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Review doi.org/10.1002/tcr.
202300229
tcr.wiley-vch.de
THE
CHEMICAL
Recent Advances in Floating Photovoltaic
RECORD Systems
Asmaa Ahmed,*[a, b] Mohamed Elsakka,[a, b] Nabil Elminshawy,[a, b] Ayman Mohamed,[a] and

Senthilarasu Sundaram[c]
Chem. Rec. 2023, 23, e202300229 (1 of 23) © 2023 The Chemical Society of Japan and Wiley-VCH GmbH
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Review THE CHEMICAL RECORD
Abstract: In recent years, floating photovoltaic (FPV) technologies have gained more importance
as a key source of clean energy, particularly in the context of providing sustainable energy to
buildings. The rise of land scarcity and the need to reduce carbon emissions have made FPV
systems a cost-effective solution for generating electricity. This review article aims to explore the
rapidly growing trend of floating PV systems, which can be a practical solution for regions with
limited land areas. The article discusses the structure of the PV modules used in FPV plants and
key factors that affect site suitability choice. Moreover, the article presents various techniques for
cooling and cleaning FPV to keep optimal performance and discusses feasible trends and
prospects for the technology. Finally, this paper proposes the potential integration of FPV
systems with other technologies to enhance energy generation efficiency and discusses other
research aimed at the advancement of the technology. By examining the various features of FPV
systems, this review article contributes to understanding the advantages and challenges associated
with using this sustainable energy technology in different regional contexts.
Keywords: Floating PV, Solar Cells, PV Cooling, PV Degradation, Sustainability, Clean Energy
the efficiency of FPV technology in powering structures. Once

1. Introduction
completed, it is estimated to supply electricity for 50,000
Securing clean energy is paramount to reaching sustainable residences and lower carbon dioxide emissions by up to
development goals. Not only does it minimize the carbon 200,000 tons per annum.[4,5] According to the World Bank
footprint, but also stimulates economic growth and social report,[6] the global installed floating photovoltaic (FPV)
progression. As stated by the International Energy Agency capacity has been growing rapidly in recent years as presented
(IEA), it is expected that solar, wind, and hydropower will in Figure 1, doubling each year from 2007 to 2018. This trend
contribute to 30 % of global electricity generation by 2024.[1] is expected to continue, with the global installed FPV capacity
Floating photovoltaic (FPV) is a promising technology that reaching 10 GW by 2024.[7] The rapid growth of FPV is
can provide renewable energy to buildings. This technology motivating researchers to focus more on developing innovative
involves installing solar panels on floating platforms in water solutions to improve this technology. As shown in Figure 2,
bodies such as lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. FPV systems have according to the Web of Science (WoS), the number of
several advantages over traditional solar installations, including publications in this field has increased significantly in the last
a higher energy yield due to the cooling effect of the water, five years peaking at 53 research articles in 2022.
reduced land use, and the ability to install panels in areas To maximize energy output, photovoltaic systems must be
where land is scarce.[2] FPV systems can be particularly useful installed in regions with abundant solar irradiance. The
for buildings that are located near water bodies. By installing efficiency of photovoltaics is directly tied to the amount of
FPV systems, these buildings can generate their own electricity sunlight they capture.[8,9] As a result, it is vital to place
without relying on the grid. This can help reduce energy photovoltaic cells in areas of plentiful sunlight to optimize
costs[3] and improve the building‘s sustainability. Additionally, their operation. The orientation and angle of the solar panels
FPV systems can provide a reliable source of energy during
power outages, making them an attractive option for critical
facilities such as hospitals and data centers. The Cirata FPV
facility in West Java with 145 MW is an ideal illustration of
[a] A. Ahmed, M. Elsakka, N. Elminshawy, A. Mohamed

Mechanical Power Engineering Department
Port Said University
Port Fouad, Port Said, Egypt
E-mail: asmaa_rady@eng.psu.edu.eg
[b] A. Ahmed, M. Elsakka, N. Elminshawy
Energy Research and Studies Centre
Port Said University
Port Fouad, Port Said, Egypt
[c] S. Sundaram
School of Computing, Engineering and Design Technologies, Tees-
side University Figure 1. The global annual installed capacity and cumulative installed
Middlesbrough, Tees Valley, UK capacity from 2007 to 2018.
global solar irradiation. In research conducted by the

Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE), the
possibility of employing solar technologies in North Africa to
cater to the electricity needs of Europe was evaluated. The
study foresaw the demand for electricity in North Africa and
Europe as 5850 TWh by 2050 and proposed to connect both
regions with a high-capacity power grid.[11,12] Given its
advantageous climate, Egypt is one of the top locations in the
world to make use of solar energy for electricity production
and thermal heating solutions.[13] Thus, in recent years, Egypt
has started to focus more on solar energy as a leading research
Figure 2. Number of publications in the FPV Field in the last five years
area.[14–22] On the other hand, several studies have been
according to the Web of Science (WoS). published to explore the expected thermal and electrical
performance of the FPV under Egyptian climatic
conditions.[23–25] Recent research suggests that the FPV would
should also be considered to make the most of the radiation.[10] offer great advantages if it is installed in Lake Nasser in terms
Importantly, not only does the installation of photovoltaics in of electricity production and protecting the lake from
sun-rich areas maximize power output, but it also helps to evaporation.[26,27] This paper presents a detailed review of FPV
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Figure 3 illustrates the technology as a sustainable and renewable source of electricity
locations around the globe that have the highest levels of generation. The article expounds upon the various system
Dr. Asmaa Ahmed received her PhD in Prof. Ayman Mohamed is the president of
Renewable Energy from the University of Port Said University, Egypt. He is a
Exeter, UK in November 2021 under the professor of Renewable Energy and Ther-
supervision of Prof. Tapas Mallick and mal Process Engineering in the Depart-
Prof. Senthilarasu Sundaram. Her Ph.D. ment of Mechanical Power Engineering, at
was funded by the Newton-Mosharafa Port Said University. He was awarded his
fund. Now, she is an assistant professor in PhD in Heat Transfer from a cooperation
Renewable Energy at the Mechanical study project between Bremen University,
Power Engineering Dept., Port Said Uni- Germany, and Suez Canal University,
versity, Egypt. She is, also, the Deputy Egypt.
Director of the Energy Research and
Prof. Senthilarasu Sundaram is a professor
Studies Centre at the same university.
of Sustainable Energy Materials in the
Dr. Mohamed Elsakka completed his PhD School of Computing, Engineering and
in Mechanical Engineering at the Univer- Design Technologies at Teesside Univer-
sity of Sheffield, UK in 2020. Now, he is sity, UK. He completed his PhD at
an assistant professor in Renewable Energy Bharathiar University, India, in 2006.
at the Mechanical Power Engineering Before joining Teesside University, he was
Dept., Port Said University, Egypt. He is, an Associate professor at Edinburgh Nap-
also, the Director of the Energy Research ier University, senior lecturer at the Uni-
and Studies Centre at the same university. versity of Exeter, and he worked as a
postdoctoral research associate at Lough-
Prof. Nabil Elminshawy is a professor of
borough University (2010–2011) and He-
Renewable Energy and Desalination in the
riot-Watt University (2012).
Mechanical Engineering Department, at
Port Said University, Egypt. He completed
his PhD in Mechanical Engineering at the
University of Leeds, UK. From 2010 to
2011, he was appointed as the Head of the
Mechanical Engineering Department at
Port Said University, Egypt.
transmission lines. Several configurations of FPV plants are

