Trs601.part 2-26-47
Trs601.part 2-26-47
Trs601.part 2-26-47
ECONOMICS
GETTING STARTED
Go to to listen to Professor Clerici-Arias and to complete a self-assessment.
Discuss these questions with a partner or group.
1. Think of the last time you crossed a border from one country to another. Did you have to be careful not
to bring in certain things? Which things? Why would a country prevent you from bringing such things
in? Was the reason economic? Environmental? Cultural? Related to some other aspect of life?
2. Think of a country you know well. Does the government impose any extra taxes on items brought in
from other countries? Why or why not? Do the taxes work as the government intends?
3. Think of the same or another a country you know well—perhaps the country where you are living
now. Is there a lot of income inequality? What factors cause—or protect people against—such
inequality? What signs do you see every day that show that inequality does, or doesn’t, exist?
WHY IT’S USEFUL A reading passage may contain ideas that are implied (not stated directly) by the
author. Readers can understand implications by making inferences—considering the information given,
processing it logically, and bringing in their own knowledge of the topic and the world in general.
Understanding implications and your own inferences can allow VOC ABUL ARY TIP
you to get the full meaning of a reading—not just what an author
to imply—to communicate an idea
explicitly states, but also what is indirectly stated. This unit breaks without actually saying it. The reading
the skill down into two supporting skills: passage (and the writer) implies things.
These are implications.
• making strong inferences and avoiding weak ones
to infer—to understand an idea even
• distinguishing between deliberate implications and direct though it is not directly said. You, the
statements reader, infer things. What you infer are
inferences.
NOTICING ACTIVITY
A. Read each item. Then choose the best inference about the item. Discuss your answers with another
student.
1. Accounting is more than mere record-keeping. Give ten accountants the same task, and you’ll get
ten different results.
a. Accounting does not have a set of rules that everyone follows.
b. Accounting can involve personal creativity.
2. Double-entry accounting demands that each amount is recorded in at least two accounts. It has
long functioned as a tool for discovering errors.
a. Accountants sometimes make mistakes in entering amounts.
b. Accountants suspect one another of trying to take money dishonestly.
3. Double-entry accounting is not the same as keeping two sets of books. The latter will get you
thrown into jail.
a. Double-entry accounting covers up any illegal activities among accountants.
b. Double-entry accounting is legal, but keeping two sets of books is not.
4. Accounting is probably as old as trade itself. Without records of outflow versus income, how could
a trader assess the quality of an exchange?
a. Ancient accounting systems were not very accurate.
b. No one knows when the first accounting system started.
5. It’s only natural that the most powerful merchants of any era—medieval Arabs, Renaissance
Italians, the Dutch, the British, the Americans—could impose their accounting practices
internationally.
a. The status of being the world’s top traders shifts from one country to another over time.
b. The country with the best accounting system is usually the world’s top trader.
6. Paying income taxes every year unreasonably forces average Americans to become temporary
accountants, a role for which they have no training.
a. Americans should learn in school how to become accountants.
b. The income tax system shouldn’t require any accounting skills.
Some Italian
Accounting in Context
cities besides 1 (1) Modern accounting developed during the Italian Renaissance
Venice and and gradually insinuated itself wherever Venetians, Genoans, or
Genoa
had trade
others carried it to ensure predictable business practices. But that
during the is not to say that all such trading partners were willing to manage
Renaissance. In some places,
their accounts in the Italian way. (2) Financial and legal systems local traditions
varied in significant ways and were deeply rooted, not easily altered stayed in place
to suit foreign merchants, no matter how rich they were. And despite rich
foreigners.
even in the 15th century, there were technological breakthroughs
(Gutenberg’s printing press, various advances in sailing gear) that
rapidly— (3) at least in relative terms—changed the economic game Developments
that seemed fast
and encouraged the spread of two main types of accounting: code- in the 15th century
based accounting and common law accounting. would not seem
The influence of fast now.
2 (4) Common law, or case law, had developed in Britain during
the
Empire caused the 11th and 12th centuries. It was refined as trade increased during
the Renaissance; later systems in colonies throughout the British In common law
Empire fell under the common law heading. (5) Accounting accounting, a
. practices under common law emphasized adherence to voluntary company that
conventions of transparency and accuracy. Peer pressure and doesn’t follow
potential public shame played a great role. Common law is the rules is
punished by
comparatively flexible, so accounting systems based in it can
be adapted to changing economic conditions with relative ease. .
