Robotic Arm Project Report

ROBOTIC ARM
A Project Report
Project Report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
Diploma in Mechanical Engineering under
State Board of Technical Education, Kerala
Submitted By
AMAL K S 19020312
AMAN THOMSON 19020313
ANANTHU A S 19020314
ANISHMON 19020315
ANUROOP B 19020316
AQUIN JOSLIN 19020317
ARJUN A R 19020318
ASHIK T S 19020319
ASHIL C J 19020320
AZEEM AHMEDH 19020322
ROJAL RAPHAEL 19025611
Guided By
Sri. CHINDHU V G
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE,
KALAMASSERY, ERNAKULAM – 683104
2021- 2022
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KALAMASSERY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that report entitled “ROBOTIC ARM” is a bondage record of project done
by second group students, Sixth Semester Diploma in Mechanical Engineering during the
academic year 2019 - 2022 at Government Polytechnic College, Kalamassery in partial
fulfilment of the requirement for the award of DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING under the Technical Education, Government of Kerala. To the best of my
knowledge and belief this work has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any other
degree.
Sri. CHINDHU V G
Head of Department
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
DECLARATION
We the undersigned solemnly declare that the project report entitled “ROBOTIC ARM” is
based on my own work carried out during the course of our study under the supervision of Sri.
CHINDHU V G. We assert the statements made and conclusions drawn are an outcome of my
research work. I further certify that the work has not been submitted to any other institution for
any other degree/diploma/certificate in this university or any other universities abroad. We
have followed the guidelines provided by the university in writing the report. Whenever we
used materials (data, theoretical analysis, and text) from other sources, we have given due credit
to them in the text of the report and giving their details in the references.
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
KALAMASSERY
www.gptckalamassery.ac.in
INSTITUTION VISION AND MISSION
VISION
To become a centre of excellence committed to moulding technologically competent and

ethically motivated learners capable of contributing constructively to the sustainable
development of the society.
MISSION
1. To ensure a viable academic ambience conducive to intellectual growth and skill

acquisition.
2. To defect a symbiotic relationship between the industry and the institute.
3. To infuse a sense of personal integrity, self-reliance and civic responsibility.
4. To inculcate entrepreneurship skills and leadership qualities in the learners through. a
culture of innovation and excellence.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
KALAMASSERY
DEPARTMENT VISION AND MISSION
VISION
Mechanical Engineering Department impart quality Education that mould technically sound,
socially responsible technocrats to meet ever changing industrial demands and social needs.
MISSION
1. Have state of art infrastructure and resource for practical oriented skill development.
2. Impart relevant technical knowledge along with values and ethics.
3. Enhance creativity through innovative teaching learning methodologies.
4. Inculcate essential leadership qualities coupled with commitment to the society.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
KALAMASSERY
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Apply knowledge of basic mathematics, science and

Basic and Discipline
01 engineering fundamentals and engineering
specific knowledge
specialization to solve the engineering problems.
Identify and analyze well-defined engineering

02 Problem analysis
problems using codified standard methods.
Design solutions for well-defined technical problems

Design/ development of
03 and assist with the design of systems components or
solutions
processes to meet specified needs
Engineering Tools,
Apply modern engineering tools and appropriate
04 Experimentation and
technique to conduct standard tests and measurements
Testing
Engineering practices
Apply appropriate technology in context of society,
05 for society, sustainability
sustainability, environment and ethical practices.
and environment
Use engineering management principles individually,

as a team member or a leader to manage projects and
06 Project Management
effectively communicate about well-defined
engineering activities.
Ability to analyze individual needs and engage in

07 Life-long learning
updating in the context of technological changes.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES(PSOs)
Students acquire technical and managerial skill that make

01 Employability
them employable
Students acquire theoretical background of each course

02 Problem solving that they are capable of applying it for solving real-time
problems
PROGRAM EDUCATION OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
On successful completion of the program, the graduates are expected

1. To take up challenging careers in suitable corporate, business or educational
sectors across the world.
2. To exhibit professionalism, ethical attitude, communication skills and team
work in the practice of profession, and adapt to current trends by engaging
in lifelong learning.
3. To be knowledgeable and responsible citizens with good team work skills,
competent leadership qualities and holistic values.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to God almighty whose
blessings and grace always been there with us for the successful completion of my project with
great enthusiasm and pleasure that We bringing out this project.
First and foremost, WE thank God almighty for all his blessings he showered on me. We
express sincere thanks to Principal Smt. GEETHA DEVI R, Govt. Polytechnic College,
Kalamassery.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our Head of the Department Sri.CHINDHU V
G, Department of Mechanical Engineering for the successful completion of this project.
We express my sincere gratitude to Project Co-ordinator Sri. CHINDHU V G, Head of
Department of Mechanical Engineering for his cooperation and guidance for preparing &
presenting this project.
Last but not the least thankful to all members of our department for providing their valuable
support in this project. We also expressing our thanks to my parents and all friends who give
me extreme support for completion of this project.
SECOND GROUP STUDENTS

Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering
i
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. GPTC Kalamassery
ABSTRACT
Multi-degree of freedom robots is playing very important role in different application of

automation. They are providing much more accuracy in carrying out a typical procedure as
compared to the manual work done by human. In recent years the design, fabrication and
development of robotic arms have been active research areas in robotics all around the world.
The robotic manipulators are nowadays used for many applications in the industries. This
project describes a mechanical system, design concept and prototype implementation of a 6
DOF robotic arm, which should perform industrial task such as pick and place of fragile objects
operation. This robot arm being controlled by micro-controller has base, shoulder, elbow, wrist
rotation and a functional gripper. Gripper has been built as end-effector and is capable of
grasping diverse objects within own workspace of the arm possible. Servo Motor is
implemented on each part. The microcontroller (multiple servo controller) implements forward
kinematics and position control of DC motors. The design aims to provide fine manipulation
in performing pick and place task, while still maintaining the simplicity of design. We
developed a robot in Fusion 360 and analysed it motion and path traceability. It gave accurate
results with good precision. Then, we developed an example of the robot’s function in a
performance simulation. The simulation results indicated that the mechanism and controller
performance were acceptable.
Keywords: - Robot, Manipulator, Fusion 360, Kinematics, Position, Actuator, Sensor.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
TOPIC
NO. NO.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES v
LIST OF TABLES vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS 1
2 HISTORY OF ROBOTS 5
3 COMPONENTS OF ROBOTIC ARM 8
3.1 END EFFECTOR 8
3.2 ACTUATORS 8
3.3 SENSORS 11
3.4 CONTROLLER 13
3.5 SOFTWARE 14
4 DEGREE OF FREEDOM 16
4.1 SIX DEGREE OF FREEDOM 19
5 CONSTRUCTION 20
5.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN 20
5.2 ROBOT AND HUMAN MOTION COMPARISON 22
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5.3 MATERIAL 23
5.4 FACTOR OF SAFETY 28
5.5 FUSION 360 DESIGN 28
5.6 EXOSKELETON DESIGN 32
5.7 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS 32
5.8 METHODS 37
5.9 ASSEMBLING 41
6 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS 42
6.1 SERVO MOTOR (ACTUATOR) 43
6.2 CONTROLLER 44
6.3 JUMPER WIRES AND CONNECTORS 46
6.4 POWER ADAPTER 48
6.5 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT 48
7 PROGRAMMING 50
7.1 C PROGRAM COGE 51
7.2 SOFTWARE 52
8 TOOLS USED 54
9 COSTING 62
10 ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC ARM 74
11 DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC ARM 76
12 CONCLUSION 77
13 REFERENCE 78
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
NAME
NO. NO.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS 1
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTIC ARM 3
2.1 HISTORY OF ROBOTICS 6
3.1 END EFFECTOR 8
3.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ACTUATORS 9
3.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SENSORS 12
3.4 CONTROLLER BLOCK DIAGRAM 13
3.5 CNC ROBOT CONTROLLER 13
3.6 ROBOTIC ARM CONTROLLING SOFTWARE 15
4.1 JOINTS OF ROBOTIC ARM 17
4.2 SIX DEGREE OF FREEDOM 19
5.1 MECHANICAL LINKS OF ROBOTIC ARM 20
5.2 JOINTS AND LINKS IN COMPARE WITH HUMAN ARM 21
5.3 JOINTS AND LINKS OF ROBOTIC ARM 22
5.4 ROBOT AND HUMAN MOTION COMPARISON 22
5.5 ALUMINIUM SHEET 24
5.6 MANUFACTURING OF ALUMINIUM 27
5.7 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF MODELLED ROBOTIC ARM 29
5.8 ASSEMBLED VIEW OF MODELLED ROBOTIC ARM 30
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5.9 FRONT VIEW OF MODELLED ROBOTIC ARM 31
5.10 TOP VIEW OF MODELLED ROBOTIC ARM 31
5.11 MULTIFUNCTIONAL BRACKET 33
5.12 LONG U-BRACKET 34
5.13 SHORT U-BRACKET 35
5.14 SIDE BRACKET 35
DEEP GROOVE BALL BEARING WITH SEALS OR SHIELDS