shown in Figure 5 single, dual axis tracking and concentrating
FPV. A detailed description of each component of the FPV
will be introduced in the next sections. FPV systems offer
considerable potential for the utilization of solar energy in an
environmentally friendly manner, as they do not necessitate
land occupation or entail detrimental impacts on the environ-
ment. However, these systems encounter certain obstacles,
including wind loading, wave impact, thermal stress, and the
need for structural stability. The application of computational
modeling can play a pivotal role in facilitating the design and
optimization of materials and structures pertaining to FPV
systems, thereby augmenting their overall performance and
Figure 3. Variation of global horizontal irradiation worldwide.[28] durability. Lee et al.[29] employed computational fluid dynam-
ics (CFD) to investigate the effects of wind loadings on FPV
systems. The authors generated two models for pontoon-type
components, site suitability selection factors, PV panel and frame-type systems with a panel angle of 15° to be
inspection methodology, cooling techniques, and cleaning examined. The results indicated that wind blowing from the
methods utilized for the management of PV panels’ temper- backside of FPV systems amplifies drag, lift, and pressure on
ature. Of particular note, this paper highlights the latest and the first row of PV panels. The inclusion of a floating body led
most innovative technologies for FPV and their integration to a 70 % reduction in wind loadings. Additionally, the
with other sources of renewable energy, setting this review strategic placement of a blocking backspace in the PV panel
apart from other articles in this field. reduced maximum drag and lift by 75 % by preventing flow
impingement. Also, for maximum output, it is suggested that
the optimal wind direction should be perpendicular to the
2. Floating PV Structure
long side of the PV array. Another CFD study was presented
The FPV system usually consists of several parts and by Bei et al.[30] to explore the impact of wind load and
components as shown in Figure 4. The photovoltaic modules directions on the FPV arrays. The analysis was conducted in
and inverter are attached at the top of the floating structure terms of the wind load shape factor. The results imply that the
which is anchored to the mooring system in the ground. The front photovoltaic modules facing the wind have a blocking
produced power is then transferred through electric cables to effect on the back photovoltaic modules, which will become
the control room and transformer to the customers through more balanced as the number of photovoltaic modules
Figure 4. The basic concept of the floating photovoltaic system.
3. Floating PV Components
3.1. Photovoltaics Module Structure
PV modules are responsible for converting solar energy into
electricity and can be manufactured using different cell types
including single/mono crystalline (m-Si), polycrystalline silicon
(p-Si), amorphous silicon (a-Si),[32] dye-sensitized solar cells
(DSCs),[33] heterojunction intrinsic thin-layer (HIT), or thin
films of cadmium tellurium (CdTe).[34,35] Figure 6 shows the
variation of different solar cells’ relative spectral response and
solar intensity (AM 1.5) with wavelength.[36,37] According to
recent research focused on the degradation levels of solar cells,
both HIT and CdTe have shown their suitability to be
implemented in FPV plants in comparison with silicon solar
cells.[38,39] This article, however, will concentrate on silicon
solar cells due to their widespread use. The amount of power
generated by silicon solar modules is influenced by several
factors, including the solar cell type, its efficiency, the size of
the solar panel, and the amount of sunlight that it receives.
Under standard test conditions, the industrial modules display
efficiency levels between 18 % and 25 %. The use of bifacial
photovoltaic (BPV) technology in floating plants is a new
concept that allows PV modules to absorb more solar energy
from both sides, increasing production output.[40,41] However,
the integration between the two technologies is still under
investigation, as the higher inclination angles required for BPV
Figure 5. (a) single axis tracking FPV, (b) dual axis tracking FPV, reprinted
from [43]. Copyright (2022), with permission from Elsevier, (c) concentrating
technology diminish the cooling impact of the water, which is
FPV, reprinted from [44]. Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier. one of the main advantages of FPV technology. The
integration of concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) and FPV
systems is also a new concept that has not been studied
increases. Additionally, the force analysis of the windward FPV extensively in the literature. CPV systems use lenses or mirrors
unit structure at the outside of the array, which is the most to concentrate sunlight onto small and highly efficient solar
affected by the wind load, reveals that the floating photovoltaic
unit with the 12° inclination under the influence of the water
environment wind speed can meet the structural safety stand-
ards. Yang and Yu[31] investigated the behaviour of an FPV
system under wave and wind loads. Numerical and exper-
imental simulations were conducted to analyse the motion
characteristics of the platform, the tension of the mooring line,
and the uplift coefficient of panels at water depths of 2.5 m
and 5 m. The floating platform was installed with four rows of
solar panels, each row with five panels. The study found that
under normal sea conditions, the FPV system may resonate in
a high-frequency wave condition, and a larger lift force occurs
at the windward surface. However, the wind caused a large
drift of the floating platform and the formation of vortex areas,
which could damage the solar panels.
Figure 6. Variation of solar intensity and relative spectral response of several

types of solar cells with wavelength.
cells. This allows CPV systems to achieve higher power output researchers built two FTCCPV plants. The first plant, which
and efficiency than conventional photovoltaic (PV) systems. has a capacity of 200 kWp, is located in Suvereto, Italy. The
However, CPV systems also require more complex design and second plant, which has a capacity of 30 kWp, is located near
tracking systems and are more sensitive to environmental Pisa, Italy. However, an important issue that arose when
factors such as dust, humidity, and temperature. Cazzaniga designing and operating FTCCPV plants is the uniformity of
et al.[42] proposed three configurations of floating PV plants irradiance on the PV surface. Therefore, more studies are
equipped with a tracking system, a cooling system, and needed to ensure the reliability of these systems.
concentrators (FTCCPV) to increase energy harvesting. The The PV system consists of PV cells which are connected to
first two arrangements use flat reflectors, while the third system form a module and encapsulated. These modules are grouped
uses parabolic mirrors. These solutions are characterized by into panels which make the PV arrays as presented in Figure 7.
different levels of geometrical concentration, which is the ratio The main components of the PV module as presented in
of the area of the solar cells to the area of the reflectors. The Figure 8 are: (1) solar to electrical power conversion compo-
nent, (2) electrical connections, (3) finishing and protection
components, and auxiliary parts such as (4) thermal manage-
ment system and (5) cleaning technique.
3.1.1. Solar cells