These common law attributes are still found in the accounting
practices of such former British colonies or dependencies as the
United States, Australia, and India. (6) India, as it grows, is likely At present, India’s
to benefit greatly from the common law framework; typically, as economy is
labor economies transition into service economies, they need the
flexibility that common law accounting provides—as opposed to
.
the more rigid procedures of a code-based system.
3 The formation of a modern accounting system isn’t always such
a gradual process, and common law systems aren’t always the
result. After World War II, the United States worked to establish
Aer World War II,
an American-style accounting system in Japan. (7) Within only Japan considered
a couple of decades, many aspects of the system took hold, and American
today Japan has a hybrid accounting system. It has been heavily accounting
influenced by US common law but also by prior experience practices to be
The Japanese
tendency toward with German code law and (8) a credit-focused financial system
some secrecy in that is not inclined toward disclosures. While both India and
the credit system .
Japan went through rapid and occasionally turbulent periods of
had its origins in modernization, each managed to create a system of accounting that
suited its needs.
.
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.
WHY IT’S USEFUL By making inferences that are strong—well supported by material in the reading and
by logic—you can more accurately understand what a writer means to say. By not making weak inferences,
you can keep from developing misunderstandings.
All of the inferences we drew from “Accounting in Context” are strong. A reader can find a clear
statement in the reading passage that supports and leads logically to each inference. Most readers know
enough about money, history, and economies to infer the information.
However, inferences—and the implications on which they might be based—are not always so clear. Given
different background experiences, one reader may infer things that another may not. This is an important
distinction. Inferences and implications are different things, and they do not always occur together:
• An author may imply something in a reading passage that a reader doesn’t notice. In this case,
there is an implication without an inference.
• Alternatively, a reader may infer something that the author did not intend to imply. In this case,
there is an inference without an intended implication. When a reader infers things the author did
not mean to imply, the inference is likely to be weak.
The following inferences from “Accounting in Context” are so weak that most readers would consider
them wrong. They cannot be clearly supported by evidence from the reading. A reader who makes these
inferences is misunderstanding the passage.
Common law accounting practices cause economies The reading actually portrays a totally different scenario.
to become service economies. The accounting system does not change an economy. It is
available in case an economy changes.
Before World War II, Japan had no exposure to The reading directly says otherwise when it uses the
accounting systems from other countries. phrase “prior experience with Germanic code law.”
EXERCISE 1
A. Read the passage actively. (See the section Reading Actively, p. 3.) Ask yourself questions and
formulate guesses about possible implications.
PART 2
or Weak.
2. Countries usually establish tariffs for unsuccessful industries but not for
successful ones.
3. No country that says it supports free markets would ever impose tariffs.
5. Tariffs usually do not help an industry sell its products to a domestic market.
7. Cell phones, the Internet, and other aids to communication make it easier to
protect an industry with tariffs.
10. The international migration of highly skilled people would probably decrease
if every economy in the world practiced free trade.
C. Discuss your ratings with another pair of students. Explain the reasons for your answers.
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.
WHY IT’S USEFUL You can understand an author’s intentions and attitudes more clearly if you can
recognize when he or she deliberately avoids saying something directly. You can develop a sense of the
factors that may be motivating the author. Why does the author think such deliberate implications are
necessary?
Usually, the implications in a reading passage are not meant to hide anything. They are simply a normal
part of the pattern of meaning, said and unsaid, in a passage. However, sometimes an author may
intentionally use implications to make a point that he or she does not want to state directly. This may
occur for any of several reasons.
The author may think that
• saying something directly would cause trouble with authorities—the government, religious
officials, an employer, and so on.
• being explicit would anger or embarrass certain individuals.
• using direct language would be predictable and boring, so the implication is meant to
entertain.
• an implication would appeal to a subgroup of readers (an “in-group”), making them feel special
because they can understand it.
EXERCISE 2
A. Read each situation. Then discuss the questions with one or two other students.
Situation 1: A worker at a coal company is interviewed by an environmental news website.
Transcript:
INTERVIEWER: The Northern Coal Company employs more than half the people in this area. Critics
say the company is ruining this part of the state by cutting forests, destroying mountaintops,
and polluting rivers. What do you think?
