GLT 121: Topic 1.

Know the preparation of solutions and reagents in the laboratory

SOLUTION
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of one or more substance in another substance……. a
system in which one or more substances are homogeneously dissolved in another,
homogeneously means it has one phase.
The dissolving substance is called the solvent. It is also the most abundant component in
the solution. The resulting solution takes the characteristics of the solvent including its
phase.
The substance that is dissolved is called the solute. It is also the least abundant in the
solution system.
A simple solution has two components, one solute and one solvent while complex solution
has more than one solute but one solvent. The solute and the solvent can take any physical
state of matter know i.e. solid, liquid, gas.
SATURATED SOLUTION: This is a solution that contains as much solute that it can dissolve
at the specified temperature in the presence of the crystals of the solute. It is temperature
dependent.
UNSATURATED SOLUTION: This contains less amount of solute that it can dissolve at the
specified temperature, the crystals of the solute is not present in an unsaturated solution.

SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION: This is a solution that contains more solute than it can
dissolve at the specific temperature in the presence of the crystals of the solute.
A saturated solution is in equilibrium as the solid is dissolving into solution, so also the
dissolving solute is crystallizing out of the solution at the same time.
CALCULATING THE CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION FROM A GIVEN ASSAY.
The concentration of a solution is the amount of the solute that is present in a specified
amount or volume of the solution. The concentration of a solution can be described in many
different ways, the most commonly used expression is molarity denoted by M which is
defined as moles of solute per volume of solution litres
Molarity, M =Moles of solute/ Litres of solution.
A solution that is 1.0molar, contains 1.0M mole of solute per litre of solution.
Exercises
1) Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 11.5g of solid NaOH in
enough water to make 1.5 litres of solution
SOLUTION:
No of moles = Mass/ Molar mass
= 11.5g/40g/mol
= 0.288moles NaOH
Molarity =moles of solute/ volume of solution
 = 0.288moles/1.5litres
= 0.192M NaOH.
2) Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 1.56g of HCl in enough
water to make 26.8ml of solution.

SOLUTION
No of moles =Mass/ Molar mass
= 1.56g/36.46g/ml
=0.0428ml or4.28x10-2moles HCl
Change volume to litres
1000ml-------------------- 1litre
1ml -------------------------1/1000litre
26.8ml----------------------1/1000 x 26.8ml
=0.0268 or2.68x10-2L
Molarity = Moles of solute/litres of solution
= 4.28 x 10-2moles/2.68 x 10-2litres
=
1.60MHCl.
3) Typical blood serum is about0. 14MNaCl.What volume of blood contain 1.0mg NaCl
SOLUTION
No of moles =mass of solute/molar mass
1mg------------------------0.001 or1.0 x10-3g
Moles =1.0 x10-3/58.45g/ml
= 0.000017 or 1.7x10-5moles
Molarity = moles/volume(L)
0.14M = 1.7 x10-5/volume(L)
Volume(L) =1.7x 10-5/ 0.14
= 0.00012 or 1.2 x10-4L
Convert litre back to ml
Volume of blood =0.12ml of blood.

4)To analyse the alcohol content of a certain wine, a food chemist needs 1.00ml of
an aqueous 0.200M K2Cr2O7 solution. How much K2Cr2O7(potassium dichromate)
must be weighed out to make this solution.
 SOLUTION
Moles of K2Cr2O7in1.00ml of solution=0.200M
Moles =Mass/Molar Mass
Mass =moles molar mass
Molar mass of K2Cr2O7 =294.18g/moles
Mass = 0.200moles x294.18g/moles
= 58.8g of K2Cr2O7.

OTHER UNITS OF CONCENTRATION

1)Mass Concentration is the mass of solute in one litre(1L) or 1dm3 of the solution. Units
is g/l or g/dm3 e.g. 5.0g/dm3NaCl or 3.20g/L NaOH
Mass Concentration =mass, m(grams)
Volume, v(dm3)

Percentage Composition
Mass per Volume: is mass of solute in 100ml of solution, unit %wt. /vol.e.g. 10% of NaCl
contains 10g of NaCl salt in 100ml of the solution.
OR % concentration by mass (%mass): is the mass of the solute in gram present in 100g of
solution e.g. 10%(m/m) KOH means 10g of KOH dissolved in 90g of H2O.
Volume per volume: is the volume of solute in 100ml of solution, unit % v/v e.g. 5%v/v
ethanol solution contains 5ml of ethanol in 95ml of the solution.
2) Normality: Is defined as the number of equivalents of solute per litre of solution, where
the definition of an equivalent depends on the reaction taking place in the solution. For an
acid base reaction, the equivalent s the mass of the acid or base that can produce or accept
exactly one mole(1mole) of proton(H+). The equivalent mass for sulphuric acid is the molar
mass divided by 2. Since each mole of sulphuric acid can produce 2moles of H+. The
equivalent mass of Ca(OH)2 is also half the molar mass, since each mole of Ca(OH)2
contains 2moles of OH-. The equivalent is defined so that one equivalent of acid will react
with exactly one equivalent of base.
equivalent is defined as the quantity of oxidizing or reducing agent that can produce or
accept one moles of electron. Thus. One equivalent of reducing agent will react with exactly
one equivalent of oxidising agent.
The equivalent mass of an oxidizing agent or reducing agent can be calculated from the
number of electrons in its half reaction. For example, MnO4-reacting in acidic solution
absorbs 5e-s to produce Mn2+
MnO4-+ 5e- + 8H+--------------Mn2+ + 4H2O
Since MnO4- represent in KMnO4 accepts 5e-s, the equivalent mass is the molar mass divided
by 5
Equivalent mass of KMnO4 =molar mass/5
= 158g/ml/5
=31.6g
3)Mole Fraction(X) Is the ratio of the number of moles of a given component to the total
number of moles of the solution, i.e. number of moles of one component divided by the total
number of moles in solution. For example, a two component solution where nA and nB
represent the number of moles of the two components.
Moles Fraction of Component A, XA = nA/nA + nB
4)Molality(m) is the number of moles of solute in a kilogram of the solvent
Molality =moles of solute/kilogram of solvent.
The unit for molality is a lower case m.

