tasking device. These technological development (which are categorical) are
recognized as progression of generations with specific changes. So, now we learn about
different generations of computers with progressive changes.
1.5.1 ZEROTH GENERATION COMPUTERS
Zeroth generation of computers can be marked by the invention of first mechanical device
Pascaline in 1642. Next in 1822, Charles Babbage, developed Difference Engine for naval
navigation. Further in 1834, Babbage attempted to build Analytical Engine, which was
considered as first computer. So, Charles Babbage called as father of computers, his
computer had memory unit, computation unit, input unit (punched card reader) and output
unit (punched output printer), all basic parts of modern computers.
1.5.2 FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS
First generation of computers (1946-1959) was marked with the invention of Vacuum Tubes
for circuits and magnetic drums for memory. These computers were very large in size
because of the massive number of vacuum tubes required. They consumed too much power
and generated too much heat. These systems were very slow with poor reliability and low
accuracy. First generation computers were based on machine language for performing
operations and using punch cards and paper tapes. They were very expensive also. Examples
of these systems are UNIVAC, ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC etc.
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Fig 2: First generation computers

1.5.3 SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS
Transistors marked the second generation of computers (1954-1964). Transistors were the
breakthrough in the technology of second generation, that make computers small in size and
more powerful. The use of transistors made second generation computers less expensive and
more reliable, even faster also. Second generation computers moved from machine language
to assembly language. They used magnetic core for memory, card readers for input and
printers for output. Although, they required less electricity and emitted less heat than earlier
computers, but also had many disadvantages. These systems had limited storage capacity,
need regular maintenance but much better from first generation. Examples are UNIVAC III,
IBM series, HONEYWELL series etc.
1.5.4 THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS
Third generation of computers (1965-1980) was marked with the use of Integrated Circuits
(IC`s), a progressive change in technology. This technology was more reliable, more efficient
than previous generations. IC`s were more compact than transistors, which reduced the size
of computers and generated less heat with less consumption of power.
These systems were introduced with operating systems and the concept of computer families.
Third generation computers were with secondary storage devices outside the systems. These
systems were enabled with faster input/output devices like keyboard and monitor for
enhancing the ability. Concept of multiprogramming also introduced and using high level
language for programming.
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This generation of computers was introduced with some disadvantages like less storage
capacity, slow performance as expected. Examples are IBM 360, CRAY-1, PDP-8 SERIES,
UNIVAV-1100, 9000 series etc.
1.5.5 FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS
Fourth generation of computers (1981-1995) was the marked generation of Large- Scale
Integration (LSI) of chips with several thousand transistors and microprocessors. And further
this was followed by Intel series of Microprocessors. This was introduced with very large -
scale integration (VLSI) technology for the development of popular personal computers
(PCs), also called as Microcomputers. These Microcomputers were introduced for home and
business users to adapt computers as part of their working by using word processing,
spreadsheet, file handling, graphics, animation and much more. For those purposes, the
input/output devices used in fourth generation are very much advanced like graphic tool,
animation tools, audio terminals, optical devices etc.
Most importantly, fourth generation introduced with graphical user interface (GUI) and
mouse optical devices with very large storage capacity. These systems had very high speed,
high level of accuracy and reliability, also diligent and versatile with small size. Examples are
CRAY-2, IBM PC/AT, INTEL 386 SERIES etc., but systems were not intelligent.
1.5.6 FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS
Fifth generation of computers (1995-till date) are enabled with intelligence. Artificial
intelligence is the main part of today`s systems working with `Knowledge Processors` (which
can find the solution of problem itself). They are using IC`s with ULSI (ultra -Large -Scale
Integration) technology and applications with intelligent software. These systems are more
efficient and capable to understand the problem of user, based on intelligent programming
and knowledge-based problem-solving techniques. These system performing tasks according
to the user intelligently with a specialised technique of AI called as parallel processing. Next
goal of this generation is to understand natural language processing and development of such
intelligent devices which are capable enough to learn and self - organized.
All this is possible with the help of Internet and Mobile computing, which is again a great
achievement of this generation. This era is developing continuously with much more
technologies day by day and enabling the world with well performing applications and great
devices. That is done only through great human brain, so `Human Brain` is powerful organ,
which is business oriented. Examples are all AI based application or Robots etc.
1.6 COMPUTER LANGUAGES

Programming is technical skill of computers which involves designing, creating and refining
of code for solving the problems by building applications. For the purpose of programming
many computer languages are available for accomplishing the tasks of end users. For
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understanding computer languages can be categorized as: Low level languages and High-
level languages.
1.6.1 LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
These languages are languages of computer in the form of 0 and 1. They have direct
connection with machine, which machine can understand easily based on machine hardware
itself. As they very near to machine, so have fast execution speed and efficient use of primary
memory but writing of code in low level languages is a tedious task and time consuming.
They are again divided into two: Machine Language and Assembly Language.
1.6.2 HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
High level languages are close to human beings and mathematical notations. These languages
require less time and effort in writing code with them. High level languages often use English
like words as instructions, but further translate those commands into machine language
instructions. To boost the capability of the system they also use assembly language for
translation purpose. All high-level languages are different for variety of tasks and specialised
for certain purposes. These are categorized according to the specific tasks, examples are as
calculation-oriented language (BASIC, FORTAN, ALGOL, and APL), Data processing
languages (COBOL, RGL, SQL etc.), List processing language (LISP, PROLOG), object-
oriented languages (C++, JAVA, .NET etc.).
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between High-level and Low-level programming languages?
2. Give examples of High-level languages.
3. What are the limitations of High-level languages?
1.7 ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

We have been using and talking about Information Technology, is not an element or a single
device. Information Technology is the collection, storage, processing, dissemination, and use
of information. It is not only confined to the information, instead a collection of many
elements of technology as: Hardware, (Memory units, Storage Units, Processing Units)
Software, and Data for processing. But all these elements have to be organized in such a way
that each element works smoothly and efficiently. During the computing process, computer
integrates all these elements. Thus, computing process includes all elements to accomplish
any activity or performing task. All are named and explained as: hardware, software, data,
telecommunications, and people.
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1.7.1 HARDWARE
The term `Hardware` means the physical parts of the computer, which we can touch. It
consists of interconnected electronic devices that controls the system.
Hardware can be further subdivided into:
- Processing units
- Memory units
- Storage units
- Input / Output units
1.7.1.1 PROCESSING UNIT
Processing unit is processor, that transforms data into information with the help of memory.
Processor act like a brain of the computer, it organizes and process all the instructions given
to the system by user. This device is also called as Central Processing Unit (CPU), which
involves computations and decision making. It also responsible for controlling all the devices
connected. CPU comprises of three parts: control unit, arithmetic unit and logical unit, all
work with the help of CPU memory called registers. CPU works at a very fast pace of
sequence i.e., collecting data, transforming data, then generating output; at the rate of one
computational cycle at a time. There are many types of processors present in the market for
systems based on the working of the CPU.
1.7.1.2 MEMORY UNITS
The memory of computer is storage medium to store data electronically. It holds the data
from CPU and other components of the computer for carrying out its operations. Every
computer has certain amount of physical memory (storage space), usually referred as main
memory / primary memory. It is a semiconductor device that is built using integrated circuits.
Primary memory is internal storage of the computer, where programs and their data stored.
This memory provides temporary storage during execution of the program, so also called as
volatile memory, but its access is very fast. Some part of the primary memory also contains
permanently stored instructions that tell the computer what to do, when it is switched on.
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Fig 3: Types of memory diagram

Main memory can be divided into two parts as Random-Access Memory (RAM) and Read
Only Memory (ROM). RAM is that part of main memory where data and instruction held
temporarily while being executed. It allows user to enter data into the memory and retrieve
(read & write) with continuous power supply. On the other hand, ROM is a part of computer
storage that cannot be erased or changed (non-volatile) i.e., its contents are not lost without
power supply. The data can be read only, cannot be write into it. ROM is necessary for the
system, which tells or stores booting program to start the computer. This part of the memory
is not for application software, only boots the operating system which cannot be changed due
to any failure.
1.7.1.3 STORAGE UNITS
Information needs to be stored on the system with the help of different types of storage
media. Storage devices are used to store data permanently or semi-permanently. The data is
stored in binary form in memory by storage media. The storage media are distinguished by
their relative capacity, speed, and resilience to failure. Broadly, it can be of two types:
volatile storage and non-volatile storage.
Volatile storage devices need continuous power supply, content will lose if power supply
switched off. Access to volatile storage is very fast because of technology used and access
method. Examples are main memory, cache memory etc. we have already learnt about
primary memory/ main memory or volatile storage in previous section.
Non-volatile storage devices do not need continuous power supply, content will be retained
after power supply switched off. The technology used for and access method to non-volatile
storage makes them slower than volatile storage. Examples are magnetic storage (disks or
tapes), etc. So, further we will learn about secondary storage to store data permanently.
Secondary storage is non-volatile providing permanent data storage supplements main
memory, having much greater capacity than main memory. It is less expensive but slower
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access than main memory, stores large amount of data permanently. Secondary storage used
for keeping backups or archival storage of data. Various technologies are used for access of
secondary storage, some provide random access, and others provide sequential access. These
technologies effect on speed of data retrieval from then amount of data stored effect on the
performance of the storage device. For example, if device having sequential access and it is
storing large amount of data then its data retrieval speed will be slow.
1.7.1.4 INPUT & OUTPUT UNITS
For the purpose of communication with the computer and user, medium is required. The
collection of devices for input and output of data is called as input/output units. The input is
given to the computer through input devices and the display of processed data for the user is
provided through the output devices. These devices are controlled by the CPU. Basically,
these devices are designed for human beings to interact with computer system in seamless
manner. These are links between man and machine, depends on the processing requirement.
INPUT DEVICES
The input device is an interface between the user and the machine, for inputting the data and
instructions and transformed into machine readable form. Data can be input in many forms
such as audio, video, text, graphics, etc. Some common input devices are:
- Keyboard
- Mouse
- Light pens and Digitizers
- MICR
- OCR
- OMR
- Bar code reader
- Joystick
- Web camera
- Voice recognitions
- Scanner
OUTPUT DEVICES
The output device is an interface between the machine and user, that accepts data from the
machine and transform into readable format for the humans. The output generated by the
computer can be transferred to the user by several devices and media. The output also can be
in many forms such as audio, video, text, graphics etc. Some common output devices are:
- Monitors
- Printers
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- Plotters
- Audio devices/speakers/headphones
- Projector
- Touch screen
- Braille reader
- Secondary storage devices
1.7.2 SOFTWARE
The term `software` means which we cannot touch. Software is interface between computer
hardware and users. In the last two decades, there is a great development in the field of
software. The computer hardware cannot perform any activity without any instructions; these
instructions are given by Software. The software is the set of instructions that hardware units
follow to work done. The process of writing the instructions is called the programming, in
order to communicate for solving problems. There are many types of software available for
almost every type of need. The software available from stores on internet, open source, or
paid software. The different types of software are available but broadly classified into two
categories: system software and application software.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
The system software directly interacts with the computer hardware and manages all the
hardware components as well as supervises the execution of all applications running on the
computer system. It also controls the saving and retrieval of data from the secondary storage
devices. Operating system and language translator, utilities are main examples of it.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software enables the computer to solve the specific data processing task.
Application software creates a communication bridge between user, system software and
computer hardware to perform specific task. Nowadays, numbers of application software and
packages have been developed to make life easier. These are easy to learn and use, although
they perform many general and specific functions. However, there may be much kind of
situations, where specific types of application software are not available which can be design
are called as custom application software. The most important categories or types of packages
available are:
- Data communication software
- Database Management software
- Statistical and Operational Research software
- DTP package software
- Presentation and graphics software
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- Spreadsheet & Word processing software

- Accounting packages etc.
1.7.3 DATA
Data is the basic element of information technology for the business organisations. The
modern business runs on data. Business organisations keep their data with the data centres.
Data centres is physical place where computer servers, networking, data storage, backup
facility, environmental controls etc.
Data is a stream of raw facts, a collection of unprocessed items such as text, pictures, audio,
graphics etc. Today organisations are accumulating vast and growing amount of data in
different formats and different databases. This mainly includes:
- operational or transactional data such as inventory, sales, cost, payroll,
accounting
- non-operational data such as industry sales, forecast data, macroeconomic
data.
- Meta-data, data about data itself, such as logical database design or data
dictionary
Data should be processed before usage; data processing typically is manipulation of data to
get information. Data processing activities includes collection of data, conversion or
transforming, manipulation or computation, then storage and communication of information.
These activities can be grouped into functional categories, viz., data input, data processing,
data output, and storage, is called as data-processing cycle. In other words, data processing is
re-structuring or re-ordering of data to increase their usefulness and add values for particular
purpose. A data warehouse contains all of the data in whatever form that an organization
needs. Databases and data warehouses have assumed even greater importance in information
systems with the emergence of “big data,” a term for the truly massive amounts of data that
can be collected and analysed.
1.7.4 TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Telecommunication is next component of information technology for working with business
organisations. It is the process by which information is exchanged, it includes sharing,
transformation, or retrieval of information etc. So, conveying and understanding of
information is the basic characterized feature of telecommunication. All this is possible only
through networking of organisations, and connections can be established physically or by wi-
fi connections among themselves. Business organisations follow all basic technologies of
networking i.e., LAN, MAN, WAN through wires or wireless with different kinds of
hardware.
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1.7.5 PEOPLE
Information technology of business organisations is based on important element i.e. People.
They are main, because of them whole system works. People the important element that are
needed to run the system and the procedures, so that data collected in databases and data-
warehouses turned into knowledge and information.
People are involved in information systems in just about every way, people imagine
information systems, people develop information systems, people support information
systems, and, perhaps most importantly, people use information systems.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define Software and discuss its types.
2. Explain, why people are involved in information systems.
3. Differentiate between input and output devices.
1.8 PERSONAL COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

Computers & IT has been impacted tremendous to the Business Organizations. It has many
advantages as well disadvantages also. On one hand IT increases labour cost of IT
professionals in every field, on the other hand cost-performance ratio of business is towards
betterment. Vast capabilities and powers of computers increasing the usage in this field.
There are many characteristics of computers, make very useful for Business Organizations
such as
- data processing speed,
- vast amount of data storage,
- capability to solve complex problems,
- high accuracy,
- automation of tasks, and a
- steady decline of cost of per unit of data processed.
So, nowadays the IT has been used in every business and for every function or process of
business. Some of the basic and popular applications used in business are as follows:
- Finance & Accounting
- Sales & Marketing
- Manufacturing
- Human Resource Management
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- Project Management
- Data Analysis
- Marketing & Research
- Healthcare
- Education Sector
- Public Relations etc.
1.9 PLANNING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SETUP FOR AN

ORGANIZATION
The business organisations, today requires real-time responsiveness to change, whether to
meet new demands, changes in the supply chain, or unexpected competitive proceed. In
order to be able to respond quickly, enterprises must provide their employees with immediate
access to accurate and updated information. This greater vulnerability on information
translates into greater dependence on the effectiveness of IT infrastructure as a whole. So,
there should be well planned setup of information technology for an organisation.
IT act as channel of communication, software development tools, and social networks. The
responsibility of business organization is, infrastructure should be facilitated, secure, logical,
powerful, waste disposable, and management of large chunks of information technology. A
flexible and robust IT infrastructure also plays an important role by empower employee
productivity and globalization. IT infrastructure allowed pervasive and secure business
communications anywhere and anytime and managing operational complexity and providing
greater utilization of resource assets. Over the years, computer-based systems are larger and
more complex, the importance of and dependence on IT systems have grown substantially.
Information technology has all the indication of an infrastructural technology. Information
technology is, first of all, a transport system. It carries digital information like as railroads
carry goods and power grids carry electricity. In IT, companies have worked hard to reduce
the cost of IT infrastructure data centre, networks, databases, and software tools that support
businesses.
Planning an information technology setup for organisation, proposes an eight-step process
that can help decision-makers:
• Choose the solution that best fits their needs and context.
• Obtain the external help and expertise they need.
• Develop, scale, and then sustain their chosen solution.
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There are eight steps in the process of planning an information technology setup
includes:
- Define outcomes: At the start of any major ICT project, the project management team
should create a project charter or terms of reference document that summarizes what
the project will accomplish and where and when they will implement it. That way,
there is no confusion about the project’s objectives, targets, and scope.
- Form your team: To avoid misunderstandings and to make sure that your team
possesses the required skills, consider the roles that will be required. Select personals
or organizations that will fulfil these roles. Completing roles and responsibilities, a
matrix should be required.
- Define what your system needs to do: Defining of business processes first, helps to
think about the way people work (or could work) before diving into the details of
what your system will look like. This process enhances the likelihood that the system
will adapt itself to people and their work objectives.
- Find the right solution: organisation will find an appropriate system solution that
aligns with the context, which can be find out by adopting a system and architecture
of business organisation.
- Select right vendors: It is easy to be overwhelmed by vendors with more experience
selling their service or product than business organisation buying it.
- Estimate implementation and operational costs: The cost to maintain the system
should provide an ongoing benefit that outweighs this cost. When seeking to manage
the cost of operations, the organization should review ways to reduce the cost and best
estimate whole cost.
- Create an implementation plan: Just as costs are often underestimated, so is the
time it takes to implement a successful information system. This sometimes leads to
hurried analysis phases, unclear requirement and scope definitions, and skipping
necessary quality controls. In the end, this results in even longer timelines. Having a
plan and following a project methodology is the key to ensuring success. This step
highlights some attention points like define work plan, track milestone then
implement.
- Understand and manage risks of the system: Following the seven steps described
previously should lower project risk by aligning requirements to organizational
objectives, understanding costs, planning appropriately, and choosing the right
vendors and partners. However, despite the planning that takes place, a significant
number of projects have a different outcome than expected. For that just find out
critical factor of failure, then solutions to remove or low down the risk.
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1.10 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Emerging technology generally means a new technology, but it can also meant for the
continuing development of an existing technology; it should have slightly different meaning
when used in different fields, such as media, business, science, or education etc.
Emerging technologies having importance for the modernization of industries. New
technologies work for digitization of business organisations, these technologies are mainly
helpful in manufacturing, energy and mobility markets etc. These technologies continue to
affect the way we live, work, and interact with one another and having great impact mainly
to increase our productivity, make the services we need more accessible, and, overall, make
our lives easier.
Emerging Technologies enables learning experiences which are difficult to recreate. They
have positive effects (less expense, better efficiency, communication networks etc.) and
negative effects as well such as social isolation, job loss, health issues, scams etc. So, the
main objective of IT is to make tasks easier and to give solutions of many problems. Day by
day technology is more emerging, few of the examples of it are artificial intelligence, cloud
computing, virtual reality, robotics, social media, machine learning, IoT, big data etc. We will
learn here about few of them.
1.10.1 Cloud Computing
Recently, cloud computing has been an emerging computing technology of the IT sector,
which is acting as a revolutionary set up for the IT infrastructures and provides flexibility to
the system. Cloud computing is introduced basically for the business environment that
provides internet based interactive environment for using virtualised resources such as
storage space, software, working platforms. It has many benefits as resource pooling, on
demand benefit, broad network access, location independence, files transfers, software for
hire, secure storage, servers for rent, databases etc.. Nothing is there in the world without
drawbacks, so some of the disadvantages of cloud computing are less reliable, loss of
information, unsecure connections, exposure of your information to many platforms etc.
The major cloud computing models are in use today; Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS),
Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS), and Software-as-a-Service (SaaS). Few of the examples of
cloud platforms are Amazon (Amazon Web Services, or AWS), Microsoft (Azure), and
Google (Google Cloud Platform) maintain the most in-demand.
Cloud computing is emerging on one hand but have many security issues on other hand as
lack of privacy, full of legal issues, some compliances, and issue of long term viability etc.
1.10.2 IoT
Nowadays Internet is the most important part of the life in the world. So, world is dependent
on internet, everything is connected to internet, all communications are with the help of
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internet, human being are working with internet, almost all devices are connected to internet
and performing task. This gave birth to new term of IoT (Internet of Things), it is an
interconnected network of smart devices using internet, sensors, and RFID for transferring
data without human intervention over the network.
IoT works on few main elements as identification of device, sensing of data for transferring,
then communication of devices to transferring of data. This is the main working of IoT with
the world of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning. The IoT creates opportunities for
new products, services and business models. Some of the basic examples of IoT are:
Automotive Industry, Pharmaceutical industry, manufacturing industry, agriculture &
breeding, supply chain management, etc.
Some major challenges face by IoT are of security & privacy, scalability & interoperability,
low power communication, security threats from devices etc.
1.10.3 Robotics
Advancement in AI, machine learning, IoT and big data are driving robots into every aspect
of life. Robots can make life easy for humans as by eliminating dangerous jobs for humans
because they are capable of working in hazardous environments. They can handle lifting
heavy loads, toxic substances and repetitive tasks. This has helped companies to prevent
many accidents, also saving time and money. So, from here term ROBOTICS originated.
The main aim of robotics is to design machines that can help and assist humans. Robotics
integrates many fields of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, information
engineering, mechatronics, electronics, bioengineering, computer engineering, control
engineering, software engineering, mathematics, etc. They need special hardware with
sensors and effectors.
1.10.4 Social Media
Social media is virtual community within the network, interactive technology that facilitate
the creation and sharing of information, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression. In
today's society, the use of social media has become a necessary daily activity. used for social
interaction and access to news and information, and decision making. In fact, it is a valuable
communication tool, to share, create, and spread information. Social Media is fast evolving
as one of the most reliable ways to connect and stay informed about the most recent
developments in a particular industry. So, it is very useful for businesses.
1.11 SUMMARY
The computer is an electro-mechanical device, which provides assistance in storing and
processing data for business organizations. The personal computers are now in use, which
were introduces in 1980`s, a computer that is used by single user or people working in same
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field by sharing. They are so popular, that are used in every working field of the human being
– small organisation, large organisation and even in homes. According to the trend, PC`s are
reducing size, cost but not the performance.
Computers include CPU, input units, output units, storage units and software. The data is
entered into the system then transformed into machine readable form is input, then after
processing into CPU, data is transformed into human readable form machine is output. Then
it is stored into secondary storage permanently. Collection of all these elements is necessary
for information technology. So, hardware, software, data, telecommunication and people are
important elements of information technology to work with business organisations.
So, we have learnt the main components of an IT system that are used in business
organisations. They follow the sequential path for installation of PCs into the business
organisation with IT setup. These systems are also enables for telecommunications as well as
emerging technologies. Today`s emerging technologies are including AI, Robotics, cloud,
social media etc.
1.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Define Information Technology and list its major elements.
2. Discuss how IT is supporting the business organisations.
3. What are the components of a computer system?
4. Differentiate between RAM & ROM.
5. What are the major trends in business organisations for Information Technology
enabled PCs / systems?
6. Describe the business benefits of implementing information technology.
7. What are the main types of software and describe their functions?
8. Write a detailed note on the advantages of telecommunication as a component of
information technology.
1.13 GLOSSARY
CPU: central processing unit, having arithmetic unit, logical unit and control unit.
HARDWARE: physical parts of the computer system, which we can touch and
interconnected to each other for performing or solving complex to complex problems.
SOFTWARE: sophisticated part of the computer system, which we cannot touch and act as
interface between user and computer hardware components.
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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY: Information Technology means gathering, storing,