COAL MINER: I’ve worked with the company for 20 years. That salary has allowed me to feed
my family and send my daughter to college. They employ lots of folks around here, and I don’t
know what would happen to this economy if you took those jobs away. I’m 52 years old, and
I know there’s no other job for me around here except the one I have. This is a beautiful valley,
and these mountains are my home.
1. What can you infer about the miner’s feelings about the company? About the future?
2. Why do you think the miner avoids answering the question directly?
3. Can you think of similar situations in which a writer or speaker would avoid direct
statements?
Blog Post:
The British people understand that US trade leaders want prosperity for American companies.
It’s every government’s job to promote the economic interests of its people. Part of that is making
sure manufacturers have access to the best materials on the market. Should our American cousins
care to investigate, they will find that jet engines built by British Airfoil have outperformed all
competitors for nearly half a century. I’m sure it’s just an oversight that customs officials have
limited the importation of 27 BA engines at the dock in Philadelphia.
1. How is the politician’s motivation different from the coal miner’s in Situation 1?
2. What is one implied criticism the politician makes of the US government?
3. What can you infer about the possible purpose of the US government’s actions?
4. Why does the politician use the phrase “American cousins”?
5. By calling the action “an oversight,” what is the politician trying to avoid?
6. Can you think of similar situations in which a writer or speaker would avoid direct
statements?
B. Read the passage. Make notes about ideas that you think are being deliberately implied
because the author is reluctant to state them directly.
D. Discuss your answers with another student. Use information and examples from the passage to
explain and support your answers.
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to do collaborative activities.
WHY IT’S USEFUL In American universities and professional situations, you will very often need to write
or speak in your own words about things you have read. Capturing an author’s thoughts in your own words
is therefore a crucial skill.
When authors paraphrase, they express someone else’s statement in a different way but keep the
essential meaning the same. This is not just a matter of changing a few words. It usually involves shifts
in grammar as well. The most important principle for someone writing a paraphrase is this: Work with
idea groups. When you express things in new wording, work with these groups of words, not with
individual words. See the following examples. Notice, for instance, that in the first example the idea
group, According to one research firm has been replaced by another group of words for the same idea,
Research shows.
Original: According to one research firm, the richest 400 people in the United States
own approximately 50 percent of the country’s net wealth.
Paraphrase: Research shows that about half of the net wealth in the United States is
owned by a group of only 400 people.
Original: You might be interested to find out that the Occupy Movement was trying to
draw public attention in 2011 to the fact that the richest 1 percent of earners in
the United States earn nearly 20 percent of all the income.
Paraphrase: The message of the Occupy Movement in 2011 was that almost 20 percent of
all America’s income is earned by the richest 1 percent.
Characteristics of Paraphrases
• Unlike a summary, a paraphrase can be about the same length as CULTURE NOTE
the original. For more information about how
• A paraphrase conveys only the essential meaning of the original. US culture treats “plagiarism”
and other aspects of academic
It doesn’t try to include unimportant elements like “you might be honesty, see Academic Success
interested to find out that” in the second example above. Strategies in MyEnglishLab.
• A paraphrase uses equivalent expressions—such as about half for
approximately 50 percent— not just individual vocabulary items. (See
the section Identifying and Using Equivalent and Near-Equivalent Expressions, p. 173.)
• A paraphrase does not change technical terms or parts of the original that can’t easily be expressed
any other way, elements like net wealth, 400 people, the Occupy Movement, and research.
• Paraphrasing is an important skill for avoiding plagiarism (copying another person’s written
words) when writing research papers.
WRITING PARAPHRASES
Even in a reading class—where your main task is comprehending what you read—you may be asked
to write paraphrases. That’s because a good paraphrase can show that you understand the passage. The
following are some techniques for writing paraphrases:
Technique 1. Change an active clause into the passive. This usually involves switching the
order of noun phrases, which helps rearrange the important parts of a sentence.
Technique 2. Break a longer sentence into two sentences.
Technique 3. Change prepositional phrases into adjectives / adverbs, or change adjectives /
adverbs into prepositional phrases.
Technique 4. Change the order of ideas in your paraphrase.
