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Individual choices impact the global economy.

ECONOMICS

Implication and Inference


UNIT PROFILE OUTCOMES
You will consider the subject of economics—specifically how • Understand implication and inference
certain key terms are defined and how income, taxes, and assets • Make strong inferences and avoid weak ones
relate to one another. Topics you will study include international • Distinguish between deliberate implications
tariffs, taxes, the definition of income, and public versus private and direct statements
goods.
• Paraphrase
Look at the reading on page 176. By skimming the title, the
first two sentences of each paragraph, and the chart, try to infer • Identify and use equivalent and
the author’s point of view about public and private goods. Will near-equivalent expressions
the author present one phenomenon—public or private—as
being more important than the other?

GETTING STARTED
Go to to listen to Professor Clerici-Arias and to complete a self-assessment.
Discuss these questions with a partner or group.
1. Think of the last time you crossed a border from one country to another. Did you have to be careful not
to bring in certain things? Which things? Why would a country prevent you from bringing such things
in? Was the reason economic? Environmental? Cultural? Related to some other aspect of life?
2. Think of a country you know well. Does the government impose any extra taxes on items brought in
from other countries? Why or why not? Do the taxes work as the government intends?
3. Think of the same or another a country you know well—perhaps the country where you are living
now. Is there a lot of income inequality? What factors cause—or protect people against—such
inequality? What signs do you see every day that show that inequality does, or doesn’t, exist?

For more about ECONOMICS, see 1 3 . See also and ECONOMICS 1 2 3 .


158 ECONOMIC S PART 2
PART 2
CRITICAL THINKING SKILL
UNDERSTANDING IMPLICATION AND INFERENCE

WHY IT’S USEFUL A reading passage may contain ideas that are implied (not stated directly) by the
author. Readers can understand implications by making inferences—considering the information given,
processing it logically, and bringing in their own knowledge of the topic and the world in general.

Understanding implications and your own inferences can allow VOC ABUL ARY TIP
you to get the full meaning of a reading—not just what an author
to imply—to communicate an idea
explicitly states, but also what is indirectly stated. This unit breaks without actually saying it. The reading
the skill down into two supporting skills: passage (and the writer) implies things.
These are implications.
• making strong inferences and avoiding weak ones
to infer—to understand an idea even
• distinguishing between deliberate implications and direct though it is not directly said. You, the
statements reader, infer things. What you infer are
inferences.
NOTICING ACTIVITY
A. Read each item. Then choose the best inference about the item. Discuss your answers with another
student.
1. Accounting is more than mere record-keeping. Give ten accountants the same task, and you’ll get
ten different results.
a. Accounting does not have a set of rules that everyone follows.
b. Accounting can involve personal creativity.
2. Double-entry accounting demands that each amount is recorded in at least two accounts. It has
long functioned as a tool for discovering errors.
a. Accountants sometimes make mistakes in entering amounts.
b. Accountants suspect one another of trying to take money dishonestly.
3. Double-entry accounting is not the same as keeping two sets of books. The latter will get you
thrown into jail.
a. Double-entry accounting covers up any illegal activities among accountants.
b. Double-entry accounting is legal, but keeping two sets of books is not.
4. Accounting is probably as old as trade itself. Without records of outflow versus income, how could
a trader assess the quality of an exchange?
a. Ancient accounting systems were not very accurate.
b. No one knows when the first accounting system started.
5. It’s only natural that the most powerful merchants of any era—medieval Arabs, Renaissance
Italians, the Dutch, the British, the Americans—could impose their accounting practices
internationally.
a. The status of being the world’s top traders shifts from one country to another over time.
b. The country with the best accounting system is usually the world’s top trader.
6. Paying income taxes every year unreasonably forces average Americans to become temporary
accountants, a role for which they have no training.
a. Americans should learn in school how to become accountants.
b. The income tax system shouldn’t require any accounting skills.

Implication and Inference 159


B. Read the following passage. What information is stated directly? What additional information
can you infer? The notes in the margins show some inferences that can be drawn from the first
paragraph. Look at the other numbered items (4–8). Complete each sentence with the inference
that you draw. Then discuss your inferences with another student.

Some Italian
Accounting in Context
cities besides 1 (1) Modern accounting developed during the Italian Renaissance
Venice and and gradually insinuated itself wherever Venetians, Genoans, or
Genoa
had trade
others carried it to ensure predictable business practices. But that
during the is not to say that all such trading partners were willing to manage
Renaissance. In some places,
their accounts in the Italian way. (2) Financial and legal systems local traditions
varied in significant ways and were deeply rooted, not easily altered stayed in place
to suit foreign merchants, no matter how rich they were. And despite rich
foreigners.
even in the 15th century, there were technological breakthroughs
(Gutenberg’s printing press, various advances in sailing gear) that
rapidly— (3) at least in relative terms—changed the economic game Developments
that seemed fast
and encouraged the spread of two main types of accounting: code- in the 15th century
based accounting and common law accounting. would not seem
The influence of fast now.
2 (4) Common law, or case law, had developed in Britain during
the
Empire caused the 11th and 12th centuries. It was refined as trade increased during
the Renaissance; later systems in colonies throughout the British In common law
Empire fell under the common law heading. (5) Accounting accounting, a
. practices under common law emphasized adherence to voluntary company that
conventions of transparency and accuracy. Peer pressure and doesn’t follow
potential public shame played a great role. Common law is the rules is
punished by
comparatively flexible, so accounting systems based in it can
be adapted to changing economic conditions with relative ease. .
These common law attributes are still found in the accounting
practices of such former British colonies or dependencies as the
United States, Australia, and India. (6) India, as it grows, is likely At present, India’s
to benefit greatly from the common law framework; typically, as economy is
labor economies transition into service economies, they need the
flexibility that common law accounting provides—as opposed to
.
the more rigid procedures of a code-based system.
3 The formation of a modern accounting system isn’t always such
a gradual process, and common law systems aren’t always the
result. After World War II, the United States worked to establish
Aer World War II,
an American-style accounting system in Japan. (7) Within only Japan considered
a couple of decades, many aspects of the system took hold, and American
today Japan has a hybrid accounting system. It has been heavily accounting
influenced by US common law but also by prior experience practices to be
The Japanese
tendency toward with German code law and (8) a credit-focused financial system
some secrecy in that is not inclined toward disclosures. While both India and
the credit system .
Japan went through rapid and occasionally turbulent periods of
had its origins in modernization, each managed to create a system of accounting that
suited its needs.
.

Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

160 ECONOMIC S PART 2


PART 2
SUPPORTING SKILL 1
MAKING STRONG INFERENCES AND AVOIDING WEAK ONES

WHY IT’S USEFUL By making inferences that are strong—well supported by material in the reading and
by logic—you can more accurately understand what a writer means to say. By not making weak inferences,
you can keep from developing misunderstandings.

All of the inferences we drew from “Accounting in Context” are strong. A reader can find a clear
statement in the reading passage that supports and leads logically to each inference. Most readers know
enough about money, history, and economies to infer the information.
However, inferences—and the implications on which they might be based—are not always so clear. Given
different background experiences, one reader may infer things that another may not. This is an important
distinction. Inferences and implications are different things, and they do not always occur together:
• An author may imply something in a reading passage that a reader doesn’t notice. In this case,
there is an implication without an inference.
• Alternatively, a reader may infer something that the author did not intend to imply. In this case,
there is an inference without an intended implication. When a reader infers things the author did
not mean to imply, the inference is likely to be weak.
The following inferences from “Accounting in Context” are so weak that most readers would consider
them wrong. They cannot be clearly supported by evidence from the reading. A reader who makes these
inferences is misunderstanding the passage.

Example of a Weak Inference Why It’s Weak


During the Renaissance, Italy conquered much of The early part of the reading doesn’t hint at war. In fact,
the world. the “gradually insinuated” phrase is tied to business,
not war.

Common law accounting practices cause economies The reading actually portrays a totally different scenario.
to become service economies. The accounting system does not change an economy. It is
available in case an economy changes.

Before World War II, Japan had no exposure to The reading directly says otherwise when it uses the
accounting systems from other countries. phrase “prior experience with Germanic code law.”

EXERCISE 1
A. Read the passage actively. (See the section Reading Actively, p. 3.) Ask yourself questions and
formulate guesses about possible implications.

The Effects of Tariffs on


Research and Development
1 In the popular imagination, an innovator is a lone genius toiling away
in obscurity before stumbling upon a world-changing breakthrough. We
are attracted to this image because it speaks to the kind of hard work
and struggle all of us must go through to accomplish something. The less
dramatic reality, however, is that innovation is more often a matter of such
uninspiring factors as international trade rules, especially the taxes known
as tariffs. Every country imposes some tariffs, so we have to speak of a
continuum, from high-tariff to low-tariff countries. Those with high tariffs
Continued

Implication and Inference 161


inevitably
ine
in evit
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itab
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ab ly justify
jus
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tiffy
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hem as protection
pro
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for domestic
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and producers.
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rodu
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ducers
cers.
rs
However true that may be in the short run, it is badly misguided as a policy
for future growth. In fact, a country that supposedly protects its innovators
with tariffs is probably discouraging research and development (R&D), while
a country that generally pursues free trade is probably invigorating it.
2 If innovation thrives on competition—and it does—then it stands to
reason that a successful monopoly whose market is guaranteed by tariffs
has little reason to innovate. Tariffs reduce outside competition, and an
industry “protected” by them is perversely motivated to stay out of the
battle for market leadership. While a protected industry is huddling within
its borders, out of the crosswinds of the world market, dozens of countries
are competing in the marketplace of innovation. Even a small advancement
in technology can vault an innovator nation to worldwide dominance in
some particular product market. A smart leader, however, continues to
innovate despite its dominance because leadership can be a fleeting thing,
lasting only as long as one’s technology outpaces that of competitors.
3 Meanwhile, an industry hiding in the false shelter of tariff s falls further
behind. It makes no difference whether the tariff-insulated industry was
the world leader when tariffs were introduced. Protected products may
even continue to lead in one’s domestic market for a while, but tariffs may
shelter it too long, leaving it uninspired by any of the fierce innovation
(and attendant R&D) that motivates market leaders. Its product line will
languish, its offerings looking increasingly old-fashioned. This has been
disastrous in the past. By the 1980s, for example, Soviet consumers knew
that most cars produced domestically for them were dinosaurs—but the
disaster can occur even faster in an age of digital communication. The
products of more nimble economies are instantly on display online.
4 Pressure from outside competitors is not the only free-trade factor that
jump-starts R&D. Free trade also makes it easier for a manufacturer to get
intermediate goods—those materials or components needed to generate
finished products. Nations that embrace free trade can typically source
these midstream goods from overseas, without needing to home-grow every
single component industry. The cheap importation of intermediate goods
lets countries play to their strengths without building elaborate domestic
industrial infrastructure. It also speeds experimentation and innovation
because acquiring components with which to develop high-value end
products is faster and cheaper than under a high-tariff regime.
5 Finally, free trade makes it easier for researchers to get in on the ground
floor of new innovations. An aspiring computer innovator may see little room
to move in a protectionist, tariff-heavy country where today’s products are
protected and tomorrow’s R&D is stalled. Early-career innovators are more
likely to thrive where cross-currents of ideas and funding for the best of
them flow in from around the world. Because of this, restrictive tariffs can
lead to a “brain drain” as educated professionals relocate to countries where
their skills will bring them higher-paying positions. This leaves no one at
home motivated to try to build such industries from scratch. If this persists,
tariffs will not only inhibit R&D in the present but also place the nation at a
disadvantage even if it finally opens up to free trade.

162 ECONOMIC S PART 2


B. With another student, discuss these inferences about the passage. Rate them Strong, Medium,

PART 2
or Weak.

1. The popular image of an innovator poorly represents how most innovation


really occurs.

2. Countries usually establish tariffs for unsuccessful industries but not for
successful ones.

3. No country that says it supports free markets would ever impose tariffs.

4. The forces of competition among freely innovating companies are similar to


the winds of a storm.

5. Tariffs usually do not help an industry sell its products to a domestic market.

6. The Soviet economy protected its auto industry with tariffs.

7. Cell phones, the Internet, and other aids to communication make it easier to
protect an industry with tariffs.

8. Intermediate goods can sometimes be purchased from outside the country


where a whole product is produced and sometimes from inside it.

9. A person interested in innovating would probably want to move to a nation


with a lot of tariffs.

10. The international migration of highly skilled people would probably decrease
if every economy in the world practiced free trade.