organizing, and displaying of processed data.
COMPUTER GENERATIONS: Over the time, computer is characterized by major
technological changes or development. The characterized technological developments of
computer fundamentally changed the working of computers i.e., the way it operates, stores,
processes, and results. The sequential changes in computers over the period name it as
computer generation.
COMPUTER PROGRAMMING & LANGUAGES: Programming is technical skill of
computers which involves designing, creating and refining of code for solving the problems
by building applications. For the purpose of programming many computer languages are
available for accomplishing the tasks of end users.
Cloud Computing: Cloud computing is introduced basically for the business environment
that provides internet based interactive environment for using virtualised resources such as
storage space, software, working platforms.
IoT: IoT (Internet of Things), it is an interconnected network of smart devices using internet,
sensors, and RFID for transferring data without human intervention over the network.
Robotics: Robotics is to design machines that can help and assist humans. They need special
hardware with sensors and effectors.
Social Media: Social media is virtual community within the network, interactive technology
that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, interests, and other forms of
expression.
Telecommunication: It is the process by which information is exchanged, it includes
sharing, transformation, or retrieval of information etc.
RAM: RAM (Random Access Memory) is that part of main memory where data and
instruction held temporarily while being executed.
ROM: Read-Only Memory (ROM), is a type of memory that comes built in to a device
during manufacturing and non-volatile.
1.14 REFERENCES
• Banker, R.; R. Kauffman; and M. Mahmood. Strategic Information Technology
Management. Harrisburg, PA: Idea Group Publishing, 1993. (An interesting and
stimulating collection of articles about the strategic use of technology.
• Parker, M. M. Strategic Transformation and Information Technology. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996. (An up-to-date look at the way technology changes
organizations and the opportunities it provides managers.)
• Bill, H., & Jaffe, B. D. (2012). IT manager's handbook (3rd ed.). New York: Morgan
Kauffman.
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LESSON 2
INDIAN COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT

Dr. Shefali Gupta
Assistant Professor
Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Khalsa College
University of Delhi
shefali@sgtbkhalsa.du.ac.in
STRUCTURE
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Growth of the IT sector in India
2.3.1 IT Software and Service Industry
2.3.2 Status of IT Software and Service Industry in India
2.4 Trends in IT and ITes sectors
2.5 Applications of Information Technology in business and service organizations
2.5.1 What is Information Technology?
2.5.2 Information Technology in Business
2.5.3 Information Technology in Service Organization
2.6 E-Commerce: A Web-based business
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 E-commerce Business Models
2.6.3 Pros and Cons of E-commerce
2.7 E-Governance: A competent administration
2.7.1 Promoting E-Governance
2.7.2 E-Kranti: Electronic Delivery of Services
2.7.3 Advantages of E-Governance
2.8 Latest developments in Information Technology
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2.9 E-Governance as a social transformational tool

2.9.1 ICT: The Revolution
2.9.2 E-Governance in Various Fields
2.9.3 Financial Tool
2.10 Summary
2.11 Answers to Intext Questions

The target of this chapter is to learn about Internet Technology, which has a significant
impact on the future:
• To gain essential information in the space of the computing environment, which
portrays Internet Technology - its key areas, advantages and disadvantages, and
ongoing application trends in the IT sector.
• To get fundamental applications of IT in business, government, and service sectors.
• To grasp the extent of the effects of IT on the general public, with its benefits and
hindrances.
• To adapt the standards of versatile and remote innovations whose turn of events and
applications are turning into the most noticeable parts of the present IT.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Our life has been influenced by Technological development to a reasonable extent
that has resulted in the emergence of a replacement of the international economy. It has
remodeled the globe into a worldwide village. With a click of a button, the answer to the
problem appears on the screen. Despite its excellent use, some flaws must be corrected, or
else hackers or any wrong organization will play with the confidential information of many
firms or people. That is why it is necessary to grasp the IT idea at ground level to avoid any
circumstances of fraud.
Information Technology (IT) is the bedrock of current venture associations. The term
rotates on the bottom of computer frameworks, programming, web, and different foundation
that empowers an association’s center skills. Liberal associations read IT as a superiority that
allows them to figure out much intelligence and attain their business objectives.
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Our society has modified a good deal owing to the significant advancements within
the field of IT that style the standard of our lives, economic processes, education, social
relationship, etc. The social group impacts of the IT area deal with each negative and positive
aspect. Technology and society go hand in hand and should complement one another. They
are the two sides of an identical coin.
2.3 GROWTH OF IT SECTOR IN INDIA

2.3.1 IT Software and Service Industry:
Information technology (IT), a knowledge-based sector, has enormous potential to
stimulate economic growth, boost overall economic productivity, and facilitate effective
governance. It improves information access, safeguards consumers, gives people access to
government services, increases the effectiveness of skill development and training
effectiveness, enhances healthcare service delivery, and encourages transparency. It offers
excellent employment opportunities and connections between the government and the
popular in rural and urban areas. The extent of the nation's leading position in the global
economy over the next two decades will be determined by investment in knowledge-based
businesses.
2.3.2 Status of IT Software and Service Industry in India:
The Indian IT programming and administration industry has arisen as the quickest
developing area in the Indian economy, with a development rate surpassing 50% in
commodities and 40% in the all-out IT industry throughout recent years.
India holds a 55% market share of the US$ 200–250 billion global services sourcing
industry in 2019–20, making it the top sourcing location globally. India's standing in the 2021
edition of the Global Innovation Index increased by four spots to 46th place (GII). National
Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM) reports that the Indian IT
sector generated US$ 227 billion in sales in FY22, representing a 15.5% YoY growth.
Gartner forecasts that India's IT spending will rise from an estimated US$ 81.89 billion in
2021 to US$ 101.8 billion in 2022. By 2025, it is anticipated that the Indian software
products market will be worth $100 billion. Indian businesses are concentrating on investing
abroad to broaden their global reach and improve their global delivery hubs.
The IT software and service industry has been categorized into three broad sectors:
• Software Product and Technology Services:
It gives the Indian software business a tremendous growth opportunity. The market
for developing software products, such as enterprise software (e-business solutions, ERP, and
e-corporate governance), consumer software (personal productivity tools), and embedded
software, is open to Indian enterprises.
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Indian businesses have created many highly regarded and well-liked software
packages, including HR management and company accounting by TCS, banking automation
software by Infosys, ERP tools by RANCO, etc.
• IT Services:
IT Services are transitioning from client-server to the web- and package-based
services. This will make up the bulk of the IT services. The most significant opportunity
will continue to be in the expansion of IT services, but other areas of the IT software
industry will also play a significant role. The need for IT services, domestically and
internationally, will increase quickly as new opportunities in management/consulting,
application maintenance, and Internet services arise. The government, banking and
financial services, manufacturing, retail, and distribution are the primary consumers of IT
services.
Communication, healthcare, and utilities are likely to experience new developments
due to the deregulation of these industries. However, top-notch personnel, cutting-edge
abilities, a top-notch telecom environment, and an environment based on IT knowledge
are fundamental requirements for IT services.
• IT Enabled Services (ITES):
The Indian ITES sector has established itself as a significant growth driver for the
country's IT sector and technology-driven services sector. Seventy thousand people are
employed in this sector, which grew from Rs. 2,400 crores in 1999–2000 to Rs. 4,100
crores in 2000–2001.
It includes a wide range of services, some of which include:
• Call center and other customer-interaction services
• Back offices, revenue accounting, data input, data conversion, and HR services
• Transcription and translation services.
• Animation and content creation.
• Additional services include network consulting, market research, GIS, data search,
and remote education.
ITES has significant employment potential and a shorter gestation period than other
IT-related industries. It demands consistent performance with high-quality standards and a lot
of human resources.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is the position of India in the Global Innovation Index 2021?
2. Economic trends include information relating to
a) Consumer and employment
b) Productivity, capital investment, etc.
c) All are true
d) None is true
2.4 TRENDS IN IT AND ITES SECTOR

The IT industry is constantly evolving. This quick-changing business has many new
technologies, tools, software frameworks, and creative concepts. In the present IT world, the
development of every economy is connected with the development of Data Technology. The
data innovation industry is encountering a blast more than ever, which is just the beginning;
more brands are hoping to extend in this space.
The world's basic structure has changed due to the COVID-19 epidemic. The virus
started in China in late December 2019 and has since spread to every continent and infected
millions of people. Global economies have been shut down in response, and various degrees
of lockdowns have been encouraged. One of the strictest lockdowns, prohibiting the flow of
people and products and essentially turning every city into a ghost town, has probably been in
place in India.
The economy has been dealt a deadly blow due to such onerous limitations on movement.
When the virus entered India, the nation was already experiencing difficulties due to a falling
GDP growth rate and a widening fiscal imbalance. The lockdown has only made the financial
situation worse, driving several enterprises and industries into a condition of moribundity.
Other nations have seen a comparable situation, especially in the US and Europe, which were
both centers for virus transmission.
However, a closer examination of the global economy reveals that several IT-related sectors
appear to have experienced an upward mobilization. These industries appear to have
substantially expanded their operational footprint and generated sizable revenues.
If we examine how the global IT/ITeS market is developing, we can see that all areas that
have succeeded throughout this challenging period have one thing in common: adaptability.
These industries have chosen a more adaptable strategy for handling the lockdown. They
have not been afraid to alter the game's rules, whether through flexible working practices or
the adoption of newer, more technologically advanced working methods in keeping with the
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demands of our day. Let us examine a few of these tech-related fields that have been
successful in overcoming the shutdown.
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Artificial intelligence and machine learning have taken center stage in recent years in
terms of new information technologies. Many multinational companies have started
integrating AI and ML into their operations, reaping noticeable advantages, including
enhanced customer experiences, faster business processes, fewer production concerns,
and increased profits.
‘Semrush’ figures show that 86% of CEOs expect AI to be standard
technology in their workplace by 2021. Moreover, in 2022, the tendency will continue to
pick up speed. More SMBs will ensure that their development approach includes deep
learning, machine learning, and artificial intelligence.
Intelligent tools and algorithms will increase across various industries, including
manufacturing, healthcare, finance, and education. Businesses that disregard or delay
implementing AI within the next five years run the danger of going out of business.
• Social Media
Social Media is a web-based connection among people. It permits clients to have
discussions, share data and make web content. There are many types of web-based
entertainment for everyone’s taste, including online journals, miniature sites, wikis,
informal communication destinations, photograph sharing, texting, video-sharing sites,
digital recordings, gadgets, and virtual universes. Lockdowns worldwide have kept
people stuck at home with nothing to do. As a result, the social networking site reported a
spike in user engagement during the lockdown period.
• Data-Mining Enterprises
The lockdown has made all the difference for information mining organizations. This
restrictive expansion in the number of hours spent on web-based and online platforms all
over the planet has given these organizations admittance to more extensive information
arrangements than they could have imagined.
• Cloud Computing
Cloud computing has been rising for the last couple of years as the pandemic has
made it the de facto king of computational services. With a rising dependence on remote
working, the capacity to store information in one secure area has become essential.
• E-Commerce
Social isolation measures have made it unimaginable for individuals to genuinely go
out to shop for food and different necessities because of the apprehension about the
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transmission of the infection. Online businesses have been the genuine victors in this
dilemma of worldwide commercialization. With only expectations of cleanliness and at-
home conveyance, these locales have given a simple choice to retail locations.
• OTT (over-the-top) Platforms
Web-based streaming stages like Netflix, Prime, and so forth comprise a generally
more current way to deal with diversion. They had, as of now, in any case, laid out a
name for themselves before the lockdowns and became worldwide famous for the wide
variety of shows and movies among a large set of different aged populations.
• Video-Conferencing Platforms
We need everything over the Internet, and nobody wants to go out. In the current
scenario, this fact is transforming into the new norm in our master culture: learning,
family meetings, etc. Also, this "Work from Home” culture is preferred over full-time
office jobs in the current scenario. Sound or text, yet video conferencing is the need
today.
• Mobile Apps
Mobile Apps and Portable applications have just filled in omnipresence and
popularity throughout recent years. This year, they are surfacing in far superior ways by
executing new assets that can make chipping away at the go more effective.
• Automation
Automation is a pattern that is essentially catching assembling and creation areas and
is supposed to increment further before long. Computerization has likewise empowered
cycles to work quicker, easing the human workload.
• Artificial Intelligence
The previous year saw the presentation of a few new mechanisms of man-made
reasoning. This year, enterprises are taking different steps and measures by which they
can develop these assets and carry out their work. Man-made intellectual prowess is, as of
now, seeing execution for a greater degree, which is set to foster more all through the
following couple of years.
• Virtual Reality
The gaming business has forever been one that has encountered development close to
the field of data innovation, and computer-generated reality has made this one stride
further, giving clients the actual encapsulation of advanced insight. Computer-generated
reality gaming has previously become well known because of innovation, which works on
how the business can develop.
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• Cyber Security
With the development of computerized mediums and innovation, the potential
dangers that individuals can confront are just rising. Because of this, cybersecurity and
network safety has needed to develop broadly throughout recent years. Industries all
around the world likewise understand the significance of putting resources into network
protection, which is why the field is experiencing growth at such a rapid pace.
• Growth of IoT Networks
The Internet of Things is the idea that all computerized gadgets are associated with a
solitary medium through which one would have the option to control everything. More
brands are starting to consolidate this idea encountering development at such a quick
speed so that they can gain more and more profit as the idea of IoT is becoming vaster
and vaster these days.
• Rise Of Chatbots
Chatbots are a program to respond to detailed inquiries somehow or another and are
planned to help clients with a piece of the more fundamental capacities they would
require. These are, clearly, still not in a position wherein they are a complete substitute
for genuine live client care, which has assisted them with the remaining development.
Also, there are a lot more fields like those referenced previously. The end here is that it is
inevitable that the IT business, regardless of its overall youthfulness and more settled areas,
will stay a central participant in the country's financial scene and continuous development
and evolution.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. ITes refers to:
a) Information Technology enabled Services
b) Information Technology end Services
c) Information Technology enabled Server
4. A type of _______ based computing is cloud computing
a) Iot
b) Internet
c) Bluetooth
d) Big data
5. Full form of VR is________________.
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2.5 APPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN

BUSINESS AND SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS
With more advancements in innovation, new organizations are made. With more
business, innovation acts as the hero by making things simpler. The two exist in something of
a cooperative relationship that guarantees they will continuously coincide or coexist. The role
of Information Technology in the business environment is ever-increasing. The application of
IT is beneficial and profitable to organizations.
2.5.1 What is information technology?
Information Technology (IT) integrates the review and usage of PCs and any kind of
transmission correspondences that store, recover, study, pass on, control information, and
send data. Data innovation includes a blend of equipment and programming to play out the
fundamental errands and the role that individuals need and use on an ordinary premise.
There are many facets of Information Technology which are listed below:
• Governance:
It refers to how working units implement operational boundaries and how individuals
use engineering, organizations, and IT frameworks. In plain English, they approve the
guidelines for how our group, and we may use the organization's invention and the
purposes for which we may do so.
Similar to information affirmation, which the IT office is also capable of, this is
crucial for traditional IT security. The actual parts of Information Technology go
under the equipment of IT. It incorporates setting up and keeping up with the
hardware like telephone frameworks, switches, servers, and PCs.
• Infrastructure:
It alludes to any tangible elements required for an IT system. Depending on the
requirements and size of the business, it includes hardware, network, and circuits of
the equipment.
• Functionality:
It is conceivably the most significant and practical work an IT department performs,
and for this reason, other departments within a company take notice of and remember
an IT department.
It includes designing and managing operational applications, creating, protecting, and
storing the organization's electronic data, and aiding all functional areas of the
company with software and data management.
The creation and management of communications networks for small and large
enterprises are centered in the IT department. The importance of an effective IT department
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to a company's day-to-day operations can be seen in the fact that few businesses, large or
small, could operate without one. Information Technology assists every step, from sending an
email to changing a password, accessing databases, and everything in between. The ultimate
goal of IT in a company is to increase productivity and efficiency.
2.5.2 Information Technology in Business:
Every business plan now includes information technology (IT) as a crucial and vital
component. IT is used by various organizations, including tiny enterprises with one computer
and multinational corporations that manage mainframe systems and databases. The easiest
way to understand the drivers behind computer technology's pervasive use in business is to
examine how it is applied globally.
• Data and Information Security
The primary objective of safeguarding is to keep data secure. The IT division will
guarantee confidential information. To prevent crucial data from being corrupted,
compromised, or lost, IT must also ensure they adhere to data protection rules. Its
criticality has further increased globally with the implementation of the "General Data
Protection Regulation" by European Union.
Examples of data breaches include information theft by hackers or data safeguarding,
which means that industry-standard security measures are in place throughout the entire
organization to guard against the loss, misuse, unauthorized disclosure, alteration, or
destruction of data related to the company or team member the misuse or sharing of
personal information about a company's personnel.
• Investigation of Issues
In the digital sphere, problem-solving is referred to as troubleshooting. Repairing
malfunctioning digital items or processes on a PC or system is one example of how
troubleshooting can be used. When a problem is troubleshot, a methodical and logical
search is done for the problem's cause to fix it and restore the process or product to full
functionality. When something is incorrect, troubleshooting is also utilized to determine
the symptoms.
• Database maintenance and security
The era of massive file rooms, rows of filing cabinets, and document shipping are
quickly passing by. Most businesses now keep digital copies of their documents on
servers and storage gadgets. Everyone has immediate access to these documents, no
matter where they are located within the firm. Employees profit from quick access to the
papers they need, and businesses can store and manage a vast amount of historical data
inexpensively.
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• Controlling cloud-based solutions