5.15 36
(61815-2RS1)
5.16 BASE OF MODELLED ROBOTIC ARM 36
END EFFECTOR (GRIPPER) USED FOR MODELLED ROBOTIC

5.17 37
ARM
5.18 LASER CUTTING 38
5.19 LASER CUTTING PROCESS 40
5.20 ASSEMBLING (SCREWING) 41
6.1 LDX-218 DIGITAL SERVO 43
6.2 LFD-06 DIGITAL SERVO 44
6.3 LD-1501 MG DIGITAL SERVO 44
6.4 TRANSMITTER & RECEIVER (PS2) 46
MULTIPLE SERVO CONTROLLER WITH BUILT IN

6.5 46
BLUETOOTH
6.6 JUMPER WIRE 47
6.7 SPIRAL CABLE WRAP 47
6.8 7.5V 3A POWER ADAPTER 48
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6.9 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 49
7.1 C PROGRAM CODE 51
7.2 ANDROID INTERFACE OF LEARM APP 52
7.3 WINDOWS INTERFACE OF LEARM APP 53
8.1 STEEL RULE 54
8.2 MEASURING TAPE 55
8.3 SCREW DRIVER 56
8.4 HAMMER 56
8.5 CHISEL 57
8.6 COMBINATION PLIER 58
8.7 TRY SQUARE 58
8.8 OPEN END SPANNER 59
8.9 BOSCH PORTABLE DRILLING MACHINE 60
8.10 HACKSAW 60
8.11 UTILITY KNIFE 61
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO NAME PAGE NO
9.1 CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMES 70
9.2 CONSTRUCTION OF BASE 70
9.3 LIST OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 71
9.4 OTHER EXPENSES 72
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CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
Robotics is the interdisciplinary branch of technology that deals with the design, construction,
operation and application of robots. It aims to develop machines that can replicate human
actions. Mechanical engineering is a significant branch in engineering, having to its credit the
design and uses of some wonders such as aeroplanes, ships, automobiles, and automation.
Robotics in mechanical engineering encompasses the composition and structure of robots. It
aims to design intelligent machines that can help and assist humans in their day-to-day lives
and keep them safe when used in dangerous environments.
Fig. 1.1 Introduction to Robotics
Robotics is a branch of engineering that comprises the formation, design, building, and action
of robots. This field overlays with mechanical-, mechatronics-, electrical engineering,
computer science, electronics, AI, Nano-technology and bio-engineering. In addition, Robotics
deal with the computer systems for their control, sensory response, and information processing.
A Robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts,

tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks” [Robot Institute of America, RIA], A goal-oriented machine that can sense,
plan and act” [Peter Corke]

These different fields knowledge are utilize to build machines that can work like human.
Robots operate in different environment and can be used for various purpose where human
cannot perform any task.
Robotic Arms, also known as articulated robotic arms, are fast, reliable, and accurate and can
be programmed to do an infinite number of tasks in a variety of environments. They are used
in factories to automate execution of repetitive tasks, such as applying paint to equipment or
parts; in warehouses to pick, select, or sort goods from distribution conveyors to fulfil
consumer orders; or in a farm field to pick and place ripe fruits onto storage trays. And as
robotic technologies develop and industrial environments become more connected, the
capabilities of robotic arms expand to enable new use cases and business operation models.
In the past, a robotic arm required teaching to perform narrowly defined tasks, such as picking
a single type of object from a precise location with a specific orientation. Robots were not able
to identify a particular type of object among many, determine an object location with some
tolerance (area rather than exact position), or adjust the grasp based on object orientation.
Today, thanks to devices such as Intel® RealSense™ high-resolution depth cameras, powerful
CPUs and GPUs, and AI technologies such as the Intel® Distribution of Open VINO™ toolkit,
robotic arms are augmented with the sensing and intelligence to perform new tasks. These
smart, vision-augmented robots can detect objects in their surroundings, recognize them by
types, and manipulate them accordingly. These capabilities allow robots to operate more
accurately and more consistently, and safer and faster than before. They also expand the range
of tasks that robots can accomplish.
With these advancements in machine vision, AI and network technologies, robotic arms can
now see, analyse, and respond to their environments while transmitting valuable data and
insights back to facility and business management systems. One area that benefits from this
transformation is equipment (robot included) maintenance. The robot can compute data at the
edge or transmit it to a server or the cloud for remote monitoring. This process enables
predictive maintenance, which in turn helps reduce maintenance costs while improving
machine uptime. Robotic arms can be used to automate the process of placing goods or
products onto pallets. By automating the process, palletizing becomes more accurate, cost-
effective, and predictable. The use of robotic arms also frees human workers from performing
tasks that present a risk of bodily injury. Impedance control is one of the most commonly used
2
methods to move a robot along a desired trajectory when there are people in the workspace.
With this control method, the robot acts like a spring: it allows the person to push it, but moves
back to an original desired position after the human stops applying forces. While this strategy
is very fast and enables the robot to safely adapt to the human’s forces, the robot does not
leverage these interventions to update its understanding of the task. Left alone, the robot would
continue to perform the task in the same way as it had planned before any human interactions.
Fig. 1.2 Introduction to Robotic Arm
Why is this the case? It boils down to what assumptions the robot makes about its knowledge
of the task and the meaning of the forces it senses. Typically, a robot is given a notion of its
task in the form of an objective function. This objective function encodes rewards for different
aspects of the task like “reach a goal at location X” or “move close to the table while staying
far away from people”. The robot uses its objective function to produce a motion that best
satisfies all the aspects of the task: for example, the robot would move toward goal X while
choosing a path that is far from a human and close to the table. If the robot’s original objective
function was correct, then any physical interaction is simply a disturbance from its correct path.
Thus, the robot should allow the physical interaction to perturb it for safety purposes, but it
will return to the original path it planned since it stubbornly believes it is correct.
3
In contrast, we argue that human interventions are often intentional and occur because the robot
is doing something wrong. While the robot’s original behaviour may have been optimal with
respect to its pre-defined objective function, the fact that a human intervention was necessary
implies that the original objective function was not quite right. Thus, physical human
interactions are no longer disturbances but rather informative observations about what the
robot’s true objective should be. With this in mind, we take inspiration from inverse
reinforcement learning (IRL), where the robot observes some behaviour (e.g., being pushed
away from the table) and tries to infer an unknown objective function (e.g., “stay farther away
from the table”). Note that while many IRL methods focus on the robot doing better the next
time it performs the task, we focus on the robot completing its current task correctly.
➢ To design and control 6 DOF Robotic manipulator (Articulated + spherical wrist) which
grasp fragile object to move it to desired location as well as regulating internal forces of
object. Using force sensor (tactile sensor which is based on resistive principle) allows
actuator to maintain constant gripping force on object to avoid damaging of object.
➢ To apply PID controller for position control of actuators which allows manipulator to
precisely place objects at desired location.
➢ To develop graphical user interface (GUI) working as HMI taking commands from user
and transferring to manipulator.
4
CHAPTER - 2
HISTORY OF ROBOTIC ARM
The earliest robots as we know them were created in the early 1950s by George C. Devol, an
inventor from Louisville, Kentucky. He invented and patented a reprogrammable manipulator
called "Unimate," from "Universal Automation." For the next decade, he attempted to sell his
product in the industry, but did not succeed. In the late 1960s, businessman/engineer Joseph
Engleberger acquired Devol's robot patent and was able to modify it into an industrial robot
and form a company called Unimation to produce and market the robots. For his efforts and
successes, Engleberger is known in the industry as "the Father of Robotics." Academia also
made much progress in the creation new robots. In 1958 at the Stanford Research Institute,
Charles Rosen led a research team in developing a robot called "Shakey." Shakey was far more
advanced than the original Unimate, which was designed for specialized, industrial
applications. Shakey could wheel around the room, observe the scene with his television
"eyes," move across unfamiliar surroundings, and to a certain degree, respond to his
environment.
The history of robots has its origins in the ancient world. During the industrial revolution,
humans developed the structural engineering capability to control electricity so that machines
could be powered with small motors. In the early 20th century, the notion of
a humanoid machine was developed.
The first uses of modern robots were in factories as industrial robots. These industrial robots
were fixed machines capable of manufacturing tasks which allowed production with less
human work. Digitally programmed industrial robots with artificial intelligence have been
built since the 2000s.
Robot word derived from “Robota” a Czech word meaning ‘work’. Sir Isaac Asimov is
frequently specified the first person to usage the term robotics in his story in 1940s. In story,
He recommended 03 laws to monitor the performance of robots. Sir Isaac Asimov proposed
three philosophical laws for robotics which continued to the present given as;
Robot First Law

A Robot must not harm a human being or, through inaction, allow one to come to harm.