Using the photovoltaic effect, a PV cell converts light energy
into electricity.[45] Solar cells can be produced from different
materials each of them has a different absorption spectrum and
conversion efficiency.[46]
3.1.1.1. Fingers
As shown in Figure 9, metallic and thin finger matrices
perpendicular to the solar cell’s busbars are used to collect the
generated current from the cell and transmit it to the busbars.
Figure 7. Difference between PV cell, module, panel, and array.
Using screen printing, fingers, and busbars details are printed
on the photovoltaic cell surface.
3.1.1.2. Busbars
The metallic busbars convey the collected current from the
fingers to the interconnect ribbons. In turn, the current flows
from strings interconnecting ribbons to the junction box
through bus wires. Normally, the photovoltaic cell busbars are
Figure 8. PV module components. Figure 9. Solar cells Busbars and Fingers.
printed from copper and coated with silver. This coating‘s like polyurethane (PU) composite to withstand corrosion from
function is to improve current conductivity on the front side high salt concentrations in seawater.[48]
of the cell while decreasing oxidization on the back side.
3.1.5. Transparent Tempered Glass
3.1.2. Ribbon and String Interconnection
A PV module‘s lifetime will be significantly shortened by water
Cell interconnect ribbons connect the stringed cells in a solar or water vapor intrusion because it will deteriorate the metal
panel and overlap the cell’s busbars.[47] Typically, copper is contacts and interconnects. Therefore, the top surface and the
used to construct these ribbons. Figure 10 differentiates back surface must be mechanically rigid to support the solar
between the string interconnect and cell interconnect ribbons. cells and the wiring. Also, high light transmittance in the
wavelength range of 350 nm to 1200 nm is an essential feature
to allow the incident light photons to pass to the solar cells.
3.1.3. Bus and Tab Wires
Several types of materials can be used to provide mechanical
The individual solar cells should be connected in series to form strength and protection to the front surface such as acrylic,
rows to get suitable voltages using tab wires. On the other polymers, and glass. Tempered low iron glass, on the other
hand, the bus wires are used to connect these rows in parallel hand, is the most used because it is inexpensive, tough, stable,
to deliver cumulative current to the junction box. Both tab exceptionally clear, impermeable to water and gases, and has
and bus wires are made of copper. To make soldering the cells good self-cleaning characteristics.
simple, the producer coats the copper core using solder.
However, adding additional solder is necessary during cell
3.1.6. Encapsulant Material
soldering. The bus wire‘s thickness and width are greater than
the tab wires to achieve less resistance per length since the bus The upper surface, back surface, and solar cells of the PV
wire should carry more current. module are all held together by an encapsulant. When
choosing an encapsulant, a variety of features like high optical
transparency and low thermal resistance should be available.
3.1.4. Anodized Aluminium Frame
Along with resistance to UV exposure and extreme temper-
A module frame is a rectangular component that is situated on atures. One of the most utilized compounds is ethyl vinyl
the module‘s edges. It is tightly adhered to the laminate and acetate (EVA). Thin layers of EVA are sandwiched between
employed during the module’s final assembly. On the top side, the upper, solar cells and the back surface of the module. To
it fastens the module glass, and on the back side, it envelops ensure that the module is properly glued together, this
the module back sheet. The frame is mostly made of anodized sandwich is heated to 150 °C.
aluminium or plastic. While being rather expensive, the
anodized aluminium frame has several benefits, such as the
3.1.7. Insulating Back Sheet
ability to reflect more heat, which boosts the efficiency of solar
cells. In addition, as compared to other materials, the frame The PV module‘s rear surface must have low heat resistance
can tolerate sunlight and scratches. Periodic cleaning also aids and be impermeable to water or water vapor intrusion to
in the preservation of the frame‘s look. In FPV plants, PV function properly. On the back surface, a thin coating of
module frames need to be manufactured from special materials Tedlar polymer is typically employed. However, the back must
be built of a material that is extremely transparent in bifacial
modules, which absorb light from both modules’ surfaces.
3.1.8. Sealing
Solar modules benefit from edge sealing in many ways,
including delaying moisture ingress, protecting their solar cells
and electrical isolation from degradation, and providing a
reliable bond for a wide range of operating conditions. Because
of its heat resistance, silicone can be utilized for edge sealing. It
also has high mechanical stability, good bonding properties,
and low cost. It can be applied as a liquid or rubber. Yet, as
compared to other sealant materials, this sealant has a limited
Figure 10. String interconnect and cell interconnect ribbons. lifespan and can detach over time.
Therefore, PV modules are pointed towards the sun during the

3.1.9. Junction Box
day. A solar tracker‘s mechanical structure (1 or 2-axis) and
PV junction boxes are an integral part of solar modules. On control method are principal factors to consider when selecting
the module, the junction box houses the electrical connections it, as they determine the tracking accuracy. FPV trackers with
of the PV strings. It is affixed at the back of the PV panel a vertical single axis seem to be an appropriate solution for the
using an adhesive material as shown in Figure 11. The FPV plant because of the disturbances caused by the floating
junction box facilitates connecting the solar panels to arrays. structure.[51] There are two basic configurations of the tracked
During a cloudy day, the bypass diodes inside the junction box FPV[44] and they are as follows:
block the flow of power back into the panels.
3.5.1. Confined Arrangement
3.2. Inverters
Solar modules are enclosed in a confined assembly that is
The function of the inverters is to change the direct current powered by an electric motor. There are different shapes that
(DC) generated from the solar modules into alternating this structure can take, such as polygons or circles. Even
current (AC). This alternating current will either be sent into though the system can work effectively, its cost and
the grid or consumed directly in households. Another key role dimensions limitations seem to be major barriers to
of the inverters is to manage the electricity output which will implementation.[44]
be distributed to the grid or households.[49] According to the
distance from the edge to the FPV platform, plant developers
3.5.2. Unconfined Arrangement
can use a central or multiple-string inverter.[50]
The first configuration is a system with rope in which the
platform is surrounded by a rope with one or two pulleys
3.3. Voltage Converter
positioned on a buoy or near the edge of the basin for
It boosts the voltage generated by the PV system to a higher movement. Hence, platforms are either moored to the central
voltage so that it can be transmitted. axis employing a central plinth or simply utilizing a heavy
concrete block fixed to the platform‘s center with a chain. The
second configuration is in which the FPV can track the sun
3.4. Cables and Fasteners
using a submerged structure. In this design, an electric motor
Cables are utilized to connect the power plant‘s generated is used to provide the platform with the necessary power, and
current to the grid or to store it in the battery. Waterproof and a wheel made of iron is submerged in the water. Moreover, an
elevated temperature resistance cables and connectors are empty tank is used to elevate the wheel. To facilitate the
necessary to avoid leaking or electrical shock. Fasteners are sliding of the platform, the rollers attached to it are used to
being used to secure the various parts of the FPV plant allow the platform to move freely. Changing the amount of
structure. water and air in the tank can easily modify the roller and iron
wheel pressure. Tracking using bow thrusters is another
arrangement in which the impellers create a rotational motion
3.5. Solar Trackers
where a platform is moored to its center. The position can be
Since the conversion efficiency of solar cells is highly depend- fixed if necessary, using a windlass frame. A camera on the
ent on their alignment to the maximum incident irradiance, southwest is fixed to monitor the maximum irradiance.
solar trackers are often used to boost PV energy yields. Therefore, the platform can be easily positioned towards the
sun by sending signals to the electric motors.
3.6. Floating Structure (Pontoons)