A cloud-based solution is an on-demand service for nearly anything and everything
we can "store," such as computer network data, storage, programs, or resources accessed
through the Internet and an outside provider's shared cloud computing infrastructure
(servers accessible over the Internet). Cloud-based solutions are used by both large and
small businesses, from the neighborhood candle store to worldwide industry leaders like
Microsoft and Google, to maintain control over their virtual or physical offices and staff
members.
• Examine data
Specific data may be analyzed by information technology, and using the trends and
facts in the data, can assist in planning the organizational journey appropriately. IT can
effectively provide organizations with a wide range of tools to help them plan their future
growth and overcome complex business challenges. Nowadays, with everything moving
online and people having constant access to the Internet via their smartphones, businesses
cannot survive without digital marketing. The global market can be reached by firms
using the Internet's digital marketing platform, which they can access from the
convenience of their own home or remote office.
• Effective Communication
We live in a time where we can often get in touch with a company immediately.
Understanding a customer's demands, purchasing trends, behaviors, and satisfaction
levels is crucial to a business's success. Adequate and prompt communication is ideal for
handling consumer requests, issues, and solutions. The beauty of information technology
is that it enables companies to interact instantly and globally with millions of clients.
Through IT, clients may communicate in a plethora of ways without ever leaving their
homes. These channels include emails, social media conversations, video calls, webinars,
member forums, email newsletters, and smartphone access.
2.5.3 Information Technology in Service Organization:
The service industry is impacted by the market's increasing competitiveness and
emphasis on client satisfaction. Following the conventional approach, nevertheless, does not
always work for such situations. As a result, technology is increasingly being introduced to
enhance the consumer experience. Many companies have been encouraged by the role
technology plays in the service sector to cut back on wasteful costs and uncertainty.
Additionally, by minimizing client interaction, the influence of technology on the service
sector has been utilized to standardize the services.
More than only service automation and lower-cost service delivery are benefits of
technology's entry into the service sector. Additionally, it allows us to collect, examine, and
use client information to understand their wants better and satisfy them. Technology is
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defining not only the trend of consumer wants but also the ability of staff to receive and give
their clients personalized service.
As is apparent, technology has been the main driver of innovation in the service
industry. Because of emerging technology, automated voice mail, interactive voice response
systems (IVR systems), fax machines, ATMs, and other commonplace devices are
conceivable.
• Quick access to services
Incorporating technology into services makes the task easier and provides customers
with speedy and dependable service. Every stage of the process may be automated,
improving the entire customer experience while saving time and human labor. Thanks to
technology, a wide range of services are now at clients' fingertips.
Access to any information is made simple by the digital transition. Customers may
hunt for any service by conducting a simple Internet search on their smartphone.
Consequently, we may use the search to get all relevant results and even save time.
• Improved Method of Service Delivery
Every person, whether a buyer or a merchant, eventually has to adjust their everyday
tasks. The utilization of technology is now coming. It could improve the interactions
between service users and providers. Given the widespread adoption of technology, it is
reasonable to state that technology makes it easier to do fundamental customer service
tasks like paying bills, getting information, reviewing financial records, monitoring
shipments, etc. However, the emergence of automated voice response systems has
enhanced the sector's customer service. Similar to how technology has advanced and
affected nearly every industry, delivery services have also undergone significant changes.
• Friendly Interactions with Customers
Companies in public and private sectors are heavily utilizing technology and
working hard to develop friendly relationships with their clients. Distribution of products
businesses frequently set up order terminals, inventory management terminals, and other
technical devices on their client's premises. This offers the consumer a wonderful
experience and helps the business incorporate a customer relationship.
Every firm offers a range of facilities and services to help its clients advertise their
businesses. However, thanks to technology, customers may now get services right at their
doorstep without any wait time or line-ups.
• Services' Global Reach
The customer's ability to access services globally has significantly grown with the
introduction of technology in the service sector. The Internet is a vast network that
crosses all geographical boundaries and links every person to the services offered. Access
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to the Internet enables international travel and the conveyance of information, customer
service, and global transactions. Thanks to technology, people may work from home for
any multinational corporation. Client living has increased significantly as a result of the
technology-based service.
• Great Service Quality
Thanks to technology, a specific consumer may get services that are tailored to their
needs. This forges strong customer ties and fosters trust in the business and its offerings.
Customers are more dependable when using technology to get services than manual
access since services are easy to access and of high quality.
2.6 E-COMMERCE: A WEB-BASED BUSINESS
Web-based selling has changed immensely since it started; the advancement and
history of e-commerce, also known as an online business in simpler terms, is interesting –
and it is progressing at an even rapid speed today. E-commerce is trading labor and products
utilizing the web and exchanging cash and information to finish deals. It is otherwise called
electronic trade or web business. E-commerce mainly evolved during the pandemic, enabling
businesses to survive and thrive. Unlike a brick-and-mortar store, running an e-commerce
store does not require us to spend much money on overhead, and we can reach a global
audience.
2.6.1 Introduction:
E-commerce works just like how a physical store works. Customers search their
individual choice of e-commerce stores; browse various products they want to buy and finally
make a purchase. The significant distinction is that they do not must get off their sofa to do
so, and the purchaser base is not restricted to a selected geographic place or region. These
web applications follow specific steps to sell their products to the customers. Those steps are
as follows -:
1. Accept the order: As soon as the customer places an order, the e-commerce site will
be alerted of an order being placed. The alert description will show the details of the
respective order, like the product name, company name, quality, quantity, etc.
2. Process the order: Next, the charge or payment is processed, the sale is logged, and
the order is marked complete. Payment transactions are typically processed via what
is referred to as a payment gateway which contains various modes for a payment to
happen.
3. Ship the order: Shipping a product is considered the last step in this process. It is to
be ensured that the products are delivered to their correct and respective addresses.
The duration of the delivery process depends on the location.
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There are various examples of e-commerce businesses such as Online retail,

Wholesale, Drop shipping, Subscription, Digital Products, Physical Products, and Services.
Companies such as Amazon, Flipkart, Lenskart, Myntra, MakeMyTrip, and many more
provide e-commerce facilities.
2.6.2 E-commerce Business Models:
There are various online business plans because of what is sold and to whom. These
are the three most ordinary and everyday models-:
1. Business to Consumer: This business sells items or administrations straightforwardly
to the consumer. The B2C e-commerce business is the most well-known web-based
business type and covers an expansive cluster of items, from clothing to daily needs.
Instances of B2C web-based business stores incorporate Amazon, Netflix, and
Overstock.
2. Business to Business: When a business offers items or administrations to another
business on the web, it is viewed as B2B online business. These organizations could
sell things like office supplies, furniture, and gear. They also give online business
arrangements, such as archive marking programming and other cloud-based
administrations.
3. Marketplaces: Marketplaces or internet business commercial centers are sites where
outsider shippers can offer their items or administrations to consumers.
Walmart.com and Etsy are different instances of online Marketplaces. For a cut of
the deal, we can list our items on their website and access their client bases.
2.6.3 Pros and Cons of e-commerce:
As we know that every technology is not perfect. It can be almost perfect but will
have minor flaws. Let us examine some pros and cons of e-commerce trading.
Table 2.1: Pros and Cons of e-commerce
Pros Cons
1. Lacks customized sales

1. It has fewer overhead costs than an actual store.
and personal touch.
2. Information, Debit, and

2. Compiles client information. Credit card extortion
are widespread.
3. It can be operated 24x7, with no staff. 3. It offers limited loyal

customers.
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4. There are expenses for

4. The business can scale on the fly. carrying on with work
on the web.
5. Web-based business is
5. It has proven to be pandemic resilient.
a ferocious business.
6. Clients need quick, free

6. It is not difficult to follow the sales and shipments.
delivery.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. E-commerce is also known as
a) Electrical Commerce
b) Electronic Commerce
c) Entertainment Commerce
d) Electrochemical Commerce
7. Which E-commerce category includes businesses like Flipkart, Amazon, and
Myntra?
a) B2B
b) B2C
c) P2P
d) C2B
8. The idea of online marketing and purchasing goods and services is _______
E-commerce.
2.7 E-GOVERNANCE: A SMART ADMINISTRATION

Electronic governance or e-governance suggests government working with the use
of ICT (Information and Communications Technology). Thus e-Governance is fundamentally
a move towards SMART administration, inferring: Straightforward, moral, responsible,
responsive, and transparent administration. For this reason, a comprehensive resident
administration portal should be set up, with so many administrations like the issuance of
general declarations, administrations related to charges, income, transport, permits and
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licenses, enlistment of various types, benefits plan, the government managed retirement and
government assistance plans, instruction preparation, work, lodging, foundation, monetary
help plans, businesses, horticulture, and other various administrations. This will not just assist
in carrying out e-governance smoothly but will likewise teach and make an IT culture in the
perfect state. There are four types of E-Governance interactions.
1. G2C (Government to Citizens): It refers to interaction between the government and
the citizens. The Digital India programme, the National Portal of India, the Prime
Minister of India portal, Aadhaar, online tax filing and payment, digital land
management systems, Common Entrance Test, etc. are some examples of e-
governance with relation to the G2C.
2. G2B (Government to Business): It is an interaction between the business community
and government using e-governance tools. A government website where businesses
go to pay taxes is a prime example of G2B.
3. G2G (Government to Government): It refers to interaction between various
government entities. Example of G2G is the Bhoomi Project. A self-sustaining e-
government initiative called Bhoomi automates the distribution of 20 million rural
land records to the 6.7 million farmers in Karnataka. The "Bhoomi" project was
taken on and developed by the Karnataka State Government. In order to computerize
all of Karnataka's land records, this was done. The State Government of Karnataka
and the Ministry of Rural Development of the Indian Government, however, both
co-sponsored the programme.
4. G2E (Government to Employees): Interaction between the government and its
employees. E-Mitra, E-Seva project, CET (Common Entrance Test), etc are some
examples of the G2E governance.
2.7.1 Promoting E-Governance:
There are some steps taken to promote e-governance in India are as follows:
1. In 1998, A National Task Force on Information Technology and Software
Development was set up to promote digital plans that will benefit the future.
2. The Ministry of Information Technology was formed at the Center in 1999.
3. A 12-point plan was recorded for e-Governance for execution in every one of the
focal services and divisions.
4. The Information Technology Act (2000) was authorized. This Act was corrected in
2008.
5. The primary National Conference of States' IT Ministers was coordinated in 2000
for showing up at a Common Action Plan to advance IT in India.
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6. The government set up NISG (National Institute for Smart Government), where they
can train the officials to use digital platforms.
7. The state legislatures sent off e-Governance projects like e-Seva (Andhra Pradesh),
Bhoomi (Karnataka, etc.)
8. The National Policy on Information Technology (NPIT) was embraced in 2012.
9. The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) was launched, consisting of 31 Mission
Mode Projects (MMPs) and eight support components. This project gives a
comprehensive perspective on e-Governance drives across the nation. Around this
thought, a monstrous countrywide foundation arriving down to the remotest of towns
is developing, and colossal scope digitization of records is occurring to empower
simple, dependable access to the web. The government has proposed to carry out "e-
Kranti: National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) 2.0" under the Digital India program.
2.7.2 E-Kranti: Electronic Delivery of Services
E-Kranti is a fundamental mainstay of the Digital India drive. Considering the
essential requirement for E-Governance, portable governance, and excellent governance in
the country, the methodology and critical parts of E-Kranti have been supported by the public
authority and approved by the government. The E-Kranti structure tends to the electronic
conveyance of administrations through an arrangement of mission mode projects that cut
across a few government divisions.
Objectives of E-Kranti-:
1. Rethink NeGP with groundbreaking and result-arranged e-Governance drives.
2. Improve the arrangement of resident-driven administrations.
3. Guarantee ideal use of center Information and Communication Technology (ICT).
4. Advance quick replication and mix of e-Governance applications.
5. Influence arising advancements.
6. Utilize more coordinated execution models like agile implementation.
2.7.3 Advantages of E-Governance:
1. Develops conveyance and productivity of taxpayer-driven organizations
2. Developed government connections with business and industry
3. Resident strengthening through admittance to data
4. More efficient government administration and high transparency among officials
5. Cost decreases and income increases
6. Expanded authenticity of government
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7. Diminishes desk work and red-tapism in the authoritative cycle, which brings about
better preparation and coordination between various degrees of government
8. Developed relations between the public specialists and everyday society
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
9. E-Governance is a technology that progresses.
a) Accountability
b) The efficiency of government processes
c) Transparency
d) All of the above
10. E-Governance has four types of interactions, namely:
a) E2G E2E E2W E2B
b) G2C G2B G2E G2G
c) G2A G2R G2W G2G
d) G2E G2G G2P G2R
11. The National Policy on Information Technology (NPIT) was embraced in
_____.
12. The idea behind e-Kranti is:
a) More crop per drop
b) One-stop service center
c) Changing the face of Rural India, electronic way
d) Transforming e-Governance for Transforming Governance
2.8 LATEST DEVELOPMENTS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Technology is quickly developing. More technical evolution is notably made
possible by developments in information technology such as artificial intelligence,
geotargeting, automation, and others. Even our thermostats and refrigerators can be
connected to the Internet as robotics become smarter.
Some of the advancements are stated below -:
1. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:
In the past, artificial intelligence and machine learning represented computer science's
bleeding edge. When these technologies were developed in the 20th century, they
primarily served academic purposes and had few practical uses. These technologies,
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however, have developed applications throughout time and are today among the most
recent in computer science. They have even made it into the hands of regular people
via mobile phones.
A computer science area known as machine learning uses an algorithm to predict
future data based on already created data. The advancement of machine learning into
artificial intelligence allows an algorithm to acquire knowledge based on data and
even perform necessary tasks independently.
2. Data Science:
Data Science is a more recent advancement in computer science. Data science was the
hottest topic for much of the twenty-first century's first decade. The data science field
has existed for much longer than the last 20 months. Data analysis has been crucial for
businesses, the government, organizations, and departments for millennia. Data
analysis is helpful for understanding process effectiveness, surveying the workforce,
and assessing the overall mood among the populace.
Today, however, a lot of data analysis is done digitally—one of the earliest tasks for
which computers were used for data analysis. Data analysis was so standard in the
early 2000s that schools started offering introductory courses on the topic.
Having a profession in data science has the advantage of making us an integral part of
the company's entire operation, regardless of the industry our company operates in.
Any organization we work with will likely use the data we provide and the
interpretations we offer as an essential component of their business plan.
Data science is frequently used in retail and e-commerce to assess the effectiveness of
campaigns and the overall trajectory of the expansion of different items. This, in turn,
aids in creating plans for the promotion of certain items or product categories.
Healthcare data informatics may be crucial in offering affordable alternatives and
packages to patients and enabling clinicians to select the most effective but safe
therapies.
3. Full Stack Development:
One of the most popular and in-demand technologies of 2021 will undoubtedly be
full-stack development, which refers to creating both client-side and server-side
software.
Beginning with the dot com boom, the Internet—a relatively recent phenomenon—
began to permeate households worldwide. Back then, websites were little more than
plain web pages, and web development was not the sophisticated discipline it is today.
Nowadays, both a front end and a back end are used in web development. Websites
consist of a client-side, or the website we view, and a server-side, or the website that
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the business manages, particularly in industries connected to services, like retail and
e-commerce.
4. Robotic Process Automation:
Robots are simply one aspect of robotic process automation. More than anything else,
it is about automating procedures. Most procedures required some human
involvement before computers. Individuals operated even the manufacturing
machinery, and massive production employed thousands of people.
However, as computers have mostly replaced manual labor, manufacturing has also
been affected. Automation is increasingly used in all industries, including
manufacturing and information technology. The amount of human involvement in
these processes is steadily declining, and this pattern is probably here to stay.
Robotic process automation jobs frequently require a substantial level of coding
expertise. Typically, we would need to build code to enable automated, human-free
completion of computerized or non-computerized procedures.
5. Blockchain:
Recently, Blockchain has come up in conversation, primarily concerning
cryptocurrencies. However, blockchain technology has developed to have a variety of
uses. Because Blockchain is consensus-driven, it is essential to note that no single
party has complete control over it. The information we keep on the Blockchain,
frequently used to share medical data in the healthcare sector, cannot ever be changed.
This data may be distributed among parties very quickly because blockchain
technology offers security. Blockchain technology is also used to protect payment
systems' security. External assaults and theft are extremely difficult to commit against
blockchain-based payment systems. Additionally, a supply chain may utilize the
Blockchain to track the status of its items.
2.9 E-GOVERNANCE AS A SOCIAL TRANSFORMATIONAL

TOOL
A recent couple of years have seen a gigantic blast in Information Technology worldwide.
The conversion of hardware and broadcast communications has opened new vistas of
transmission, storing, and recovery of data which was never expected. These are, by and
large, progressively utilized for navigation in the corporate world and even in policy
implementation. The rising population and its monstrous weight on community conveniences
and the financial framework are far from imagination. With this change, e-Governance
becomes a need as well as a necessary piece of every country. E-Governance drives in India
have customarily been defied with the double difficulties of robotizing government divisions
and taking web-based administrations to the average citizens.
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E-Governance has moved past government divisions. It is tied in with changing how
states work and reexamining individuals' support in the popularity-based process. E-
Governance gives a stage to coordinate arrangements and administrations between
Government-to-Citizens (G2C), Government-to-Business (G2B), and Government-to-
Government (G2G), engaging both the government authority and the citizens.
2.9.1 ICT: The Revolution
Building trust among state-run administrations and citizens is crucial to excellent
administration and Information and Communications Technology (ICT). It is continuously
becoming a fundamental instrument for advancing responsibility, comfort, and
straightforward administration. States around the country are pushing hard to send data and
innovation in their activities. From using ICT for races, registration, and mechanizing all the
public authority workplaces to computerized storage spaces e-Transportation, e-Health, e-
Education, and e-Taxation, the new India has cleared its direction in the domain of e-
Governance. The public authority is working with partners to construct India on this
progressive dynamism to extend, augment, and scale up its computerized economy before
long, making enormous economic worth and engaging many individuals across varying
backgrounds.
Various plans presented by the public authority like Jan Dhan Yojana to give financial
incorporation to unbanked individuals have empowered banking, benefits (PMSBY and
PMJJBY), and protection (Atal Pension Yojana) administrations to ordinary residents,
accordingly, carefully engaging the residents.
2.9.2 E-Governance in Various Fields
The framework brings together administration of things, for example, ongoing security
and traffic camera film, ambulances' GPS data, temperature, humidity level, water levels,
smart foundation, and horticulture sensors, and air contamination information in every
territory around the state, and afterward imagines the information, which is then utilized in
risk scanning. For instance, when a typhoon hits, the water levels of a stream can be
evaluated, and prompt directions to clear can be given to those in danger utilizing the
prediction ability.
Further, as the set of experiences develops, it offers input for the following time when
the examination is directed. Catastrophe reaction precision has improved decisively and
routinely depended exclusively upon human experience. The framework can likewise be
utilized to increment farming efficiency by introducing and halfway overseeing water level
sensors in water system trenches to handle the dry season or flood harm and to forestall harm
to agricultural fields and crops. Moreover, soil, climate, and water system conditions can be
applied to the calculation, making it conceivable to decide the ideal yield for each plot of land
and increment the reap.
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2.9.3 Financial Tool