1 In the rush to discuss and describe income constant prices) or "nominal" (based on market
inequality in the United States, it is crucial prices) income of a person or household. This
to make sure that everyone involved in the is one of the reasons why there are so many
discussion agrees on how to define income. approaches to what, precisely, income is.
Each possible definition of income can reveal (1) For instance, counting capital gains is
new information about the level of inequality in deceptive because, technically, capital gains is
the United States and which segments of the not a source of income but rather arises from
country’s population are most affected by it. revaluation of wealth. Nonetheless, some include
Where the information on income is taken from is it, and including it makes wealth appear to be
no less important. Different official government particularly concentrated in the upper percentiles
sources tabulate income within different (and of income earners. Meanwhile, counting
mathematically crucial) parameters. Let’s look government benefits—which is typically only
at a few ways to describe income so that we can taken into account when calculating disposable
better understand what we’re talking about when income along with taxes—tends to downplay the
we examine the data in greater depth. inequality.
2 While studying the different ways to describe 3 Individual income looks only at what one
income, it's important to note that some have person earns, and this is generally lower than
had difficulty accounting for the effects that family income or household income, which looks at
nonsalaried forms of income and specific the earnings of all members of family or unrelated
government benefits (also known as transfers) people sharing household resources. With a rise
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would not necessarily be disturbing—it is possible used by the Census Bureau; while similar to
for a single wage earner to provide quite well for money income, market income does not count
an entire household. However, the wage earnings pensions and similar sources of cash. Finally,
of the median US worker have been nearly the Census Bureau’s most far-ranging definition
stagnant, meaning that real improvements in is the aforementioned disposable income, which
household income almost require the addition of includes money received from all sources. For
more earners. Depending on improvements in the lower-income individuals, disposable income
income of one individual to add significantly to the usually means money received from various
household total is, arguably, somewhat tenuous. forms of government assistance such as the
(2) Families in more-secure income brackets— Earned Income Tax Credit, public housing, SNAP
though not necessarily the very top income benefits, and so on. It’s also noteworthy that
brackets—tend not only to report higher earnings capital gains and losses are included in market
but also to have cash coming in from multiple income and disposable income research, but not
earners. in money income.
4 Definitions of income can be narrow or broad. 6 The Census Bureau’s income figures are
For example, the income being discussed might interesting, but they are also very limited. (5) They
be labor income, a narrow measure that reflects are not useful in looking at the top income earners
money acquired from work, or capital income, a because the bureau caps reporting at $999,999.
broad measure that reflects earnings in the form If you want to study high-earners, you’ll need
of dividends and retained earnings. This can be to use data from the US Treasury Department
an important distinction, especially regarding (which includes the Internal Revenue Service),
earners at the top levels. For example, the value which unfortunately doesn’t do much to describe
of a capital asset can accrue slowly over time, low-earners because many of them do not need
but the asset is usually sold in one transaction to file taxes. Obviously, the definitional problems
and is reported on a tax return as a large, sudden in this issue are daunting. (6) Each definition is
influx of cash. Another important distinction specifically designed by researchers to examine
is between gross income (pretax income) and data in highly specific circumstances for a
net income (post-tax income). (3) Government particular reason, but those analytical concerns
tax policies and transfers influence household are not necessarily salient to—or even recognized
disposable income (see below), and thus two by—ordinary citizens who want to debate public
people with the same gross income may have policy. Even noneconomists might have their
vastly different net incomes, depending on their own special income-related concerns, perhaps
life circumstances. the way student debt affects a young person’s
5 Some definitions of income are from the US wealth or how capital-gains tax breaks encourage
Census Bureau, which has an interest in keeping so-called rent-seeking behavior (behavior in which
track of income trends in the population. someone gains wealth without returning anything
(4) The Census Bureau’s first category of to society). The specific definition one chooses
income is money income, a term that is fairly can have an enormous influence on the argument
expansive, counting all forms of income that and conclusion of a given piece of research or a
a person receives regularly but not counting given debate.
1. Where the information on income is taken from is no less important as different official government
sources tabulate income within different (and mathematically crucial) parameters.
Measurements of income can vary because .
2. This would not necessarily be disturbing—it is possible for a single wage earner to provide quite well for
an entire household. However, the wage earnings of the median US worker have been nearly stagnant,
meaning that real improvements in household income almost require the addition of more earners.
