EuroCode 4 - Lecture 1

Structural Steelwork
Eurocodes Development of
A Trans-national Approach
CONTENTS
1 Introduction to composite construction of buildings
2 Introduction to EC4
3 Structural modelling and design
4 Composite Slabs with Profiled Steel Sheeting
5 Shear Connectors and Structural Analysis
6 Simply supported beams
7 Continuous Beams
8 Composite Columns
9 Composite joints
10 Advanced composite floor systems
11a Introduction to Structural Fire Engineering
11b Fire Engineering Design of Composite Structures

Structural Steelwork Eurocodes
Development of
a Trans-National Approach
Course: Eurocode 4
Lecture 1: Introduction to composite

construction of buildings
Summary:
• This lecture contains an introduction to the design and application of composite structures. Also the
advantages and fields of use for composite structures are shown.
• Composite construction is popular for buildings and bridges as well because of the following aspects:
Economy
Architecture
Functionality
Service and building flexibility
Assembly
• Some examples of existing buildings and construction methods are listed.
Pre-requisites:
• None
Notes for Tutors:

• This material comprises one 60 minute lecture
• The tutor should update autonomy national changes of the Eurocode
• All additional modifications of the training packages are under responsibility of the tutor
© SSEDTA 2001 Last modified 29/03/2001 11:44 AM

Structural Steelwork Eurocodes –Development of a Trans-National Approach
Introduction to composite construction of buildings
Objectives:
• To give an overview of possibilities and examples of composite structures illustrated by examples of
existing structures.
References:
• [1] Gerald Huber: Non linear calculations of composite sections and semi-continuous joints
Doctoral Thesis, Verlag Ernst & Sohn December1999
• [2] ECCS 83 European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: Design Guide for Slim Floors with
Built-in Beams
• [3] ECCS 87 European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: Design Manual for composite Slabs
• [4] Tschemmernegg F: Lecture Mixed Building Technology in Buildings, University of Innsbruck
• [5] Helmut Bode: Euro Verbundbau, Konstruktion und Berechnung, 1998
• [6] EN 1994-1-1Draft No.2: Design of composite steel and concrete structures, 2001
• [7] COST C1 Control of the semi–rigid behaviour of civil engineering structural connections
Proceedings of the international conference, Liége, 17 to 19 September 1998
• [8] Teaching Modules of A-MBT,1999/2000: Application Centre Mixed Building Technology ,
Innsbruck -Austria,
• [9] ESDEP: Europäisches Stahlbau - Lehrprogramm CD-Rom, 1996
© SSEDTA 2001 Last modified 29/03/2001 11:44 AM 2

Contents:
1 General
2 Aspects of use of composite structures
2.1 Architectural
2.2 Economics
2.3 Functionality
2.4 Service and building flexibility
2.5 Assembly
2.6 Comparison with other methods
3 Construction methods
3.1 Construction elements
3.2 Slabs
3.2.1 Reinforced concrete slabs
3.2.2 Pre-stressed concrete slabs
3.2.3 Profiled steel sheeting
3.3 Beams
3.4 Columns
3.5 Joints
4 Definitions and terminology
4.1 Composite member
4.2 Shear connection
4.3 Composite beam
4.4 Composite column
4.5 Composite slab
4.6 Composite frame
4.7 Composite joint
4.8 Shear-slip characteristic of a single connector
4.9 Degree of shear connection (resistance)
4.10 Shear interaction (stiffness)
5 Examples
5.1 Millennium Tower (Vienna – Austria)
5.2 Citibank Duisburg (Duisburg – Germany)
5.3 Parking deck “DEZ” (Innsbruck- Austria)
6 Future developments
7 Concluding summary

1 General
The most important and frequently encountered combination of construction materials is that of
steel and concrete applied for buildings as well as bridges [1]. Although very different in nature,
these two materials complement one another:
• Concrete is efficient in compression and steel in tension.

• Steel components are relatively thin and prone to buckling, concrete can restrain these
against buckling.
• Concrete also gives protection against corrosion provides thermal insulation at high
temperatures.
• Steel brings ductility into the structure
The design of structures for buildings and bridges is mainly concerned with the provision and
support of horizontal surfaces. In buildings, the floors are usually made of concrete, reinforced
by steel to resist tension. As spans increase though, it is cheaper to support the slab, for
example by beams, rather than to thicken the slab. In building structures the grid of beams is in
turn supported by columns. Both the beams and columns can be conveniently constructed
using structural steel sections, normally hot-rolled I- and H- shapes respectively. It used to be
customary to design the bare steelwork to carry all the loads, but since the 1950´s it has become
increasingly common to connect the concrete slabs to the supporting beams by mechanical
devices. These eliminate, or at least reduce, slip at the steel-concrete interface, so that the slab
and the steel beam section act together as a composite unit, commonly termed a “composite
beam”(Figure 1) [7].
Figure 1 Non – composite and composite beams