Robot Second Law
A Robot must always obey human beings unless it is in conflict with higher order law.
Robot Third Law

A Robot must protect itself from harm unless that is in conflict with a higher order law.
Zeroth Law
A Robot must not injure humanity or, through action, allow humanity to come to harm.
Following are the list of Robots
In 1954 First programmable robot is presented by George Devol

In 1971 Stanford University presented Stanford Arm
In 1974 Cincinnati Milacron presents the T3 robot with computer control
In 1978 Unimation presents the PUMA robot
In 1979 Japan presents SCARA Robot
In 1996 Honda expose its Humanoid robot
Fig. 2.1 History of Robotics
Building Industrial Robotic Arms with Intel® Technologies
From CPUs and GPUs with built-in AI inference acceleration to free algorithms, middleware,
and reference implementations, Intel has the hardware, software, and ready-to-run solutions
you need to develop and deploy industrial robotic arms.
Intel® processors for IoT and embedded uses provide powerful compute capabilities needed
for automated operation. Intel® RealSense™ products give robotic arms the ability to perceive
6
their surroundings and understand objects. A robust range of depth cameras enable depth
mapping which is essential in ensuring robotic arms can perform in multiple environments and
varying conditions.
And the Intel® Distribution of Open VINO™ toolkit enables developers to optimize, tune, and
run comprehensive AI inference using an included model optimizer and runtime and
development tools, facilitating a smoother development process and enabling a write-once,
deploy-anywhere model.
Intel Takes Robotic Arms to the Next Level
Businesses across all industries are feeling pressure to reach new levels of productivity and
efficiency while improving workplace safety. By working with Intel, companies can drastically
enhance their robotic arms with advanced sensing technologies, AI, machine and computer
vision, and edge networking to not only meet new productivity and performance requirements
but also give them a competitive edge in an ever-changing world.
Increasingly sophisticated machines may populate our world, but for robots to be really
useful, they’ll have to become more self-sufficient. After all, it would be impossible to
program a home robot with the instructions for gripping each and every object it ever might
encounter. You want it to learn on its own, and that is where advances in artificial intelligence
come in.
Take Brett. In a UC Berkeley lab, the humanoid robot has taught itself to conquer one of
those children’s puzzles where you cram pegs into different shaped holes. It did so by trial
and error through a process called reinforcement learning. No one told it how to get a square
peg into a square hole, just that it needed to. So, by making random movements and getting
a digital reward (basically, yes, do that kind of thing again) each time it got closer to success,
Brett learned something new on its own. The process is super slow, sure, but with time
roboticists will hone the machines’ ability to teach themselves novel skills in novel
environments, which is pivotal if we don’t want to get stuck babysitting them.
7
CHAPTER - 3
COMPONENTS OF ROBOTIC ARM

3.1 END EFFECTOR
End-effector is a robot device or tool that connect with the robot arm. End-effector is part of
manipulator which interact with the environment. It may be of different types. Most common
type of end effector is gripper. Force/Torque Sensors end effector. Any type of material
Abstraction Tools.
Fig. 3.1 End Effector
3.2 ACTUATORS
A mechanical actuator functions to execute movement by converting one kind of motion, such
as rotary motion, into another kind, such as linear motion. An example is a rack and pinion.
The operation of mechanical actuators is based on combinations of structural components, such
as gears and rails, or pulleys and chains. An actuator is a component of a machine that is
responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a
valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover". An actuator requires a control device (controlled by
control signal) and a source of energy. Any device which performs any action called actuators.
In robotics, actuators deal motor which cause movement of the manipulator. Different types of
actuators are used for said purpose, for example most commonly actuators used are DC,
Stepper and DC Servo motors, pneumatic actuators, hydraulic actuators.

Fig. 3.2 Different Types of Actuators
Electric motors: Any part of a piece of equipment or appliance that translates electrical
energy into motion, such as those found in ventilation fans, blenders, or refrigerators,
contains at least one actuator. Electric cars also use actuators.
Stepper motors: These actuators are best known for receiving digital pulses and converting
them into mechanical motion. Stepper motors are often seen in robots, smart tools, or
automated cutting equipment.
Hydraulic cylinders: These are linear-motion devices that operate using a tube, piston, and
rod. Many vehicles operate using hydraulic motion, such as bulldozers, backhoes, or
excavators.
What Are Some Different Types of Actuators?
Actuators can be classified by the motion they produce and the power source they use.
Motion
Actuators can create two main types of motion: linear and rotary.
Linear Actuators
Implied by their name, linear actuators are devices that produce movement within a straight
path. They can either be mechanical or electrical and are mostly seen in hydraulic or pneumatic
devices. Any machine, equipment, or gadget that requires some form of straight motion
typically has a linear actuator.
9
In a simple linear actuator, there is a nut, cover, and a sliding tube. The sliding tube provides
the space for the motion, whereas the nut and cover provide the interlocking movement that
keeps the actuator in a straight path. Other complex linear actuators will have additional parts,
but the system mentioned above is the foundation for straight movement.
Rotary Actuators
In contrast to linear actuators, rotary actuators create a circular motion. From the term “rotary,”
most machines use these rotating parts to complete a turning movement. They are often used
in conjunction with a linear actuator if a machine requires moving forward, backward, up, or
down.
Many rotary actuators are electrically powered, but some are powered using a hydraulic or
pneumatic system. You can find rotary actuators in windshield wipers, electric fans, or
manufacturing machines that transport goods from one area to another.
Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic actuators operate by the use of a fluid-filled cylinder with a piston suspended at the
centre. Commonly, hydraulic actuators produce linear movements, and a spring is attached to
one end as a part of the return motion. These actuators are widely seen in exercise equipment
such as steppers or car transport carriers.
Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators are one of the most reliable options for machine motion. They use
pressurized gases to create mechanical movement. Many companies prefer pneumatic-powered
actuators because they can make very precise motions, especially when starting and stopping
a machine.
Examples of equipment that uses pneumatic actuators include:
✓ Bus brakes
✓ Exercise machines
✓ Vane motors
✓ Pressure sensors
✓ Pneumatic mailing systems
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Electric Actuators
Electric actuators, as you may have guessed, require electricity to work. Well-known examples
include electric cars, manufacturing machinery, and robotics equipment. Similar to pneumatic
actuators, they also create precise motion as the flow of electrical power is constant.
The different types of electrical actuators include:
❖ Electromechanical actuators: These actuators convert electric signals into rotary or linear
movements and may even be capable of a combination of both.
❖ Electrohydraulic actuators: This type of actuator is also powered electrically but gives
movement to a hydraulic accumulator. The accumulator then provides the force for
movement, usually seen in heavy industrial equipment.
3.3 SENSORS
Sensors are sophisticated devices that are frequently used to detect and respond to electrical or
optical signals. A Sensor converts the physical parameter (for example: temperature, blood
pressure, humidity, speed, etc.) into a signal which can be measured electrically. Any device
which converts electrical signal into physical signal that can be measurable called sensor.
Depend on requirement multiple sensors are available to use. feedback sensor is used for
locating manipulator current position. Sensors attached with end effector are used for
interaction with environment.
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of
a great number of other environmental phenomena. The output is generally a signal that is
converted to human-readable display at the sensor location or transmitted electronically over a
network for reading or further processing.
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Fig. 3.3 Different Types of Sensors
Here are a few examples of the many different types of sensors:
In a mercury-based glass thermometer, the input is temperature. The liquid contained expands
and contracts in response, causing the level to be higher or lower on the marked gauge, which
is human-readable.
An oxygen sensor in a car's emission control system detects the gasoline/oxygen ratio, usually
through a chemical reaction that generates a voltage. A computer in the engine reads the voltage
and, if the mixture is not optimal, readjusts the balance.
Motion sensors in various systems including home security lights, automatic doors and
bathroom fixtures typically send out some type of energy, such as microwaves, ultrasonic
waves or light beams and detect when the flow of energy is interrupted by something entering
12
its path. A photosensor detects the presence of visible light, infrared transmission (IR), and/or
ultraviolet (UV) energy.
3.4 CONTROLLER
Controller are the main unit of any robot or controlled machine. Multiple controllers are can
be used for said purpose PIC micro-controller, Raspberry Pi, Tiva C Launchpad, Arduino etc.
Fig. 3.4 Controller Block Diagram
Robot arm control is a mechanical system control problem rather than a problem of controlling
single actuators of a robot arm. Using principles and techniques of differential geometric
system and control theory, a new dynamic system feedback technique is presented referenced
to task space commands. In this task-driven dynamic control scheme the nonlinear robot arm
system is feedback linearized and simultaneously output decoupled by appropriate nonlinear
feedback and a nonlinear coordinate transformation.
Fig. 3.5 CNC Robot Controller
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The new dynamic control technique actually transforms robot arm control problems from the
joint space to the task space and performs robot serving in terms of task space variables within
a linear system frame, allowing also the use of powerful techniques of optimal control of linear
systems. On the joint space level, the new dynamic control scheme only commands drive forces
or torques or an important property of the new dynamic control technique is that the planned
and commanded task space trajectory together with its time derivatives directly drives the robot
arm through a linear system model. equivalent quantities addressed to the joint drives. An
important property of the new dynamic control technique is that the planned and commanded
task space trajectory together with its time derivatives directly drives the robot arm through a
linear system model.
3.5 SOFTWARE
Software is a set of instructions, data, or programs used to operate a computer and execute
specific tasks. In simpler terms, software tells a computer how to function. It’s a generic term
used to refer to applications, scripts, and programs that run on devices such as PCs, mobile
phones, tablets, and other smart devices. Software contrasts with hardware, which is the
physical aspects of a computer that perform the work.
Without software, most computers would be useless. For example, a web browser is a software
application that allows users to access the internet. Without the web browser software, reading
this page on Webopedia wouldn’t be possible. An operating system (OS) is a software program
that serves as the interface between other applications and the hardware on a computer or
mobile device. TCP/IP is built into all major operating systems to allow computers to
communicate over long distance networks. Without the OS or the protocols built into it, it
wouldn’t be possible to access a web browser.
The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages due to the language
being closer to natural human language as opposed to machine language. The high-level
language is then translated into low-level machine code using a compiler or interpreter for the
computer to understand. Software can also be written in a low-level assembly language, but it
is less common.
14
Software is also the main tool of manipulator. Multiple Software are available to controlled
manipulator. For example, Learm, RACS - Robot Arm Control Software, ArmCtrl, Arm Link
etc.
Fig. 3.6 Robotic Arm Controlling Software
15
CHAPTER - 4
DEGREE OF FREEDOM
Degree Of Freedom (DOF), is a term of physics which helps to define the configuration state
of a mechanical system, using the number of independent parameters associated with its
manoeuvre. It is important in the analysis of mechanical system of bodies in the field of
robotics. A ‘Degree of Freedom’ (DOF) as it relates to robotic arms, is an independent joint
that can provide freedom of movement for the manipulator, either in a rotational or translational
(linear) sense. Every geometric axis that a joint can rotate around or extend along is counted as
a Single Degree of Freedom.
In theory, quite a few types of joints provide varying degrees of freedom in terms of rotation
and translation (see the chart below). In practice, however, most robotic arms will be made up
of joints that provide one degree of freedom. The two most common joints are:
• Revolute Joint: Providing one degree of rotational freedom
• Prismatic Joint: Providing one degree of linear freedom
As such, robotic arms are often described in terms of how many total DOF they have. E.g., the
Bravo 7 is a 6 Degree of Freedom robotic arm (Why not call it the Bravo 6? See the next section
of this article). Of course, there are various types of robotic arms across different industries,
ranging from one degree of freedom (sometimes called an ‘axis’) to over seven.
Chart Credit: Cavacece, Massimo & Vita, L. (2005). On the Computation of degrees-of-
freedom: A Didactic Perspective. 10.1115/DETC2005-84109.
Knowing and defining the Degrees of Freedom (along with other key parameters) allow for
modelling the robotic system and implementing AI algorithms to control the manipulator’s
arm autonomously.
Sometimes a ‘Degree of freedom’ is cooped to be used for a function that does not result in
‘freedom’. In other words, it does not move the position or orientation of the end-
effector/gripper/tool/sensor (the part of the robot that ‘does stuff’). For Blueprint Lab
manipulators, we usually have a set of jaws at the end of the robotic arm. To open or close the
jaws of the robotic arm, we use a prismatic actuator (a fancy word for a motor and gear set – a
single joint).