Because US wages haven’t grown very much, .
3. Definitions of income can be narrow or broad. For example, the income being discussed might be labor
income, a narrow measure that reflects money acquired from work, or capital income, a broad measure
that reflects earnings in the form of dividends and retained earnings.
One distinction among types of income is whether they are narrow or broad. For example, .
4. For example, the value of a capital asset can accrue slowly over time, but the asset is usually sold in one
transaction and is reported on a tax return as a large, sudden influx of cash.
Although a capital asset is usually .
5. For lower-income individuals, disposable income usually means money received from various forms of
government assistance such as the Earned Income Tax Credit, public housing, SNAP benefits, and so on.
Part of disposable income for people in lower income brackets .
6. If you want to study high-earners, you’ll need to use data from the US Treasury Department (which
includes the Internal Revenue Service), which unfortunately doesn’t do much to describe low-earners
because many of them do not need to file taxes.
Data from the US Treasury .
D. Discuss these questions with one or two other students. Then explain your answers to the class.
1. Explain which paraphrases in Part B you chose and why.
2. Share your paraphrase completions from Part C. Are some more accurate than others? Which parts
of some paraphrases are not accurate? How could those problems be solved? Do any paraphrases
take too much wording from the original? If so, how could the borrowed parts be replaced?
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.
WHY IT’S USEFUL Your ability to paraphrase and to understand paraphrases depends greatly on the
strength of your vocabulary. By recognizing when two expressions—such as money changing and currency
exchange —mean nearly the same thing, you can follow threads of cohesion in a text. By integrating such
equivalents into your own vocabulary, you can express yourself more flexibly and with less repetition.
In developing your English vocabulary, size and strength are not necessarily the same thing. Of course,
a large vocabulary helps a lot, but having a flexible vocabulary is just as important. Knowing equivalent
expressions is a significant factor in developing this flexibility.
As we mentioned in the previous section, paraphrasing is more than just replacing one word with
another. Instead, the best paraphrases replace one idea group—a group of words that together express an
idea—with an equivalent expression. An equivalent expression is a word or group of words that means
the same as another word or group of words. The equivalent expression may be a synonym—that is, a
single vocabulary item with almost the same meaning. The two words nearly and almost are equivalent
expressions, and they are synonyms of each other. So are the vocabulary items nearly and pretty close
to— even though pretty close to is a multiword vocabulary item, not a single word. Dictionary definitions
typically offer multiword equivalent expressions for single-word vocabulary items. For example, the
single word canyon and its multiword definition—the phrase deep, narrow opening in a mountain range—
are equivalent expressions.
In paraphrasing, you may not be able to find an exactly equivalent expression. Expressions that are
close in meaning but not exactly the same are called near-equivalent expressions. Even very close
synonyms—such as occur and happen—are slightly different in tone, suitability for certain contexts, and
so on. For most purposes, near-equivalent phrases will accomplish what you need in paraphrases.
EXERCISE 4
Read the passage. On the next page, match the equivalent / near-equivalent expressions with
expressions from the passage. Two of the expressions in the right column will not be used.
PART 2
depleted through use. If one person makes use good, but what about a multimillion dollar fighter
of it, it does not get “used up,” nor are others jet? Healthcare in the United States, as previously
prevented from “consuming” it at the same discussed, is another example of a good that is
time. The chicken dance—an entertaining and partially public. While it can be excludable in the
somewhat comical dance popular in parts of the sense that the cost for it may put it beyond the reach
Western world—is a concept that is nonrivalrous: of some people, it technically is available to all (as it
One partygoer dancing it does not keep another is offered by the government). The issue of whether it
partygoer from using the same dance. The offi ce is considered rivalrous or nonrivalrous is also sticky.
stapler, on the other hand, is rivalrous, as only It is nonrivalrous in that it cannot be completely
one person can utilize it at a given moment. A consumed, leaving none available for others. However,
prime example of the difference between rivalrous others may argue that it is indeed rivalrous because
and nonrivalrous goods is the classic fable of the not all types of plans are available to everyone
greedy baker who tries to charge a hungry passerby due to the limits often put on it by employers. With
for enjoying the smell of his bread. As one may politicians increasingly focused on the bottom line,
anticipate, the judge in this case rules that while public goods expenditures can be difficult to justify.
bread is rivalrous and excludable, the smell of bread Sometimes something that is thought to be a public
is nonrivalrous and nonexcludable. good turns out to be quite profitable when viewed
5 While many natural resources are thought to be from another angle and is treated as excludable.
public goods, oftentimes that is not actually the
CULTURALLY SIGNIFICANT SITES:
case. They frequently end up in a “Tragedy of the
ALWAYS COMPLETELY PUBLIC GOODS?