In practice, interconnection is achieved by headed studs or other connectors which are welded
or shot-fired to the structural steel and enclosed of concrete [8].
Composite members as conventional composite beams, composite columns and steel-deck

composite slabs have been in use for a considerable number of years. Simplifying assumptions
for the interaction between the concrete slab and the steel beam helped to establish composite
construction as an easy to handle extension of the bare steel construction. As the application of
this technology proved its efficiency, large-scale research projects were started world-wide with
the aim of further improvement.
One research avenue concentrated on the interaction between the steel beam and the concrete
slab. Obviously the advantages of a beam acting compositely are the higher stiffness and higher
load resistance in comparison with its non-composite counterpart. In a first simplifying step the
interaction has been assumed to be infinitely stiff preventing any slip between the two
construction elements. As usual the most economic way is not the extreme one but a middle
course (not to mention that a fully-rigid interaction strictly cannot be realis ed in practice, it
would require at least a very large number of shear connectors and hence high costs). In
contrast, completely ignoring the strengthening effect of the concrete slab by a clear separation
to the steel beam results in high material costs, again resulting in a lack of economy. Today
numerous studies based on tests and numerical simulations provide a solid background to
understand the so-called incomplete interaction between the steel and concrete sections within
a composite beam.

2 Aspects of use of composite structures

A universal way of design involves not only the optimisation of upper load resistance
(strength), stiffness and ductility, but also inclusion of architectural, economical, manufactural
and utilisation aspects of beams, slabs and columns.
2.1 Architectural
Designing composite structures offers a lot of architectural variations to combine different types
of composite elements.
In addition to reductions in the dimensions of the beams
• longer spans
• thinner slabs
• more slender columns
offer flexibility and more generous opportunities for design.
2.2 Economical
Enormous potential of cost saving results from smaller dimensions (higher stiffness results in
less deflections, longer spans and less overall height) and quicker erection.
The advantageous ratio of span width to height (l/h=35) can be beneficial:
• Reduction of height reduces the total height of the building
Saving area of cladding
• Longer spans with the same height (compared to other methods of construction)
-->Column free rooms can be used more flexibly
• Additional storeys with the same total height of building
Composite structures are easy to erect and have quicker times of erection
--> saving of costs, earlier completion of the building,
-->lower financing costs
-->ready for use earlier thus increasing rental income
2.3 Functionality
Conventional steel structures use applied fire protection systems to insulate the steel from the
heat of the fire. Modern steel and composite structures can provide fire resistance by using
principles of reinforced concrete structures in which the concrete protects the steel because of
its high mass and relatively low thermal conductivity.
Just as composite slabs may resist fire, also composite beams can be used with unprotected
flanges, but then the space between the flanges has to be filled with concrete and additional
reinforcement. This not only maintains relatively low temperatures in the web and upper flange,
but also provides flexural strength, compensating for the reduction contribution from the hot
lower flange.
2.4 Service and building flexibility

Composite structures are adaptable. They may readily be modified during the life of the building.
This is especially true when the slab is used with framed structures. It is then always possible to
create a new staircase between two floors by simply adding the necessary trimmer beams.
Recent developments and changes in communications, information and computing technology
have shown the importance of being able to modify quickly the building´s service arrangements.
Furthermore, in commercially let buildings or in multi-shared properties it has to be possible to
modify the services without violating the privacy of the other occupants. In order to solve this
problem, engineers have to choose between several solutions. There are generally three
alternatives for accommodating the services:

• in the ceiling
• within a false floor
• in a coffer box running along the walls
The gap between the soffit and the bottom flange of a composite beam constitutes an ideal zone
in which services can be located.
2.5 Assembly
Composite floors are now the preferred approach for a wide range of structures, offering the
designer and clients the following advantages:
• Working platform.
Before concreting, the decking provides an excellent safe working platform which speeds the
construction process for other trades.
• Permanent shuttering:
The steel deck spans from beam to beam, forming permanent formwork to the concrete, the need
of temporary props is often not necessary. The decking constitutes a good vapour barrier.
The soffit remains clean after concreting and the use of colour-coated steel sheets can give an
attractive aesthetical aspect to the ceiling although painting can cause problems with through-
deck stud welding.
• Steel reinforcement:
The steel reinforcement provided by the cross-section of the deck itself is usually sufficient to
resist sagging moments. Fabric reinforcement may be provided in the slab to resist shrinkage or
temperature movements or to provide continuity over intermediate supports. (hogging
moments). Composite action is obtained by the profiled shape or by mechanical means provided
by indentation or embossment of the steel profile.
• Speed and simplicity of construction:
The unique properties of the steel deck combining high rigidity and low weight, ease
considerably the transportation and the storage of the material on site. Often one lorry is capable
of carrying up to 1500 m2 of flooring. A team of four men can set up to 400 m2 of decking per day.
Panels are light, pre-fabricated elements that are easily transported and set in place by two or
three men.
• Quality controlled products:

Steel components of composite structures are manufactured under factory controlled conditions.
This allows the establishment of strict quality procedures and less random work on the
construction site. This results in a greater accuracy of construction.
2.6 Comparison with other methods

It is necessary to apply composite elements in the design to profit from the available advantages
and to use synergy effects. Thus composite structures have a higher stiffness and load capacity
with the same dimensions compared to bare steel.

h
h
Composite beam Steel beam without any shear connection
Steel cross section IPE 400 IPE 550 HE 360 B
Construction height [mm] 560 710 520
Load capacity 100% 100% 100%
Steel weight 100% 159% 214%

Construction height 100% 127% 93%
Stiffness 100% 72% 46%
Table 1 Composite beam- steel beam [8]

In Table 1 a composite beam is compared with two types of steel beams without any shear
connection to the concrete slab. The load capacity is nearly the same but a difference in stiffness
and construction height is shown.
Generally the cross section dimensions of composite structures are much less than reinforced
concrete or a bare steel framework .
Table 2 for example compares the sizes of quite large composite columns and beams with
reinforced concrete counterparts under the same loading conditions.
Composite Reinforced concrete
Column
Dimensions [cm] 70 / 70 80 / 120
Beam
Dimensions [cm] 160 / 40 160 / 120
Table 2 Comparison of composite structures–reinforced concrete

[8]
3 Construction methods
Traditionally two counteracting methods of construction could be observed both connected
with special advantages but also disadvantages worth mentioning.
• Conventional concrete construction method shows up very well considering styling,
freedom of form and shapes, easy to handle onsite, thermal resistance, sound insulation and
resistance against chemical attacks. In contrast to this it behaves poorly in view of the ratio
between resistance and dead load, time-consuming shuttering and extension of the

construction time due to hardening of concrete. Furthermore, as concrete itself is unable to

take tensile forces reinforcement has to be provided which again is very time-consuming.
The primary advantage of

• Construction in steel is the high ratio between bearing capacity and weight. As the
fabrication can be done in advance independently of the weather the erection is very simple
with small tolerances. Fire resistance of bare steel constructions may be problematic. It can
only be solved by using more of material or by cost-intensive preventive measures.
Ultimately also the need for higher educated personnel has to be mentioned as a
disadvantage of the steel construction.
So comparing these two methods a combination of both presents itself as the most economic
way. More than only picking out the advantages of each method even new advantages can be
gained. So for example, in composite construction higher bearing capacities can be achieved
than in steel and concrete. But also stiffness and plastic redistribution can be improved by
combining steel with concrete. On the one hand this enables advantage to be taken of the
plastic reserves of the system and on the other hand to reduce safety factors due to the good-
natured inherent ductility of the failure modes.
Speaking about composite construction in the following it should be mentioned that in many
cases actually mixed building technology is the most efficient solution. Strictly composite only
means the interaction of two materials within one construction element (e.g. a concrete-filled
tubular steel column) whereas the philosophy of mixed building technology includes the
combination of construction elements or members built up with different construction methods
(e.g. concrete column in combination with a composite beam and a prefabricated slab).
See also clause 4:
Building up a composite structure in a very economic way can be divided into the following Definitions and
operations: terminology
• First of all a conventional skeleton structure in steel, braced or unbraced, will be erected. If
hollow steel sections are used for the columns the reinforcement cages already can be
positioned in the shop.
• Also all brackets, finplates and vertical shear studs (non-headed bolts or shot-fired nails) for
the load transfer between the steel and the concrete encasement have to be prepared in the
shop to speed up the erection on site requiring a detailed planning stage. After arranging
the columns the bare steel beams are simply hinged in between.
• Prefabricated concrete elements or profiled steel sheeting are spanning from beam to beam,
serving both as shuttering and as a working platform.
Finally, by concreting the slabs and the columns in one process the stiffness and resistance of
the columns and beams increases and the joints are automatically transformed from hinges to
semi-continuous restraints.