C. Discuss your ratings with another pair of students. Explain the reasons for your answers.
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

Implication and Inference 163


SUPPORTING SKILL 2
DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN DELIBERATE IMPLICATIONS AND DIRECT STATEMENTS

WHY IT’S USEFUL You can understand an author’s intentions and attitudes more clearly if you can
recognize when he or she deliberately avoids saying something directly. You can develop a sense of the
factors that may be motivating the author. Why does the author think such deliberate implications are
necessary?

Usually, the implications in a reading passage are not meant to hide anything. They are simply a normal
part of the pattern of meaning, said and unsaid, in a passage. However, sometimes an author may
intentionally use implications to make a point that he or she does not want to state directly. This may
occur for any of several reasons.
The author may think that
• saying something directly would cause trouble with authorities—the government, religious
officials, an employer, and so on.
• being explicit would anger or embarrass certain individuals.
• using direct language would be predictable and boring, so the implication is meant to
entertain.
• an implication would appeal to a subgroup of readers (an “in-group”), making them feel special
because they can understand it.

EXERCISE 2
A. Read each situation. Then discuss the questions with one or two other students.
Situation 1: A worker at a coal company is interviewed by an environmental news website.

Transcript:
INTERVIEWER: The Northern Coal Company employs more than half the people in this area. Critics
say the company is ruining this part of the state by cutting forests, destroying mountaintops,
and polluting rivers. What do you think?
COAL MINER: I’ve worked with the company for 20 years. That salary has allowed me to feed
my family and send my daughter to college. They employ lots of folks around here, and I don’t
know what would happen to this economy if you took those jobs away. I’m 52 years old, and
I know there’s no other job for me around here except the one I have. This is a beautiful valley,
and these mountains are my home.

1. What can you infer about the miner’s feelings about the company? About the future?
2. Why do you think the miner avoids answering the question directly?
3. Can you think of similar situations in which a writer or speaker would avoid direct
statements?

164 ECONOMIC S PART 2


PART 2
Situation 2: A British politician writes a blog post about some recent trade actions by the
US government.

Blog Post:
The British people understand that US trade leaders want prosperity for American companies.
It’s every government’s job to promote the economic interests of its people. Part of that is making
sure manufacturers have access to the best materials on the market. Should our American cousins
care to investigate, they will find that jet engines built by British Airfoil have outperformed all
competitors for nearly half a century. I’m sure it’s just an oversight that customs officials have
limited the importation of 27 BA engines at the dock in Philadelphia.

1. How is the politician’s motivation different from the coal miner’s in Situation 1?
2. What is one implied criticism the politician makes of the US government?
3. What can you infer about the possible purpose of the US government’s actions?
4. Why does the politician use the phrase “American cousins”?
5. By calling the action “an oversight,” what is the politician trying to avoid?
6. Can you think of similar situations in which a writer or speaker would avoid direct
statements?

B. Read the passage. Make notes about ideas that you think are being deliberately implied
because the author is reluctant to state them directly.

Smoking, Sin Taxes, and


Changing Habits
1 Throughout the ages, authorities have tried to enforce sobriety and
clean living, but their record at it has been spotty at best. Take the
Ottoman Sultan Murad IV (1612–1640) who not only outlawed coffee
but also imposed a penalty of execution should anyone violate the ban.
(Pretty harsh moves from a man who allegedly had a taste for another
oft-banned substance, fortified wine.) You can judge how well the ban
worked by noting that today Turkish-style coffee is enjoyed in homes
and cafes around the globe. Similarly, the earnest and well-meaning
US Temperance Movement succeeded in getting Congress to establish
Prohibition (a federal ban on the sale of alcoholic drinks that endured
from 1920 to 1933), bringing us moonshine, the Jazz Age, and Al
Capone. Parallels could conceivably be drawn to the modern US War
on Drugs.
2 Governments that recognize the futility of bans often resort to
taxing things instead. Declaring a “sin tax” is straightforward enough:
Simply choose something you want people to avoid and impose a tax
to cover whatever costs you imagine the nasty substance or activity
levies on society. Writing the tax into law is, of course, the easy part.
Implementing it, as history has demonstrated, leads to a multitude of
difficulties, particularly black market sales and, worse, angry people who
want their cigarettes, their alcoholic drink, their sugary cola, or even
temporary romance.
Continued

Implication and Inference 165


3 Historically
Hist
Hi stor
storiic
or ical
all
lly
ly sspeaking,
peak
aki
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ing
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in axes
ax es h
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had their
hei
eir
ir strongest
stro
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ronges
ngestt eff
es effe
ffect
ect on
on
infrequent users of the taxed substance. Research shows that taxes on
tobacco products reduce consumption the most among both younger
smokers and poorer smokers, especially those who smoke infrequently.
While advocates of the tax may be thrilled that the pool of potential
smokers is thereby reduced, the data is less promising when frequent,
heavy smokers are examined. People who already smoke more than a Những người đã hút hơn một gói
mỗi ngày dường như không thể
pack a day seem unable or unwilling to lower their cigarette consumption hoặc không muốn giảm mức tiêu
despite the tax. Given the unlikelihood that the tax will really stop thụ thuốc lá của mình bất chấp
hard-core smokers, the state could be seen as taking advantage of addicts thuế."
by profiting from their dependency. That may be too cynical a conclusion.
Nothing is simple or straightforward regarding addictions or the proper
public response to them.
4 Looking through the lens of the greater good, it seems that in the
case of smoking, proponents of sin taxes have a rare set of positive data.
Smoking is far less common in the United States than it used to be, and
the smell of tobacco smoke has been nearly eliminated from indoor
environments. While the taxes will never cause some hard-core smokers 5 Mặc dù thuế sẽ không bao
to quit, they have certainly contributed to a continuing decline in public giờ khiến một số người
smoking. We just have to remember that tobacco taxes should not be given nghiện thuốc lá bỏ thuốc,
all the credit. They coincided with massive clinical evidence of the health nhưng chắc chắn chúng đã
hazards of smoking. góp phần làm giảm tỷ lệ hút
5 Taxes on other unhealthful products have had a tougher slog. Attempts thuốc ở nơi công cộng.
Chúng ta chỉ cần nhớ rằng
at enacting a soda tax or a “fat tax” on fast food have generally fi zzled, and không nên áp dụng thuế
such taxes are hugely unpopular where they are in effect. There is science thuốc lá cho tất cả mọi
about the harmful effects of such products, so why hasn’t there been so người
great a push to tax them? A lot hinges on the scope of the harm. Cigarette
smoke is a public problem, something that wafts throughout a room or a
public bus, but sugary soda and fatty foods are private vices. My health
may suffer if I stand near you while you smoke but not while you drink
a 170-calorie glass of soda. And, at least in the United States, the public 6 Và, ít nhất là ở Hoa Kỳ, việc quản
regulation of private matters, while it certainly occurs, does not easily lý công về các vấn đề riêng tư,
survive once a media spotlight is shone on it—as happened when the state mặc dù nó chắc chắn xảy ra,
of New York contemplated a soda tax in 2010. Some people apparently do nhưng không dễ dàng tồn tại một
not want to be saved from themselves. khi ánh đèn truyền thông chiếu
vào nó—như đã xảy ra khi bang
New York dự tính đánh thuế soda
vào năm 2010.
C. Read the questions and choose the best answers. If necessary, use a dictionary to understand
difficult words in the questions.
1. What is the author implying about Murad IV in Paragraph 1?
a. He drank a lot of coffee.
b. His people feared him.
c. He was a hypocrite.
d. His government sold coffee.