Commons” situation, where a shared resource is
7 The preservation of culturally significant sites is
diminished because individuals pursue their own
viewed by most as a public good, as everyone
selfish interests rather than those of a larger group.
benefits from their existence and is able to
These natural resources may be nonexcludable, but
experience them, even if the benefits may be
they are rivalrous. The inland village of two centuries
difficult to quantify. The oil rights for those culturally
ago may have believed that everyone could use the
significant places, however, are very easy to
town lake for water without depleting it, but if one of
quantify and can certainly be treated as a saleable
their descendants built a pump system two hundred
commodity. This clash of classifications has led to
years later and drained the lake to sell bottled water
numerous controversial situations, most recently one
at a markup, the townspeople would quickly learn
involving an Apache sacred site in Arizona known as
just how rivalrous a lake could be.
Oak Flat. A historically significant site, Oak Flat had
6 It is important to note that modern economists
been preserved through numerous exceptions made
view public goods as less of an either–or
by many politicians before it was finally traded to an
classification and more like a quality that exists
Australian-British mining company for land. On paper,
on a continuum: Goods are nonrivalrous and
it’s quite the deal, with the US government and
nonexcludable to various degrees, and some can
forestry service getting almost twice as much land in
be categorized in multiple ways depending on who
the trade. Still, the question remains as to whether
is making a particular argument. The distinction can
the government has a duty to uphold one specific
get especially tricky when it comes down to specific
public good. It is important to consider whether being
issues and commodities, which is where arguments
Nonexcludable Excludable
B. Reread the questions in Before You Read, Part B. Is there anything you cannot answer? What
reading skills can you use to help you find the answers?
THINKING CRITICALLY
Thinking about the information in Paragraph 7 of “Public Goods vs. Private Gain,” name a few other
culturally significant sites that could be considered a public good by some and a private good by
others. How is this situation possible? Explain your answer using what you now know about public and
private goods.
THINKING VISUALLY
Based on what you have learned about excludable, nonexcludable, rivalrous, and nonrivalrous goods,
brainstorm and complete the chart with examples of goods that fit into each of the categories.
Nonexcludable Excludable
Air Healthcare
Nonrivalrous Public parks National defense
PART 2
was a legal hunt.
a. become known
b. be illuminated
c. be in the media
d. be enlightened
3. Local governments insist that this money is used to help improve environmental projects aimed at
protecting animals, while critics counter that it largely lines the pockets of connected individuals and
does little to truly help.
a. ends up in the hands of individuals in power
b. is transferred to groups of people linked by common interests
c. is taken from organizations made up of important citizens
d. becomes linked to environmental protection proponents
4. Most spending allocations dedicated to public goods relate to hot-button political flashpoints.
a. areas of unanimous diplomatic agreement
b. topics of controversy among lawmakers
c. matters considered tenacious by legislators
d. subjects of extreme neutrality among politicians
5. Viewed through a purely capitalistic lens, public goods are a tough sell: Everyone pays for them, and
nobody seems to profit, at least not in any tangible way that one can easily attach a dollar sign to.
a. connect to a similar currency
b. link to certain denominations
c. assign a monetary value to
d. attribute to finances
6. The inland village of two centuries ago may have believed that everyone could use the town lake for water
without depleting it, but if one of their descendants built a pump system two hundred years later and
drained the lake to sell bottled water at a markup, the townspeople would quickly learn just how rivalrous
a lake could be.
a. more inexpensively than its initial value
b. at a price nearly equal to that of its fundamental worth
c. at the exact same price that it is worth
d. at a higher price than it originally would cost
7. Finally, a disheartening speculation is that ignoring public goods that are difficult to appraise is merely
the easy choice for politicians.
a. challenging to rate
b. problematic to assess
c. demanding to audit
d. puzzling to review