3.1 Construction elements

Figure 2 shows the principles of the composite construction method. Slabs spanning between a
grid of beams which are supported by the columns. So the floor itself consists of the floor beams
and the slab. Figure 3 illustrates the different construction elements on site. The following
subsections deal with the individual construction elements commonly used in composite or
mixed building technology.
composite slab
composite beam
composite column
floor = beam + slab
Figure 2 Construction elements [1]
Figure 3 Columns and slabs on site (Citibank Duisburg, Germany)

[8]

3.2 Slabs
3.2.1 Reinforced concrete slabs

Depending on the complexity of the floor shape, the time schedule and the capabilities of the
prefabrication shops, reinforced concrete slabs can be manufactured
• on site using shuttering

• using partially prefabricated elements
• using fully prefabricated elements
For all these variations, illustrated in Figure 4, there is the possibility to use normal or light
weight concrete. In the case of fully prefabricated slabs attention has to be paid to the fact that
only a small part of in situ concrete within the clearances can be activated by the beams to act
compositely.
in situ concrete on shuttering partially prefabricated slabs fully prefabricated slabs
Figure 4 Types of concrete slabs [1]
3.2.2 Pre-stressed concrete slabs

In recent years pre-stressed prefabricated hollow core slabs have often been applied for very
wide spans between the steel beams. These elements originally were intended to be used
between insulated rigid supports like stiff concrete walls. So extending the application one has to
be conscious of the following problems:
• flexible supports like beams (steel, concrete or composite) lead to transverse bending
• the unintended composite action results in transverse shear stresses
• local heating of the beam flanges acting as supports may cause a failure of anchorage and
reduced shear resistance of the concrete ribs
• attention has to be paid to the differential thermal strains very close to the ends
• unintended restraints would require reinforcement in the upper layer
• the impact of beam deflection on fracture of the slabs is strongly reduced when the beams
are pre-cambered – to become straight again by slabs self weight- and when the common
deflection criteria for steel structures are met. It is also good practice to use an intermediate
rubber or felt layer between the slabs and steel beam bottom plate. Concrete fillings of the
ends of the hollow cores do have a favourable effect on the resistance to shear failure.
Therefore, bending is still the governing design criterion for –usually- slender prestressed
slabs
Figure 5 Pre-stressed prefabricated hollow core slab [1]


3.2.3 Profiled steel sheeting

Both conventional trapezoidal metal decking and special steel sheeting for composite slabs are in
use. If there are no measures to ensure a composite action the steel profiles either are provided
for the full vertical action (deep steel decks; the concrete in between only serves for the load
distribution) or they are only used as so-called lost shuttering neglecting the contribution they
may make in the final state. Both extremes again will lead to an uneconomic use of both materials.
In a composite slab there are several possibilities to provide an interlock between steel and
concrete:
• Chemical interlock is very brittle and unreliable therefore it must not be considered in the
calculations
• Frictional interlock is not able to transfer large shear forces (see figure 6)
• Mechanical interlock by interlocking embossments of the steel decking. (see figure 7)
• End anchorage like headed bolts, angle studs or end-deformations of the steel sheeting
brings a very concentrated load introduction at the ends and therefore a sudden increase
from the bare steel to the composite resistance (see figure 8).
Figure 6 Frictional interlock in composite slabs [1]
Figure 7 Mechanical interlock in composite slabs [1]
Figure 8 End anchorage for composite slabs [1]

3.3 Beams
The second element within the floor are the beams supporting the slabs and carrying the loads
to the columns . Depending on the grid of beams the slabs therefore are spanning in one
direction. Following the philosophy of mixed structures those beams can be realised in steel,
concrete, steel-concrete composite or even other materials or their combination. In the following
only steel-concrete composite floor beams will be treated in detail.
In a composite beam within the sagging moment region the concrete slab is activated in
compression by shear connectors. Headed studs dominate in practical application. The
advantage is the combination of a relatively large stiffness with a very large deformation
capacity. Therefore, in contrast to block dowels, headed studs can be arranged with constant
[6]
spacing in between which considerably facilitates the application. The disadvantage lies in the
6.7.6
problems of weldability, especially when using galvanised plates or coated steel flanges but also
regarding water in between the sheeting and the flange.
Figure 9 Conventional and innovative composite beams [1]
Figure 10 Types of shear connectors [1]