We define the reference point as a floating location in between the jaws of the manipulator. As
the manipulator moves, it is this location that is being updated in terms of the ‘position’ of the
end-effector. If you want to grab something at position (x, y, z) with orientation (a, b, c), it is
this position that is optimised in the inverse kinematics algorithm.
Because of this, the movement of the linear actuator to open and close the manipulator’s gripper
does not change the reference point and thus it is not providing a ‘degree-of-freedom.
Fig. 4.1 Joints of Robotic Arm
The degrees-of-freedom of a mechanical system (denoted by N) may or may not equal the
dimension of C (denoted by dim(C)). Consider, e.g., a particle free to move in the XY plane.
Clearly, the particle has two degrees-of-freedom, namely: the two independent translations in
the plane. These can be completely described by the Cartesian coordinates (x, y), or the planar
polar coordinates (r, φ), where:
x = r cos φ
y = r sin φ
For such an unconstrained system, it is obvious that N = dim(C).
However, mechanisms are typically constrained mechanical systems, and as such for them, the
above equation takes the following form:
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N = dim(C) – nc
Where nc is the number of independent holonomic constraints. These constraints can be

represented as equations in the configuration variables
qj : ηi(qj ) = 0, i = 1, . . . , nc, j = 1, . . . , dim(C).
The above can be compacted into a vector equation:
η(q) = 0
It is also important to note, that at least in some cases, it is possible to describe the same system
as both constrained as unconstrained. For example, consider a small bead confined to a circular
ring of radius c. The configuration space, C, in this case is trivially visualized as the circle.
Since the circle is a planar entity, and the geometry of the circle is independent of the choice
of its origin, path of the particle can be modelled as:
x 2 + y2 – c 2 = 0
In the above description admits two variables: (x, y), and hence dim(C) = 2. However, the
particle has only one degree-of-freedom, which is along the ring itself. Therefore, in this case,
nc = 2−1 = 1, and Eq. (5) gives the functional form of the only constraint applicable.
The use of polar coordinates in the above case obviates the need for the constraint equation in
the explicit form as above. In this case, the constraint can be absorbed in the description: r = c.
Therefore, the remaining variable φ becomes free, and therefore in this description of the
problem, N = dim(C) = 1.
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4.1 Six Degrees Of Freedom (6 D O F)
Six degrees of freedom (6 D O F) refers to the freedom of movement of a rigid body in three-
dimensional (3 D) space. Specifically, the body is free to move forward / backward, up / down,
left / right (translation in three perpendicular axes) combined with rotation bout three
perpendicular axes, denominated as pitch, yaw, and roll. This number six refers to the number
of single-axis rotational joints in the arm, where the number indicates an increased flexibility
in positioning a tool. This is a practical metric, in contrast to the abstract definition of degrees
of freedom which measures the aggregate positioning capability of a system.
Fig. 4.2 Six Degree of Freedom
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CHAPTER – 5
CONSTRUCTION
5.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN
Mechanical Design can be introduced as the procedure through which resources or energy is
transformed into suitable mechanical forms, or the mechanism which provide useful actions as
per the requirements of users/human beings. Mechanical design provides establishment of the
completely new machine or it can lead to up-grade or enhancement of the current machines.
It’s desired to design 6 DOF robotic manipulator which carry fragile object from one place to
desired place. Spherical manipulator is selected for said purpose because it’s mostly used in
industry. Using CAD software’s for analyse forces/torque that how much torque/forces is
required at each joint to move manipulator and to find stresses that how much each element
can bear without deflection or damaging.
Robotic Manipulators mainly consist of an assembly of joints and links. Joints can be defined
as the connection between two links while links can be defined as the rigid segments that
construct the mechanism. End-effector is a device which interact with the
environment.
Fig. 5.1 Mechanical Links of Robotic Arm
Robots are generally used to perform unsafe, hazardous, highly repetitive, and
unpleasant tasks. Robots can perform material handling, assembly, arc welding,