Pontoons or floats are critical components of an FPV system,
as they permit the buoyancy necessary for the system to remain
afloat.[52] These devices are designed to have an effective
buoyancy-to-self-weight ratio, which allows them to remain
afloat without the need for additional support or weight. As
such, they are essential for the successful operation of an FPV
system. The pontoons are constructed by securely affixing
Figure 11. PV Junction box. floats together, allowing them to bear the weight of the
structure that is placed atop the water. This method of energy from solar and wind sources. However, previous studies
construction is a reliable and effective way to ensure the have shown that using batteries can be costly and produce
stability of the structure, as it is buoyed by the floats. High- threatening waste at the end of the life cycle.[59] Pumped water
density polyethylene (HDPE) is the primary material utilized storage is a form of energy storage that involves pumping water
to make most of the floats used in the industry due to its from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir and then releasing
advantageous properties. In addition to having excellent tensile it to generate electricity.[60] Hydrogen production is a form of
strength, HDPE is maintenance-free, UV-resistant, corrosion- energy storage that involves using electrolysis to split water
resistant, and recyclable, making it a popular choice for many into hydrogen and oxygen and then storing the hydrogen for
applications.[53] Its durability and versatility make it an ideal later use.[61,62] On the other hand, Compressed Air Energy
material for the manufacturing of floats, making it the go-to Storage (CAES) systems are highly promising technology in
choice for many industries. To construct a floating platform, a the energy field. This technology utilizes the potential energy
variety of materials can be utilized. Medium-density poly- stored in compressed air to generate electricity. The air is
ethylene (MDPE), fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP), and ferro- compressed and stored in an underground reservoir or a large
cement are all viable options that can be employed to complete above-ground structure. When electricity is needed, the stored
the task. Each of these materials has its unique properties and air is released, heated, and used to drive a turbine to generate
benefits, so it is important to consider which one is most electricity.[63] This technology offers several advantages, such as
suitable for the particular project.[54] its relatively low cost, its ability to store energy for extended
periods, and its potential for scalability. Furthermore, CAES
systems are environmentally friendly, as they do not produce
3.7. Mooring and Anchoring Systems
any emissions or pollutants. As such, CAES systems offer
The mooring system provides the capability of the system to several benefits for both consumers and the environment.
adapt to varying water levels while remaining in its position
relative to one another and the water. This is achieved by ropes
4. Site Suitability Selection Factors
that are extended along the bottom of the water, allowing for a
secure and stable connection.[55] The site, bathymetry, soil To identify a suitable location for an FPV plant, several criteria
types, and water level variations should all be considered while must be considered. These criteria include the availability of
installing a mooring system. The floating platform mooring suitable water bodies, the proximity to existing infrastructure,
mechanism can be moored using nylon polyester or nautical the environmental impact of the plant, the potential for energy
nylon ropes tied to bollards on the bank and lashed at each production, and the potential for economic growth. Addition-
corner.[56] In addition, the anchoring system is an important ally, the local climate and weather conditions must be
component of an FPV system, as it prevents the system from considered to ensure the optimal performance of the plant. All
moving and resists any external forces, such as wind, that these factors must be carefully weighed to ensure the successful
could otherwise cause the PV modules to rotate.[57] This deployment of an FPV system. In 2019, the World Bank set
ensures the system is stable and secure, and that the PV several factors that must be taken into account when
modules can generate electricity efficiently. considering an FPV location[64] which is described in Fig-
ure 12. Table 1 highlights the most significant achievements in
the FPV industry, their locations, and capacities.
3.8. Trenches
A tunnel opened through the water‘s surface to allow cables
and electrical components to pass through. It also provides Table 1. Locations of the most significant FPV power plants around
enough space for them to be easily accessed when necessary. the world.
Year Site Location Capacity Reference
(kWp)
3.9. Power Storage System
2007 Aichi Province, Japan 20 [65]
As a result of fluctuating demand and generation, as well as 2008 Far Niente Winery, USA 175 [66]
high transmission costs, it is difficult to integrate renewable 2010 Petra Winery, Italy 200 [65]
2011 Ciel et Terre, France 350 [6]
energy sources into the electric grid.[58] Energy storage
2013 Saitama Prefecture, Japan 1180 [67]
solutions for renewable energies are essential for the successful 2014 Yamakura Dam Reservoir, Japan 1370 [68]
implementation of renewable energy sources. These solutions 2016 Huainan Floating Solar Farm 40,000 [69]
include batteries, compressed-air energy storage (CAES), 2017 Alto Rabagao Dam, Portugal 218 [70]
pumped water storage, and hydrogen production. Batteries are 2018 Sobradinho Hydroelectric Reservoir, 1000 [71]
Brazil
the most generic form of energy storage, and they can store
PV Panels. Only some PV panels have passed this test, for

example, Jinko Solar’s Tiger Pro[81,82] and JA Solar.[83]
* Dark Lock-in Thermography (DLIT) is also one of these
tests. It is a non-destructive technique that detects shunts
and high series resistance defects where several images can
be taken with an infrared camera using a pulsed voltage to
excite the solar cell.[84–86]
* Electroluminescence (EL) imaging depends on stimulating
the PV modules to emit light by using a current.[87]
Therefore, by using a camera, defects and flaws in the
module can be captured and detected.[88] The depicted
images may contain defects such as cracks and corrosion of
the solar cells as well as mechanical stresses and temperature
changes. In addition to that, this method can help in
evaluating the performance of the PV module through a
spectroscopic analysis.[89,90]
* Resonance Ultrasonic Vibration (RUV) test in which the
Figure 12. Site Suitability Selection Factors of FPV.
solar cell‘s resonance frequency is compared with a reference
value.[91] This method can depict the solar cell’s crack by
showing a deviation on the resonance frequency curve.[92,93]
Also, before PV cells are integrated into modules, this
5. Degradation and Inspection of PV Panels
method can be used to screen them for cracks.[94]
Power generation depends heavily on PV modules’ long-term * Laser Beam Induced Current (LBIC) depends on stimulat-
reliability. PV modules are widely expected to function for at ing the solar cell by creating an electron-hole pair by using a
least 25 years with minimal power degradation.[72,73] However, scanning laser beam.[95] Therefore, the photo-induced
several factors can influence their performance and durability, current which is proportional to the solar cell diffusion
such as environmental conditions, moisture ingress, soiling, length can be measured and analyzed.[96] The test results in
spectral effects, angular losses, electrical instability, and a map of the solar cell performance distribution that helps
potential-induced degradation.[73,74] in determining several types of defects in the solar cell’s
Various environmental factors, including humidity, radia- material.[79,96,97]
tion, temperature, thermal cycling, and external impacts, can * I–V characteristics curve can be also employed to detect
lead to PV module failure.[75,76] A PV module‘s power, current, solar cell defects.[98] This can be done by measuring the
voltage, and efficiency can be negatively affected by these Current (I)-Voltage (V) curve under different radiation and
degradation effects.[77] Thermo-mechanical, physical, and temperature levels.[99,100] The graph will describe the solar
chemical changes within the PV module are also expected. cell conversion capacity in terms of electrical efficiency as
Therefore, the International Electro-Technical Commission well as fill factor.
(IEC) advises conducting different accelerated stress tests under * Visual examination is an indicative test for detecting any
various degradation conditions to understand the performance major flaws in a PV module.[101] The testing is typically
of the PV modules under various circumstances and find novel done in an area with good lighting and repeated several
solutions to enhance their performance for system reliability. times. Diverse types of major defects and degradation can
While some degradation mechanisms are detectable after years be identified using this test which will be discussed in the
of field operation, it is not possible to replicate them using next sections:
indoor stress tests.[78,79] Several techniques are available to
detect the PV module degradation levels before failure such as:
* Salt Mist Test (SMT) is one of the most crucial tests that a
5.1. Soiling loss
PV panel can be subjected to before it can be used as part of This phenomenon is referred to as a reduction in power
an FPV system.[80] In salty and humid conditions, it is output due to the presence of various particles that cover the
necessary to conduct this test to ensure the PV panel is surface of the PV module and obstruct the sunlight from
working properly. Furthermore, it is also important to reaching it.[102] Particles of diverse types are known to
ensure that the materials are compatible, of superior quality, accumulate on PV surfaces, including dust, soil cementation,
and durable. IEC 61701 is the standard salt mist test for the dirt, bird droppings, and other elements. FPV systems may
still face some soiling challenges such as bird droppings, algae
growth, or water splashes. These particles can induce soiling Figure 13d. Aside from the loss of power and efficiency caused
and other surface changes, which can harm the material’s by these issues, one of the main concerns that hot spots can
appearance and endurance.[103] However, there may be other cause is hazardous fire.[111]
factors that affect the soiling rate of water-mounted PVs, such
as the water quality and the angle of the panels. Soiling loss
5.5. Cracking
can vary depending on the location and environment of the
PV system. Egypt for example, is a location with high soiling It is a condition in which microfractures form in solar panels
loss due to its arid climate and frequent dust storms.[104] that can lead to performance and durability issues.[112] PV
cracking can be caused by a variety of factors, including a
variation of the ambient temperature between day and night
5.2. Corrosion
(thermal cycling), the humidity of the air or from the water
PV corrosion is the damage to the PV modules caused by bodies installed on it, variation of pressure due to wind, heavy
exposing them to humidity and thermal cycling as a result of hail, and mechanical stress due to PV transportation. Although
altering the temperature between day and night.[105] Also, larger cracks can be observed by the naked eye, microcracks
deterioration due to salty water can occur when solar panels need imaging techniques that are essential for detecting
are subjected to salty water or salty mist which can oxidize the them.[113] Identifying these cracks can help in preventing
metal components and damage their operation and efficiency. further damage to PV materials. This damage may include
As salt is an electrochemical conductor, it can promote oxidation and corrosion of the metallic contacts.
electrical currents and ion migration that can harm PV cells.
Besides the cleaning techniques that will be proposed for the
5.6. Bubbling (Delamination)
PV modules in the next sections, the damage can be delayed
by using marine-grade aluminum or stainless steel for the One of the main causes of the PV panels’ bubbles is
frames and mounting systems. Also, applying corrosion- delamination. This is the disconnection of a solar panel‘s
resistant coatings or sealants to metal parts is another solution.
Moreover, increasing the PV module inclination angle may
decrease the salt accumulation and enable self-cleaning by rain.
5.3. EVA Discoloration