Figure 11 Welding of the shear connectors (headed studs) [9]
The high bearing capacity and stiffness of composite beams allows the construction of very
wide column free rooms with comparatively little construction height. Until now composite
beams have only been built single span or continuous, rigid composite connections to the
columns have been avoided because of missing knowledge. For the steel parts, rolled IPE-, HEA-
, HEB-, channel - but also built-up sections are used for conventional spans. For higher column
spacing castellated beams and trusses are brought into action. In special cases the steel beam
sections may be partially encased e.g. in view of fire protection.
The slim-floor technology, where the beams are fully integrated into the slabs, has brought a
sensational boom of the composite construction method starting in the Scandinavian countries.
It gives the possibility of a flat ceiling without downstand beams. Slim floor systems have the
same advantages as conventional concrete flat slabs whilst avoiding the well-known problems of
punching shear at the column heads. The combination of slim-floors with hollow column
sections seems to promise a great future. See the mentioned
examples in clause 5
3.4 Columns
Beside the possibility to realize pure steel or concrete columns the bearing behaviour of
composite columns mainly is dominated by the structural steel part in it.
They are commonly used where large normal forces are combined with the wish for small
sections. As the composite columns may be prefabricated or at least prepared in the shop the
construction time can be drastically reduced compared to in-situ concrete. A decisive advantage
over bare steel columns is the very high fire resistance of composite columns without any

preventive measures.
Figure 12 Examples of composite columns [1]
Figure 13 Tubular column with shot fired nails as shear connectors

and reinforcement on site (Citibank Duisburg, Germany)
[8]
For the steel section rolled I-profiles as well as rectangular and tubular hollow sections are
suitable. I-sections can be fully or partially encased, where only the chambers are filled with
concrete. Hollow sections have the advantage that no further shuttering is necessary for
concreting, they are favoured by architects and they behave very well with regard to fire
resistance. For very high loads even steel cores within hollow steel sections are used. A survey
of practical composite column types is shown in Figure 12, for an application of a composite

column see in Figure 13.
To ensure sufficient composite action between the steel and concrete part, shear connectors
have to be placed in the areas of concentrated load introduction, therefore at the level or a little
bit below the floors. Considering rolled sections again headed bolts or angle studs can be used.
For hollow column sections non-headed bolts put in through holes and welded at the section
surface stood the tests, additionally serving as bar spacers not hampering concreting. However
the welding of these shear connectors is relatively time-consuming. As a really economic
alternative together with Hilti the nailing technique (Figure 14) has been developed for the use as
shear connectors in hollow column sections. The placement is easy and very fast and the
resistance proved to be amazingly high with good ductility.
Figure 14 HILTI Nail X-DSH32 P10
3.5 Joints
Traditionally the joints have simply been regarded as a part of the column and have not been
considered in the global calculation. However as a joint strictly consists of parts of the column,
the beams and the slabs, connecting elements and sometimes also includes stiffening elements
the real behaviour can only be taken into consideration by defining the joint as a separate
element within the structure additional to the beams and column elements. On one hand this
enables more efficient constructions but on the other hand the influence of the joints on the
global behaviour is so important that the old-fashioned philosophy of perfect hinges or fully
continuous restraints does not describe the real behaviour of a semi continuous joint. (See
Figure 15) According to this new approach, joints may be assessed with regard to the following
three main characteristics.
• stiffness:A joint with vanishing rotational stiffness and which therefore carries no bending
moment is called a hinge. A rigid joint is one whose rigidity under flexure is more or less
infinite and which thus ensures a perfect continuity of rotations. In between these two
extreme boundaries we speak about semi-rigid joints.
• moment resistance:In contrast to a hinge, a joint whose ultimate strength is greater than the
ultimate resistance (ultimate strength) of the parts whose linkage it ensures is called a full
strength joint. Again a partial strength joint represents a middle course between these
extremes. (For simplicity from now on “resistance” will mostly be used for the ultimate
resistance value; the terms “resistance” and “strength” are used in the Eurocodes with an
identical meaning.)
• rotation capacity (ductility): Brittle behaviour is characterised by fracture under slight

rotation, usually without plastic deformations. Ductile behaviour is characterised by a clear
non-linearity of the moment-rotation curve with a large plateau before fracture. It usually
indicates the appearance of plastic deformations. The ductility coefficient is the ratio
between the ultimate rotation and the elastic rotation limit. Semi-ductility falls in between
brittle and ductile behaviour.

M
moment resistance (strength)
ϕ M
initial stiffness
ϕ
rotation
capacity
Figure 15 Joint response [1]