resistance welding, machine tool load and unload function, painting, and spraying, etc.
It is very useful because it possesses high precision, intelligence, and endless energy
levels in doing work compared to human beings. For example, a robotic arm is widely
used in assembling or packing lines by lifting small objects with a repetitive motion
that humans could not bear to do in a long period of time. The light material lifting
task can be done by the robotic arm efficiently and time-saving because it is not
restricted by fatigue or health risks that man might experience.
Robots and humans share a common feature. Humans and mechanical robots—as
opposite as they may seem, they, in fact, share the same underlying structure of links
(bones) and joints. The basic skeleton of industrial robots, which is made up of mainly
robotic arms, is a combination of links and joints. Relating it to a human body, parts
that can freely bend and move about, such as the elbow and shoulder, are the joints,
and the bones connecting those joints are equivalent to a robot's links. The principle
of moving joints and transmitting power through the links is common in both humans
and robots.
Fig. 5.2 Joints and Links of Robotic Arm In compare with Human Arm
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Fig. 5.3 Joints and Links of Robotic Arm
5.2 ROBOT AND HUMAN MOTION COMPARISON
The following figure shows a comparison between robot and human movement. The
1st to the 3rd axes is the waist and the arm, and the 4th to the 6th axes are from the
wrist up to the fingertips.
Fig. 5.4 Robot and Human Motion Comparison
22
The first three axes carry the wrist to a specific position, and the next three axes move
the wrist freely. This 6-axis construction allows robots to move freely like humans
can.
5.3 MATERIAL
Robots are mostly built of common materials. Some specialized robots for clean room
applications, the space program, or other "high tech" projects may use titanium metal
and structural composites of carbon fibers. The operating environment and strength
required are major factors in material selection. There are a wide variety of metals and
composites available in the market these days. The selection of material is a very deep
process.
Steel, cast iron, and aluminum are the most often used materials for the arms and
bases of robots. Aluminum is a softer material and therefore easy to work with. But
steel is several times stronger. We chose to design the parts with aluminum. It has not
been a direct selection. The shoulder has a choice to have more weight when
compared to other parts. The remaining parts are not grounded and needed to carry
some weight of other arms and end effector also the sheet in this case. So, they
cannot be heavier than the base.
The material used for most of the parts of the robotic arm is Aluminum 6061 alloy.
Aluminum 6061 is a precipitation-hardened aluminum alloy, containing magnesium
and silicon as its major alloying elements. It has good mechanical properties, exhibits
good weldability, and is very commonly extruded (second in popularity only to 6063).
It is one of the most common alloys of aluminum for general-purpose use. The
mechanical properties of 6061 depend greatly on the temperature, or heat treatment,
of the material. Young's Modulus is 69 GPa (10,000 ksi). Annealed 6061 (6061-0
temper) has maximum tensile strength no more than 120 MPa (18,000 psi), and
maximum yield strength not more than 55 MPa (8,000 psi). The material has an
elongation (stretch before ultimate failure) of 25-30%.
ABS material is also used in the end effector, which is lighter than the aluminium
6061. The main reason of using ABS instead of Aluminium 6061 is to reduce the
load on the end effector. ABS (acrylonitrile-butadlene-styrene) is a low-cost
engineering thermoplastic that is easily machined, fabricated and thermoformed. This
23
thermoplastic material has excellent chemical, stress and creep resistance. ABS offers
a good balance of impact, heat, chemical and abrasion resistance, dimensional stabil ity,
tensile strength, surface hardness, rigidity and electrical characteristics.
In the process of designing any equipment or any physical object, material selection is an
important consideration. During product designing, main goal of selection is on the basis of
minimal cost while achieving desired strength goal. Various materials are available but
aluminium is preferable for manipulator because it have following useful specification.
Density
As compared to steel or copper, aluminium has a density around 1/3. Aluminium has high
strength to weight ratio make it more suitable for structural material.
Strength
Pure aluminium doesn’t have sufficient strength but combination of elements with aluminium
makes it a high strength alloy. As compared to steel, at low temperature steel become brittle
while aluminium is well suited for such
environment.
Corrosion Resistance
Aluminium show inert behaviour when exposed to air due to layer of oxide.
Thermal Conductivity
We Choose Aluminium Sheet
Fig. 5.5 Aluminium Sheet
As compared to steel, thermal conductivity of aluminium is about three times greater than of
steel.
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What Are Aluminium Sheets
Aluminium sheets, also known as aluminium plates, are the result of basic raw-form aluminium
being pressed and rolled into panel form under high pressure Aluminium sheeting is
characteristically manufactured to be very thin and lightweight, yet sturdy enough to offer
extreme versatility alongside inherent ease of installation and maintenance. It also boasts
numerous other unique and useful properties that make it very widely deployed today across
an enormous variety of industrial, agricultural, home DIY and manufacturing/production
applications. A range of additional coatings applied to aluminium sheets can help create a long-
lasting material for use in outdoor settings or other challenging environments, such as for
exterior cladding. The extremely lightweight nature of very thin sheet aluminium makes it ideal
for use in drinks cans, food containers and other everyday products suitable for high-volume
storage, transport and retail. Surface dimensions and thickness are the primary factors to
consider when looking at options to buy aluminium sheeting in the UK. While overall surface
area is the first key aspect, you’ll want to consider in planning a job using this sort of sheet
metal, the various material finishes available will also play a significant part in helping you
select the ideal sort of aluminium sheet for your needs and intended applications.
Types Of Aluminium Sheets

There are numerous types of aluminium sheets available to buy on today’s market. In this
section, we’ll look briefly at some of the more common aluminium sheet products you’ll find
for sale from various suppliers and manufacturers. Perforated aluminium sheets A perforated
sheet or plate aluminium is also used in scenarios where it’s chosen chiefly for its aesthetic
qualities - this is particularly common in interior/exterior design work, for example in
constructing many kinds of floors, ceilings, screens, sun shades and other architectural or
decorative panels. Other typical applications might include the food industry, factory or
laboratory environments, where it’s widely found performing sluicing, drainage and collection
roles in industrial washing and drying stations. Chequered aluminium sheets Aluminium
chequered plates are panels of sheet metal that have raised hatch marks on one side (the reverse
side is untextured), forming a raised pattern that’s usually embossed to a height of around
1.5mm. Known variously as checker plates, tread plates, 5 bar sheets or durbar floor plates,
they’re most often made from aluminium, although steel versions are also sold. They’re
relatively thick and sturdy sheets for improved impact resistance and loadbearing properties,
ideally suited to use interior or exterior areas of high footfall and heavy wheeled traffic, such
as service corridors, loading bays and car parks. The embossed pattern conceals surface damage
25
and also provides additional grip against slips and skids. Anodised aluminium sheets Anodising
is an electrochemical process used to increase the thickness of the oxide layer on a metal’s
surface. Aluminium anodised sheets not only increase resistance to corrosion and wear (once
a sealant has been applied to combat the porous qualities of heavily anodised metal), but it can
also prime the plates for better adhesion of paint, dyes, films, glues and other cosmetic
flourishes than bare metal offers. As a result, anodised metals are commonly represented by
highly coloured aluminium sheets or other decorative panels, such as those widely used in
vehicle parts, smartphones, tools, cookware, sporting goods and architectural materials.
Composite aluminium sheets Aluminium composite sheets or panels, frequently abbreviated to
ACS or ACP, are manufactured from two very thin pieces of coil-coated aluminium bonded to
the outside of a non-aluminium core (often plastic). They’re commonly used as lightweight but
robust panels for external cladding or building facades, as well as in a wide range of insulation
and folding panel applications. Aluminium composite panel sheets, sometimes called sandwich
panels or deboned sheets, are much lighter than solid metal equivalents. This makes them far
easier to install and maintain in day-to-day use, and they’re generally much easier to machine,
cut and shape neatly using simple tools. As such, they’re an excellent choice for weatherproof
signage and sign trays (especially where more intricate design work such as decorative lettering
is required), as well as for fascia panels, column cladding and other exterior decorative
elements. Brushed aluminium sheets Many different types of aluminium sheeting are available
in either brushed or unbrushed variants, including anodised and composite panels. ‘Brushed’
in this context refers to a fairly uniform pattern of light parallel scratches and scuffs,
deliberately introduced across the surface of a metal sheet to impart a satin-like finish. The
effect is widely seen on all manner of internal fixtures and fittings. Opting to buy brushed
aluminium sheet is often a primarily aesthetic decision - the brushed look is hugely popular
worldwide as a stylistic flourish that dulls the reflective qualities of otherwise polished
surfaces. Although brushing is, in fact, the result of additional secondary processing that results
in a satin finish, as a design element it can (somewhat counterintuitively!) help to give a raw
or unprocessed ‘industrial’ look. It’s often used to highlighting the fact that certain objects or
panels are made from metal, in contrast with areas made from other materials.
How Are Aluminium Sheets Are Made?

Aluminium is currently extracted exclusively from raw bauxite, an ore found in heavy clay-
like soil types several metres below the surface of the ground. This ore is then refined in a hot
lime and caustic soda solution, producing alumina, a white oxide powder.
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Fig. 5.6 Manufacturing of Aluminium
When combined with electricity and carbon (to create CO2) at high temperatures, this oxide
produces the liquid metal we call aluminium. Properties of aluminium sheet metal This liquid
metal is then formed into different sorts of ingots or alloys, depending on what its eventual
application will be. Aluminium intended for tubes, rods, sheets and angles is usually formed
into ingots which can measure up to 20 feet in length (and weigh up to 20 tons!), but which
have extremely formable (ductile) properties. This makes it easy to roll or press them under
varying temperatures and pressures to produce plates, sheets, foils and other forms of almost
any useful thickness. Given their numerous unique and handy properties, aluminium sheet uses
are almost too varied and widespread to provide an especially comprehensive list. However, in
this section we’ll touch on some of the more common applications of aluminium panels and
plates, found throughout a wide range of everyday industry, design and construction
environments. Roofing - aluminium roofing sheets are among the most frequent applications
of larger panels, due to their lightweight but sturdy construction with excellent anti-corrosion
properties. Artistic ceilings - deboned or composite aluminium sheets are very often used as
interior ceiling panels or large tiles, offering a highly decorative but hard-wearing design
27
feature. Balconies - aluminium balcony railings and balustrades are common, once again
thanks to their lightweight but rigid construction and the fact that they’re highly weatherproof.
What Sizes Do Aluminium Sheets Come In?