With private and public-area activity advancing computerized use, financial innovation
advancement has developed quickly. India's widespread banks have likewise determined
massive advanced development across economic administrations. Their controller, the
Reserve Bank of India, illustrates potential strides for the reception of blockchain innovations
in the financial area.
To screen the dangers and security episodes overwhelmingly, the organization
incorporated Identity Access Management (IDAM) and SIEM (Security Incident and Event
Management Solution) into the digital structure. Thus, it contributes carefully to safeguarding
the primary financial data in the developing computerized network situation, guaranteeing a
large number of residents in distant areas across India, admittance to very protected and
dependable computerized financial offices, and giving a powerful channel to constant
financial exchanges.
With the initialization of the government's E-Governance methodology, it has been in
excellent sync with the public authority's drives to remain open to different potential
outcomes and a large-scale point of view. The result is another degree of e-Governance,
centered on expanding financial development and working on the existence of the residents.
Hence, we can bring up that e-administration is a vital component of Good Governance
for agricultural countries like India to decrease corruption and give compelling and
productive or perhaps quality administrations to the residents of theirs. Adjustments to
government processes, for example, by regular decentralization to upgrade adequacy and
productivity and save costs. E-governance is, as of now, not a trial in regulatory change but a
super durable piece of the overseeing system.
E-governance permits continuous cooperation in the majority rule and legislative cycles.
It ensures much better arrangement results, better quality administration, and higher
commitment to residents. These might be internet providers and data that improve popularity
based on support, straightforwardness, responsibility, quality, and speed of administration.
2.10 SUMMARY
Information Technology assumes an undeniably significant part in citizens' work and
individual existences. PCs, communication, computerized data, and programming — the
constituents of the data age — are all over the place. However, along with this, there is a need
to understand the IT sector's working and growth. Information technology (IT) has great
potential as a means of accelerating economic growth, increasing productivity in all sectors of
the economy, and effective governance. The application of IT is beneficial and profitable to
organizations in the respective E-commerce and E-governance fields. The latest innovations
have helped the nation build a robust infrastructure and economy. Thus, creating more
opportunities for the youth for the betterment of the country on the digital path.
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1. 46th
2. All are true
3. Information Technology enabled Services
4. Internet
5. Virtual Reality
6. Electronic Commerce
7. B2C
8. B2C
9. All of the above
10. G2E G2G G2P G2R
11. 2012
12. Transforming e-Governance for Transforming Governance

1. State the applications of information technology.
2. What is Virtual reality? Outline the benefits.
3. Describe the benefit of E-commerce to society.
4. Discuss in detail the types of issues to be considered in E-commerce.
5. Explain the B2B business model with the help of suitable examples.
6. Explain the four models of e-governance.
7. Describe smart governance in the context of e-governance.
8. Discuss in detail the types of information technology we use as a student use on a
daily basis. What would have been different if this technology was not present in our
life?
2.13 REFERENCES
Bill, H., & Jaffe, B. D. (2012). IT manager's handbook (3rd ed.). New York: Morgan
Kauffman
Muttoo, Sunil & Gupta, Rajan & Pal, S.K.. (2019). E-Governance in India: The Progress
Status. 10.1007/978-981-13-8852-1.
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LESSON 3
MODES OF DATA PROCESSING

Dr. Shefali Gupta
Assistant Professor
Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Khalsa College
University of Delhi
shefali@sgtbkhalsa.du.ac.in
STRUCTURE
3.2. Introduction
3.3. Computer System Software
3.4. Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
3.4.1. What is SDLC?
3.4.2. Why use SDLC?
3.4.3. Stages of SDLC
3.5. Software Development Process
3.5.1. What is SDP?
3.5.2. Types of Models
3.5.2.1. Waterfall Model
3.5.2.2. Iterative Model
3.5.2.3. Incremental Model
3.5.2.4. Evolutionary Model
3.5.2.5. Spiral Model
3.6. Data Design
3.6.1. Levels in Data Design
3.7. Report Design
3.8. Organization of Data Files
3.8.1. Sequential File Organization
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3.8.2. Random File Organization

3.8.3. Indexed-Sequential File Organization
3.8.4. Serial File organization
3.9. Master and Transactional Files
3.9.1. Master File
3.9.2. Transaction File
3.9.3. Purpose of Master and Transaction files
3.10. Relevance of Database
3.11. Flow Chart
3.12. Input-Process-Output Analysis
3.13. Report Generation
3.13.1. What is report generation?
3.13.2. Features of the Report Generator
3.13.3. Report Generation Process with Report Generators
3.13.3.1. Full-Automatic Generation
3.13.3.2. Semi-Automatic Generation
3.13.4. Popular Report Generators (Report Generation Software)
3.14. Programming Concepts
3.15. Use of Data Files in Programming
3.16. Management of Data Processing Systems in Organizations
3.17. Summary
3.18. Answers to In-Text Questions
3.19. Self-Assessment Questions
3.20. References
3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

We will be able to respond to queries concerning where, when, and how data is stored and
used by the end of this course. Following are some pointers that we can locate in this unit:
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• Data File Organizations

• Relevance of Database
• Master and Transaction Files
• Use of Data Files in Programming
• Input-Process-Output Analysis
• Management of Data Processing Systems in Organizations.
3.2. INTRODUCTION
‘Data’ has been a buzzword for a very long. Every type of information that we access
is a class of data. Data has always been in close association with electronic devices.
Accordingly, there is a need to store and code this data as a concept in devices in an
optimized form for better usage of this relevant information. At the same time, when we are
talking about storing this data, it is vital to learn about how this data storage is used in
computing environments and problem-solving. Seamlessly managing data has resulted in
modern-day fields like Data Science, Machine learning, and development, with a joint base
concept of 'Data.'
3.3. COMPUTER SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Let us break down the heading into two parts, i.e., System software and Application software.
System software is a set of programs, data, or instructions to perform a well-defined function.
A program is a set of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
When these programs are designed to perform functions on a computer system, they are
categorized as Computer System Software. System software is a collection of programs
defined to operate, control, and optimize the processing potential of the computer system.
System software manages the computing and works closely with the hardware. These are
generally written in low-level languages that are easy for the hardware to understand.
Example: Operating Systems - A very prominent system software used in every type of
computer. Windows, Android, Linux, and macOS are some popular system software that
everybody comes across whenever they use some computing device.
The OS is subject to handling computer software and hardware resources. It can be said that
the OS acts as a platform between the hardware and the application software that needs to use
computer resources.
All these functions correspond to control of the computer system and hardware environment.
To understand the features that system software should hold, let us consider OS as our basis:
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1. High Speed
2. Secure
3. Written in Low-level language
4. Close to the system hardware
5. Versatile in handling the processes
After evaluating all these points, it can be said that a system software maintains primary
system resources and processes. It must meet specific hardware needs and interactions. It also
acts as an abstraction as it works in the background, and users usually do not access it
directly. It is essential for the system to have the software that administers it to run the
application programs in a computing environment.
Computer programs known as "application software" carry out particular tasks. Application
software can carry out a variety of tasks, including personal, professional, and academic ones.
Application software is frequently referred to as productivity software or end-user software.
Each piece of software is designed to help users with specific productivity, efficiency, or
communication process. In contrast to System software, application software is focused on its
functionality and completes the goal for which it was created. On our smartphones, the vast
majority of the apps we use are examples of application software.
Example: Microsoft products such as Office, PowerPoint, etc., music application software,
etc.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The software which performs a specific task is known as _________.
2. Word processing software is an example of application software. True / False.
3.4. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

Software development is expanding, and so is the need to deliver high-quality software faster.
This has put software development teams under constant strain to produce high-quality
software that meets customer expectations, finishes within time, and is feasible economically
and technically.
3.4.1 What is SDLC?
It is essential to understand that when we work to build a product or software, it is essential to
go through a series of familiar stages—a road map or flow that helps us create a timely and
generate high-quality result. This flow we follow is called the "Software Development Life
Cycle."
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Accordingly, Software organizations follow a methodology that boosts the overall

development process with an intent to describe a software's communication, development,
testing, deployment, and maintenance.
3.4.2 Why use SDLC?
• It supports effective planning prior to the actual development to avoid software crises in
the future. This is due to the fact that they adhere to a well-organized approach that
enables them to test the software before it is released.
• It helps in regulating costs required for the development. Proper reasoning and studies
can predict the cost risks allowing stakeholders to look after costly mistakes.
• It provides methods to assess the effectiveness of the software as each iteration produces
a software increment that provides investors with a subclass of overall software features
and functionality to keep track of time and quality.
3.4.3 Stages of SDLC
Stage 1: Requirement analysis

Requirement Analysis is the most crucial and necessary stage in SDLC. All the project
stakeholders communicate quality assurance requirements that cater to the users' needs. The
phase also analyzes the risks and costs that may occur during the life cycle.
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The project managers and analysts set up meetings with the other stakeholders to discuss the
scope and intended audience and perform a rough feasibility analysis followed by probing the
customer, the users, and others what the requirements for the system or product are, what is
to be achieved, how the system or product fits into business proving a core understanding of
what is to be built.
In case of any ambiguity, elaboration, negotiation, specification, and validation is performed
by executing follow-up meetings.
Stage 2: Defining Requirements
All the conclusions from the requirement analysis are then drawn into the SRS (Software
Requirement Specification) document, which is thoroughly followed and reviewed by the
stakeholders. This further defines all types of requirements, i.e., functional, non-functional,
hardware, etc., and gets them authorized by the stakeholders.
The SRS document defines the whole project and serves as a basis for ensuring all the teams
are synced, and the process model is followed.
Stage 3: Designing
Now that all the requirements are defined, the designing of the product starts by
understanding the software project's requirements.
The project is modulated and designed to provide the developers with a line on which they
have to build the project. This provides a blueprint to the developers in the form of Data Flow
Diagrams and UML diagrams such as use cases, state diagrams, class diagrams, etc.
Stage 4: Development
The development really starts to take off at this point. The blueprint provided by the design
phase is trailed while writing the code. Various IDEs, compilers, debuggers, and development
tools and languages are used at this stage to implement the project as per the requirements
and constraints.
All this gives a working product as an output, but there is still a lot to do with it in order to
enhance its quality and effectiveness.
Stage 5: Testing
After all the code is generated, it is tested or validated against the requirements to ensure that
the code is developed per the requirements and constraints.
The testing strategies are as follows:
1. Black Box Testing
2. White Box Testing
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All this is carried out by unit testing, integration testing, system testing, and acceptance
testing.
Stage 6: Deployment
The product is created, tested, and ready to be presented to the user at this stage. Hence, it
needs to be hosted for the users to use it. All the authorizations and reviews are performed
with all the stakeholders, and based on the assessment; the product version is released.
Once the deployment is done, feedback/suggestions may be given by the users or
stakeholders to improve the quality of the product. All these suggestions are taken care of in
the next phase.
Stage 7: Maintenance
The issues or suggestions collected once the deployment is done solved at this stage. The
real-time issues are solved, thus, maintaining the working and the quality of the product
throughout its life.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. Find the incorrect phase of SDLC (Software Development Life cycle).

a) Requirement Gathering
b) System Analysis
c) Software Design
d) All of the above
4. The first stage in SDLC framework is ________________________.
5. SDLC stands for ________________________________________.
6. Find the incorrect testing technique.
a) Collaboration testing
b) Integration testing
c) System testing
d) Unit testing
3.5. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

3.5.1 What is SDP?
The software development process divides the software development into small, sequential
steps to reinforce the product, project, and style altogether. The term "Software Development
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© c) Line Diagrams
Department d) repetitive
of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus sentences
of Open Learning,
7. I-you-me-modeSchool
is a ____________________ style ofofwriting.
of Open Learning, University Delhi
8. Charts and Pictures are used to create ____________________.
MBA
Process" refers to the iterative, logical procedure used to create software programs that meet
the needs of any corporate or personal goal.
3.5.2 Types of Models
In the software development phase, various software development life cycle models are
specified and designed. "Software Development Process Models" is another name for these
models. To ensure success in the software development step, each process model adheres to a
set of steps that are specific to its type.
3.5.2.1 Waterfall Model
The software development process divides the software development into tiny, sequential
steps to reinforce the product, project, and style altogether. The software development
process is an iterative, logical method for creating computer programs that meet the needs of
any business or personal goal.
Waterfall Schematic Diagram
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Advantages of waterfall model:

• This model is simple and easy to use and understand.
• It is easy to manage due to the rigidness of the model – each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
• Clearly defined stages.
• Well-understood milestones.
3.5.2.2 Iterative Model

Here Iterative development software changes after every iteration to evolve and grow. Since
each iteration is based on the previous one, the software design remains consistent. As
software is delivered in fragments, there is no need for a comprehensive specification from
the project's initiation, and minor changes to requirements are possible during the
development process. Major requirements, especially those for system architecture in the
event of incremental development since further integrating the created software components
can become a problem, cannot be changed after they are established.
Iterative Schematic Diagram

Advantages of Iterative Model:
• Less expensive to alter or repair the scope and requirements.
• Produces working software swiftly during the software life cycle.
3.5.2.3 Incremental Model
The incremental model is a process of software development where requirements are
fragmented into multiple standalone modules of the software development cycle. Every
version of the system adds functionality to the preceding release as each iteration progresses
through the processes of requirements, design, coding, and testing. This process continues
until all intended functionality has been realized.
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Incremental Model Schematic Diagram

Advantages of Incremental model:
• It is easier to debug and test during a small size iteration.
• Here users can respond to each build.
• Decreases initial delivery cost.
AGILE MODEL
The agile software development life cycle (SDLC) model combines iterative
and incremental process models with a focus on process adaptability and
customer satisfaction through quick delivery of functional software. The
product is divided into smaller incremental builds using agile methods.
Iterations of these builds are supplied. Usually, an iteration lasts between one
and three weeks.
Cross-functional teams work simultaneously on several different topics
during each iteration, including:
• Planning
• Requirements Analysis
• Design
• Coding
• Unit Testing
• Acceptance Testing
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3.5.2.4 Evolutionary Model

Within the evolutionary model, all the work is completed during the development phase.
During this model, all work is divided into small chunks or modules. For instance, the
Waterfall Model, during which all the users can access the product at the end of each cycle.
This model may be a combination of incremental and Iterative models. The drawback of all
models is that it takes a very long time from the start of the project to offer a solution. The
evolutionary model finds a different solution to this issue.
Evolutionary Model Schematic Diagram

Advantages of Evolutionary Model:
• The process of determining how likely a risk will occur in a project is called risk
analysis. It examines the ambiguity of prospective risks and how, if they materialised,
they might affect the project's schedule, quality, and costs. It is easier to analyse risk
in this model.
• It supports changing environment.
• Better suited for large mission-critical projects.
• The software is produced swiftly during the life cycle, facilitating customer evaluation
and feedback.
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3.5.2.5 Spiral Model

The Spiral model provides insight into complete risk analysis. Therefore, if we want to
benefit entirely from the approach, we must work with individuals with solid risk analysis
experience. A particular Spiral iteration lasts about six months and starts with four essential
activities - thorough planning, risk analysis, prototype creation, and evaluation of the
previously delivered part. Spiral cycles that are repeated significantly lengthen project
timelines.
Spiral Model Schematic Diagram

Advantages of Spiral model:
• With a more significant amount of risk analysis; hence, Prevention of Risk is
enhanced.
• Suitable for large and mission-critical projects.
• Strong approval and documentation control.
• Additional functionality can be added later on.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
7. What is the Spiral Model's biggest flaw?

a) Higher amount of risk analysis
b) Additional functionalities are added later on
c) Strong approval and documentation control
d) Does not work well for smaller projects
8. The incremental model is the combination of which models?
a) Build & FIX Model & waterfall model
b) Linear model & waterfall model
c) Linear model & Prototyping model
d) both a & b
3.6. DATA DESIGN
Consider a situation where we need to locate a particular data file among many data files.
Evidently, it is a rigorous process since we have to check every data file. However, what if
we design a structure to arrange the data in a specific pattern? It will not only save us time
but will lead to an efficient mechanism. That is what data designing is about.
To sum up, data designing demonstrates the types of data stored in the system and how we
can group the related data together in a well-organized manner to create a robust design. It
helps to design the databases on a physical and logical level. Producing an entity relationship
diagram (ERD) helps to visualize the mechanism.
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3.6.1 Levels in Data Design

This architecture has three levels: the physical level, logical level, and conceptual level.
• Conceptual Level
A conceptual model should be focused on things related to the business and its
requirements. This explains what the system contains. The purpose is to define and
organize business rules and concepts and therefore is created by business stakeholders.
Entities and relationships modeled in such ERD are evidently around the business’s
needs. It is the simplest among all.
• Logical Level
The logical model defines how the system should be implemented. It should be focused
on the design of data about those things without reference to a particular physical
implementation. It is created by data architects, and the purpose is to develop data
structures. It typically refers to implementation details like relational, Hierarchical, Key-
Value, Object-Oriented, and Graph.
• Physical Level
A physical model describes how data is stored, like data formats, indexes, data partition,
distribution, etc. It represents the actual design blueprint of a relational database and how
data should be structured. The goal is actually to implement the database. It explains the
relation in a specific DBMS, so it is vital to consider the convention and restrictions of
the DBMS we use when designing a physical ERD. This means that proper use of data
type is needed for entity columns, and the occurrence of reserved words should be
inhibited in naming entities and columns. It is created by DBA and developers, so they
may also add primary keys, foreign keys, and constraints to the design.
3.7. REPORT DESIGN
The report is the document that explains the process, outcome, and all the work we have done
to accomplish the final design.
Now, we might have gathered all the relevant information, but there is no certainty that it will
be engaging. Some might find it verbose; we have to design the report in such a way that it
highlights and reflects what we want to convey to the users/readers. In order to accomplish
that, report designing comes into play. Today, we have many tools to design our report. We
can get ready-made templates, and even one can add their specific type of requirements and
designs.
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One has to also look into report styling. It includes some features like:
• Report layouts to make it presentable
• Charts, maps, and other data-bound items to make it engaging.
• Various styling capabilities like conditional formatting etc.
Thus, the reports can be styled and exported in any format.
3.8. ORGANISATION OF DATA FILES
A file is a named structure that holds related data and can be stored on various secondary
storage devices. Since the data can be organized in different ways, there are various
organization types available for files.
Some File Organizations:
1. Sequential File Organization
2. Random File Organization
3. Indexed-sequential File Organization
4. Serial File Organization
3.8.1 Sequential File Organization
F1 F4 …….. F5 F6
Starting of the file End of the file
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This is the simplest way of storing data where records are kept in a particular sequential
sorted order. Sorted records make it easy for the operator to search a record in the file by
applying algorithms like binary search. Nevertheless, there is a catch; all records cannot be of
the same size; therefore, it is difficult to inculcate this organizational approach.
3.8.2 Random File Organization
The organization approach allows us to store the records randomly but provides direct access.
For direct access records, keys are used to find the records associated with them. Example:
Magnetic and optical disks follow this technique of organizing files. This has an advantage
over the sequential organization as the records can be of different sizes.
3.8.3 Indexed-Sequential File Organization
An index is used to help the computer find specific records on the storage media, almost
identical to the sequential method. For instance, records are sequentially stored on the tracks
of a magnetic drum. Each record is given a unique index, which can be used to access it
directly.
3.8.4 Serial File Organization
The term "heap file" also refers to serial file organization. This procedure adds records to the
data blocks at the end of the file. The sorting of data is not necessary. This strategy is
appropriate when a large volume of data must be loaded into an organization.
Data access takes longer than using a sorted file approach.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
9. The data file contains ___________.