166 ECONOMIC S PART 2


PART 2
2. In Paragraph 1, why does the author use the indirect phrase “could conceivably be drawn to the
modern US War on Drugs”?
a. To imply that the War on Drugs is ineffective without deeply offending antidrug readers
b. Because it’s illegal to write negative remarks about federal laws
c. To indicate that the War on Drugs is a much more respectable policy than Prohibition
d. Because he is not sure whether the War on Drugs is or is not a good policy
3. In Paragraph 2, why does the author use the indirect phrase “temporary romance”?
a. To indicate that taxed substances and activities are attractive to young people
b. To show that laws against a substance or activity cannot eliminate it
c. To introduce the concept that taxed things are often a lot of fun
d. To avoid saying “prostitution,” which might offend some readers
4. In Paragraph 3, what does the author imply about smokers who are undeterred by the
tobacco tax?
a. They are wealthy and unconcerned about taxes.
b. They are young and not worried about health problems.
c. They may be addicted to tobacco and cannot stop.
d. They could put pressure on the government to repeal the tax.
5. In Paragraph 4, what does the author imply about the effectiveness of taxes on tobacco use?
a. They succeeded in the United States but have failed elsewhere.
b. Their role in changing behavior may appear greater than it really was.
c. They did not really have any effect on the incidence of smoking.
d. It is dangerous to think that other sin taxes will be effective, too.
6. In Paragraph 5, what does the author imply about regulation of unhealthful products when he
says, “while it certainly occurs, [public regulation of private matters] does not easily survive once a
media spotlight is shone on it”?
a. Taxes on unhealthful products are imposed through secret government actions, not
through laws.
b. The private lives of Americans were more regulated in the past than they are now.
c. News media make a lot of money from ads for unhealthful products.
d. Americans are not conscious of many ways in which their private habits are regulated.

D. Discuss your answers with another student. Use information and examples from the passage to
explain and support your answers.
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to do collaborative activities.

Implication and Inference 167


READING-WRITING CONNECTION
PARAPHRASING

WHY IT’S USEFUL In American universities and professional situations, you will very often need to write
or speak in your own words about things you have read. Capturing an author’s thoughts in your own words
is therefore a crucial skill.

When authors paraphrase, they express someone else’s statement in a different way but keep the
essential meaning the same. This is not just a matter of changing a few words. It usually involves shifts
in grammar as well. The most important principle for someone writing a paraphrase is this: Work with
idea groups. When you express things in new wording, work with these groups of words, not with
individual words. See the following examples. Notice, for instance, that in the first example the idea
group, According to one research firm has been replaced by another group of words for the same idea,
Research shows.

Original: According to one research firm, the richest 400 people in the United States
own approximately 50 percent of the country’s net wealth.
Paraphrase: Research shows that about half of the net wealth in the United States is
owned by a group of only 400 people.
Original: You might be interested to find out that the Occupy Movement was trying to
draw public attention in 2011 to the fact that the richest 1 percent of earners in
the United States earn nearly 20 percent of all the income.
Paraphrase: The message of the Occupy Movement in 2011 was that almost 20 percent of
all America’s income is earned by the richest 1 percent.

Characteristics of Paraphrases
• Unlike a summary, a paraphrase can be about the same length as CULTURE NOTE
the original. For more information about how
• A paraphrase conveys only the essential meaning of the original. US culture treats “plagiarism”
and other aspects of academic
It doesn’t try to include unimportant elements like “you might be honesty, see Academic Success
interested to find out that” in the second example above. Strategies in MyEnglishLab.
• A paraphrase uses equivalent expressions—such as about half for
approximately 50 percent— not just individual vocabulary items. (See
the section Identifying and Using Equivalent and Near-Equivalent Expressions, p. 173.)
• A paraphrase does not change technical terms or parts of the original that can’t easily be expressed
any other way, elements like net wealth, 400 people, the Occupy Movement, and research.
• Paraphrasing is an important skill for avoiding plagiarism (copying another person’s written
words) when writing research papers.

WRITING PARAPHRASES
Even in a reading class—where your main task is comprehending what you read—you may be asked
to write paraphrases. That’s because a good paraphrase can show that you understand the passage. The
following are some techniques for writing paraphrases:
Technique 1. Change an active clause into the passive. This usually involves switching the
order of noun phrases, which helps rearrange the important parts of a sentence.
Technique 2. Break a longer sentence into two sentences.
Technique 3. Change prepositional phrases into adjectives / adverbs, or change adjectives /
adverbs into prepositional phrases.
Technique 4. Change the order of ideas in your paraphrase.

168 ECONOMIC S PART 2


PART 2
EXERCISE 3
A. Read the passage. Notice the underlined sentences.