EVA discoloration is a major reliability issue that has a
negative impact on the performance and efficiency of PV
modules. It results from the deterioration of the ethylene-vinyl
acetate (EVA) encapsulant when it is exposed to ultraviolet
(UV) light, humidity, and elevated temperatures.[106] As the
degraded EVA changes its coloring from yellow to brown, its
transmittance remarkably decreases while its thermal resistance
increases.[107,108] Also, it has been noticed by many researchers
that after long-term usage, local discoloration appears on the
PV modules.[109] The reason for this type of defect is the
existence of some cracks, and oxidation due to humidity and
moisture which adversely affect the PV performance and
durability.[110]
5.4. Hot Spots

One of the most widespread issues encountered in PV modules
is hot spots. As a result of the higher temperatures in these
areas, the module may degrade more quickly and lose
efficiency and reliability. Several reasons can cause this defect
such as when a solar panel is shaded, current is concentrated Figure 13. (a) PV module soiling, (b) Salt corrosion, (c) EVA discoloration,
around solar cells, resulting in hot spots. They can be inspected (d) Hot spots, (e) Cracking, (f) Bubbling, Reprinted from [115]. Copyright
by visual insight or by using the IR camera as shown in (2011), with permission from Elsevier.
laminated components, such as the glass sheet, plastic back water-cooled FPV system has been studied by Kjeldstad
sheet, and solar cells.[104] One of the major reasons for this et al.[119] in comparison with air-cooled FPV and Land Photo-
issue is poor production, installation, or maintenance. The voltaic (LPV) systems. The authors reported that, for
delamination of PV can cause bubbles or pleats on their rear 6 months, the horizontally mounted FPV produced up to 7 %
surfaces because of air and water vapor passing through the rel more yield than the LPV and air-cooled FPV at 32 mm
layers of the PV panels.[105] Consequently, internal corrosion from the water surface. Also, the measured overall heat transfer
occurs, and the modules’ efficiency and lifespan are reduced. coefficient (U) was 81 W/m2. K which is considered a high
value in comparison with the air-cooled modules which agrees
with Lindholm et al.[120] work. In their research, they
6. Techniques for Both Cooling and Cleaning of configured that the U values depend not only on the water
temperature but also on the wind speeds. Trapani and
FPV
Millar[121] suggested a 570 W FPV system based on thin film
The PV cell only converts a small portion of the incident solar technology. The prototype was placed in a small pond in
radiation into electrical power. Unfortunately, the rest of the Canada. The measurements revealed that the electrical output
solar spectrum, which is outside the solar cell‘s range of of the FPV system was 5 %rel higher than that of the LPV due
absorption, raises its temperature, reduces its efficiency, and to the decrease in the cell temperature. Mayville et al.[122]
degrades its materials.[114] Thermal losses are a significant factor utilized thin film solar cells in their FPV system. The PV
in silicon crystalline photovoltaic (PV) technology, with losses modules were installed on the top of the floating structure in
estimated to be roughly 0.45 % per degree Celsius. This is Lake Superior in North America. For 3 months the temper-
especially true in locations with high levels of dust or air ature had lower values in comparison with the LPV system.
pollution, where the thermal losses are even more pronounced. Depending on the weather conditions, the decrease in temper-
With semi-submerged and thin-film arrays, the panels are ature varied between 10 °C to 20 °C. Hayibo[123] applied the
placed on the water‘s surface to enhance the water-cooling same foam design and conducted his research at the Michigan
effect.[116] The cooling methods can be classified into passive or Technological University (USA). The author used an empirical
active cooling techniques. Several active cooling techniques equation proposed by Kamuyu et al.[124] to estimate the
have been proposed in the literature to lower the temperature module temperature giving an electrical output of 3.5 %rel
even further which can be divided into two groups: air-cooled higher than that produced by the LPV module. Azmi et al.[125]
and water-cooled.[14,19] In the air-cooled technique, forced air is performed an indoor study of FPV and LPV systems using a
used to increase the heat transfer rate to dissipate the PV solar simulator. After one hour of exposure, the FPV system
panel’s excessive heat.[117] On the other hand, the water-cooled recorded a temperature drop that varied between 5 °C to 6 °C
technique is based on applying either a water spray or water compared to the LPV. For further enhancement in the FPV
veil cooling. In comparison with the air-cooled technique, system, Ho et al.[126,127] studied the feasibility of using water-
water is considered the best option for an FPV because of the saturated microencapsulated phase change material (MEPCM)
water availability. Apart from lowering the operating temper- to be placed at the back of the FPV modules. The findings
ature, methods based on spraying water over the PV cells have revealed that a 2 %rel increase in module efficiency could be
advantages for cleaning the panels as well as modifying the obtained using this method which gives a temperature drop of
solar spectrum. However, the required energy to run these about 4 °C. Rosa-Clot et al.[128] investigated a water-submerged
cooling techniques must be consistent with the benefits of FPV system to enhance thermal exchange. Although light
reducing the cell temperature, increasing its efficiency, and absorption is reduced by water immersion, the authors
mitigating the soiling from the panels. reported that submerged single and polycrystalline silicon-
based modules at depths lower than 10 cm can outperform the
LPV systems. On the other hand, the FPV modules that are
6.1. Water Systems
made of amorphous silicon can achieve higher performance at
For maximum radiation absorption, optimal tilt angles should depths up to 20 cm in comparison with the other two cases.
minimize reflection and angular losses. There is a tendency for This can be attributed to the difference in the spectral response
optimal tilt angles to be smaller near the equator, as opposed peaks. Rosa-Clot et al.[129] conducted a four-month experiment
to the northern and southern hemispheres, which are expected of a submerged single crystalline-based FPV at depths of 4 cm
to have higher tilt angles.[118] The FPV modules can be and 40 cm. They concluded that at 4 cm depth, the system
installed in direct contact with water which can reduce their efficiency improved by 11 %rel while it reduced by 23 %rel at
temperature and enhance their performance. Water bodies a 40 cm depth in comparison with the land-based system.
have been extensively investigated in the literature for their Lanzafame et al.[130] showed in their extended study that the
cooling effect on FPV performance. The performance of a efficiency increases particularly at 600 W/m2 of solar irradi-
ance. In addition, Abdulgafar et al.[131] investigated the one thousand PV modules require one hundred m3 of water.
performance of an immersed polycrystalline-based FPV at a Furthermore, the energy gain from utilizing this method is
depth of up to 6 cm. The results showed that system projected to be 20 % due to an increase in light absorption and
performance was enhanced by increasing the depth due to the the absence of thermal drift.
reduction in the module temperature which agreed with the
findings reported by Mehrotra et al..[132] Elminshawy et al.[133]
6.1.2. Sprinkler Cooling (SC)
performed an experimental analysis of a partially submerged
tilted module in a water pool for a few days. A fan was utilized Another option is the use of high-pressure sprinklers (Fig-
to produce the wind effect at different speeds. An increase in ure 14b). The sprinklers can create a cooling effect by spraying
the electrical output was observed with the increase in the a fine mist of water into the air, which evaporates and lowers
wind speed. In terms of a bifacial FPV module, Ziar et al.[133] the ambient temperature. Furthermore, the sprinklers are
performed a theoretical analysis using COMSOL Multiphysics designed to be highly efficient, using minimal amounts of
software to study its performance. The researchers confirmed water to achieve the desired cooling effect. For more effective
that the cooling effect of the water-exposed lower surface did cleaning, the sprinklers can combine water and detergent
not extend to the rest of the module. As a result of that, the systems.[136] A pressure of 2 to 3 bars is required for a few