10. ______________ is the process of arranging your files into blocks and
placing those blocks on a storage media.
11. What does sequential file organization entail?
a) Any record can be placed wherever there is a space for the record
b) Records are stored in sequential order according to a search key
c) A hash function is computed on some attribute, and that decides the block
d) None of the mentioned
3.9. MASTER AND TRANSACTIONAL FILES
Various file types are used to store data needed for processing, reference, or backup. The
most prevalent categories of processing files are Master files, Transaction files, Reference
files, Backup files, Report files, and Sort files.
3.9.1 Master File
As the name suggests, ' master' serves as an authoritative data source. It is the main file
pertaining to relatively permanent records about specific items or entries. Output and input
(parameter files) files are specified in the master file. Such files include information that is
continuously updated by recent transactions. It can be further subdivided into static and
dynamic master files. Examples include customer ledgers like a customer file will contain
details of a customer such as a customer ID, name, and contact address.
3.9.2 Transaction File
A transaction file is used to hold data during transaction processing. The data relating to
business events are recorded. The file is later used to update the master file and audit trails.
For example, daily sales are recorded in a busy supermarket on a transaction file and later
used to update the stock file. The management also uses the file to check on daily or periodic
transactions.
Assume we have both a master data set and a transaction data set with the variables ID,
DEPT, and SALARY. The data sets' contents are as follows:
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DATASET MASTER
ID DEPT SALARY
1 MARKETING 12,000
2 SALES 9,000
3 RECORDS 14,000
4 11,000
DATASET TRANS
ID DEPT SALARY
2 15,000
4 PEOPLE
To update the records, apply the transaction data set to the master data set. The new master
file obtained is:
DATASET
NEWMASTER
ID DEPT SALARY
1 MARKETING 12,000
2 SALES 15,000
3 RECORDS 14,000
4 PEOPLE 11,000
Because these IDs 1 and 3 are absent from the TRANS data set, observations 1 and 3 in the
original MASTER data set are unaffected. In observation 2, the MASTER data set's ($9,000)
corresponding value for SALARY was replaced by the TRANS data set's value of $15,000.
However, the DEPT value in observation 2 of the TRANS data set did not take the place of
the DEPT value in the MASTER data set since it was absent. The new observation will be
included in the new master data set if the transaction data set contains a value of the BY
variable (ID) that is absent from the master data set.
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3.9.3 Purpose of Master and Transaction files

The precise details of customers, suppliers, and employees, as well as records of recurrent
occurrences relevant to each, are often found in company databases, which can hold
exceptionally enormous volumes of information. These databases frequently consist of
separate master and transaction files. The master file includes information that is unique to an
individual or corporation, such as names, company contacts, addresses, email lists, and
particular products or services. The transaction file includes facts about employee leave,
disciplinary actions, career advancement reports, sales or buy transactions, calendar events,
or employee details.
These blocks of transaction data include a key entry which is a piece of information common
to both master and transaction files. This may be an account number, a contact name, an
employee identification number, or financial details such as purchase orders or invoice
numbers. The key entry is a unique identifier that the database uses to tie the transaction
entries to their corresponding master file records. Any query or search for a particular master
file transaction will then isolate either the entire group of entries for that record or any one
specific entry, depending on how specific the key is.
Basically, transaction files are used to update master files; they are often linked together.
Maintaining separate master and transaction file records allows the master file to be kept at a
manageable size and dedicated to entity-specific entries only. In applications in which users
store transaction records off-site or on archive servers, separating them from the master file
also makes archiving a lot easier. Keeping a dedicated transaction file also makes for easy
and effective auditing. This file may also serve as a diagnostic or planning aid with many
databases featuring extensive reporting functions based on its contents. This type of split file
arrangement is often known as a referential file system because the master file "refers" to the
transaction file for specific event details.
3.10. RELEVANCE OF DATABASE
Databases and database systems have become essential components of everyday life in
modern society. Within the course of a day, most folks encounter several activities that
involve some interaction with a database, when we visit the bank to make deposits or
withdrawals, when we book a hotel or flight, when we use a computerized library catalog to
look up a bibliographic item, or when we order a magazine subscription from a publisher, the
likelihood that someone will access a database as part of our activities increases.
The above interactions are samples of what we may call traditional database applications,
where most of the knowledge that is stored and accessed is either textual or numeric. Within
the past few years, advances in technology are leading to exciting new applications of
database systems. Multimedia-based databases can now store pictures, video clips, and sound
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content. Geographic information systems (GIS) based databases can store and analyze maps,
weather data, and satellite images.
Data warehouses and online analytical processing (OLAP) systems are utilized in many
companies to extract and analyze useful information from vast databases for decision-
making. Real-time and active database technology is employed in controlling industrial and
manufacturing processes. Database search techniques are being applied to the planet wide
web to improve the search for information needed by users browsing the Internet. Some
common examples are given below:
i. Reservation System
We all know how to book tickets in places like- movie theatres, train tickets, airline tickets,
etc. While booking, we must supply our details so that a particular seat is reserved with us. So
here also, these reservation systems are using the database and management system for
achieving this. The info stores are like – customer name, train number, price, date, etc.
Moreover, these details are required to spot the correct person during the trip.
ii. Telephone Companies
Without databases and management systems, telephone businesses cannot simply survive.
We can also ask how these mobile operator businesses maintain track of the daily data limit,
as well as the calls we make, given that every mobile phone includes a sim card for calling
and internet access. For keeping our data, they are utilizing databases and database
management systems. They save the data and produce cell bills based on our usage. DBMSs
are used by more than just Internet service providers, mobile carriers, etc.
In conclusion, databases and database technology have a significant impact on how
computers are being used more and more. In the majority of applications where computers
are employed, it is reasonable to assume that databases play a crucial role.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
12. OLAP stands for ________________________________________.

13. Which of the following helps people keep track of things?
a) database
b) table
c) instance
d) relationship
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9. I-you-me-mode is a ____________________ style of writing.

3.11. FLOW CHART
Diagrams and charts are always descriptive and captivating when it comes to solving a
problem. One such interesting diagrammatic representation technique is flowcharting. The
technique can be used to visualize a direction in which a process heads to produce a solution
to the problem.
When it comes to programming, flowcharting is frequently used to depict how an algorithm
operates. Along with providing direction, the technique also gives us insights into how the
process is broken down into stages to land at the final solution.
One attractive aspect of flowcharting is that each step is independent of implementation at
any stage and is only concerned about the input and output of a particular stage rather than
the actual processing to be done. Additionally, this approach of flowcharting a problem
categorizes types of tasks such as data, decision, process, etc.
To diagrammatically represent these categories, there are symbols that signify each category:
Now that we are aware of how flowcharting acts as a utility, we can dive deep into how the
follow-up that it suggests
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i. Establish the task

Starting with the task that has to be completed, the first stage in using a problem-solving
strategy is to establish and define it. Once the problem is defined, a possible solution can be
thought of, followed by answering the questions such as "what is the step to be done prior to
this?" or "what should be done next?" these types of questions give out the chronological
structure of the way to be followed to pull off the result.
ii. Depict the Chart
Once all the questions are answered about heading in a problem-solving line, the illustration
is done. Wherein the tasks are drawn as per their categories using the symbols mentioned
above. The tasks are sequential in nature, as in, what happens next? All these tasks are
connected with arrows according to the flow of the solution proposed.
iii. Check the Process
This step is all about re-checking what has been done in the previous two stages. Double
checking the flow chart from start to end cuts the possibility of leaving out some tasks in the
flow or can identify a wrong flow when it comes to decision-making or the sequence that it is
expected to follow.
iv. Optimize the Chart
Solution approaches to some problems might get complex very often. Therefore, optimizing a
chart can simplify the view and can provide a better and clear-cut picture. Redundant and
unnecessary tasks can be removed, including performance-enhancing optimizations, until we
get an efficient diagrammatic representation of the solution.
Performing all these steps can get overwhelming when the problems are complex and
demanding when it comes to the number of tasks to be performed. There are several tools,
such as draw.io, creately, and many others, that make this simple and offer free services to
execute such flowcharting.
Given below is an example that shows how flowchart can be used in showing a simple
summation process.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
14. A box that can be used to symbolize two different situations.

a) Rectangle
b) Diamond
c) Circle
d) Parallelogram
15. Drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is referred to as……………………….
3.12. INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT ANALYSIS
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes data, generates output, and
stores data. Input-process-output (IPO) is another name for the idea of creating output
information from input data.
The input-process-output concept of the computer can be interpreted as follows—
c) Line Diagrams d) repetitive sentences
• Input
The
19.computer accepts
Charts and dataareasused
Pictures inputtofrom
createthe user with the help of an input device. The
____________________.
input data can be anything, including characters, words, text, sound, images, etc.
• Process
The computer processes the input data. It performs some operations on the data by using
the instructions or program given by the user of the data. The action could be arithmetic
or logical processing, editing, modifying a document, etc. During processing, the data,
instructions, and output are stored for some time in the computer's main memory.
• Output
The outcome of data processing is known as the output. Text, sound, images, and other
types of output are all possible. The output from the computer can be played, sent to a
printer for printing, displayed on a monitor, etc.
• Storage
Secondary storage devices like discs or tapes permanently retain the input data,
instructions, and output. Anytime later, as needed, the stored data may be retrieved.
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The Input-Process-Output Concept
3.13. REPORT GENERATION

3.14. must be accurate, timely, and pertinent. To accomplish these three aims, report
Reports
generation is required, and the effectiveness of the generation program directly affects our
ability to accomplish the three targets. Then, either Excel or Python makes it challenging to
generate reports. This section will walk us through everything we need to know about report
generation, including its definition, features, and software list.
3.13.1 What is Report Generation?
The practice of employing a program to generate reports, mainly for business users, is known
as report generation. We must develop a report definition that specifies the data to be
retrieved, where to find it, and how to show it before we can generate a report.
For a very long time, Excel has been used to create reports. However, many individuals have
criticized how difficult and painful it is to create reports using Excel, particularly when we
need to do so frequently for regular reports like daily, weekly, and monthly reports.
3.13.2 Features of the report generator
Compared to Excel, the report generation software makes the process of creating reports
more effortless and more professional, from data entry to data display. There is less need for
us to write code, for instance, to extract data from databases as we would with a SQL
database. With a few clicks, even non-technical individuals may get data.
YoY and MoM calculations are included in the software as well, saving the time it would
take to enter them in Excel manually.
Every stage of the report generating process is more user-friendly with the report generator.
Let us examine the attributes of the report generator in greater detail. Using FineReport as an
example, we can see how we increased our productivity at work by 100%.
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• Feature 1: Support extracting data from multiple data sources

Report generators allow users to aggregate and extract data from numerous data sources.
• Feature 2: Works with real-time work
The daily, monthly, quarterly, and annual reports can be generated automatically and
sent to the specified email address after the templates and frequency are set up.
• Feature 3: Support reusing templates
Users can reuse completed report templates to create new reports. Numerous beautiful
built-in templates cover a range of situations and businesses.
• Feature 4: Support reports exporting and printing
Reports can be exported or printed to Excel, PDF, CSV, or pictures by users.
• Feature 5: Support view reports on the web or on mobile applications
Users can access reports on mobile devices at any time and from any location, thanks to
the current report generator.
3.13.3 Report Generation Process with Report Generators
There are two different report generation processes available when using the report
generators. The full-automatic generation is one, and the semi-automatic generation is the
other.
3.13.3.1.2 Full-Automatic Generation– Based on the template
Consider the most popular financial data, such as MoM and YoY Ranking, as an example.
Financial statistics templates have been constructed inside report generators like FineReport,
from indicators to formulas, from titles to formats. When using the fully automated
generation, all one has to do is log in to their database and drag the appropriate cell.
3.13.3.1.3 Semi-Automatic Generation– Use Professional Functions to Generate Each
Module Automatically
Semi-automatic report generation is more prevalent and better able to cater to the unique
needs of customers than full-automatic report generation.
A whole report design process may typically be broken down into the following three steps:
1. Open designers, configure data sources, create new reports, and configure private data
sources as part of connecting to databases.
2. Create new reports, define data sources, bind data columns, summarise, and format
reports as part of the report design process.
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3. Report previewing, saving, and publishing are all included in the phrase "publish and
browse reports."
The process of retrieving the data from the database, structuring it, and exporting it as reports
is referred to as report production. It offers illuminating insights and reassuring references to
decision-makers.
A skilled report generator can be a valuable ally in business at every stage of reporting. It is
best to conduct a thorough study on each feature of report generation software before
selecting the best option for business. A functionally unrestricted free version of FineReport
is available for personal use.
3.13.4 Popular Report Generators (Report Generation Software)
There is a rising need for reporting tools that are entirely written in Java as the B/S structure
is used more frequently. There are canvas-like generators and Excel-like generators from the
standpoint of the interface. These two interface paradigms are sometimes combined by
software.
The top three report generators in the company are as follows:
• Fine Report
• Crystal report
• SQL server reporting system
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
16. A report generator is utilized to

a) print files on paper
b) data entry
c) update files
d) All the above
17. When a query runs or the report is processed, reports use _________ to retrieve
data for a report.
a) Data connections
b) Data source definition
c) Connection string
d) All of the mentioned
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3.14 PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
Programming is the process of first solving a problem and then writing the code. One
needs to figure it out to solve a problem by keeping fundamental programming concepts in
mind.
This piece talks about two major programming approaches, i.e., procedural programming and
object-oriented programming, as well as other supporting concepts to support these
approaches, namely variable declaration, basic syntax, data types and structures, flow control,
and debugging.
3.14.1 Procedural Programming
A programming style that uses a linear or top-down approach. It relies on procedures or
subroutines to perform certain functions or tasks. Programs written using this approach
comprise a sequential pattern of instructions to be executed to get the desired results.
The procedures can be seen as logic chunks that can be called anywhere in code. The catch
here is that these logic chunks are sequential in nature. Therefore, it follows a structured
programming method that uses block-based program control flow.
3.14.2 Object Oriented Programming
In contrast to procedural programming, this programming approach revolves around objects
and methods rather than sequential procedures.
• Objects are the elementary component of OOP; they can be understood as real-world
entities that have behavior and attributes associated with them. Example: A student is an
object that has attributes such as name, class, roll no, age, and has the behavior of
reading, writing, speaking, etc.
• Class is a blueprint of an object which declares variables, constant, and member
functions and then concludes all these as a single data type and its methods.
The four pillars of OOP are:
i. Abstraction - Hiding unnecessary details.
ii. Encapsulation - Binding data and functions together.
iii. Polymorphism - Methods with the same name but different signatures.
iv. Inheritance - Acquire properties of an existing parent class.
Now that we have a brief overview of the above-mentioned programming approaches, we
need to know about some concepts that support these approaches.
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1. Variable Declaration
These are containers for storing data values at a memory location. The declaration is
usually made by certain keywords according to the language used.
2. Syntax
To write a code that a computer can understand, one needs to use some programming
language; like any other language, programming languages also have words and rules
that define them; these rules need to be followed by a programmer to write a code that
can be understood by the computer.
3. Data Types and Structures
A data type is the category of the data value that is being handled. For example, data can
be of numeric type: 1,2, etc. It can be of character type: 'a', 'b'...
Some of the fundamental primitive data types are:
• Numeric - Integer and Floating Point
• Character
• String
• Boolean
Data structures, on the other hand, are organized structures having a set of data values on
which functions can be applied. These structures are used to optimally store a set of values
and perform efficient operations on the data.
• Stack
• Queue
• Tree
• Heap
• Linked List
• Array
4. Flow Control
The flow of a program is a result of decision-making statements that decide what direction
the program will go based on the derived scenario.
Three types of control flow:
• Sequential - It follows the linear execution of statements, i.e., one after the other
• Selection - A test condition selects what action to perform based on the result of the test
as true or false.
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• Iteration - A statement or a block of code is run repeatedly till the test condition remains
true, thus forming a loop.
5. Debugging
Locating errors and rectifying them is a bottom-line activity that makes the code written to
produce the desired result. Various tools and techniques are used for locating errors to save
time and effort.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
18. Which of the following OOPS ideas refer to giving the client access to only
the information they need?
a) Encapsulation
b) Abstraction
c) Data hiding
d) Data binding
19. A computer programming language that states a series of well- structured steps
and procedures within its programming is known as ___________________.
20. ___________ data type is used to store the value 200.
3.15 USE OF DATA FILES IN PROGRAMMING
When a program is terminated, complete data is lost but to prevent this; data files are used.
Since data files are stored in Random Access Memory (RAM) when the program is running,
and it is stored in Read Only Memory (ROM) when the program is terminated. Data files are
stored in non-volatile memory after the program is terminated, resulting in the preservation of
data. As shown in the image below, a C program writes something in the file, and the data is
stored on disk (ROM) in the form of an ASCII Text File or Binary File.
• Handling the Huge Amount of Data
Whenever
22. Chartsa program requires
and Pictures a large
are used size of____________________.
to create data, it can be very tedious and time taking
to enter that data. However, if we pass that data into a data file, it will become very
suitable for the programmer to use that data in the program. It is possible because of the
accessibility of the contents of the data file using read commands in programming
languages. The only condition is that the data should already be present in a data file,
and from that data file, the programmer can easily use fragments of data.
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• Data Transmission
Transferring data from one computer to another is a ubiquitous example of data
transmission, but the data produced by a program cannot be transferred. It can only be
transmitted by converting the data into a data file and then transferring the data file to
another computer. The data transmitted by datafile will be unaltered while transferring,
i.e., it will not be affected by the future changes made by the program unless the
programmer explicitly changes the data.
• App and Web Development
We all know that App Development uses XML for Designing the app, Whereas Web
development uses HTML. Whenever we load a web page or an app screen, a data file is
created in the background, storing the data about the design and how that design is
implemented.
• Hidden Datafiles
Sometimes a programmer requires to store some data which should be hidden from the
user to prevent the user from corrupting or tampering with the data. This is accomplished
by using closed datafiles format or proprietary format files. Here datafiles contain
metadata (Data about Data) elements according to the preferences of a programmer.
3.16 MANAGEMENT OF DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS IN

ORGANIZATIONS
Data is not helpful in its original form to any organization. For organizations to improve their
business strategy and gain a competitive edge, data processing plays an important role.
Employees worldwide can understand and use data by turning it into a readable
representation in graphs, charts, tables, and documents.
By data processing, we refer to the carrying out of operations on data, especially by a
computer, to retrieve, transform, or classify information to generate usable information from
raw data. An organization's team of data scientists and data engineers often performs it in a
step-by-step manner. The raw data is then collected, sorted, processed, examined, and stored
in a readable format.
Thus, managing a data processing system involves both the system's hardware and software
as well as some stages of data processing: -
• Data Collection-The first step of data processing is the collection of the data. Data is
pulled from the available sources an organization has of its employees. The data sources
available must be trustworthy and well-built.
• Data Conversion- Transforming data into a format that can be processed.
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• Data Cleansing- Often referred to as the pre-processing stage of data processing. It

eliminates errors from data before processing. Raw data is cleaned up and structured for
data processing.
• Organizing- Involves grouping the data into sets or groups, or categories
• Data Input- The organized and cleaned data is then entered into its destination and
translated into a language the system can understand.
• Analysis – also known as processing. The data is processed for interpretation by which
extracting and producing valuable data from the raw data is possible.
• Reporting- Presenting the information. It is the output of processing data usable to non-
data scientists in the form of graphs, videos, images, tables, and many more.
• Data Storage- The final stage of data processing is storage. After all the data processing
stages, the data must be stored so that it cannot be lost, so for future reference, the data is
stored.
Management of system resources assigned to the various functions is necessary for managing
the many parts of the data processing system. The process of coordinating all the functions to
guarantee the system runs smoothly is also included in management. Control is an oversight
role of management and ensures that the data processing system performs an anticipated and
produces the desired result. Control also ensures that any system problems are identified and
fixed.
For a company or organization, the task of data processing is crucial as it helps to understand
information quickly. Data processing increases productivity and profits, better decisions, and
more accurate and reliable data. Further cost reduction, ease in storage, distribution, and
report making followed by better analysis and presentation are other advantages.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
21. Which of the following terms best defines the kind of analysis that transforms
massive volumes of data into one or more summaries?
a) Analysis
b) Conversion
c) Aggregation
d) Sorting
22. ___________best describes how data is moved from an old system into a new
one, such as a payroll system.
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3.17 SUMMARY
The chapter thus gives us an insight into how data is gathered, organized, and used to give
informative outputs. As we say, data files can be organized in various ways by analyzing the
usage category of the data. Apart from organization and storage, we also learned about
databases and their relevance in real-world scenarios. Data is not just limited to information
view; it is also used in programming to read, write and process information, thereby
introducing us to the Input-Process-Output analysis that data goes through to provide
meaningful solutions.
1. Application software 12. Online analytical

2. True processing
3. System Analysis 13. Database
4. Requirement analysis 14. Diamond
5. Software Development Life Cycle 15. Flowcharting
6. Collaboration testing 16. Print files on paper
7. Does not work well for smaller projects 17. Data connections
8. Linear model & Prototyping model 18. Abstraction
9. Records 19. Procedural language
10. File organization 20. Integer
11. Records are stored in sequential order according to a 21. Aggregation
search key 22. Conversion
1. Briefly explain the phases in the SDLC process.