Starting analysing full-scale joints it could be seen very quickly that the number of influencing
parameters is too large. So world-wide the so-called component method is accepted as the best
method to describe the joint behaviour analytically. In contrast to the common finite element
method (FEM), which often fails to consider local load introduction problems, the joint here is
divided into logical parts exposed to internal forces. So while the FEM works on the level of
strains and stresses, the component method concentrates on internal forces and deformations of
so-called component springs.
In recent years all over the world extensive testing programs have been performed for studying
the non-linear behaviour of individual components and their assembly to gain the non-linear
moment-rotation reaction of the whole joint formed by these components. Further as the
connection between beams and hollow column sections is problematic with regard to the transfer
of vertical shear forces due to the inaccessibility of the column’s interior, several efforts have
been made to develop a connection providing sufficient bearing capacity which either can be
prepared already in the shop or which can easily be placed in site. The problem increases due to
the eccentricity of the imposed loads due to tolerances in combination with the relatively thin
steel sheets . An example of a connection type is illustrated in figure 16.
bracket for the lower flange

removed after concreting
reinforcement
weld seam contact piece

bracket with shear connectors
shot-fired nails
Figure 16 Example for the vertical shear transfer between beams

and composite columns [1]

• A simple bracket can be welded to the column surface supporting either the beam’s upper
or lower flange. Bearing on the lower flange requires fire protection to the bracket and in
those cases where no suspended ceiling is used the architect might refuse to use such an
ugly bracket. Using a bracket for the upper flange, one has to put up a more difficult
erection, especially when aiming at a rigid connection in the final state.
Summarising it should be emphasised that the most economic way of erection is to start with
single span steel beams (propped or unpropped) hinged to the columns. By placing contact
pieces and reinforcement semi-continuous restraints are very simply formed after hardening of
concrete at the final state.
4 Definitions and terminology [6]

1.4.2(1)
As some principle terms in composite construction are often used in the wrong context and
therefore lead to misunderstandings they will be now defined:
4.1 Composite member

A structural member with components of concrete and of structural or cold-formed steel,
interconnected by shear connection so as to limit the longitudinal slip between concrete and
steel and the separation of one component from the other
4.2 Shear connection

An interconnection between the concrete and steel components of a composite member that has
sufficient strength and stiffness to enable the two components to be designed as parts of a
single structural member
4.3 Composite beam

A composite member subjected mainly to bending
4.4 Composite column

A composite member subjected mainly to compression or to compression and bending
4.5 Composite slab

A bi-dimensional horizontal composite member subjected mainly to bending in which profile
steel sheets:
• are used as permanent shuttering capable of supporting wet concrete, reinforcement and
site loads, and
• subsequently combine structurally with the hardened concrete and act as part or all of the
tensile reinforcement in the finished slab
4.6 Composite frame

A framed structure in which some or all of the elements are composite members and most of the
remainder are structural steel members.
4.7 Composite joint

A joint between composite members, in which reinforcement is intended to contribute to the
resistance and the stiffness of the joint.

4.8 Shear-slip characteristic of a single connector

Leaving the old-fashioned point of view that an element (connector, joint, ...) is either infinite
rigid or completely pinned, fully ductile or absolutely brittle the idealised relationship between
shear force and displacement of a connector leads to three dominating characteristics:
• initial stiffness
• resistance (bearing capacity, strength)
• deformation capacity
The slip is defined as the relative displacement between the two connected materials in the
interface layer in the direction of the beam’s axis. An uplift between steel and concrete has to be
prevented by anchorages (e.g. headed studs) or other elements able to carry tensile forces like
stirrups.
T
resistance (strength)
initial stiffness
deformation capacity
s
Figure 17 Shear-slip curve of a connector [1]

Building a beam or slab by positioning shear connectors one behind the other, the global
behaviour of the beam is decisively influenced by these three characteristics. So the degree of
shear connection of a beam apart from the number of shear connectors directly is linked to the
resistance (short “strength” or “resistance”) of a single connector.(See Figure 17) The shear
interaction depends on the initial stiffness of the used connectors and their number. The
deformation capacity of the whole beam is bound up with that of the individual connector itself.
4.9 Degree of shear connection (resistance)

The degree of shear connection gives the ratio between the bearing capacity of the shear
connection and that of the composite section itself, which is dominated by the weaker part
(either steel or concrete). Assuming ideal plastic behaviour depending on the ratio between steel
and concrete resistance the degree of shear connection η can be expressed by the formula given
in Figure 18
σ σ
- -
+ +
N i,Rd N i ,Rd
η= η=
N Rd ,concrete N Rd ,steel
with Ni , Rd = ∑ TRd ,i
dowel number
Figure 18 Degree of shear connection