There are a wide variety of aluminium sheet, plate and foil sizes sold around the world.
Generally speaking, any aluminium panel between about 0.2mm to 6.5mm thick is usually
considered an aluminium sheet, whereas thinner gauge products than this would typically be
classified and sold as foils. Thicker gauges than 6.5mm (roughly a quarter of an inch) are most
often referred to as aluminium plate. The right choice for a given application will depend
entirely on the degree of flexibility/rigidity required for the sheet to perform its intended
function.
5.4 FACTOR OF SAFETY
To know the stability of the shaft we need to find the Factor of Safety of a solid shaft.
We need to calculate Induced shear and allowable shear to find the Factor of Safety. As
this is a demonstration model factor of safety is not much importance.
5.5 FUSION 360 DESIGN
This chapter explains the steps that were taken in designing the parts for Laser cutting. It also
explains the factors that were considered while designing. The design of the parts to be laser
cut was done in Autodesk Fusion 360 and CREO. The detailed design used all information
from real world analysis, packing all the components in their specific location. The use of
Fusion 360 was done to finalise the design of the all the parts which will make the Laser cutting
process simplified. The program gives the dimension to all the parts including, bend angles,
chamfer angles and Servo Motors parameters.
28
Fig. 5.7 Isometric View of Modelled Robotic Arm
29
Fig. 5.8 Assembled View of Modelled Robotic Arm
30
Fig. 5.9 Front View of Modelled Robotic Arm
Fig. 5.10 Top View of Modelled Robotic Arm
31
5.6 EXOSKELETON DESIGN
Building the mechanical system for the exoskeleton was challenging. It required some
knowledge in the field of mechanical engineering including design, analysis and
manufacturing. Therefore, to achieve this goal, an intense study and search about the
fundamentals of mechanical design was first done. Then, similar robotic arm designs were
studied and used to come up with a proper robotic arm exoskeleton. In addition to that, some
assistance and support from specialists in this field was needed to construct the desired 6-DOF
robotic arm. The first and most fundamental concept in mechanical designs is the concept of
torque. Torque is defined as the force that tends to spin or rotate an object about an axis. Using
the torque of equation (1), one can deduce that the magnitude of torque depends on the force
applied F, lever-arm length L, and the angle between the force vector and length vector θ. It is
expressed by the equation: T=F|| L || sin θ () Force is the process of changing the motion of
an object with specific mass by accelerating it due to gravity or in other words changing its
velocity. It is expressed by the equation: F=M*g () Where F is the force, M is the mass and g
are the gravitational constant equals to 9.81 m/s2. The weight W of an object is equivalent to
the force on it due to gravity and can also be expressed as: W=M*g () So, the torque needed
to hold a mass M at specified length L from the centre point of a rotational system, known as
pivot point, is calculated using the equation: T=(M*g) *L () The relationship between torque,
applied force and lever-arm distance is illustrated in Figure 8. The length L is considered
between the perpendicular component of the applied force F and pivot point.
5.7 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
The mechanical design had three main objectives: have a sufficient range of motion, increase
the scalability of the design, and decrease the excess movement and lag. The range of motion
can be achieved by adding a gear to the joints of the mechanical arm. This solution however.
increases the weight of the arm. Consequently, more expensive motors should be used to be
able to move such arm. In our design we used light components that need less and cheap
number of motors as mentioned in Table 2. The designed robotic arm is scalable one since it is
designed from small similar pieces (base component) that can be joined together to change the
length of either shoulder-elbow or elbow-wrist part. Additionally, the number of motors
required for the arm joints is linearly proportional to the number of the base component. The
speed of the arm and the response time is measured in the implementation section. Following
sub-section describes the full design of our mechanical part. The mechanical design had three
32
main objectives: have a sufficient range of motion, increase the scalability of the design, and
decrease the excess movement and lag. The range of motion can be achieved by adding a gear
to the joints of the mechanical arm. This solution however. increases the weight of the arm.
Consequently, more expensive motors should be used to be able to move such arm. In our
design we used light components that need less and cheap number of motors as mentioned in
Table 2. The designed robotic arm is scalable one since it is designed from small similar pieces
(base component) that can be joined together to change the length of either shoulder-elbow or
elbow-wrist part. Additionally, the number of motors required for the arm joints is linearly
proportional to the number of the base component. The speed of the arm and the response time
is measured in the implementation section. Following sub-section describes the full design of
our mechanical part.
5.71 The Multifunctional Bracket
In mechanical engineering a bracket is any intermediate component for fixing one part to
another, usually larger, part. What makes a bracket a bracket is that it is intermediate between
the two and fixes the one to the other. The multifunctional bracket is the mechanical part for
holding the servo motor. It is made of 2 mm thickness aluminium with most of its holes having
3 mm diameter. Two pieces of this bracket were constructed, two for the shoulder.
Fig. 5.11 Multifunctional Bracket
5.72 The Long U-Bracket
In mechanical engineering a bracket is any intermediate component for fixing one part to
another, usually larger, part. What makes a bracket a bracket is that it is intermediate between
33
the two and fixes the one to the other. The long U-bracket is used to interconnect joints together.
It is made in a similar manner to the servo bracket using 2 mm thickness aluminium with 3 mm
and 8 mm diameter holes. Three pieces of this bracket were constructed.
Fig. 5.12 Long U-Bracket
5.73 The Short U-Bracket
In mechanical engineering a bracket is any intermediate component for fixing one part to another,
usually larger, part. What makes a bracket a bracket is that it is intermediate between the two and fixes
the one to the other. The short U-bracket is used to interconnect joints together. It is made in a
similar manner to the servo bracket using 2 mm thickness aluminium with 3 mm and 8 mm
diameter holes. One pieces of this bracket were constructed.
34
Fig. 5.13 Short U-Bracket
5.74 Side Bracket
The side bracket is used to connect the servo motor with the base via bearing. It is made of
2mm aluminium with 3mm and 8mm diameter holes. Only one piece is constructed.
Fig. 5.14 Side Bracket
5.75 The Bearing
Ball bearings are used to provide smooth, low friction motion in rotary applications. Ball
bearings are able to provide high performance and long lifetime in order to transfer the load
from the balls to the inner races. The balls have minimal contact with the inner and outer races
due to their spherical shape and this allows them to spin smoothly.
35
Radial ball bearings and angular contact bearings have an inner and outer ring. Radial ball bearings
and angular contact bearings are designed to support loads perpendicular to the axis of rotation,
referred to as radial loads.
Fig. 5.15 Deep Groove Ball Bearing with Seals or Shields (61815-2RS1)
5.76 The Robotic Arm Base
The lowest part of something, especially the part on which it stands or at which it is fixed or
connected to something. The robotic arm base is designed to be a heavy flat surface to protect
the robotic arm from overbalance. The whole unit is screwed to the base. So, it must withstand
all the loads and forces.
Fig. 5.16 Base of Modelled Robotic Arm
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5.77 End Effector
An end effector is a device or tool that's connected to the end of a robot arm where the hand
would be. The end effector is the part of the robot that interacts with the environment. The
structure of an end effector and the nature of the programming and hardware that drives it
depend on the task the robot will be performing. Here we use a gripper type end effector. In
robotics, an end effector is a device or tool that's connected to the end of a robot arm where the
hand would be. The end effector is the part of the robot that interacts with the environment.
Fig. 5.17 End Effector (Gripper) used for Modelled Robotic Arm
5.8 METHODS
5.81 Laser cutting
Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to vaporize materials, resulting in a cut edge.
While typically used for industrial manufacturing applications, it is now used by schools, small
businesses, architecture, and hobbyists. Laser cutting works by directing the output of a high-
power laser most commonly through optics. The laser optics and CNC (computer numerical
control) are used to direct the laser beam to the material. A commercial laser for cutting
materials uses a motion control system to follow a CNC or G-code of the pattern to be cut onto
material. The focused laser beam is directed at the material, which then either melts, burns,
vaporizes away, or is blown away by a jet of gas, leaving an edge with a high-quality surface
37
Finish. Laser cutting uses a high-power laser which is directed through optics and computer numerical
control (CNC) to direct the beam or material.
Fig. 5.18 Laser Cutting
Typically, the process uses a motion control system to follow a CNC or G-code of the pattern
that is to be cut onto the material. The focused laser beam burns, melts, vaporises or is blown
away by a jet of gas to leave a high-quality surface finished edge.
The laser beam is created by the stimulation of lasing materials through electrical discharges
or lamps inside a closed container. The lasing material is amplified by being reflected internally
via a partial mirror until its energy is enough for it to escape as a stream of coherent
monochromatic light. This light is focused at the work area by mirrors or fibre optics that direct
the beam through a lens which intensifies it. At its narrowest point, a laser beam is typically
under 0.0125 inches (0.32 mm) in diameter, but kerf widths as small as 0.004 inches (0.10mm)
are possible depending on material thickness.
Where the laser cutting process needs to start anywhere other than the edge of the material, a
piercing process is used, whereby a high-power pulsed laser makes a hole in the material, for
example taking 5-15 seconds to burn through a 0.5-inch-thick (13 mm) stainless steel sheet.
38
Advantages of laser cutting
o Material range
All materials common in industrial processing – from steel to aluminum, stainless steel and
non-ferrous metal sheets, all the way to non-metal materials such as plastics, glass, wood or
ceramics – can be cut safely and in high quality with the laser. Very different sheet thicknesses
of 0.5 to over 30 millimeters can be cut using the tool. This extremely wide material range
makes the laser the top cutting tool for many applications in the area of metals and non-metals.
o Contour freedom
The bundled laser beam only heats up the material locally, and the rest of the workpiece is
subjected to minimal thermal stresses or not at all. This means the kerf is barely wider than
the beam and even complex, intricate contours may be cut smoothly and free of burrs. Time-
consuming post-processing is no longer necessary in most cases.
o High-Quality Cutting Edges with Ultrashort Pulses
Ultrashort pulse lasers vaporize virtually every material so quickly that heat influence cannot
be detected, thereby creating high-quality cutting edges without ejection of melted material.
This makes the lasers ideal for the manufacture of the most intricate metal products, such as
stents for medical technology. In the display industry, ultrashort pulse lasers cut chemically
hardened glass.
o The laser cutting process