The Many Definitions of Income

1 In the rush to discuss and describe income constant prices) or "nominal" (based on market
inequality in the United States, it is crucial prices) income of a person or household. This
to make sure that everyone involved in the is one of the reasons why there are so many
discussion agrees on how to define income. approaches to what, precisely, income is.
Each possible definition of income can reveal (1) For instance, counting capital gains is
new information about the level of inequality in deceptive because, technically, capital gains is
the United States and which segments of the not a source of income but rather arises from
country’s population are most affected by it. revaluation of wealth. Nonetheless, some include
Where the information on income is taken from is it, and including it makes wealth appear to be
no less important. Different official government particularly concentrated in the upper percentiles
sources tabulate income within different (and of income earners. Meanwhile, counting
mathematically crucial) parameters. Let’s look government benefits—which is typically only
at a few ways to describe income so that we can taken into account when calculating disposable
better understand what we’re talking about when income along with taxes—tends to downplay the
we examine the data in greater depth. inequality.
2 While studying the different ways to describe 3 Individual income looks only at what one
income, it's important to note that some have person earns, and this is generally lower than
had difficulty accounting for the effects that family income or household income, which looks at
nonsalaried forms of income and specific the earnings of all members of family or unrelated
government benefits (also known as transfers) people sharing household resources. With a rise
can
ca n ha
have on
ve o determining
n de
dete
term
rmin
inin
ingg th
thee "real"
eall ((based
rea base
ba d on
sed in ssingle-parent
ingl
in g e pa
gl p re nt households
rent hou
ouse
seho
hold s throughout
lds thro
th roug
ug
gho ut the
hout the last
las
astt

Continued
Implication and Inference 169
ffew
ew decades,
decad
deca des, there
des there
here has
has been
bee
eenn a convergence
conv
co nver
erge
g nc
ge nce
e off the
the
he things
thi
th ings
ings
g llike
ike
ik e capital
capi
pital
t al gains
g ins
ga ins or government
gov
over
ernm
nmen
entt benefi
benefifits.
bene ts
figures for individual and household income. This Market income is the narrowest definition
would not necessarily be disturbing—it is possible used by the Census Bureau; while similar to
for a single wage earner to provide quite well for money income, market income does not count
an entire household. However, the wage earnings pensions and similar sources of cash. Finally,
of the median US worker have been nearly the Census Bureau’s most far-ranging definition
stagnant, meaning that real improvements in is the aforementioned disposable income, which
household income almost require the addition of includes money received from all sources. For
more earners. Depending on improvements in the lower-income individuals, disposable income
income of one individual to add significantly to the usually means money received from various
household total is, arguably, somewhat tenuous. forms of government assistance such as the
(2) Families in more-secure income brackets— Earned Income Tax Credit, public housing, SNAP
though not necessarily the very top income benefits, and so on. It’s also noteworthy that
brackets—tend not only to report higher earnings capital gains and losses are included in market
but also to have cash coming in from multiple income and disposable income research, but not
earners. in money income.
4 Definitions of income can be narrow or broad. 6 The Census Bureau’s income figures are
For example, the income being discussed might interesting, but they are also very limited. (5) They
be labor income, a narrow measure that reflects are not useful in looking at the top income earners
money acquired from work, or capital income, a because the bureau caps reporting at $999,999.
broad measure that reflects earnings in the form If you want to study high-earners, you’ll need
of dividends and retained earnings. This can be to use data from the US Treasury Department
an important distinction, especially regarding (which includes the Internal Revenue Service),
earners at the top levels. For example, the value which unfortunately doesn’t do much to describe
of a capital asset can accrue slowly over time, low-earners because many of them do not need
but the asset is usually sold in one transaction to file taxes. Obviously, the definitional problems
and is reported on a tax return as a large, sudden in this issue are daunting. (6) Each definition is
influx of cash. Another important distinction specifically designed by researchers to examine
is between gross income (pretax income) and data in highly specific circumstances for a
net income (post-tax income). (3) Government particular reason, but those analytical concerns
tax policies and transfers influence household are not necessarily salient to—or even recognized
disposable income (see below), and thus two by—ordinary citizens who want to debate public
people with the same gross income may have policy. Even noneconomists might have their
vastly different net incomes, depending on their own special income-related concerns, perhaps
life circumstances. the way student debt affects a young person’s
5 Some definitions of income are from the US wealth or how capital-gains tax breaks encourage
Census Bureau, which has an interest in keeping so-called rent-seeking behavior (behavior in which
track of income trends in the population. someone gains wealth without returning anything
(4) The Census Bureau’s first category of to society). The specific definition one chooses
income is money income, a term that is fairly can have an enormous influence on the argument
expansive, counting all forms of income that and conclusion of a given piece of research or a
a person receives regularly but not counting given debate.

170 ECONOMIC S PART 2


PART 2
B. Refer to each underlined sentence in the reading, which corresponds with each item below. Then
choose the best paraphrase.
(1) a. It is more accurate to take capital gains into account than government benefits
because the latter is not really income.
b. If capital gains are included, the rich look richer, and if government benefits are
included, the poor don’t look so poor.
c. People who work for businesses are likely to have higher incomes than people who
work for the government.
d. There are great benefits to using the same definition of income that the government
uses.
(2) a. Most financially secure households have both higher incomes and more earners.
b. The larger a household is, the more likely it is to be financially secure.
c. Financially secure people usually have more income and get it from investments,
not jobs.
d. Income for financially secure families is likely to be higher and to include cash.
(3) a. Wealthier people know how to take advantage of government policies to increase
their net income.
b. The difference between gross income and net income is greater for wealthy people
than for the poor.
c. The amount of disposable income is impacted by factors such as tax policies and
government benefits.
d. The government uses tax laws to unfairly favor some earners while putting other
earners at a disadvantage.
(4) a. The term money income does not include enough sources to be very useful because
it is too broad.
b. The term money income includes most earnings, although not all kinds of payments.
c. The term money income is confusing because the things it measures are sometimes
paid not in cash but by check.
d. The term money income works well for the purposes of the census, but it is not used
for other purposes.
(5) a. The Census Bureau does not count high-earners as members of the US population.
b. The Census Bureau does not record the real income of anyone earning a
million dollars or more.
c. The Census Bureau is interested in one’s income only if the person receives
government support payments.
d. The Census Bureau is the most reliable source for income trends among low-earners.
(6) a. The variety of definitions of income make it virtually impossible to discuss income
inequality.
b. One definition of income may be too narrow, but considering them all together gives an
accurate picture.
c. Different definitions of income emphasize different priorities, but ordinary people may
not care about such details.
d. Definitions of income from government agencies reflect conflicts between various
branches of government.

Implication and Inference 171


C. Read each excerpt from the passage. Then complete each paraphrase. When possible, use
equivalent expressions and the paraphrasing techniques described in this unit.