≥ 100 %
0%
no shear connection partial shear connection full shear connection

big end slip, big steel beam many dowels
Figure 19 Degree of shear connection [1]
No shear connection (η=0) means that both section parts act completely separately. In the case
of full shear connection (η≥100%) there is sufficient bearing capacity provided by the dowels to
achieve failure of the section itself (yielding of all layers). In between these two extreme
boundaries we speak about partial shear connection (0≤η≤100%) which commonly results in an
optimum of material and costs (Figure 19). For partial shear connection the bearing capacity of
the beam is limited by the failure of the shear connection.
It is important to mention that so far partial shear connection according to EC4 is only licensed
observing the following conditions: Ductile shear connectors, static loading, sagging moments, [6]
limited span. 6.7
It should be noted that full shear connection does not mean that there is no slip in the interface.
So no slip strictly can only be achieved by a very high degree of shear connection depending on
the stiffness of the connection elements themselves. Therefore raising the degree of shear
connection above 100% by adding more shear connectors does not increase the beam’s
resistance at the ultimate limit state any more but brings a reduction of slip and deflection at the
serviceability limit state. However attention has to be paid not to exceed the capacity of the
shear in the concrete flanges which would lead to brittle failure.
4.10 Shear interaction (stiffness)

Whether a shear interaction is complete (rigid, stiff) or incomplete (semi-rigid, weak, soft)
depends on the shear connectors themselves and their number in relation to the stiffness of the
composite parts (steel beam, concrete slab). Therefore a clear definition between these two cases
cannot be given.
complete incomplete no
horizontal N i
shear force complete
ΣT
incomplete
shear interaction
no
s slip
Figure 20 Shear interaction [1]

Ideal rigid interaction means that there is no relative displacement (slip) between the composite
parts within the shear interface. As the shear connectors act as parallel springs, an increase of

shear connection goes hand in hand with an increase of shear interaction (reduction of slip).
Therefore strictly an infinitely rigid interaction would only be possible for infinite stiff shear
connectors or an infinitely large number of them (and therefore not realizable in practice). So the
term complete interaction has to be understood as sufficiently small displacements the effects of
which may be neglected. So for the incomplete interaction, as a term related to the serviceability
limit state, the relative displacements in the dowel layer have to be taken into consideration by a
jump in the strain distribution. The Bernoulli-hypothesis of plane cross sections remaining plane
in the deformed state is only valid for the two individual section parts steel and concrete
separately, but not for the overall composite cross section.
For incomplete interaction the slip is accompanied by an increase of mid-span-deflection in
comparison to a beam with an infinitely stiff shear interface as demonstrated in figure 21. In EC4
[6] this effect is taken into consideration in an approximate manner by a linear interpolation
depending on the degree of shear connection:
δ δ 
= 1+ ν ⋅ (1- η) ⋅  a − 1
δc  δc 
where δa is the deflection of the bare steel beam
δc is the deflection of the composite beam assuming infinite
rigid shear connection
η is the degree of shear connection
ν depends on the type of shear action (0,3 or 0,5)
As already mentioned that means that in the code 100% shear connection roughly simplifying is
set equal to infinite stiff shear interaction.
Force
[kN] error [6]
rigid η= 100 % 7.2.2.2(4)
1000
Force
60 %
800
20 %
600
0%
400
w
200
w
0 50 100 150 [mm]
Mid Deflection
Figure 21 Influence of partial interaction on the beam deflection [1]
5 Examples
5.1 Millennium Tower (Vienna – Austria) [1], [8]

As a first reference to an existing building , where composite structures have been successfully
been applied, the MILLENNIUM TOWER in Vienna can be mentioned.
This 55 storey high-rise tower (Figure 23) with a ground area of about 1000 m2 and a height of
more than 202 metres including the antenna (highest building in austria) could be realized within
a construction time of only 8 months- from May to December 1998 (Figure 24).

This means a construction progress of 2 to 2,5 storeys per week!

The horizontal stabilisation is given by an internal concrete core containing the elevators and
the stairways. Around that two overlapping circles of slim floors are spanning to very slender
composite columns at the facade.(See figure 22)
Thanks to the really effective restraint action of the semi continuous joints between the slim
floor beams and the tubular composite columns by a specially developed moment-connection
the overall slab thickness could be reduced to only 19 cm. This results in reduced material
consumption, foundation and facade costs. Special calculations have been done for the
serviceability limit state in view of vibrations and differential shrinkage between the external
composite frames and the internal concrete core.
Finally also the nailing technique developed in Innsbruck has been applied at the Millennium
Tower for the first time: the vertical shear transfer between the tubular column steel section and
the internal concrete encasement is provided by shot-fired nails, which are fixed easily from
outside without any welding and by penetrating the tube are reaching into the column interior.
Apart from a lot of initial research to be able to realize such an innovative project the acceptance
by the planners, the architects, the construction firm onsite and the owner of the building has
been enormous and causes a lot of expectancy for the future.
42,3 m
Concrete slab
Concrete core
Composite Slim floor beams

Composite
Composite columns
Figure 22 Millennium Tower Vienna (Austria), plan view

Figure 23 Millennium Tower Vienna (Austria) [8]

Figure 24 Construction progress (total erection time: 8 months) [8]

5.2 Citibank Duisburg (Duisburg – Germany)
Figure 25 Citibank Duisburg (Germany) [8]
The office building of the Citibank in Duisburg (Germany) has a total height of 72m, 15 storeys
and a total ground floor of 14500 m2.
It is a typical example of mixed building technology. The internal reinforced concrete core is
intended to carry horizontal forces and was erected with a maximum speed of 3 m per day. The
composite columns and slabs around followed the core in nearly the same speed, so a very fast
progress of construction was possible.