energy output only increased by 0.17 % in comparison with sprinkles.
air-cooled FPV. Therefore, at the end of their study, the
authors didn’t recommend implementing a partially sub-
6.2. Air Systems
merged PV as it also has a negative impact on the PV modules’
durability. In some cases, using air as a cooling medium for PV panels is
considered a reliable option under natural conditions, such as
wind, or under forced conditions, such as using fans or
6.1.1. Water Veil Cooling (WVC)
blowers. This solution is also sometimes recommended,
Water Veil Cooling is a simple, yet effective method to especially when the available water contains prominent levels
improve the PV module efficiency. It works by utilizing a thin of salt that must be treated before use, or they may negatively
layer of water to create a water blanket between the module affect the PV surface as discussed in the previous sections.
and the external environment using a water pump (Fig- Furthermore, the air can clean the PV surfaces of dirt which
ure 14a). This blanket dissipates the heat efficiently from the has an adverse impact on the performance of the system. Wind
module to the environment, thus allowing the module to possesses a formidable natural power, which can be utilized to
remain cooler and more efficient. The method is easy to maintain the cleanliness and efficacy of solar panels. It can
implement and requires minimal maintenance, making it an naturally remove dirt from PV panels, thus increasing the solar
ideal choice for increasing the module efficiency by decreasing irradiation absorption. However, this is mainly dependent on
the reflection from the PV panel and decreasing its temper- the environmental conditions of the regions where the PV
ature. As the water veil is very thin, the absorption losses due panels are installed. These environmental conditions are the
to using this method can be ignored.[44] Also, the presence of a wind’s velocity and direction, the humidity of the air, and dust
water veil is an important factor in mitigating the effects of characteristics. Several studies have investigated the impact of
thermal shocks and reducing the aging of PV modules. This is wind on PV efficiency.
an essential factor in ensuring the longevity and reliability of Jiang et al.[137] examined the effect of the wind on the PV
PV modules. It is estimated that for one module, the water veil surface and its speed on the resuspension of the dust particles.
method consumed about 1 to 2 L/min.[134,135] This means that The study revealed that the bonding mechanism of the dust
particles and thus the cleaning process efficiency depends
mainly on the surrounding conditions.[138] Regarding forced air
cooling, Taylor et al.[139] have investigated FPV using pulse air
jets for removing dust particles where the method proved its
effectiveness. Air knife has been also researched by Du et al.[140]
in arid conditions. The findings proved that dust removal
varies from 7.86 to 17.70 % by implementing this method.
Even though air is generally thought to reduce dust accumu-
lation, some researchers have discovered that air can increase
dust accumulation, particularly when the surface is at certain
Figure 14. (a) Water Veil Cooling System, (b) Sprinkler Cooling System.[44] angles of inclination.[141]
Reprinted from [44]. Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier.
An air-cooled FPV system was studied by Choi[142] in of an average 8 °C variation between water and land temper-
which the system was built on an 11° tilt angle that wasn’t in ature.
direct contact with the water surface. The author compared
the performance of the FPV with the LPV system and
mentioned that the FPV recorded 11 % efficiency, higher than 6.3. Other Cleaning Techniques
that of LPV due to the cooling effect of the water. However,
6.3.1. Rainfall
the author reported that the LPV achieved lower temperatures
during the night. A 23°-tilted FPV system was researched by Rain can be a natural cleaning agent for photovoltaic (PV)
Yadav et al.[143] in an artificial pond in India. Lower temper- panels; however, the effectiveness of the cleaning varies
atures were observed for the FPV due to the water-cooling depending on the amount of rain. It is important to note that,
effect with an increase in efficiency reaching 0.79 %. El while rain can help to reduce the amount of dirt and dust that
Hammoumi et al.[144] performed an experimental study lasting accumulates on the panels,[150] it is not always sufficient to
five days involving the utilization of FPV attached to a PVC keep them clean and functioning optimally. Therefore, it is
water pool that was set at different angles. The authors advisable to supplement the cleaning process with other
discovered that during daylight hours, the FPV’s average methods, such as using a soft brush or a damp cloth, to ensure
temperatures were approximately 2–3 degrees lower than that the panels are kept in optimal condition. Hammond et al.[151]
of LPV modules fixed at a 30° tilt. This result could be studied the impact of rain as a cleaning method for PV panels
attributed to the disparity in temperature between water and over a period of five years. The results showed that the dust
air – the variance peaked in the afternoon at a rate of 12–15 was able to decrease the energy output by up to 3 %, while the
degrees. rain enhanced the system output by about 1 %. However,
Additional studies have examined horizontal modules that there is no empirical equation between the rainfall amount and
do not come into contact with water. Majumder et al.[145] PV efficiency variation.[152] Another study was presented by
raised their FPV module 7.5 cm above a basin of water and Khonkar et al.[153] in which they confirmed that the rainfall
mounted the LPV module farther away from the ground. decreased the PV panel efficiency as the rain tends to flow
Their results showed that the FPV temperature decreased by from top PV cells onto lower ones, carrying some dust with it,
1.4 °C due to the natural convection of air beneath it, and the which makes it easier for soil to latch to lower PV cells.
cooler atmosphere near the water. They also conducted a trial
with no water in the basin. When the same FPV configuration
6.3.2. Manual Washing and Cleaning
was used in the dry basin, the FPV module recorded higher
temperatures than the LPV due to the lack of air movement in This technique is the first and most reasonable option to
the empty basin. In their study, Goswami et al.[146] analyzed consider, as it is cost-effective and often the most straightfor-
the temperatures of FPV and LPV modules in a pond in West ward solution. Moreover, it is the most efficient way to remove
Bengal for 30 days. It was noted that the FPV temperatures soil without the need for additional materials or equipment,
were usually lower than the LPV, reaching a maximum especially for areas with low rain rates. For this purpose, a
discrepancy of 12 °C on the warmest day. Consequently, FPV simple cloth can be utilized to effectively clean the surface of
generated a daily power output that was 10.2 % greater than photovoltaic (PV) panels.[152] This cloth should be made of a
LPV. This difference was explained as a consequence of the soft material that is lint-free and non-abrasive, to avoid any
“Heat Islanding” effect; in LPV, the heat gets confined potential damage to the panels. Additionally, it is important to
between the soil and LPV modules, while the FPV module‘s ensure that the cloth is clean and free of any dirt, as this can
air is cooled by the surrounding water. In a further research cause damage to the panels. With the use of this simple cloth,
paper by Goswami and Sadhu,[147] LPV showed higher temper- the surface of the PV panels can be kept clean and free of any
atures than FPV during an extensive 16-month period. The dust or dirt. To reduce the risk of electric shock and prevent
difference in the monthly mean temperatures ranged from any electrical injuries, it is imperative that non-conducting
6 °C during winter to a peak of 22 °C in the hottest season, materials, such as brushes, and clothes are employed when
yielding a 1 % absolute improvement in efficiency with FPV. cleaning surfaces that require human labor. This will ensure
A study was presented by Sukarso and Kim[148] to investigate that all safety protocols are followed and that all individuals
the performance of the FPV in comparison with the LPV. The involved in the cleaning process remain safe. However, this
authors compared the experimentally measured temperatures approach necessitates numerous and repetitive steps and can be
with an empirical equation provided by Duffie and exceedingly time-consuming.
Beckman.[149] The expected energy output of an FPV was
found to be up to 0.6 % higher than an LPV, partly as a result
6.3.3. Water-Based Robots 6.3.5. Surface Vibrations