The interaction between a focussed laser beam and workpiece forms the basis of laser cutting.
In order for this process to be carried out reliably and precisely, numerous components and
additional equipment are used on and around the laser beam, which will be illustrated in the
following graphic.
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Fig. 5.19 Laser Cutting Process
1. Focusing optics: lens and mirror optics focus the laser beam on the processing point
2. Laser beam: the laser beam hits the workpiece and heats it up until it melts or vaporizes.
3. Cutting gas: the resulting melt is blown out of the kerf using cutting gas. The gas is emitted
coaxially with the laser beam from the nozzle.
4. Drag lines: during laser cutting, the cutting edge is given a typical drag line pattern. At a
lower cutting speed, these drag lines are virtually parallel to the laser beam.
5. Melt: the laser beam – bundled laser light – is guided along the contour and melts the
material locally.
6. Cutting point: on the workpiece, the kerf is barely wider than the focused laser beam.
7. Nozzle: laser beam and cutting gas meet the workpiece through the cutting nozzle.
8. Cutting direction: the kerf is created by moving the cutting head or the workpiece in a
specific direction.
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5.9 ASSEMBLY
An assembly process utilizes machines, equipment, and/or workers to assemble parts and
materials in a pre-defined sequence until there is a finished product.
Fig. 5.20 Assembling (Screwing)
After designing all the individual parts in Solid works, the next is to assemble all the
individual parts in the assembly environment. If we describe the functionality of the robotic
arm, it is 3 degrees of freedom system. 3 degrees of freedom (3D0F) refers to the freedom of
movement of a rigid body in three-dimensional space. We can increase 1 degree of
freedom of the robotic arm by allowing the wrist of the robotic arm to rotate but we have
intentionally constrained the rotation of the wrist as we are already getting the rotation
from the base of the robotic arm.
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CHAPTER - 6
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS
An electronic circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric current to perform various
functions including signal amplification, computation, and data transfer. It comprises several
different components such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors, and diodes.
Conductive wires or traces are used to connect the components to each other. However, a circuit
is complete only if it starts and ends at the same point, forming a loop. An electronic
component is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system used to
affect electrons or their associated fields. Electronic components are mostly industrial
products, available in a singular form and are not to be confused with electrical elements, which
are conceptual abstractions representing idealized electronic components and elements.
6.1 SERVO MOTOR (ACTUATOR)

Servo motors are used for robotic applications that require precision positioning. Before diving
too deeply into the ways servos are used in robotics, it’s helpful to first learn about the basic
function and form of these critical components of motion control. Depending on the pulse width
modulation (PWM) of the input signal, the servo will rotate a certain amount. At rest, the output
spline of a servo is usually at 0°. Based on an expected pulse frequency of 20 milliseconds
(ms), a pulse width of 1.5ms will make the output spline rotate 90° in one direction. A pulse
width of 2ms will make the output spline continue rotating 90° further to the 180° position. A
pulse width of 1ms will make the output spline rotate 180° backward to the 0° starting position.
The potentiometer constantly monitors the position of the output spline. When the output spline
reaches the desired position, the power to the motor is cut and the servo will hold that position
until it receives a signal not to. While stopped in a given position, a servo motor will actively
try to hold that position.
A key feature of servos is proportional operation. A servo motor will operate only as fast as it
needs in order to rotate from its current position to its desired position. If a servo is stopped at
the 180° position but needs to be at the 0° position, the motor will rotate very quickly to get
there. If stopped at a position that is already closer to 0°, the motor will rotate much more
slowly to get there. Servo motors provide numerous benefits in robotic applications. They are
small, powerful, easily programmable, and accurate. Most importantly, though, they allow for
near perfect repeatability of motion. They are used in robotic applications. Servo motors are

mounted in every joint of a robotic welding arm, actuating movement and adding dexterity.
Robotic Vehicles: Servos are used in the steering systems of the autonomous vehicles used to
disarm and dispose of bombs.
Here we used 3 Types of Servo Motor
i) LDX-218 Digital Servo X 2
LDX-218 is a full metal gear standard digital servo with 17kg high torque and dual ball bearing
for the robot. The control angle is 180 degrees. 20kg large torque. Full metal gear significantly
improves servo’s accuracy and extends its service time Dual ball bearing: one is the driving
ball bearing; the other is the assistant ball bearing (support role). Use high-precision
potentiometer with a new design. Accuracy and linearity have been greatly improved. Accurate
movement can help you build up robots. Convenient plug-in wire. In robots making the process,
it is very convenient for you to replace the servo and the wiring will become much easier.
Fig. 6.1 LDX-218 Digital Servo
ii) LFD-06 Digital Servo X 2
Working voltage is 4.8-6V. Built-in anti-blocking algorithm is more durable. Optimize the
design of metal gears to make the operation smoother. Using the high-quality material for better
performance. Provide 51, Arduino, STM32 servo control program
43
Fig. 6.2 LFD-06 Digital Servo
iii)LD-1501 MG Digital Servo X 1
The HD-1501MG is a powerful standard-size servo that features metal gears and two ball
bearings and can deliver a tremendous amount of torque for a servo this fast (if you need even
more torque than this, check out the larger 1235MG giant servo). The 1501MG works with
standard RC servo pulses, providing a running angle of approximately 165° over a servo pulse
range of 800 µs to 2200 µs, and it has a 10″ (25 cm) cable that is terminated with a standard JR-
style connector, which is Futaba-compatible.
Fig. 6.3 LD-1501 MG Digital Servo
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6.2 CONTROLLER
A controller, in a computing context, is a hardware device or a software program that manages