5.3 Parking deck “DEZ” (Innsbruck- Austria) [8]
Figure 26 General view of the parking deck [8]
A further example for a composite structure is the new parking deck in Innsbruck (Austria),
which shows how the technology leads to new solutions in the design phase as well as in the
execution and construction. The structural requirements and boundary conditions are pointed
out briefly and their solution is explained by a suitable system choice.
The parking house is a 4 storey building with ground dimensions of 60 x 30 m.
The particularity is the 26 cm thick slim floor slab which is semicontinuously connected with the
composite columns.
Maximum span length of composite slim floor beams : 10,58 m
Also a particularity of the building is the 4,8 m cantilever and the very slim columns (composite
columns: Ø=355 mm).
This building is an example of simplifying the process of erection. By using columns over 2
storeys and partially prefabricated slabs the time of erection could be minimized.
Fig. 27 Fig. 28
Figure 27 Erection of composite columns over 2 storeys

Figure 28 Assembly of slim-floor beams and prefabricated concrete

slabs
Figure 29 shows the cross section of the slim-floor beam and slab.
200
260
60
Figure 29 Cross section of the slim-floor beam and slab
• 200 mm concrete slab

• 60 mm prefabricated concrete elements
• steel beam : web: 165/20 mm, flange 245/40 mm
• headed studs Ø 22 m
6 Future developments
A lot of research all over Europe has improved existing composite systems and has led to the
development of new technologies e.g. Slim-floor slabs with semi continuous connections to the
columns, new steel sheets or systems to minimize the time of erection and assembly.
Other developments concerning the real behaviour of composite structures and elements are
published in COST-C1 project.[7]
7 Concluding Summary
Composite construction is popular for buildings and bridges as well because of the following
aspects:
• Economy
• Architecture
• Functionality
• Service and building flexibility
• Assembly
Therefore composite constructions should be strengthened to take an important place beside

conventional steel construction by using the common Eurocodes with national applications, the
modules of SSEDTA 1 and the following modules of SSEDTA 2 for additional support.

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Structural Steelwork

1 Introduction to composite construction of buildings

3 Structural modelling and design

4 Composite Slabs with Profiled Steel Sheeting

5 Shear Connectors and Structural Analysis

6 Simply supported beams

10 Advanced composite floor systems

11a Introduction to Structural Fire Engineering

11b Fire Engineering Design of Composite Structures

Lecture 1: Introduction to composite

Notes for Tutors:

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• Concrete is efficient in compression and steel in tension.

Figure 1 Non – composite and composite beams

Composite members as conventional composite beams, composite columns and steel-deck

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2 Aspects of use of composite structures

2.4 Service and building flexibility

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• Quality controlled products:

2.6 Comparison with other methods

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Steel weight 100% 159% 214%

Table 1 Composite beam- steel beam [8]

Composite Reinforced concrete

Dimensions [cm] 70 / 70 80 / 120

Dimensions [cm] 160 / 40 160 / 120

Table 2 Comparison of composite structures–reinforced concrete

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construction time due to hardening of concrete. Furthermore, as concrete itself is unable to

The primary advantage of

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3.1 Construction elements

Figure 2 Construction elements [1]

Figure 3 Columns and slabs on site (Citibank Duisburg, Germany)

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3.2.1 Reinforced concrete slabs

• on site using shuttering

in situ concrete on shuttering partially prefabricated slabs fully prefabricated slabs

Figure 4 Types of concrete slabs [1]

3.2.2 Pre-stressed concrete slabs

Figure 5 Pre-stressed prefabricated hollow core slab [1]

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3.2.3 Profiled steel sheeting

Figure 6 Frictional interlock in composite slabs [1]

Figure 7 Mechanical interlock in composite slabs [1]

Figure 8 End anchorage for composite slabs [1]

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Figure 9 Conventional and innovative composite beams [1]

Figure 10 Types of shear connectors [1]

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Figure 11 Welding of the shear connectors (headed studs) [9]

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Figure 12 Examples of composite columns [1]

Figure 13 Tubular column with shot fired nails as shear connectors

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column see in Figure 13.