2. State the advantages and disadvantages of the SDLC process.
3. Explain the Spiral model in SDLC. Write its advantages and disadvantages.
4. Discuss the levels in data design.
5. Compare and contrast the following file organizations.
• Serial files
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• Indexed sequential file

• Sequential files
6. Explain the differences between the transaction file and the master file.
7. Describe the IPO cycle using a real-world example.
3.20 REFERENCES
Bill, H., & Jaffe, B. D. (2012). IT manager's handbook(3rd ed.). New York: Morgan
Kauffman.
Elmasri, R. and Navathe, S., 2011. Fundamentals of database systems. 6th ed. Boston:
Addison-Wesley, p.31.
McLaughlin, Brett D., et. al. Head First Object-Oriented Analysis & Design. (O’Reilly
Media, Inc. Sebastopol, CA: 2007.)
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LESSON 4
PC – SOFTWARE PACKAGES
Assistant Professor
PGDAV (Eve) college
Delhi University
STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Operating System – An Interface
4.4 Windows – An Operating System
4.5 Text Processing Software – An Introduction
4.6 Introduction to Spread Sheet
4.7 Spread Sheet - Applications
4.8 Data Base Functions in Spread Sheet
4.9 Graphics in Spread Sheet
4.10 Data Base Manager – An Introduction
4.11 Presentation Graphics - Introduction
4.12 Applications of Presentation
4.13 Applications of PC Package
4.14 Summary
4.15 Glossary
4.17 References
After completing the chapter, you will be able to learn about different PC common software.
These software will help you to command your presentations, so this chapter is going to
target the following objectives:
• Provide basic knowledge about the PC- package software.
• Get familiar with the term ‘Operating System’ and it’s working.
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• Explain about WINDOWS as interface.

• Gets the essential information about the text processing software in brief.
• This chapter will help you to learn the spread sheet software with its applications.
• Will be able to work on the database and graphical representation of spread sheet.
• Target the Data base manager working and its connectivity with different software.
• Tell how to work with the presentation software and its applications.
• Usage of all PC – software packages.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Economic conditions and computerization in every field of human life gave birth to different
kinds of software. The availability of low-cost hardware and the expansion of software
industry for small to large-scale enterprise have resulted into a wide variety of software
packages. Due to this growth, the previous approach of custom software has changed. Off-
the-shelf software has been more widely employed as the variety of software packages with
the boom in the industry. Although market offers a large variety of software packages, still
there are barriers in the selection of the proper PC package for a particular need of the
enterprise. Due to the immense amount of information available on the internet,
understanding of the PC package and decision process of choosing a package is difficult.
Locating sources of information which describe software packages and ways of effective
usage of software packages for specific requirement is important. The types of PC packages
are described here and their compatibility the operating system. This chapter describes the
different software applications and operating system (windows). It also tells about different
usage and applications of the PC packages.
4.3 OPERATING SYSTEM – AN INTERFACE
Operating system is also called as “System Software’, that acts as an Interface between the
computer hardware and the user. Every system has at least one operating system to interact
with the computer system and different application programs. Applications like Browser, MS
Office, Games, Notepad etc., need to work with the help of operating system.
The basic purpose of an operating system is to provide working platform to execute different
application programs in efficient manner and manages the allocation of computer hardware as
well.
4.3.1 BENEFITS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• User-Friendly Interface for the computer system
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• Source of computing provided by it for different programs

• Sharing Resources is possible only by the operating system
• Data Protection the other usage of operating system for system
• Multitasking is another important working of operating system
• Updated of software is possible through operating system
• System Error can be recognized with the help of OS
4.3.2 COMPONENTS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• Management of processes.
• File Administration.
• Network Management.
• Main Memory Management.
• Management of Secondary Storage.
• Management of I/O Devices.
• Security Management.
• Command Interpreter System.
4.3.3 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• Batch Operating System.
• Time-Sharing Operating System.
• Distributed Operating System.
• Embedded Operating System.
• Real-time Operating System.
4.3.4 EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• Apple macOS,
• Microsoft Windows,
• Google's Android OS,
• Linux Operating System, and
• Apple iOS.
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Now we have very important problem of choosing the operating system. We already have
multiple operating systems in the environment. Although it would be nice to stick on one, it is
rarely possible anymore. It’s very important to keep in mind that “choosing” operating
systems directly is not a simple. In fact, it’s a decision that is made almost indirectly based on
some important factors and issues. Specifically, which applications are in use by the
enterprises, which hardware (workstations, servers, handheld, and mobile devices) is required
to support, and what the specific needs of users are often determine which operating
system(s) will be use.
4.4 WINDOWS – AN OPERATING SYSTEM
Windows is a graphical operating system developed by Microsoft. It was released for both
home computing and professional works. It is one of the most popular operating system in the
world. It enables users to save data, watch videos, run applications, play games, and connect
to the Internet. The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on
November 20, 1985, achieved little popularity.
Now, Microsoft’s offerings are dominating both, the server market (Windows Server 2003
and 2008) and the desktop market (Windows XP, Vista, and Windows 7). Windows has also
step inroads in the smart phone with Windows Phone but has not been as successful as others.
First Version was released in 1985 and there have been many versions of WINDOWS
released since. Due to the popularity, most application vendors will first write their software
to support Windows; many won’t even consider writing their application on any other OS
platforms. However, because of its prevalence, it is also the preferred platform for hackers
and virus creators to go after.
4.4.1 Applications of WINDOWS
• Controls the backing store and peripherals such as scanners and printers.
• Deals with the transfer of programs in and out of memory.
• Organizes the use of memory between programs.
• Organizes processing time between programs and users.
• Maintains security and access rights of users.
4.4.2 Silent features of WINDOWS
• Speed is basic feature of windows for booting speedily.
• Compatibility of windows with other platforms and applications is widely
appreciated.
• Lower Hardware Requirements are well compatible with windows.
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• Search and Organization is introduced with windows very well.

• Safety and Security of data and computer system is at higher level with
windows.
• Interface and Desktop with windows are significant and displays customizable
features.
• Taskbar/Start menu of windows provides many grouped items and tiles.
4.5 TEXT PROCESSING SOFTWARE – AN INTRODUCTION
Text processing is the process of analysing and sorting of textual data into valuable
information. Text editing and word processing are two important features of automated
information. To work with these two features, text editor and word processor are combined
software. Text editor provides the ability to add, delete, update, remove etc. with text and
word processor helps in formatting the text or document. It also works with colors, special
symbols, shapes, graphics etc.; editing, printing, and saving.
After a long period, the typewriter has gone and rewarded with computer systems with text
processing software i.e., word processors. Nowadays, word processing is the most common
and popular application software. There are so many word processors available in the market
and allow users to work through a document with its principle activities. Text processing has
many steps or set of activities as described below:
4.5.1 Creation of document
The creation of document includes making of new file, entering text into it, inserting
of different templates, shapes, symbols and different types of graphs etc.
4.5.2 Editing of document
The editing of document is act of making alterations in the content of the document.
This act includes insert, delete, reviewing, find & replace, cut/copy /paste, spelling
check, and much more.
4.5.3 Formatting of document
For the document, formatting means developing, updating and altering the appearance
of a document. Formatting of document has been done manually, but word processing
software provides different tools and techniques.
4.5.4 Output of document
Word processing software provides various types of output such as printing option,
projecting the document with the help of projector; document can be scan with the
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scanner, creating of web document and in last but not least is the saving of document
is necessary first.
4.6 AN INTRODUCTION TO SPREAD SHEET
The spread-sheet was created in 1978, for the financial purpose in the form of tables. The
spread-sheet allows users to enter data and formulas into rows and columns arranged as a grid
on a display screen. The electronic spread-sheet is most popular for the enterprises and
business organizations. Spread-sheets are commonly used for maintaining student grade
cards, tracking investments, creating and tracking budgets, calculating loan payments,
estimating project costs, and creating other types of financial reports and much more. This is
an application which is used to manipulate the data especially arithmetic data. Spread-sheets
are more collaborative than other tools of this kink. It's easy to manipulate, analyse and
organise the data. It can be integrated with certain other tools. Spread-sheets are quick and
easy to add into a workflow.
Besides performing basic arithmetic and mathematical functions, spread-sheets also provides
built-in functions. Spread-sheet also provide conditional expressions, functions to convert
between text and numbers, and functions that operate on strings of text. Nowadays, spread-
sheet software have multiple interacting sheets and can display data either as text and
numerals or in graphical form. It also provides powerful data optimization and management
solutions that can be integrated throughout accounting, marketing, and development teams,
just to name a few.
4.6.1 Features of Spread-sheet
• Data Management
• Rows & Columns
• Formulas & Functions
• Data filtering & visualization
• Cell definition
• Custom formatting
4.6.2 Advantages of Spread-Sheet
Spread-sheet is quite popular among the organisations all over the world due to:
• Spread-sheets are free for usage
• Spread-sheets require less training and skills
• Spread-sheets are customizable
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• Calculations are streamlined

• Provides multiple user interaction
• Can integrate several sheets as well as files
• Compatible with different types of formats
• Collaborative with different sources of data
4.6.3 Dis-Advantages of Spread-Sheet
Apart from advantages spread-sheet also holding the disadvantages as :
• Lack of security of data
• Countless templates create confusion in the spread-sheet
• Spread-sheet integration with certain tools create mess.
• Time consuming
• Unfit for remote working
• Consolidation among workbook is difficult
4.6.4 Uses of Spreadsheet
As spread sheets are most popular all over the world, and apart from many disadvantages
everyone is using. So, its important and basic uses are as follows:
• Financial working in organisations
• Accounting purpose in the offices
• Use for analysis
• Use for presentation of data with various tools
• Generating reports and charts
• Assisting with data exports
• Statistical analysis
4.6.5 Best Examples of Spreadsheet
• MS-Excel
• Google-sheets
• Libre-Office Calc
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• Air-table
• Smart sheet
• Zoho-sheet
4.7 SPREAD SHEET - APPLICATIONS
There are a number of features and applications that are available in Excel to make your task
easier. It has total nine menus to work with excel. We start from the initial point of creation.
4.7.1 Main Working Steps of Spread-Sheet
• Create worksheet: Choose File → New from the menu bar, The New Workbook task
pane opens on the right side of the screen. Choose Blank Workbook under the New
category heading. A blank workbook opens in the Excel window. The New
Workbook task pane is closed
• Saving worksheet: Choose File → Save As from the menu bar. The Save As dialog
box appears. Click the Save. In: drop-down menu and locate where the file will be
saved. Type a name for your file in the File Name: box. Click the Save button.
• Closing worksheet: Choose File →Close from the menu bar. The workbook in the
Excel window is closed.
• Editing worksheet: editing of excel sheet includes many features as deleting any
entry, replacing, copying, moving of data, etc.
• Printing of Worksheet
4.7.2 Formulas & Functions in Spread-sheet
Spread-sheet is consisting of many types of formulas & functions (set of pre-written
formulas), and it is very difficult to discuss all formulas and their working in single chapter.
So, this lesson will consider few of them.
• Mathematical formulas
• Statistical formulas
• Engineering formulas
• Financial formulas
• Lookup & Reference:
• Logical formulas
• Date & Time formulas
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4.8 DATABASE FUNCTIONS IN SPREAD SHEET

SHEETAPPLICATIONS OF INTERNET
Database functions in spread-sheet are very much popular in the world. Database Function
is a routine function, which accepts parameters and performs an action and returns the value.
Depending on the Function, the return value can be either a single value or a result set. The
Excel Database Functions are designed to help you to work within a database (i.e. a large
number of organized data records), stored in Excel.
The database functions are for basic calculations, such as sum, average, count, etc., as well as
for criteria arguments, that allows performing the calculation for a specified subset of the
records in the database. Other records in the database are ignored.
4.8.1 Types of functions in Spreadsheet

• SUM: SUM function adds set of numbers and returns the sum of these values. The
syntax of the function is: SUM (number1, [number2], ...)
• PRODUCT- PRODUCT function returns the product of a set of numerical values.
The syntax of the function is: PRODUCT (number1, [number2], ...
• POWER- Power function calculates a given number, raised to a supplied power. The
syntax of the function is: POWER (number, power)
• SQRT- Sqrt function calculates the positive square root of a number. The syntax of
the function is: SQRT (number)
• ABS- ABS function returns the absolute value of a number. The syntax of the
function is: ABS (number)
• MOD- MOD function returns the remainder of a division between two Numbers. The
format of the Syntax is: MOD (number, divisor)
• ROUND- Round function rounds a number up or down, to a specified number of
decimal places. In other word, this function removes decimals rounding up the last
decimal if the next one is 5 or over. The syntax of function is: ROUND (number)
• LOWER FUNCTION - LOWER function converts all alphabets in the string to
lowercase. If there are characters in the string that are not letters, they are unaffected
by this function. Syntax- LOWER (Text)
• LEN FUNCTION- LEN function returns the length of text string. Syntax-LEN (text)
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• CONCATENATE FUNCTION- CONCATENATE function joins together a series

of text strings or other values, into one combined text string. Syntax- Concatenate
(text1, [text2], …)
• TODAY Function- TODAY function returns the current date from the computers
system clock. Syntax- =TODAY ()
• NOW Function- NOW function returns the current date and time. The NOW
function is only updated when the spreadsheet is calculated. Syntax - =NOW ()
• DATE Function- DATE function returns the sequential serial number for the date
and formats the result as a date. The DATE function is most useful when the year,
month and day arguments are formulas. Syntax- =DATE (year, month, day)
• MAX Function- MAX function returns the largest value from a set of numeric
values. Syntax- =MAX (number1, [number2] ...)
• MIN Function- MIN function returns the smallest value from a set of numeric values.
Syntax- =MIN (number1, [number2] ...)
• AVERAGE Function- AVERAGE function returns the average (arithmetic mean) of
the numbers provided. Syntax- = AVERAGE (number1, [number2] ...)
• COUNT Function- Count function returns the count of numeric values in a set of
cells or values. This count includes both numbers and dates. Syntax- =COUNT
(value1, [value2] ...)
• COUNTIF Function- The COUNTIF function counts the number of values in a
range that meet specific criteria. Syntax- =COUNTIF (range, criteria)
4.9 GRAPHICS IN SPREAD SHEET
Graphical representation of data is an effective visual and impressive tool to represent

information quickly and easily. Graphs and charts are commonly used by print and electronic
media for the clarity. Sometimes, data can be better understood when presented by a graph
than by a table because the graph can reveal a trend or comparison. Spread-sheet is presenting
the data with the help of Graphs and charts, to create visualizations of data sets. By
highlighting a set of data within spread-sheet and feeding it into the charting tool, users can
create various types of charts in which the data is displayed in a graphical way.
4.9.1 Advantages of Graphical Representation
• Through graphs, the data is more presentable and easier to understand as well as
draw certain inferences or analysis.
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• Graphical representation summarizes a very large data in a very crisp and systematic
manner.
• It makes comparison easy of data.
• Visual presentation targets the audience.
• Helps in estimating the key values at a glance.
4.9.2 Types of Graphs and Charts in Spread-Sheet
There are many types of Graphs and Charts available in Spread-Sheet. These are as:
• Column Charts: A column charts uses vertical bars or columns to display values over
different categories. They are excellent at showing variations in value over time. It
represents different types of column charts.
• Bar charts: Bar charts are similar to a column charts, except they use horizontal
instead of vertical bars. Like the column chart, the bar chart shows variations in value
over time. These charts are again of different patterns.
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• Pie charts: A pie chart present the contribution of each value to the total. Pie charts
are an effective way to present information when you want to represent different parts
of the whole, or the percentages of a total.
• Line charts: A line chart shows trends and variations in data over time. A line chart
displays a series of points that are connected over time. Often used to plot continuous
data and are useful for identifying trends.
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4.9.4 Steps for creating Graphs and Charts in Spread-Sheet

• Select chart type
• Select the data & create chart
• Add chart element as axis, chart title, data labels, legend, trend lines etc.
• Adjust quick layout
• Change colors
• Change style
• Switch Row / Column
• Then save the chart
4.10 DATA BASE MANAGER – AN INTRODUCTION
In Data, ‘Data’ refers to “information in digital form that can be managed to organise the
system. And Database is a collection of related data. The purpose of this type of software is
to organise and manage data. The advantage is that changes in data can be made and stored
then displayed. MS-Access, d-base, Foxpro, Paradox and Oracle are some of the examples of
database manager. Database manager are software systems used to store, retrieve, and run
queries on data. They serves as an interface between an end-user and a database, allowing
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users to create, read, update, and delete data in the database. It also supervises the daily
activities of the data i.e., any update or manipulations. These systems help in association of
understanding the tools and technology that are available to make the database and related
technology even more effective. They also provide basic database management
functionalities including creation and maintenance of databases.
4.10.1 Characteristics of Database Manager Systems
There are some characteristics of database manager system, which allows smooth working:
• Manage remote as well as local databases
• Discover databases on web servers
• Provide the ability to connect to the database available in the network
• Provide administrative functionalities
• Display information from databases catalogs.
• Allow database administrators to new patches for databases and updating
databases.
4.10.2 Basic Functionalities of Database Manager Systems
Database manager systems enables users and provide quick solutions to the organisation by
its functionalities, which are as:
• Sharing of data
• Faster Accessibility with multiple users
• Compatibility across platforms
• Maintain Integrity while sharing
• Manipulation of data ensures consistency
• Provides security with different levels of abstraction
• Following the data models
• Connected on the basis of distribution system
4.10.3 Basic Responsibilities & Uses of Database Manager Systems
Some of the main responsibilities of Database manager are as follows:
• Creation of efficient and consistent database.
• Determination of data storage structure.
• Facilitates data searches.
• Maintain integrity among assets
• Manipulations are required
• Simplifies consultation process
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• Control undesired movements in the data.