1. Where the information on income is taken from is no less important as different official government
sources tabulate income within different (and mathematically crucial) parameters.
Measurements of income can vary because .

2. This would not necessarily be disturbing—it is possible for a single wage earner to provide quite well for
an entire household. However, the wage earnings of the median US worker have been nearly stagnant,
meaning that real improvements in household income almost require the addition of more earners.
Because US wages haven’t grown very much, .

3. Definitions of income can be narrow or broad. For example, the income being discussed might be labor
income, a narrow measure that reflects money acquired from work, or capital income, a broad measure
that reflects earnings in the form of dividends and retained earnings.
One distinction among types of income is whether they are narrow or broad. For example, .

4. For example, the value of a capital asset can accrue slowly over time, but the asset is usually sold in one
transaction and is reported on a tax return as a large, sudden influx of cash.
Although a capital asset is usually .

5. For lower-income individuals, disposable income usually means money received from various forms of
government assistance such as the Earned Income Tax Credit, public housing, SNAP benefits, and so on.
Part of disposable income for people in lower income brackets .

6. If you want to study high-earners, you’ll need to use data from the US Treasury Department (which
includes the Internal Revenue Service), which unfortunately doesn’t do much to describe low-earners
because many of them do not need to file taxes.
Data from the US Treasury .

D. Discuss these questions with one or two other students. Then explain your answers to the class.
1. Explain which paraphrases in Part B you chose and why.
2. Share your paraphrase completions from Part C. Are some more accurate than others? Which parts
of some paraphrases are not accurate? How could those problems be solved? Do any paraphrases
take too much wording from the original? If so, how could the borrowed parts be replaced?
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

For more about PARAPHRASING, see SOCIOLOGY 1 .


172 ECONOMIC S PART 2
PART 2
LANGUAGE SKILL
IDENTIFYING AND USING EQUIVALENT AND NEAR-EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS

WHY IT’S USEFUL Your ability to paraphrase and to understand paraphrases depends greatly on the
strength of your vocabulary. By recognizing when two expressions—such as money changing and currency
exchange —mean nearly the same thing, you can follow threads of cohesion in a text. By integrating such
equivalents into your own vocabulary, you can express yourself more flexibly and with less repetition.

In developing your English vocabulary, size and strength are not necessarily the same thing. Of course,
a large vocabulary helps a lot, but having a flexible vocabulary is just as important. Knowing equivalent
expressions is a significant factor in developing this flexibility.
As we mentioned in the previous section, paraphrasing is more than just replacing one word with
another. Instead, the best paraphrases replace one idea group—a group of words that together express an
idea—with an equivalent expression. An equivalent expression is a word or group of words that means
the same as another word or group of words. The equivalent expression may be a synonym—that is, a
single vocabulary item with almost the same meaning. The two words nearly and almost are equivalent
expressions, and they are synonyms of each other. So are the vocabulary items nearly and pretty close
to— even though pretty close to is a multiword vocabulary item, not a single word. Dictionary definitions
typically offer multiword equivalent expressions for single-word vocabulary items. For example, the
single word canyon and its multiword definition—the phrase deep, narrow opening in a mountain range—
are equivalent expressions.
In paraphrasing, you may not be able to find an exactly equivalent expression. Expressions that are
close in meaning but not exactly the same are called near-equivalent expressions. Even very close
synonyms—such as occur and happen—are slightly different in tone, suitability for certain contexts, and
so on. For most purposes, near-equivalent phrases will accomplish what you need in paraphrases.

EXERCISE 4
Read the passage. On the next page, match the equivalent / near-equivalent expressions with
expressions from the passage. Two of the expressions in the right column will not be used.

The Free Silver Movement


The first issue by the US Treasury of a paper currency, Silver Certificates, came in 1878 in
response to a political push from the so-called “Free Silver” movement, which had begun in the
early 1870s. These bills were not exactly what the movement called for. Instead, free-silverites
wanted the government to circulate silver coinage, rather than paper notes, in order to increase the
money supply. Advocates of free silver argued that producing more “greenbacks” (paper bills) would
not inflate the money supply because they could be redeemed (traded in) for either gold or silver.
Free-silverites said people would choose to redeem the notes for gold, and that was the main thing
free-silverites did not want— a continued reliance on gold to back up the value of money.

Implication and Inference 173


Expressions from the Passage Equivalent / Near-Equivalent Expressions
1. in response to a political push a. an ongoing wish to keep the government from issuing
too much money
2. were not exactly what the
b. create too many dollars, so that each dollar would
movement called for
become less valuable
3. circulate silver coinage c. fell short of the reforms that the group wanted
d. issue money made of silver
4. inflate the money supply
e. answering questions about their political positions
5. notes f. pieces of paper money
g. staying with a system where gold supports the currency
6. a continued reliance on gold to
back up the value of money h. because of political pressure
EXERCISE 5
Read each Original and each Paraphrase. In the Paraphrase, underline the equivalent or near-
equivalent expression for the words in bold in the Original.
1. Original: In American English, the phrase “hiding money in your mattress” means keeping a lot of
cash at home because you don’t trust banks, stock markets, or other financial institutions.
Paraphrase: The American English expression “hiding money in your mattress” refers to holding
onto your cash because you’re afraid to invest it or put it in a bank.
2. Original: Occasionally, an article appears in the newspaper about how someone who goes in to
clean out the house of a deceased person discovers a hidden box, or even a real mattress, filled
with tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars in cash.
Paraphrase: Newspapers sometimes report on the discovery of many thousands of dollars in cash
stuffed into a box or mattress in the home of someone who has died.
3. Original: It’s not unusual for the friends or relatives of the deceased to confirm that he or she
believed it was unsafe to put the money to use in the markets or even to deposit it into a bank,
where any deposit up to $250,000 is covered by federal insurance.
Paraphrase: Typically, a cash-hoarder like that has a reputation for believing the money would
disappear if it were invested or even put into a bank, where the government insures deposits up to
a quarter million dollars.
4. Original: A Nevada man named Walter Samaszko Jr. died with a $200 balance in his bank
account but about $7 million worth of gold bars and coins hidden in his house, which workers
discovered when they went to clean up his house so it could be sold.
Paraphrase: Walter Samaszko Jr. of Nevada had a $200 bank balance when he died, but he also
had gold bars and coins valued at about $7 million hidden in his house—a stash that was found by
a cleanup crew getting the house ready to be sold.
5. Original: An Israeli woman actually did use a mattress to hide about $1 million in US dollars
and Israeli shekels and then mistakenly disposed of the mattress on trash-collection day.
Paraphrase: By mistake, a woman in Israel threw into the garbage a mattress in which she had
been hiding about $1 million in US and Israeli currency.
6. Original: Experts say that, though your chances of finding valuables are very slim, you should
never do extensive remodeling on the walls of an old house without inspecting the space behind
the old plaster or drywall because that space is a popular hoarding spot for money.
Paraphrase: You probably won’t find any money there, but always look carefully in the wall spaces
if you ever do a lot of renovation on an old home.
Go to to complete a skill practice.
174 ECONOMIC S PART 2
PART 2
APPLY YOUR SKILLS
WHY IT’S USEFUL By applying the skills you have learned in this unit, you can successfully read this
challenging text and learn about public and private goods. You can also apply your analytical and critical
thinking skills to develop opinions of your own about issues raised in the reading.