The use of cleaning robots on the surface of photovoltaic (PV) The phenomenon of re-entrainment from a vertical sinusoidal
panels is an effective and efficient way to maintain the vibrating surface is based on the inertia of particles at a specific
cleanliness of these panels. By utilizing these robots, the acceleration. This technique utilizes the vibration of the surface
cleaning process can be automated, thus eliminating the need to cause the particles to be re-entrained. This method is the
for manual labor and reducing the amount of time required to basis of the vibration technique, which is used to separate
clean the panels. Additionally, these robots can be pro- particles of varied sizes and densities. Piezoelectric vibrators are
grammed to clean the panels in a variety of ways, allowing for a reliable and efficient method for cleaning PV panels. The
a customized cleaning solution that is tailored to the specific vibrators use piezoelectricity, a phenomenon in which materi-
needs of the PV panel. RobuGLASS, which utilizes a water- als produce an electric charge when subjected to mechanical
based methodology, is one of the most well-known. As such, stress, to generate high-frequency vibrations that can remove
the use of cleaning robots can greatly improve the overall dirt and dust from the surface of the panel. This method of
performance of PV panels and ensure that they remain clean cleaning is highly effective, as it eliminates the need for manual
and function at optimal levels. scrubbing or the use of chemical cleaning agents, which can
There are two robot types: suction adhesion and magnetic damage the delicate surface of the PV panels. Additionally, the
adhesion.[154,155] Suction adhesion is the most widely used type use of piezoelectric vibrators requires minimal maintenance
of robot adhesion. This method involves the robot creating a and can be used for an extended period. Figure 15 shows a
vacuum inside cups, which are then pressed firmly against the liner piezoelectric vibrator with a wiper to ensure the PV panel
surface. This creates a suction effect, allowing the robot to was cleaned efficiently.[156]
hold onto the surface and move around without slipping. For
magnetic adhesion to be successful, the surface must be
6.3.6. Electrodynamic Screen
ferromagnetic, which unfortunately is not a feasible option for
photovoltaic (PV) panels. As such, magnetic adhesion is not a An Electrodynamic Screen (EDS) is an effective solution for
viable solution for PV panels. The weight of some existing cleaning soiling from the surface of PV panels. This process
autonomous robots in the global market is a major impedi- utilizes the electrodynamic force created by parallel electrodes
ment to their efficacy when it comes to cleaning photovoltaic to remove dust, dirt, and other debris from the panel surface.
(PV) panels. This substantial weight renders them difficult to This force is created when a high-voltage alternating current is
maneuver and operate in a requisite manner for effective passed through the electrodes, creating an electrostatic field
cleaning. However, employing robots without human inter- that attracts and removes the soiling[157] as presented in
vention can help to decrease water wastage, which is a major Figure 16. It has been reported that using EDS can eliminate
advantage of utilizing robotic technology for the task. By 90 % of the soiling from a flat surface in two minutes.[153]
investing in lighter robots, the efficiency of cleaning PV panels
can be augmented and the need for water can be diminished.
The power consumption of cleaning robots is highly variable
and is dependent upon the slope of the photovoltaic panel,
wind speed, and thickness of the soiled layer. Consequently,
these factors must be considered when evaluating the efficiency
of the device to accurately determine the amount of energy
required for its operation.
6.3.4. Wipe-Based Robots

As an alternative to water-based robots, wiper robots offer a
viable solution for the removal of low-mass particles without
the need for water.[37] However, these robots are limited in
their capabilities and cannot be used to remove heavier
particles. It is important to note that wiper robots are not a
replacement for water-based robots, but rather complementary
technology that can be used in certain scenarios. However, this
technology may cause scratches to the surface of the PV panel Figure 15. Cleaning of a PV module using a piezoelectric vibrator.[156]
which may affect the transmission of the PV glass. Reprinted from [156]. Copyright (2013), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 16. Electrodynamic screen concept.
5°. In the first 30 days of the experiment, the PV panels’

6.3.7. Coating
efficiency increased by more than 4.3 %. In other research,
An applicable coating technique is sometimes essential to silica nanoparticles have been examined as a hydrophilic film
protect surfaces from any undesired effects that may potentially of the PV glass by Alam et al..[163] The findings concluded that
damage the surface features. Such effects may include radiation absorptivity has increased by more than 7 %.
corrosion resistance, adhesion, wettability, and wear resistance,
all of which must be considered when selecting the appropriate
coating technique. By doing so, surfaces can be preserved from 7. Prospects, Challenges, and Possible Integration
any potential harm that may result from these effects. There with Other Systems
are mainly two types of coatings: super hydrophobic and super
7.1. Prospective Scenarios and Challenges for FPVs
hydrophilic.[158,159] Super-hydrophobic coatings are coverings
that have extremely low surface energy and have a water Although FPV technology has shown promise as a source of
contact angle of more than 150°, making them highly repellent clean and renewable energy, its overall potential remains
to water. These coatings are typically made of polymers, largely untapped. However, given the continuous advance-
nanoparticles, silicones, silanes, or other materials that have a ments in renewable energy technologies, the prospects for FPV
high degree of surface roughness, allowing them to repel water as a significant player in the renewable energy market appear
and other liquids. Aside from protecting and self-cleaning PV quite encouraging. The following are some potential scenarios
panels, they are also used in some industrial applications such for FPV’s future:
as ships and aircraft. On the other hand, super hydrophilic 1. Increased Efficiency: By improving the orientation and
coatings have extremely high surface energy and have a contact tracking mechanisms of the panels, FPV could outperform
angle of less than 10°, making them highly attractive to water. land-based solar arrays.
These coatings are typically made of polymers or other 2. Large-scale Installations: As land-based PV solar plants
materials that have a high degree of surface smoothness, become increasingly difficult to construct due to land
allowing them to attract and absorb water and other liquids. constraints, the deployment of large-scale FPV solar plants
They are often used in medical and industrial applications, is gaining momentum across countries. This trend is
such as in water purification systems, to increase the efficiency expected to continue, with the potential to power entire
of water filtration. Several PV-related studies of both coatings cities over large water bodies, increasing renewable energy
have been mentioned in the literature. Aluminum oxide has capacity and energy security.
been tested by Sutha et al.[160] as a soiling mitigation technique 3. Accelerated Deployment: In addition to concern for
using a hydrophobic coating with a contact angle of more than climate change, there is an increasing urgency in many
160°. The results showed that the efficiency of the PV panel countries to expand the share of renewable energy in overall
improved by 90 % after using the coating. Also, a highly power generation due to national targets and regulations.
transparent hydrophobic film with a contact angle of 154.6° Governments are promoting FPV with supporting policies
has been investigated by Xu et al.[161] for enhancing the and programs, such as feed-in-tariffs and subsidies, to
efficiency of the PV panel. The results showed that the accelerate the deployment of FPV systems. This is further
efficiency of the PV has been enhanced by 1.7 times in driving the industry and its prospects.
comparison with the dusty panel. In terms of super hydro- 4. New Technological Innovations: Exploring ways of using
philic coatings, Zhong et al.[162] studied the impact of titanium new materials to build long-lasting and lightweight systems
ethoxide and KH550 with a water contact angle of less than that are resilient in harsh environments.
5. Economies of Scale: As the production volume of the 9. Maintenance and operations: FPV installations require
crucial components such as solar panels, inverters, and regular maintenance and monitoring due to their exposure
mounting structures for FPV increases, there is potential to harsh marine environments. Ensuring efficient main-
for economies of scale – where greater production volume tenance processes is essential to maximizing the lifespan
leads to lower costs. This is expected to drive cost and performance of FPV systems.
reductions in manufacturing, transportation, installation, Addressing these challenges through research, development,
and operation of FPV systems, leading to even greater take- and policy support can help unlock the full potential of FPV
up of FPV and support for its prospects. technology and enable its wider adoption as a significant player
However, several challenges and barriers could hinder its in the renewable energy market.
widespread adoption. These include:
1. High initial costs: The cost of manufacturing and installing
7.2. Possible Integration with Other Systems
FPV systems is higher than traditional solar PV systems.
This high upfront cost can deter potential investors and As the demand for renewable energy continues to grow, there
limit widespread adoption.[53,164] is a need to develop new ways of integrating different
2. Limited suitable locations: FPV systems require access to renewable energy sources, as well as traditional energy sources,
large bodies of water, such as reservoirs, lakes, or oceans. to improve overall system efficiency.
Identifying suitable locations with adequate water bodies 1. Hybrid Systems: One of the most promising scenarios for
and optimal conditions for FPV can be challenging.[165] FPV is as part of hybrid systems that combine solar PV
3. Environmental impact: The installation and operation of with wind turbines, hydropower[171,172] as presented in
FPV systems can have environmental impacts, such as Figure 17, and/or energy storage systems such as batteries,
affecting aquatic ecosystems and water quality. Mitigating flywheels, and compressed air energy storage as studied by
these environmental concerns is essential for wider Cazzaniga et al.[173] (Figure 18). This integration would
acceptance.[166,167] provide a more stable supply of renewable energy, reducing
4. Technological limitations: FPV technology is still in its the need to rely on traditional power sources which are well
early stages of development. Improvements in efficiency, suited to remote locations or off-grid systems.
durability, and reliability are necessary to compete with 2. Smart Grid: Integration of FPV with smart grids could
other renewable energy sources.[168,169] enable real-time monitoring and management of electricity
5. The need for environmentally friendly materials:[170] To networks and improve the overall efficiency of the
comply with water protection regulations and local stand- electricity system. This would enable utilities to manage
ards, FPV systems must use environmentally friendly grid stability more easily by dispatching excess energy to
materials. The solar panels and floating structures should areas of peak demand, reducing the use of costly fossil fuel
be made of materials that are safe for the environment and peaking plants, and ultimately improving system
non-toxic so that they do not have any negative effects on reliability.[174]
aquatic ecosystems or biodiversity. 3. Floating PV with Aquaculture: Another prospect for FPV
6. Regulatory and policy frameworks: The absence of clear is integration with aquaculture and other water-based food
regulatory frameworks and policies specific to FPV can production, where the panels can serve as shade for fish
impede its widespread adoption. Governments need to
establish supportive policies, incentives, and standards to
encourage investment, streamline permitting processes, and
ensure the integration of FPV into existing energy
systems.[167]
7. Grid integration challenges: Integrating FPV-generated
electricity into existing power grids can be complex as it
requires a special transmission infrastructure to connect
them to onshore grids. Overcoming grid integration
challenges is crucial for large-scale deployment.
8. Public acceptance and perception: The public‘s perception
and acceptance of FPV technology may influence its
deployment. Concerns regarding visual impact, navigation
hazards, and conflicts with other uses of water bodies such
as fishing, and recreation can lead to opposition and Figure 17. Hybrid FPV and hydropower System.[171] Reprinted from [171].
regulatory hurdles. Copyright (2020), with permission from Elsevier.
6. Power-to-gas and hydrogen production: The electrolysis of