STANDARD SOLUTION
STANDARD SOLUTON: This is a reagent of known concentration used to titrate the unknown
concentration of the analyte. This is also known as titrant which is usually added from a
burette into the analyte in the conical flask. Standard solution is basically of two types
namely:
PRIMARY SOLUTION: Primary standard is a compound used as a reference material which
is of very high purity. Chemists refers to its as compounds of ‘’analar grade’’. Examples of
primary standard is HCl (36.461g/mol) i.e. HCL and water distil as an azeotrope whose
composition (~6m) is pressure dependent. Also Na2CO3, KH(IO3)2 (389.912g/mol) for
standardizing base.
SECONDARY SOLUTION: Secondary standard are compound used as standards but do not
possess all the properties If primary standard. Secondary standard is usually prepared in the
laboratory for a specific analysis. Examples is NaOH, KMnO4, KOH etc. But note that most
secondary standards are standardardised against a primary standard.
To prepared standard solution, two important information must be provided the
concentration of the solution and the volume of the solution to be prepared.
Standard solutions could be prepared in two basic ways namely
a) Direct method
b) The standardisation method.
A) DIRECT METHOD: The direct method of preparation is a better method to use to obtain a
good accuracy and precision in measurement.
This is done by weighing carefully a known amount of solute into a pre-clean glassware,
after which it would be dissolved in an exactly known volume of solution. The dissolved
solute (solution) is poured into a specific volumetric flask and more solvent (water) is added
until the level of the solution just reaches the mark etched on the neck of the flask. The volume of flask
is determined by
the volume of solution to be prepared. To prepared 500ml solution, use 500ml
volumetric flask etc. The unit could be in part per thousand (g/L), in part per million (mg/L,
µg/ml) or in part per billion (µg/L).
The example below is the procedure for the preparation of standard solution of 250cm3 of
0.2M NaOH solution

B) THE STANDARDISATION METHOD: This method is said to be used when the prepared
standard solution obtained by direct method is standardise by using it to titrate any of the
three categories of the carefully weighed compounds or measured solution:
- Primary standard compound
- Secondary standard compound
- Volume of another standard solution

SOLUTIONS WITH LIQUID SOLUTE

The general procedure for preparing this type of solution is dilution because this solution are
often purchased or prepared in concentrated form (called stock solution). Water is then
added to achieved the concentration or molarity desired for a particular solution. For
example, the common acids are purchased as concentrated solutions and diluted as needed.
A typical dilution calculation involves determining how much water must be added to an
amount of stock solution to achieve a solution of desired concentration. The key is to
remember that moles of solute after dilution = moles of solute before dilution
Moles = Concentration x volume, CV
C1V1 = C2V2
C1V1 = before dilution, C2V2 =after dilution
Example:
Suppose we need to prepare 500ml of 1.00M acetic acid (CH3COOH) from a 17.4M stock
solution of acetic acid. What volume of the stock solution is required?
Solution:
No of moles of acetic acid in the final solution 500ml X 1.00M /1000 = 0.
5mol
What volume of acetic acid of 17.4M will give 0.500mole
Volume = 0.5/ 17.4M =0.0287L or 28.7ml
OR
C1V1 =C2V2
17.4M x V1 =1.0M x500
V1 =1.0M x 500/17.4M =28.7ml
A dilution procedure typically involves two types of glassware: a pipette and volumetric flask.
Pipette is a device for accurately measuring and transferring a given volume of solution.
There are two common types of pipette; volumetric (transfer) pipette and measuring pipette.
Volumetric pipettes come in specific sizes such as 5ml,10ml,20ml,25ml, etc.
Measuring pipettes are used to measure volumes for which a volumetric pipette is not
available.
PREPARATION OF SOLUTION FROM COMMERCIAL STOCK LIQUID SOLUTE
Some information are provided on the Winchester bottle of the stock solution like % purity,
specific the volume of stock solution needed in preparation of specific solution. The formula
to be use in getting the volume is
Volume (cm3) =molar mass x molarity volume(cm3)
Specific gravity x%purity x 10
OR
Vo(cm3) = Cd x Vd x M/10xPx d =MCdVd/10Pd
Where:
M =molar mass(g/mol)
Cd =molar concentration(M)
Vd = volume of what to be prepared(dm3)
Vo =volume required to prepared a dilute solution
P =Percentage purity
d =Density (g/cm3)

ANALYTICAL REQUIREMENT OF A STANDARD SUBSTANCE

a) The solution should be stable and should require no restandardization before use
b) The standard solution reacts quickly with the analyte
c) The reaction with the analyte is complete and a good endpoint is observed
d)The reaction with analyte is selective and described by a simple balanced equation.

PROPERTIES OF A PRIMARY STANDARD

a) The substance must be pure and easy to dry.
b) It must be stable and not affected by laboratory conditions.
c) It must not be hygroscopic or efflorescent and these properties will make drying
and weighing difficult.

d) It must be readily available at moderate cost.

e) It must be of reasonable high atomic or molecular mass to minimize the relative
error in weighing.
Secondary standards do not meet the following requirements but are usually used for
titrations.
Their concentrations are established by standardizing them with a primary standard.