BEFORE YOU READ


A. Discuss these questions with one or more students.
1. What do you know about the concept of a “public good”?
2. Are roads and sidewalks in your home country well maintained? If so, who benefits from this?
Discuss where the funding for this maintenance originates.
3. Do any of your friends or family members own any real estate (a house and yard, a vacant lot, a
field, etc.)? Would they allow people they know to go on their land? Strangers? Explain.
B. Imagine that you will be participating in a small group discussion about the passage “Public Goods
vs. Private Gain,” which begins on the next page. Your group will be discussing the following
questions. Keep these questions in mind as you read the passage.
1. What is the modern-day definition of a public good?
2. What is the difference between a nonexcludable good and a nonrivalrous good? Give examples
of each.
3. Economists see public goods as being various degrees of nonexcludable and nonrivalrous.
Explain your understanding of this continuum. Give one example of a good that is somewhat
nonexcludable and one example of a good that is somewhat nonrivalrous.
4. Why was the trade of the Apache sacred site Oak Flat controversial?
5. Name some of the reasons why discussions on public goods remain contentious.
C. Review the Unit Skills Summary. As you read the passage, apply the skills you learned in this unit.

UNIT SKILLS SUMMARY


Understand implication and inference.
• Use the information given in the text, as well as your background knowledge, to make inferences.
Make strong inferences and avoid making weak ones.
• Make inferences that are well supported by both the text and logic to accurately understand what the
writer means to say.
Distinguish between deliberate implications and direct statements.
• Recognize when the author intentionally avoids saying something directly in order to better understand
his or her intentions and attitudes.
Paraphrase.
• Capture the author’s ideas in your own words so that you can write or speak about what you have read.
Identify and use equivalent and near-equivalent expressions.
• Recognize expressions with nearly the same meanings and apply them to your own vocabulary.

Implication and Inference 175


READ
A. Read the passage. Annotate and take notes as necessary.

Public Goods vs.


Private Gain
1 In July 2015, animal lovers worldwide became
outraged at the death of Cecil, a famous lion
and tourist attraction at Hwange National Park
in Zimbabwe. It would later come to light that an
American dentist had paid US $50,000 for what he
said he thought was a legal hunt. (In fact, the lion
was lured out of the park and killed by the dentist
on private property, and the hunting guides were
charged with poaching.) In many parts of the world,
nations struggling to pay for and provide various
environmental protections to help ensure the survival
of endangered animals often charge high prices to
hunters wishing to trail particularly unique or rare
prey. Local governments insist that this money is
used to help improve environmental projects aimed at
protecting animals, while critics counter that it largely
lines the pockets of connected individuals and does
little to truly help. Some might argue that if the hunting
at least not in any tangible way that one can easily
of this famous lion had taken place at a national
attach a dollar sign to. To better understand how to
park—a public good—the lion’s death would have
move forward on these issues, we must carefully
been justifiable. However, from the controversy that
examine the meaning of a public good and how it
followed, it is clear that it is not so easy to determine
differs from a typical expenditure.
what constitutes a public versus a private good.
3 Public goods were originally described simply as
2 Governments the world over are spending
things shared freely by all. This was until economist
increasingly less on public goods. It is one thing to
Paul Romer provided a more precise definition, which
expect developing nations to cut spending in tough
has since become the standard: Public goods are
economic times, but even developed countries like the
nonexcludable and nonrivalrous. A nonexcludable
United States are devoting less and less funding to
public goods. Most spending allocations dedicated to resource is something that is readily available to
public goods relate to hot-button political flashpoints. all. Anyone who so wishes to can make use of and
Reaching any sort of consensus on healthcare exploit it. A public park, freely open to everyone, is an
spending, for example, seems nearly impossible— example. Similarly, air is available in the atmosphere,
even with the Affordable Care Act of 2010. Vast and there is no way that people can be charged
swathes of the US infrastructure are figuratively for breathing. Products like cars, real estate, and
collapsing, with spending on even obvious necessities aspirin sold at a pharmacy, on the other hand, are
like roadways and bridges so deadlocked that literal excludable goods, since someone can prevent others
collapse seems imminent. Even the development of a from using them. It’s worth noting that the same
standardized educational curriculum, something many product can be either excludable or nonexcludable
countries take for granted, has turned into a long, (or partially excludable) depending on the situation.
bitter political feud dragging in unions, publishers, Wild strawberries growing on the side of a public road
teachers, parents, and politicians. Viewed through a are nonexcludable, but strawberries growing on a
purely capitalistic lens, public goods are a tough sell: private, fenced-in farm patrolled by security officers
Everyone pays for them, and nobody seems to profit, are excludable.