4.10.4 Examples of Database Manager Systems
• SQL server
• Oracle
• My SQL
• TeamDesk
• TablePlus
• Azure
• IBM Informix
• MS Access
4.10.4 Basic uses of Database Manager Systems
• On Demand online video streaming
• Personnel cloud storage
• Social Gaming
• Telecommunication
• Knowledge management
• RDBMS
4.11 PRESENTATION GRAPHICS - INTRODUCTION
Presentation Graphics is a way of presentation, which can be used for formal or informal
presentation and in any form (text, audio, video, animation or else). In other words,
presentation is a structured delivery of information or a way of presenting skills or showing
or expressing skills. For the attractive or effective task, presentation is used. Through
presentation user can express views, feeling, opinion, etc. Presentation is generally used in
business, conference, education system, seminars etc. Presentation can be reproduced on
transparency, paper or on-screen. Teachers, professors, politicians and sales representatives
make presentations to present their concepts. Some notable presentation software packages
are available as Harvard Graphics and Lotus Freelance. PowerPoint is a presentation software
package included in Microsoft Office suite. It is used to create professional quality
presentations.
PowerPoint can be used to work on slides, organize presentation contents with outlines and
generate speaker notes and audience hand-outs, helps to structure the ideas and information
that may be convey to the audience. It lets to create the contents of presentation by
typing/inserting text, pictures, sounds and animations. With it, anyone can add visual images,
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supporting documents and audio-video recordings to enhance the presentation. PowerPoint

makes the creation of any presentation simple by providing built-in professional designs
called Auto-Layouts and templates. Different versions of a presentation can also be created
for different audiences and contents can be built in either a text-based outline view or a
design-based slide view.
4.11.1 ELEMENTS OF PRESENTATION
• Slides: Slides are the pages of the presentation. It can also be said that each page of a
presentation is known as slide, which includes any text, graphics, titles, shapes,
designs etc. PowerPoint provide various views to view the slides, Normal view, Slide
Sorter view and Slide Show view respectively these three buttons are available on
button left of the PowerPoint window.
• Notes Page: While giving presentation, it may need to refer to notes to elaborate on a
slide's material, or to remind, to mention some detail. For this purpose, can create a
notes for slides used in the presentation this note is available below the slides. Anyone
can type any notes, remark or any help message.
• Hand-outs: Hand-out is a printed form of any presentation, which can print all the
slides used in the presentation is small sizes on a single page. This can print 1, 2, 3, 4,
6 or 9 slides on a page. This can distribute these hand-outs among the viewer during
presentation.
4.11.2 TYPES OF PRESENTATION
• Blank Presentation: With the help of blank presentation, design of the slide can be as
per our requirement it gives us some predefined layouts of slides which can be used to
create a blank presentation. To design the slide by using blank presentation option,
select new option from the file menu and then select blank presentation option from
the task pane. After selecting blank presentation it gives a default slide. If doesn’t
want to work with the default slide then select any slide layout. After the completion
of one slide to create a new slide click on new slide button from the standard toolbar
• Design Templates: - Design templates provide some predesigned formats of
presentation, can select any one of them and create the presentation. It can also be
said that design formats are directly used to create the presentation.
• Auto content wizard: The Auto-Content wizard is a presentation, which act as a
guide composed of several screens that helps to create a professional presentation
quickly and easily. It basically works through series of questions and helps to choose
options to create a good presentation with the suggested content. The auto-content
wizards give some instruction to the user by following instructions, a new
presentation can be created by selecting the category, style, and view of presentation.
To use the auto-content wizard, anyone can go through step by step.
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4.11.3 TYPES OF VIEWS OF PRESENTATION

• Normal view: Normal view is by default view of the presentation, it contains three
panes as the outline pane, the slide pane, and the notes pane. These panes allow to
work on all aspects of presentation in one place. And can adjust the size of different
panes by dragging the pane borders.
• Slide Sorter view: In slide sorter view, are able to see all the slides in a presentation
on screen at the same time, displayed in miniature. This makes it easy to add, delete,
and move slides, add timings, and select animated transitions for moving from slide to
slide. It also previews animations on multiple slides by selecting the slides which
want to preview and then clicking Animation Preview on the Slide Show menu.
• Slide Show view: Slide show view presents the slides in full screen mode including
all its effects, this view can also decides the time to view the slides. One by one next
slide automatically appear after the time frame. Otherwise, can use either mouse click
or page down key to view the next slide.
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4.12 APPLICATIONS OF PRESENTATION
Presentation software is software used to show information, normally in the form of a slide
show and present that slideshow to an audience. Presentation software is the medium of
communication for a group of people, much simpler than any other delivery methods. The
software helps educators to bring their lessons to life also used to enhance language learning
with all four language skills: Reading, Writing, Speaking and Listening. It also helps to create
innovative ideas when students come up with creative and interesting slides to illustrate their
talk. The use of presentation aids makes more interesting talk, and such aids helps to develop
students' confidence.
The software comes with tools and templates to add information in the form of text, images,
audio, video, and graphs. It’s major functions includes: an editor pane that allows text to be
inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-
show system to display the content.
4.12.1 TYPES OF PRESENTATION
• Informative Presentation: An informative presentation is educational, concise, and
to the point. The main goal of an informative presentation is to share information.
• Instructional Presentation: An instructional presentation is to give specific
directions or orders. This presentation will probably be a bit longer, because it has to
cover whole topic thoroughly. In an instructional presentation, listeners should come
away with new knowledge or a new skill.
• Persuasive Presentation: A persuasive presentation is to convince listeners for
accepting the proposal. A convincing persuasive presentation offers a solution to a
controversy, dispute, or problem. To succeed with a persuasive presentation,
presentation should have sufficient logic, evidence, and emotion to sway the audience
to your viewpoint.
• Arousing Presentation: An arousing presentation is to make people think about a
certain problem or situation. To arouse the audience’s emotions and intellect so that
they will be receptive to the point of view. Vivid language used is in an arousing
presentation– project sincerity and enthusiasm.
• Decision-Making Presentation: A decision-making presentation presents ideas,
suggestions, and arguments strongly enough to persuade an audience to carry out
requests. In a decision-making presentation, tell the audience what to do and how to
do it.
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• Motivational Presentation: Motivational presentations in the business world may

not be as dramatic or life changing as a TEDTalk, but they still aim to generate
interest or gain an audience’s approval.
• Progress Reporting Presentation: This type of presentation shares status updates,
progress towards deadlines, collected data so far, any obstacles popping up, and tasks
that need to be added or adjusted. Presentations usually include an agenda, talking
points, deliverable updates, discussion topics, and time for questions at the end. This
presentation keeps everyone organized and focused, ensuring that everyone is still on
the same page and working towards the same end goal.
• Demonstrative Presentation: This presentation demonstrates the process if it
involves something in which the audience will later participate using the prescribed
method.
4.12.2 BENEFITS OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
• Visual: Visualizing information helps readers for explaining.
• Versatile: It incorporates photos, illustrations, sketches, and even videos posted
online.
• Interactive: This software can embed links and jump around the document itself or
out to the Internet.
4.12.3 Types of Presentation software
Presentation can broadly be classified into different categories as:
• MS-Power Point
• Google Presentation slides
• Canva
• Keynote
• Vizme etc.
4.12.2 PROS & CONS OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
Every software technology has many advantages and disadvantages, presentation is very
useful but consists of many pros & cons.
Pros Cons
1. Visualization of information. 1. Designs of slides diverts from the

information.
2. Versatility in the presentation of 2. Information, sometimes in readable

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information. form only.
3. Interactive way of presentation. 3. It offers limited tools for

entertainment interaction.
4. The presentation provides

customization for slides. 4. The customization is not possible
for entertainment
5. It has compatibility across the

platforms. 5. Sometimes distraction created
across the platforms.
4.13 APPLICATIONS OF PC PACKAGES
PC package is a suite of applications designed to help with productivity and completing

common tasks. These are tools used commonly because of accessibility, ease-of-use,
interactivity, and adaptability across operating systems. Efficiency is so important for
enterprises, can be provided by the PC packages. These PC packages are being able to create,
collaborate and communicate seamlessly for the organisations. And having easy access to
productivity tools that enable people to work easily from anywhere, which makes
organisations agile in their sector. A general-purpose application package is a type of
software that can perform many different related tasks and enhance the productivity of
organisation.
4.13.1 Characteristics of PC Packages
There are many characteristics of Packages, which fascinates the people and enterprises, are:
• Applications-centric
• Specialised Programs associated with documentation
• Standardize and streamline according to the task
• Customized silent deployment
• Assistant implementation
4.13.2 Categories of PC Packages
• Database Packages (e.g. MS Access, Lotus Approach, Paradox)
• Graphics Packages (e.g. Paint, PaintBrush, Serif Draw, Corel Draw)
• Computer Aided Design Packages (e.g. 2D-Design, AutoCAD, TurboCAD)
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• Presentation Graphic Packages ((e.g., PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance)

• Desktop Publishing Packages (e.g., MS Publisher, PageMaker, PagePlus)
• Communication Software (e.g., Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator))
• Spreadsheet Packages (e.g., MS Excel, Lotus 123)
• Text Processing Packages (e.g., MS Word, WordPerfect)
• Web page editor (e.g., MS FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver)
• Integrated Packages (e.g., MS-Office, Office 365, Open Office)
• Specialist Packages (e.g., Tally, Maxima, SPSS)
• Antivirus Packages (e.g., Quick Heal, Nortan, McFee)
• Build or Tailor-made Packages (in-house developed software)
4.13.3 Benefits of PC Packages
There are many advantages to PC Packages:
• Provide standard environment and ensure stability in working.
• Standards reduce the risks of working and also reduce the support cost
correspondingly.
• Packaging is required for the better organisation of tasks, so compatibility is
easier.
• Packaging format helps in less business disruptions.
• Application management is smooth.
• Packaging makes effective running of applications
• Reduce the security risks.
• Customization makes easier working and smooth.
• Accessible from anywhere.
• Communication friendly.
• Centralised collaboration within the organizations.
• Online support and training available.
4.13.4 Disadvantages of PC Packages
Any of the system or PC package cannot be without pitfalls and hazards. So some of them are
described here:
• Functional Requirements: Statement that all the functional requirements of the user
can result in selection of an optimal package is a difficult, it is a multi-step procedure.
Only after the user requirements have been stated and matched to achieve the best fit
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to a package can success be insured. Insuring that a package meets the specific
requirements of an organization is critical to say.
• Flexibility: Technical Environment, laws, policies and procedures constantly change
and a software package must be adaptable to these changes, which is very difficult to
say. The flexibility which, if anticipated, can readily be built into a custom developed
system, and should take updates time to time that must be insured in a product.
• Vendor reliability: It is very important while selecting a package to insure that the
vendor is well established and committed to the product for any kind of updates. This
problem is not as relevant to in-house custom developments since an in-house
development staff is readily available for support but this is not possible every time
and for the long time.
• Conversion: A problem can occur with installation of package, is underestimation of
the magnitude of adjustment to the conversion or transition to a new package. Using
perspective in the selection and acquisition.
• User Acceptance: A common encountered obstacle along with the successful
installation is user acceptance and adaptation to the new package. Although the
package selected may appear to management as a best fit, lower-level staff may be
required to significantly alter their routines. Usually, when a software package is
purchased, the users are required to arrange current operational procedures so they are
compatible with the software.
4.14 SUMMARY
PC Package, basically a synchronisation of interrelated units of the software for the business
enterprises for achieving their objectives and fulfil targets. So, Integration of similar type of
Software is necessary and important goal to manage processes and systems for better
performances. Technology plays important role for the synchronisation of units with less
errors and within budget. The availability of low-cost hardware and the expansion of software
industry for small to large-scale enterprise have resulted into a wide variety of software
packages. There are so many software packages available in the market. But, Applications
like Browser, MS Office, Games, Notepad etc., need to work with the help of operating
system. So market is also providing many types of operating systems. The basic purpose of
an operating system is to provide working platform to execute different application programs
in efficient manner and manages the allocation of computer hardware as well.
WINDOWS is one of the most popular operating system in the world. It enables users to save
data, watch videos, run applications, play games, and connect to the Internet. Different types
of PC packages are available in the environment to interact with the operating system
(WINDOWS). Such as Text Processing Software, Spread-Sheet system, Presentation Graphic
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software, Database Manager Systems. All these general-purpose application package is a

type of software that can perform many different related tasks and enhance the
productivity of organisation. These software packages are holding many characteristics,
which fascinates the people and enterprises. They are divided into different types of
categories as Database package, Graphic Presentation package, CAD, DTP, Office suite,
communication software package, antivirus and tailor-made packages. All these PC packages
comprises of many benefits but are also holding some disadvantages.
After whole discussion, we can conclude that PC packages are required for smooth working
with PC and necessary also.
4.15 GLOSSARY
OS: Operating system is also called as “System Software’, that acts as an Interface between
the computer hardware and the user.
WINDOWS: Windows is a graphical operating system developed by Microsoft. It was
released for both home computing and professional works.
Word Processor: A software that combines, Text editor which provides the ability to add,
delete, update, remove etc. with text and word processor helps in formatting the text or
document.
Spread-Sheet: The spread-sheet a software that allow to enter data and formulas into rows
and columns arranged as a grid on a display screen.
Database Manager Systems: They serves as an interface between an end-user and a
database, allowing users to create, read, update, and delete data in the database. It also
supervises the daily activities of the data i.e., any update or manipulations.
Presentation Graphics: Presentation Graphics is a way of presentation, which can be used
for formal or informal presentation and in any form (text, audio, video, animation or else). In
other words, presentation is a structured delivery of information or a way of presenting skills
or showing or expressing skills.
1. What is a PC package?
2. What are the major differences between an application software and a package?
3. Describe text processing with example.
4. How Database Manager systems are different from databases.
5. Explain about presentation graphics systems and their functionalities.
6. Summarize all the PC packages with examples.
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7. Discuss the important workings of spread-sheet.

8. Describe operating system as an Interface.
9. Write short notes on different versions of WINDOWS.
10. Discuss different graphic tools of spreadsheet.
4.17 REFERENCES
• Manoj Kumar, M. Shamir Bhudookan, Information Technology for ‘O’ Level,

Editions De L’Ocean Indien.
• K.K. Shahjahan, MS-Office, Excel Books.
• Sanjeev Gupta, Shameena Gupta, Computer Aided Management (Using MS-Office
2003 Tools), Excel Books
• Bill, H., & Jaffe, B. D. (2012). IT manager's handbook(3rd ed.). New York: Morgan
Kauffman.
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LESSON 5
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND

NETWORKING

Assistant Professor
PGDAV (Eve) college
Delhi University
STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Management System Integration
5.4 Application Portfolio Development
5.5 Internet
5.6 Extranet
5.7 Intranet
5.8 Applications of Internet
5.9 Internet Technology in Organisations
5.10 Data Communications
5.11 Networking
5.12 Internet Service Providers
5.13 Application Service Providers
5.14 Summary
5.15 Glossary
5.17 References
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The objectives of the lesson will indicate the Intended Learning Outcomes. So, after
completing this lesson, you will be able to:
• Explain different terms as internet, extranet, intranet, networking, data
communications networking and Management system integration etc.
• Explain application portfolio development.
• About Internet Technology & Networking.
• Elements of Internet & its applications.
• Usage of Internet Technology for Business Organizations
5.2 INTRODUCTION
Management system is the way of organising and managing interrelated units of the
organisation to achieve their goal or objectives. Nowadays, management system integration is
basic part of the businesses, in which it combines all aspects of the system, processes, and
standards into smart system for better responses. From the point of view of performance,
organisations are also into practice to implement application portfolios which helps in
effective maintenance.
Analysing, assessing and synchronization of business roadmaps with technology needs some
medium. So, Internet is the basic communication medium of organisations. The content of
this lesson provides the knowledge of Internet, which accompanied with Extranet, Intranet.
Business organisation are integrating their management systems with the help of data
warehouses, and providing their own application portfolios with Internet, Extranet and
Intranet. This is the way; Internet Technology is widely acceptable in business organisations.
This lesson is divided into many subparts in a systematic manner. First part of lesson
describes integration of management system by business organisations with their own
application portfolios. Second part of the lesson providing the knowledge of Internet and its
usage, with the explanation of intranet and extranet. How the data is communicating in
organisation needs the knowledge of Data communication and networking, which is next part
of the lesson. Lastly, this lesson describes about the service and application providers of the
internet, and conclude the lesson.
5.3 MANAGEMENT SYSTEM INTEGRATION
The advancement in technology leads to global growth and change into prospective of human
life, so the concept of industrial development and business production has changed. Due to
these changes, the process of economic growth and competition of markets have led
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organisations to extend their business segment and more differentiated to stand in the market.
Thus, business organisations have developed with management systems with an extensive
position in the market in which they operate.
There is a variety of management systems standards, which covers various functional areas of
the organisation. With separate and incompatible management systems, organisations can
incur insignificant costs, more errors and failures, redundancy, inconsistency etc. These
issues have very negative impact on stakeholders, employees and consumers. So, to avoid
such kind of prospects, the organisations should have integrated strategy for the management
system. It’s time to provide a holistic system of integration, and organisations can manage
their operations with integrated management system.
The management system integration allows organisations to share work force, information,
infrastructural and financial resources. That is an effective management model, promotes
innovations.
5.3.1 BENEFITS OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEM INTEGRATION
Improvement in the relationship of stakeholders
• Improvement in procedures of organisations
• Change in behaviour at environment & safety levels
• Definition of responsibilities become sharper
• Reduction in documentation
• Reduction in indirect cost
• Better work culture
• Improvement in employee’s communication
• Increase in speed of processes
• Globalisation of vision
5.3.2 CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS
Critical success factors are those agents or vital areas, which must take into consideration by
the organisation for successful management system integration, such as:
• Involvement of top management
• Financial and human resource
• Training of personnel’s
• Pre-defined objectives
• Persistence of operations
• Set deadlines
• Employee’s involvement and motivation
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• Experienced consultants
Nowadays, Management System Integration is strategic decision to promote sustainability
and competitiveness. For a successful integration level, organisations should follow some set
of factors described. And it makes possible to identify a set of benefits for the organisation.
Despite that some difficulties also have been pointed out, so should be aware of them.
5.4 APPLICATION PORTFOLIO DEVELOPMENT
As Information Technology is the most important tool, most of the business organisations are
working with that only, has no option. Day by day, number of applications is increasing
according to the needs and become substantial assets for the organisations. Consequently,
management of these applications becoming less efficient and sustaining at high costs.
According to the business strategies and goals, allocation of aligned IT applications should be
business centric and supportive and reflect the impact in the portfolio to the business. So, for
the financial benefit of applications, Application Portfolio Development is required. The
Application Portfolio Development is nevertheless a complicated issue to regain the control
of the software automation for the business, which ensures about the added value and
reliability of the application.
Application portfolio refers to a collection of software applications and software – based
services for the business organisation to attain its goals. The managing of application
portfolio is its management. Basically, it’s a framework for the software application to
illustrate the business benefits of every application integration. Most important benefits of
application portfolio development are:
• Eliminate the risks of business & protect it.
• By integration of different applications, lower the costs of IT applications.
• Helps to think strategically for the betterment of business.
• Plan for tomorrow & support future business strategies.
5.4.1 Application Portfolio Development steps
Basically, it is a discipline for the governance of software applications through their entire
life cycle in support of maximizing business value delivered. Following are the steps:
• Identification of best applications work for the business.
• Create content part of the applications and estimating their operations cost.
• Allocation of applications first, then categorize according to the business
strategies.
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• Selecting applications with their features and operation for decision making
for implementation.
• Lastly, integration of application with credible sources then evaluation of
portfolio to maximise business value.
5.4.2 Silent features of Application Portfolio Development
Application Portfolio Development is carried out in a balanced fashion, by prioritizing the
objectives of business and IT concerns to succeed. The silent features of it are as:
• Governance Focus: The focus is only on decision making for higher business
value.
• Development of Application Portfolio: The Life Cycle of application portfolio
is important to lower down the costs and risks.
• Categories of Applications: For acquiring governance approach, it is necessary
to focus on category of applications
• Business Value: The most important objective is to govern the application
portfolio driven by changing business needs for maximum business value.
5.5 INTERNET
The Internet is globally connected computer networks for communication and sharing
information. It consists of millions of public, private networks with the global as well as local
scope. Networks are linked with a broad array of electronic devices consisting of wireless or
wired connectivity. As above said, it is for communication and information sharing, so
internet have large volume of information resources and services linked and the
infrastructure.
5.5.1 History of Internet
The internet is not evolved instantly but is the result of long progressive growth and research.
In 1969, under the American defence department, ARPANET was introduced for
communication and exchange of information. With this, use of internet gradually increased in
universities, scientists, researchers, and private and commercial organisations for sharing
information. In 1990s, the working of ARPANET, and other public, private networks start
increasing for exchanging information and messages.
The term “Internet” actually was coined in 1995 by the FNC (Federal Networking Council,
USA). Therefore, Internet is a world wide web of computer networks’. It is connected with
millions of computing devices that carry and transfer large amount of information from one
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device to the other. Desktop computers, mainframes, GPS units, cell phones, car alarms,
video game consoles and many other devices are connected.
5.5.1 How Internet Functions?
Internet is collection of many public and private networks connected to each other. To avoid
any discrepancy and disturbance, networks are governed by certain rules. They are following
some common standards, but the functioning of internet is not controlled by any one of them.
It is governed and managed by a group of voluntary organisations under the Internet Society.
For smooth working of network, they decide some set of rules called as “Protocols”, for
communication. Other than societies, some networks have their own rules, which they follow
internally only within their network, not on global Internet.
Fig1: Diagram of Internet

5.5.2 Uses of Internet
Nowadays, Internet has been the most powerful and useful technology. It works with us, from
personal to professional life for the development. Internet helps us to achieve our goals in
different ways as, educational purpose, business point of view, research subjects, doctors
encyclopaedia, adding information for the home, filtering information for countries.
Therefore, it is helping out for everyone, in all age, categories all over the world.
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Internet is working with the help of web browsers and websites, and then connected through
URL within the Domain. There are many web browsers available to serve the user across the
world. All working is based on many web-based application software in every field of life for
each purpose.
5.5.3 Limitations of Internet
Despite of usage and global availability, Internet has many limitations, listed below as:
• Virus threat
• Decrease in face-to-face communication
• Loss/theft of personal information
• Addiction of Internet
• Dangerous for children
• Spamming
5.6 EXTRANET
Extranet is nothing, but in simple terms ‘extension of intranet’ only, i.e., a private network of
linked many cooperating organisation outside the walls of same organisation. Extranet is
providing services with the help of existing intranet interactive infrastructure. So, Extranet is
more economical for proprietary network by using same standard servers, clients and web
applications as well as browser. Due to the sharing of resources enterprises have strong
communication connectivity and typically coupled relationship with common interests.
The usage of Extranet is among various types of businesses such as banking, airlines,
railways, hospital chain, mart chain and corporate offices with branches etc. But, extranet is
using the Internet protocol and public telecommunication for sharing of information with its
any kind of branches. For the security and privacy of extranet, there is a requirement of
firewall server management, which providing authentication, use of virtual network, usage of
encrypted message, for tunnelling the public network. Because companies are more aware
about their communication limits with authorised access. So, Extranets serve an extremely
important role, as they allow for private communication, collaboration, knowledge sharing,
document sharing, and data transfer between organizations.
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Fig3: Diagram of Extranet