water using electricity is a well-established technology for
producing hydrogen, which can then be used as a clean fuel
to generate electricity or heat. The integration of FPV with
power-to-gas or hydrogen production facilities could
provide a significant opportunity to store electricity and
generate hydrogen from renewable energy sources.[179,180]
8. Conclusion
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of Floating
Photovoltaic (FPV) technology, which has the potential as a
clean and renewable energy source for power generation.
Various system components, site selection aspects, and PV
panel inspection methodology have been discussed. Moreover,
the cooling techniques to thermally manage the PV panels’
temperature as well as the cleaning methods have been
Figure 18. Hybrid FPV and compressed air storage system.[173] Reprinted thoroughly explained. Finally, FPV’s prospects, challenges, and
from [173]. Copyright (2017), with permission from Elsevier.“ the possibility of system integration have been introduced.
Based on the reviewed studies included in this paper, the
following conclusions and recommendations are drawn:
farms and increase the productivity of fish. This potential * Various materials can be used in the manufacturing of FPV,
integrates important resources: providing food, renewable including c-Si, m-Si, a-Si, DSCs, HIT cells, and CdTe. The
energy, and water management solutions. In a study choice of materials depends on the specific requirements
presented by Wang et al.,[175] prawn, tilapia, and milkfish and constraints of the application.
have grown by 1.1, 1.2, and 1.4, respectively for all FPV- * Research shows HIT and CdTe solar cells are suitable for
covered ponds compared with the control ponds. FPV plants. This is due to their lower degradation levels
4. Floating PV with Seawater Desalination: The combination compared to silicon solar cells. Therefore, implementing
of floating PV and seawater desalination systems could HIT and CdTe cells in FPV plants may increase their
provide considerable advantages to arid regions confronting efficiency and lifespan.
water issues. Nevertheless, some difficulties need to be met * Bifacial photovoltaic offers advantages over conventional
to make the integration of floating PV and seawater mono-facial modules for FPV.
desalination economically viable, including the cost of * For greater efficiency, solar trackers are employed to direct
maintenance and replacement of the floating structures, solar modules toward the sun. FPV plants are particularly
and the efficiency of the desalination process. A study well suited to using vertical single-axis trackers, as the
conducted by Skumanich et al.[176] showed that in order to buoyant structure can cause disruptions.
drive a seawater desalination plant, a large area of PV is * FPV systems with integrated energy storage technologies
required. Despite these challenges, the integration of such as batteries, pumped water, hydrogen generation, and
floating PV and seawater desalination systems holds compressed air energy storage (CAES), have the potential to
immense potential for countries that have access to seawater achieve sustainability, cost-effectiveness, scalability, and
and abundant sunlight.[176] emission reduction.
5. Electrification of Transportation: As demand for electric * The PV module‘s long-term reliability is essential for power
vehicles (EVs) grows, the integration of FPV with EV generation for at least 25 years. Environmental conditions,
charging stations could provide a useful solution to help moisture ingress, and spectral effects can influence its
meet the increased electricity demand. Tiwari et al.[177] performance, and various inspection techniques can be
studied the potential of using foldable floating solar arrays employed to detect cell defects and flaws for better
to charge electric vessels. These arrays would use the maintenance.
concept of FPV but would be designed to be easily taken * Water cooling is a better option among active cooling
on and off of the water surface. This could also reduce techniques to minimize thermal losses and achieve higher
electricity transmission losses and support the adoption of efficiency in FPV systems.
EVs across various sectors.[178] * Despite the challenges faced by this technology, there are
several prospective scenarios for FPV’s future, including
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Review doi.org/10.1002/tcr.

Asmaa Ahmed,*[a, b] Mohamed Elsakka,[a, b] Nabil Elminshawy,[a, b] Ayman Mohamed,[a] and

the efficiency of FPV technology in powering structures. Once

[a] A. Ahmed, M. Elsakka, N. Elminshawy, A. Mohamed

global solar irradiation. In research conducted by the

transmission lines. Several configurations of FPV plants are

Figure 4. The basic concept of the floating photovoltaic system.

Figure 6. Variation of solar intensity and relative spectral response of several

3.1.1. Solar cells

Figure 8. PV module components. Figure 9. Solar cells Busbars and Fingers.

Therefore, PV modules are pointed towards the sun during the

3.6. Floating Structure (Pontoons)

PV Panels. Only some PV panels have passed this test, for

5.3. EVA Discoloration

5.4. Hot Spots

6.3.3. Water-Based Robots 6.3.5. Surface Vibrations

6.3.4. Wipe-Based Robots

Figure 16. Electrodynamic screen concept.

5°. In the first 30 days of the experiment, the PV panels’

6. Power-to-gas and hydrogen production: The electrolysis of

several prospective scenarios for FPV’s future, including

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