176 ECONOMIC S PART 2


4 A nonrivalrous good is one that cannot be begin to arise; national defense may be a public

PART 2
depleted through use. If one person makes use good, but what about a multimillion dollar fighter
of it, it does not get “used up,” nor are others jet? Healthcare in the United States, as previously
prevented from “consuming” it at the same discussed, is another example of a good that is
time. The chicken dance—an entertaining and partially public. While it can be excludable in the
somewhat comical dance popular in parts of the sense that the cost for it may put it beyond the reach
Western world—is a concept that is nonrivalrous: of some people, it technically is available to all (as it
One partygoer dancing it does not keep another is offered by the government). The issue of whether it
partygoer from using the same dance. The offi ce is considered rivalrous or nonrivalrous is also sticky.
stapler, on the other hand, is rivalrous, as only It is nonrivalrous in that it cannot be completely
one person can utilize it at a given moment. A consumed, leaving none available for others. However,
prime example of the difference between rivalrous others may argue that it is indeed rivalrous because
and nonrivalrous goods is the classic fable of the not all types of plans are available to everyone
greedy baker who tries to charge a hungry passerby due to the limits often put on it by employers. With
for enjoying the smell of his bread. As one may politicians increasingly focused on the bottom line,
anticipate, the judge in this case rules that while public goods expenditures can be difficult to justify.
bread is rivalrous and excludable, the smell of bread Sometimes something that is thought to be a public
is nonrivalrous and nonexcludable. good turns out to be quite profitable when viewed
5 While many natural resources are thought to be from another angle and is treated as excludable.
public goods, oftentimes that is not actually the
CULTURALLY SIGNIFICANT SITES:
case. They frequently end up in a “Tragedy of the
ALWAYS COMPLETELY PUBLIC GOODS?
Commons” situation, where a shared resource is
7 The preservation of culturally significant sites is
diminished because individuals pursue their own
viewed by most as a public good, as everyone
selfish interests rather than those of a larger group.
benefits from their existence and is able to
These natural resources may be nonexcludable, but
experience them, even if the benefits may be
they are rivalrous. The inland village of two centuries
difficult to quantify. The oil rights for those culturally
ago may have believed that everyone could use the
significant places, however, are very easy to
town lake for water without depleting it, but if one of
quantify and can certainly be treated as a saleable
their descendants built a pump system two hundred
commodity. This clash of classifications has led to
years later and drained the lake to sell bottled water
numerous controversial situations, most recently one
at a markup, the townspeople would quickly learn
involving an Apache sacred site in Arizona known as
just how rivalrous a lake could be.
Oak Flat. A historically significant site, Oak Flat had
6 It is important to note that modern economists
been preserved through numerous exceptions made
view public goods as less of an either–or
by many politicians before it was finally traded to an
classification and more like a quality that exists
Australian-British mining company for land. On paper,
on a continuum: Goods are nonrivalrous and
it’s quite the deal, with the US government and
nonexcludable to various degrees, and some can
forestry service getting almost twice as much land in
be categorized in multiple ways depending on who
the trade. Still, the question remains as to whether
is making a particular argument. The distinction can
the government has a duty to uphold one specific
get especially tricky when it comes down to specific
public good. It is important to consider whether being
issues and commodities, which is where arguments

Nonexcludable Excludable

Public Goods Partially Public Goods


Nonrivalrous Air Healthcare
Public parks National defense

Shared Resources Private Goods


Rivalrous Lakes Real estate
Ocean swimming Cars

Figure 1.1 Continued


Implication and Inference 177
able to incorporate a greater area of land into a is simply too immense of an issue to fix by a
national park is a “bigger” win in terms of public good government built on mass consensus. Finally, a
than historic preservation. disheartening speculation is that ignoring public
8 When considering public goods, there are myriad goods that are difficult to appraise is merely the
intangible, unquantifiable issues at play. Many easy choice for politicians. Opinions differ on which
questions arise. Some wonder whether individuals factor is most important to take into consideration,
will continue to argue the easily tallied issues as but it seems worryingly clear where legislators draw
the overall infrastructure becomes more and more the line.
unstable. Others question whether healthcare

B. Reread the questions in Before You Read, Part B. Is there anything you cannot answer? What
reading skills can you use to help you find the answers?

Go to to read the passage again and answer critical thinking questions.

THINKING CRITICALLY
Thinking about the information in Paragraph 7 of “Public Goods vs. Private Gain,” name a few other
culturally significant sites that could be considered a public good by some and a private good by
others. How is this situation possible? Explain your answer using what you now know about public and
private goods.

THINKING VISUALLY
Based on what you have learned about excludable, nonexcludable, rivalrous, and nonrivalrous goods,
brainstorm and complete the chart with examples of goods that fit into each of the categories.

Nonexcludable Excludable

Public Goods Partially Public Goods

Air Healthcare
Nonrivalrous Public parks National defense

Shared Resources Private Goods

Lakes Real estate


Rivalrous Ocean swimming Cars

THINKING ABOUT LANGUAGE


Read these excerpts from “Public Goods vs. Private Gain.” Then choose the best equivalent expression
for each phrase in bold.
1. In July 2015, animal lovers worldwide became outraged at the death of Cecil, a famous lion and tourist
attraction at Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe.
a. expressed their annoyance about
b. were irate upon learning of
c. became emotionally wounded after hearing about
d. were fearful upon hearing about

178 ECONOMIC S PART 2


2. It would later come to light that an American dentist had paid US $50,000 for what he said he thought

PART 2
was a legal hunt.
a. become known
b. be illuminated
c. be in the media
d. be enlightened
3. Local governments insist that this money is used to help improve environmental projects aimed at
protecting animals, while critics counter that it largely lines the pockets of connected individuals and
does little to truly help.
a. ends up in the hands of individuals in power
b. is transferred to groups of people linked by common interests
c. is taken from organizations made up of important citizens
d. becomes linked to environmental protection proponents
4. Most spending allocations dedicated to public goods relate to hot-button political flashpoints.
a. areas of unanimous diplomatic agreement
b. topics of controversy among lawmakers
c. matters considered tenacious by legislators
d. subjects of extreme neutrality among politicians
5. Viewed through a purely capitalistic lens, public goods are a tough sell: Everyone pays for them, and
nobody seems to profit, at least not in any tangible way that one can easily attach a dollar sign to.
a. connect to a similar currency
b. link to certain denominations
c. assign a monetary value to
d. attribute to finances
6. The inland village of two centuries ago may have believed that everyone could use the town lake for water
without depleting it, but if one of their descendants built a pump system two hundred years later and
drained the lake to sell bottled water at a markup, the townspeople would quickly learn just how rivalrous
a lake could be.
a. more inexpensively than its initial value
b. at a price nearly equal to that of its fundamental worth
c. at the exact same price that it is worth
d. at a higher price than it originally would cost
7. Finally, a disheartening speculation is that ignoring public goods that are difficult to appraise is merely
the easy choice for politicians.
a. challenging to rate
b. problematic to assess
c. demanding to audit
d. puzzling to review

Go to to listen to Professor Clerici-Arias and to complete a self-assessment.

Implication and Inference 179

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