5.7.1 Features of Extranet
• Extranet uses the TCP/IP protocol to link intranets at different locations
• Extranet is providing security and privacy with the help of tunnelling i.e. VPN
• Access to extranet is limited by agreements of collaborating parties
• Extranet is open and flexible for supply chain management
• Extranets are also having facility of replication of database for the safer side.
5.7.2 Advantages of Extranet
Apart from various limitations, extranet have various advantages as:
• Ubiquity of access
• Standards are open for all platforms
• Investment of less time and money
• Technical support and economical
• Act as information factory among the organisations
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Fig4: Difference of Internet, Intranet, Extranet
5.7 INTRANET
Intranet can be described as “Internal Internet”, i.e., private network, within the organisation,
university, library, enterprise, company, office etc. It is connected with many interlinked
local connections with the help of the wide area network in web.
The main motive or purpose of the Intranet is to share and exchange of information within the
organisation among internal computing resources. It facilitates the working in groups and for
telecommunication. So, it is the web-based architecture for managing internal information
with the help of internet tools, protocols, and technology. The working of Intranet is
accessible through public internet as well as local connectivity with the use of filters and
routing algorithms. This intranet is bound to permission to access resources internally for the
purpose of security of the network within the organisation.
Fig2: Diagram of Intranet
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5.6.1 Features of Intranet

• Intranet is corporate network secured with firewalls
• Intranet links various clients, servers, many databases, different application
programs (ERP).
• Accessible to authorised people/employees with limited access.
• Connectivity is open and flexible with defined infrastructure.
• Intranet is developed with protocol (TCP/IP) as internet but operates as private
network.
5.6.2 Advantages of Intranet
Intranets are quite popular among the organisations all over the world due to:
• The interface of intranet is comfortable for multimedia formats.
• The single interface of intranet is enough for several proprietary systems such
as database, libraries, bibliographic information, and different management
systems.
• The setup of intranets is very inexpensive for the usage of in-house proprietary
packages.
• They provide easy accessibility across the networking platforms
5.8 APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET

Today’s world is of internet, which fascinates the world. It is used to explore the fascinating
and ever-changing world. In this network, more than billions of people are connected. The
internet has mainly three applications, which can expand further as:
• Communication
• Buying and selling, services (e-commerce, e-services)
• Searching for information
5.8.1 Communication
Growth of mankind began with the advent of communication. We share information, when
we are communicating. Sharing of information can be done locally or remotely. Between
individuals, generally face to face communication is considered as local communication,
whereas communication which takes place over distance comes under remote
communication. There are several ways to communicate over the internet. Some of them are
as following:
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• E-mail
• Instant Messaging
• Social Networking
• Forum
• Video Conferencing
• Audio Conferencing
• Chatting
• News group
5.8.1 Buying / Selling, services (e-Commerce, e-services)
In this, the vendor and customer conduct a transaction sitting at different geographical
locations, connected through the Internet. There is a wide range of services provided by the
Internet also. These are listed as:
• E-commerce
• M-commerce
• E-services
▪ Net Banking
▪ E-learning
▪ E-gaming
▪ Communities
5.8.2 Searching for Information
A number of programs called search engines are available to search for the information on
any topic. Some famous search engines are provided by:
• www.google.com,
• wikipedia.com,
• webopedia.com,
• MSN.com,
• Yahoo.com, etc.
5.9 INTERNET TECHNOLOGY IN ORGANISATIONS
Advancement in communication and information technology has further strengthened the role
of the internet in business. The internet is widely used in organization for marketing and
promotion of products and services. The internet is used to deliver customer support, share
information and provide training to employees.
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The internet used in different applications to meet the requirement of different people at
different places in different time. Business organisations are widely using the Internet, for the
management of business; they connect and correlate information among organisations’. The
main tasks are as:
• Resource sharing
• Information sharing
• Connecting people
• E-commerce
• E-services
The role of the Internet in business communication is varied and has come to be of great
importance. It can be used to increase effective communication both internally and externally.
Use of the Internet can make it easier to connect with others quickly and more often, in
addition to exchanging a wide array of media types. It can be used to communicate purchase
information to vendors and by customers to ask questions. The factors that make the role of
the Internet in business communication important can also cause conflict, depending on the
way the medium is used.
5.10 DATA COMMUNICATION
In Data Communications, ‘Data’ refers to “information in digital form that can be processed”,
and ‘Communication’ means exchanging of information or data from one entity to another
entity in a meaningful way. ‘Data Communication’ is the process of exchanging or
transferring of data/ information in two computing devices or more points. It can be
explained as the transmission, reception, and processing of digital information. For the
effective communication of data, it has some characteristics as:
• Data delivery (data should be delivered to the correct destination)
• Accuracy (delivered data should be accurate)
• Timeliness (delivery of data should be without delay)
• Jitter (network splits the data for easy communication that creates variation in
arrival of data packets)
5.9.1 Components of Data Communications
There are some necessary components of data communications, which allows smooth
communication as:
• Data / Message
• Sender (source)
• Receiver (destination)
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• Transmission Medium
• Protocol
Fig5: Components of Data Communication
5.11 NETWORKING
Networking is the exchange of information or data at a common platform or ground. This can
be done for professional interest, social interest or personal. Networking is possible with
communication devices interconnected, which is used to transmit with protocols. For the
networking computers and more other devices, machines are connecting people for
transferring the data / information.
Fig6: Diagram of Networking

According to the working and geographical structure computers are networked as:
• LAN (Local Area Network)
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• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• WAN (Wide Area Network)
Fig 7: Types of Networks

5.11.1 LAN (Local Area Network)
LAN is a network, designed to operate small physical areas such as an office, enterprise,
factory, home or a group of buildings. It is very easy to design and troubleshoot as well as in
exchanging & sharing of information, resources. They all are connected to a single cable in
different types of structures. Here, structure means physical structure of connection is called
Topology. LAN can be connected in any of the topology as Bus, Tree, Star, and Ring.
Usually, LAN connections are privately owned network.
Fig 8: LAN network connection

LAN network connects different computers, mobiles, tablets, printer, and scanner etc., placed
at limited distance. The geographical area of LAN network is very limited; range from a
single room, a floor, an office, a lab, a school, college or within campus etc. The connectivity
of LAN can be done by different means such as cables, fibre optics, Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi.
This type of connectivity is comparatively secure; users can access other computers or
resources in the network from the local server distributed. Due to short distance coverage,
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LAN connections provide the high-speed data transfer rates with very low cost, and usually
varies from 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps.
Over the different advantages, there are many disadvantages also discussed as. Where a lot of
terminals are there in the network, then processing speed will be slow. Secondly, if there is
any virus in one computer then it will proceed further within whole network. Next, if
dedicated server fails, then work stored or shared will not be able to access or use.
5.11.2 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
MAN is an extended form of LAN network, covers a larger geographical area as a city, a
town etc. It is not very easy to design like LAN network, as it covers larger area so
troubleshooting is little time taking. MAN network also can be connected to any type of
topology as ring, star. These types of connections can be privately owned or public.
MAN network connects different LAN connections in it or with different devices or type of
connections at longer distance or in larger network. This type of connectivity can be done
through cable, fibre optics, and co-axial cables, PSTN or Wi-Fi. The speed of data transfer is
moderate and ranges from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps but it considerably less as compared to
LAN. It is used to provide link to the shared connection to other networks using WAN. This
network typically covers area between 5 Km to 50 Km, although it can be less than that.
A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by
many individuals and organizations. Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that
provides a high-speed DSL to customers and cable TV network, also used in government
agencies and University campuses.
Fig 9: MAN network connection

MAN network also holds some disadvantages as it is hard to design and maintain. It is fewer
faults tolerant and costlier also for implementing. MAN connection shows much congestion
while connecting and working.
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5.11.3 WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN (Wide area network) is the largest spread network that covers a large geographical are
comprising a region, a country, a continent or even the world. So, it spans over very large-
distances and can connect widely separated computer or clients or networks very easily. A
WAN can include various LAN and MAN networks or can be connected separately with
different types of technologies. It can transfer or transmit any type of data as image, audio,
video or any information over the long distances.
The mode of transmission and communication in WAN can either be wired or wireless.
Telephone lines used for wired communications and satellite links for wireless connections
ranges beyond 100 Kms for connecting huge mass of people. It also facilitates the sharing of
regional resource. The communication links provided by the WAN are public carriers like
telephone networks, network providers, cable systems, fiber optics, satellites etc…
Large business enterprises, educational institutions and government organizations connect
their different branches / offices at different locations across the world through WAN. The
Internet is WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones and millions of LANs
from different continents across the whole world.
Fig 9: WAN network connection

The speed of transferring data is typically low and high propagation delay means speed of
communication is low and having higher error rate. WAN network is very complex to design,
used in different types of physical structures. It is networked in topologies as star, ring, tree,
mesh, bus, or hybrid structure. It is using different types of protocols according to need,
speed, span and geographical area such as ISDN, SONET, SDLC, SMDS, HDLC etc…
WAN is using both types of network ownership either private or public. Its types of network
are also based on functionality of the network as peer to peer network or client server
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network. WAN supports transmission media of both types as guided media or unguided
media.
Despite of many advantages, disadvantages are more. Firstly, it faces security problems in the
network, secondly, higher setup cost, server down and disconnection issues are major.
Examples, railway reservation system, satellite systems, stock brokerage, banking, e-
commerce, m-commerce etc…
Difference between LAN, MAN AND WAN:
S.NO. LAN MAN WAN
1. LAN is defined as a MAN is defined as a WAN is defined as the
computer network that computer network that links telecommunications
links the local areas the metropolitan areas. network that covers a large
like schools, geographical area.
universities,
organizations, etc.
2. The full form of the The full form of MAN is The full form of WAN is a
LAN is Local Area Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network
Network Network.
3. LAN is a wired The connections in MAN The network of WAN is
network, i.e., all the are connected through connected through
computers and printers modem or cables/ wires. broadband services, 3G or
are connected through 4G internet services, etc.
wires
4. The ownership of LAN The ownership of MAN The ownership of WAN
is private. might be public or private. might be private or public.
5. The internet speed of The sped of MAN is The speed of WAN is
LAN is very high, i.e., moderate, i.e., 44-155 relatively less than MAN
1000 Mbps. Mbps. and LAN, i.e., 150 Mbps
6. The maintenance cost The maintenance cost of The maintenance cost of
of LAN is easy. MAN is difficult WAN is difficult.
5.12 INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS
Internet service providers are for providing internet connection services to individual systems
and organisation. In other words, ISP is an intermediary, which connects internet by
specialised lines and access to the internet. It is possible through authenticated user ID and
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password by using modem or other connecting devices. In addition to that they also provide
software packages, working platforms and virtual accounts, many other services. ISPs are
providing connections in the form of broadband or non-broadband. ISP may be of any type
as, cable, fibre, DSL (Digital Subscriber Line), and satellite internet. Main functions of ISP
are:
• Provide a link
• Hosting
5.12.1 Provide a Link:
To establish communication between you and ISP, a simple protocol is used PPP (Point to
Point Protocol). PPP is a protocol making possible for two remote computers to communicate
without having an IP address. So, internet connectivity between you and the service provider
is established by the PPP protocol which is characterized by:
• a telephone call
• initialization of communication
• verification of the user name (login or user-id)
• verification of the password
5.12.2 Hosting:
After establishing communication connection between two remote computers, ISP lends you
an IP address for being connected to internet is called ‘Hosting’. However, this IP address is
not fixed for connecting every time, because ISP has thousands of addresses. Whenever you
will connect to the internet with your user id and password, whichever address will be free,
you will connect with that. Therefore, connection is a proxy connection, it’s your ISP who
sends all the requests you make.
5.12.3 Types of ISP
ISP can broadly be classified into six categories as:
• Access Providers
• Mailbox Providers
• Hosting ISPs
• Virtual ISPs
• Free ISPs
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Fig 10: ISPs
5.13 APPLICATION SERVICE PROVIDERS
With the growth of Information Technology & Internet, the term outsourcing came for the
expansion of networked infrastructure. Outsourcing led to the emergence of a new model for
providing these services, is named as ‘Application Service Provider’ (ASP). Examples of
such applications SAP and FileMaker.
ASP is a third-party application provider, which provides access to different applications,
platforms etc. to multiple customers over the network. The service of an application service
provider comprises the lease of usage time of software applications they own. It facilitates
and manages application software, system hardware and other services on behalf of
customers. The main functions of ASP are:
• Outsourcing
• Internet computing
• Packaged enterprise applications
5.12.1 Characteristics of ASP
There are many characteristics of ASP, which fascinates the customers, are:
• Applications-centric
• Centrally managed
• Point to multi-point service model
• Sells application access
• Delivers services based on contract
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5.14 SUMMARY
Management system, basically a synchronisation of interrelated units of the business

enterprises for achieving their objectives and fulfil targets. So, Integration of Management
System is necessary and important goal to manage their processes and systems for better
performances. These organisations develop roadmaps for management with the help of
technology. Technology play important role for the synchronisation of units with less errors
and within budget.
To set goals and incur more profits, organisations are automating their management systems
with the help of application supportive technology. The control of the software automation is
fulfilled by Application Portfolio Development. All IT applications under application
portfolio are business centric, which ensure the value addition & reliability of the application
portfolio to attain their goals. These applications are enhancing the development of
enterprises.
Analysing, assessing and synchronization of business roadmaps with technology needs some
medium. So, Internet is the basic communication medium of organisations. The internet used
in different applications to meet the requirement of different people at different places in
different time. Business organisations are widely using the Internet, for the management of
business; they connect and correlate information among organisations’. The main purpose of
internet for the organisations can be listed as Resource sharing, Information sharing,
connecting people, E-commerce, E-services etc.
To facilitate the organisations, technology has other options also in the form of Intranet &
Extranet. The Intranet is to share and exchange of information within the organisation
among internal computing resources. It facilitates the working in groups and for
telecommunication. So, it is the web-based architecture for managing internal information
with the help of internet tools, protocols, and technology. The working of Intranet is
accessible through public internet as well as local connectivity. Extranet is nothing, but in
simple terms ‘extension of intranet’ only, i.e. a private network of linked many cooperating
organisation outside the walls of same organisation. Extranet is providing services with the
help of existing intranet interactive infrastructure. So, Extranet is more economical for
proprietary network by using same standard servers, clients and web applications as well as
browser.
5.15 GLOSSARY
IT: Information Technology

ARPANET: Under the American defence department, ARPANET was introduced for
communication and exchange of information.
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GPS: Global Positioning System is a satellite-based radio-navigation system owned by US

govt. and operated by US space force.
URL: URL stands for uniform resource locator. It is nothing more than the address of a given
unique resource on the web.
PROTOCOL: Organisations under the Internet Society, decide some set of rules called as
“Protocols”, for communication on Internet, for smooth working. Other than societies, some
networks have their own rules, which they follow internally only within their network, not on
global Internet.
INTRANET: Intranet is ‘Internal Internet’ of the organisation. The main motive or purpose
of the Intranet is to share and exchange of information within the organisation among internal
computing resources.
ERP: ERP stands for Enterprise Resource Planning. It is the integrated management system
of main processes, procedure of the organisation in real time and meditated by software
technology.
TCP / IP: It stands for transmission control protocol / internet protocol. It is the set of
communication protocols used in the internet and similar computer networks.
VPN: VPN stands for virtual private network. It is extension of private network across the
public network and enables users to share information in a shielded environment.
E-COMMERCE: E-commerce is the activity of electronically buying or selling of products
on online services or over the Internet.
M-COMMERCE: It is Mobile Commerce. According to the Mobile Commerce Forum, “the
delivery of electronic commerce capabilities directly into the consumer’s hand, anywhere, via
wireless technology." So that is possible only through the mobiles.
LAN: LAN stands for local area network. It is a computer network that interconnects
computer clients within a limited geographic range, some of the examples are school,
university, laboratory, office building etc…
MAN: MAN is metropolitan area network, a larger network than LAN. It connects systems
within the metropolitan area, have covered area of city, town, multiple buildings, etc…
ISP: ISP stands for internet service providers. An internet service provider is an organisation
of providing internet services. ISP can be organised in various frameworks, such as
commercial, community-owned, non-profit organisation.
ASP: ASP stands for application service providers. ASP offers access to applications and
related services over the internet. It provides different software and platforms for work also.
121 | P a g e

MBA
1. What is a protocol?
2. What are the major differences between a LAN and a WAN?
3. What IT organization design variables are affected by networks?
4. Pick a specific company, and describe how it might make use of the Internet.
5. What is an Intranet? What is its role in an organization?
6. What is the purpose of a LAN?
7. What is the importance Management System Integration?
8. Explain the need of Application Portfolio Development?
9. Differentiate between Intranet and Extranet?
10. How business enterprises are dependent on Internet Technology?
11. Explain the role of ASP & ISP IN Internet Technology?
12. Explain the use of the Internet in our daily lives.
5.17 REFERENCES
• Tannenbaum, A.S., “Computer Networks”, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2003.

• William Stallings, “Local and Metropolitan Area Networks”, 6th Edition, Pearson
Education India, 2008.
• W. Stallings, "Data and Computer Communication", Pearson Education, 5th Edition,
2001
• Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 4th Edition,
McGraw Hill Education, 2007.
• Douglas Comer, “Computer Networks and Internets”, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall,
2009.
• L. L. Peterson and B. S. Davie, Computer Networks: A Systems Approach (3rd ed.),
Morgan Kaufmann, 2003
122 | P a g e


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Resolution No. 38 {38-1 [38-1-13(10)]}

Department of Distance and

Master of Business Administration (MBA)

© Department of Distance and Continuing Education

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

Lesson-3: Perception and Individual Decision Making ...................................................... 46

Lesson-5: Interpersonal Relationship ................................................................................ 115

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

5.5 Types of Transactions

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

Lesson-7: Leadership .......................................................................................................... 184

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

Lesson-10: Stress and Wellbeing at Work ......................................................................... 271

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

1.1 Learning Objectives

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

1.12 Managerial Implication

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

● Define organizational behaviour.

● Explain the need for and importance of a manager in an organization.

● Develop an understanding of the functions of a manager and managerial roles in an

● Explain the Major disciplines that contribute to the domain of organizational

● Explain the level of analysis of the organization’s behaviour.

● Understand various challenges and opportunities managers face in applying

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

1.3 WHAT DO YOU MEAN ORGANIZATION?

Purpose Structure People

Figure 1.1 Features of an Organization

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

1.4 MANAGER AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

1.5 WHAT DO MANAGERS DO?

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

Figure 1.2 Efficiency and effectiveness

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

Figure 1.3. Five Management Functions by Henry Fayol

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

Figure 1.4 Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

Emerging Managerial Roles

2. Restrictive to Expansive: Present-day competitive business environment needs

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

3. Exclusive and Inclusive- Managers should include employees in the decision-making

4. Repetitive to Innovation- There is no best time for innovation, rather it is an ongoing

6. Employer to Entrepreneur- Present-day manager needs to think like an entrepreneur.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

1. Efficiency means achieving goals with ______________.

2. Functions of management are part of the classical approach, given by_______

3. _________means completion of given task within planned time frame.

4. According to Mintzberg, manager transmits the information outside the

1.6 MANAGERIAL SKILLS

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

1.7 MANAGERIAL ACTIVITIES: EFFECTIVE VERSUS

✔ Traditional Management: This includes planning, organizing, making decisions, etc.

✔ Communication includes communicating information, handling paperwork, and

✔ Networking: Building a social network and interacting with external publics.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,