or directs the flow of data between two entities. In computing, controllers may be cards,
microchips or separate hardware devices for the control of a peripheral device. In a general
sense, a controller can be thought of as something or someone that interfaces between two
systems and manages communications between them.
Here we use multiple servo controller along with 2.4GHz wireless PS2 style controller is ideal
for wireless control applications. Two AAA batteries will power this controller for more than
10 hrs continuously. It supports multi-loop signal and simultaneous control. There won’t be
any mutual interference, operation distance in 8m up to 10m maximum. Dual vibration motors
are also provided inbuilt for feedback. It can be used for your custom projects of remote control.
Transmitter And Receiver
Transmitter definition: The device used to transmit signal from one place to the other is known
as transmitter. The signal consists of information in the form of voice, video or data. It uses
antenna to transmit the signal into the air.
Transmitter uses some form of modulation in order to transmit signal over some distance as
per design of the system. It uses amplifiers in order to boost the amplitude of the signal to cover
the required transmission distance. The typical modulation scheme used in transmission system
are broadly categorized into analogy and digital. Analog modulation types include AM, FM,
PM, SSB etc. Digital modulation types include ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, QAM etc. After the
transmit signal goes through certain distance it gets attenuated and impaired due to channel
characteristics. This signal is being received at the receiver. Receiver definition: The device
which decodes the transmitted information from the received signal is known as receiver. The
receiver also uses antenna to receive the signal from the air similar to the transmitter. Similar
to the power amplification in the transmitter, receiver too uses amplification of received signal
with focus on low noise amplification.
45
Fig. 6.4 Transmitter & Receiver (PS2)
Controller Board with Bluetooth (Programable)
With 20M storage, can store thousands of indications, 256 groups of actions Servo interface
has three colours’ pins to different from each other No need to programme Simple indication
operation 32 bits highly efficient low consumption CPU Cross-platform operation, can support
Windows, Windows Visit, Windows7, Windows8, Windows10, Linux, FreeBSD, Mac OS,
Android
Fig. 6.5 Multiple Servo Controller with Built in Bluetooth
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6.3 JUMPER WIRES AND CONNECTORS
A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, DuPont wire) is an electrical wire, or group
of them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or sometimes without them – simply
"tinned"), which is normally used to interconnect the components of a breadboard or other
prototype or test circuit, internally or with other equipment or components, without soldering.
Individual jump wires are fitted by inserting their "end connectors" into the slots provided in a
breadboard, the header connector of a circuit board, or a piece of test equipment.
Fig. 6.6 Jumper Wire
Fig. 6.7 Spiral Cable Wrap
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6.4 POWER ADAPTER
A power supply for electronic devices. Also called an "AC adapter" or "charger," power
adapters plug into a wall outlet and convert AC to a single DC voltage. Computers use multiple
DC voltages, and the power adapter is the external part of the power supply for a laptop. The
additional DC voltages are created by internal circuits. Desktop computer power supplies are
in one internal unit, which converts AC to all DC voltages. Power adapters also exist for other
purposes; for example, to output a different AC voltage, rather than DC. Power adapters can
sometimes be called chargers, AC power adapters, or AC adapters. All of these names are
correct, except for charger. A charger serves a different function than a power adapter does.
Fig. 6.8 7.5V 3A Power Adapter
6.5 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT
In electronics, a circuit is a complete circular path that electricity flows through. A simple
circuit consists of a current source, conductors and a load. The term circuit can be used in a
general sense to refer to any fixed path that electricity, data or a signal can travel through.
In electronics, a circuit is a closed path that allows electricity to flow from one point to another.
It may include various electrical components, such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors, but
the flow is unimpeded by a gap or break in the circuit.
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Fig. 6.9 Circuit Diagram
A flashlight is an example of a basic circuit. When the switch is off, the circuit is not closed,
meaning electrical current will not flow from the batteries to the flashlight's bulb. When you
move the switch to the on position, a piece of metal in the flashlight physically closes the gap
in the circuit. Electricity from the batteries then flows to the bulb making it light up.
In computing, the term "circuit" is used more liberally and may be used to reference a circuit
board or an integrated circuit. The internal workings of computers and other electronic devices
are comprised of these components, which may each contain hundreds or thousands of
individual circuits.
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CHAPTER – 7
PROGRAMMING
A computer program consists of code that is executed on a computer to perform particular

tasks. This code is written by programmers. Programming is the process of giving machines a
set of instructions that describe how a program should be carried out. Programmers will spend
their whole careers learning a variety of programming languages and tools so they can
effectively build computer programs.
Programmers will start by using a code editor or IDE to write what is called source code. This
is a collection of code written in a programming language that other programmers can read.
Source code needs to be converted into machine language so machines can understand the
instructions and execute the program. This process of converting source code into machine
language is known as compiling. Examples of compiled programming languages would be C
and C++.
There are other languages that do not use compilers. Instead, these languages will use an
interpreter that will read and execute the code. Examples of interpreted programming languages
would be JavaScript and PHP. Once the code is executed, then the computer program can run.
The different types of computer programs include Word processors, Database systems, video
games, and websites. These computer programs allow us to interactive with different software
devices and services like phones, websites, and the computers themselves.
Being the brain, the program that will run the robotic arm is the first thing to be made. The
eventual size of the robotic arm will be determined by how advanced the program is and how
much it can handle. We need to connect multiple servo controller with our system, phone and
LeArm software to graphically code and upload various action groups.

7.1 C PROGRAM CODE
We used to connect the controller with software
#include<SoftwareSerial.h>
#include<Servo.h>
Servo x;
int bttx=9; //tx of bluetooth module is connected to pin 9 of arduino
int btrx=10; //rx of bluetooth module is connected to pin 10 of arduino
SoftwareSerial bluetooth(bttx,btrx);
void setup()
{
x.attach(11); // servo is connected to pin 11 of arduino
Serial.begin(9600);
bluetooth.begin(9600);
}
void loop()
{
if(bluetooth.available()>0) //if bluetooth module is transmitting data
{
int pos=bluetooth.read(); // store the data in pos variable
Serial.println(pos);
x.write(pos); //move servo head to the given position
}
}
Fig. 7.1 C Program Code
7.2 SOFTWARE
Software is a set of instructions, data, or programs used to operate a computer and execute
specific tasks. In simpler terms, software tells a computer how to function. It’s a generic term
used to refer to applications, scripts, and programs that run on devices such as PCs, mobile
phones, tablets, and other smart devices. Software contrasts with hardware, which is the
physical aspects of a computer that perform the work.
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Without software, most computers would be useless. For example, a web browser is a software
application that allows users to access the internet. Without the web browser software, reading
this page on Webopedia wouldn’t be possible. An operating system (OS) is a software program
that serves as the interface between other applications and the hardware on a computer or
mobile device. TCP/IP is built into all major operating systems to allow computers to
communicate over long distance networks. Without the OS or the protocols built into it, it
wouldn’t be possible to access a web browser.
The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages due to the language
being closer to natural human language as opposed to machine language. The high-level
language is then translated into low-level machine code using a compiler or interpreter for the
computer to understand. Software can also be written in a low-level assembly language, but it
is less common. Software is a set of computer programs and associated documentation and
data. This is in contrast to hardware, from which the system is built and which actually performs
the work. Software is used to control a computer. There are different types of software that can
run on a computer: system software, utility software, and application software.
LeArm
Graphical Robotic Arm Coding Software we used to connect and store action groups in robotic
arm. Brand new design, user friendly interface.
Fig. 7.2 Android Interface of LeArm App
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Two control mode; Single servo mode Action group mode Stronger controllability, can
create customized action groups with graphical programming.
Fig. 7.3 Windows Interface of LeArm App
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CHAPTER – 8
TOOLS USED
8.1 STEEL RULE
The premier source of tooling, parts, and accessories for bench top machinists. The steel rule
is a basic measuring tool. When used correctly, a good steel rule is a surprisingly accurate
measuring device. A steel rule is the simplest and most common measuring tool.
The flat steel rule is usually 6 or 12 inches long, but longer sizes are available. Steel rules can
be flexible or nonflexible, thin or wide. The thinner the rule, the more accurately it measures,
because the division marks are closer to the work.
Fig. 8.1 Steel Rule
8.2 MEASURING TAPE
A tape measure, or measuring tape is a type of hand tool typically used to measure distance or
size. It is like a much longer flexible ruler consisting of a case, thumb lock, blade/tape, hook,
and sometimes a belt clip. A tape measure will have imperial readings, metric readings or both.

Fig. 8.2 Measuring Tape
8.3 SCREWDRIVER
screwdriver, tool, usually hand-operated, for turning screws with slotted heads. For screws with
one straight diametral slot cut across the head, standard screwdrivers with flat blade tips and in
a variety of sizes are used.
Special screws with cross-shaped slots in their heads require a special screwdriver with a blade
tip that fits the slots. The most common special screw is the Phillips head (Phillips Screw) as
shown in the Figure.
The screwdriver shank is made of tough steel, and the tip is hardened to minimize wear. The
handle is made of wood, metal, or plastic. If a screw cannot be reached with a straight-shank
screwdriver, an offset screwdriver is used; this tool has no handle but has a shank with a right-
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angle bend at both ends. One blade tip is in line with the shank, and the other is at right angles
to the shank.
Fig. 8.3 Screw Driver
8.4 HAMMER
A tool consisting of a solid head, usually of metal, set crosswise on a handle, used for beating
metals, driving nails, etc. Hammers are used for general carpentry, framing, nail pulling,
cabinet making, assembling furniture, upholstering, finishing, riveting, bending of material or
or shaping metal, striking masonry drill and steel chisels, and so on. The other end is flat and
is used for driving.
Fig. 8.4 Hammer
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8.5 CHISEL
A chisel is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge (such that wood chisels have lent
part of their name to a particular grind) of blade on its end, for carving or cutting a hard material
such as wood, stone, or metal by hand, struck with a mallet, or mechanical power.
Fig. 8.5 Chisel
8.6 COMBINATION PLIER
Combination pliers are multi-purpose pliers, combining gripping jaws with wire cutters. They
can be used for gripping, compressing, bending, twisting, extracting and cutting various
materials. They are used in many different industries, as well as by hobbyists and DIYers. They
use leverage to amplify (increase) the pressure exerted by the user when they squeeze the
handles together, so that the force between the jaws is greater than the user’s input pressure.
Combination pliers work in a similar way to scissors, with two first-class levers joined so they
pivot across each other. The amplified force means they can grip much tighter than you could
with just your hand. They usually have serrated jaws, which provide friction when gripping,
and square tips, although there are some variations in jaw design. Combination pliers often
have a rounded, serrated cut-out in the jaws, called a pipe grip, for holding rounded materials.
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Fig. 8.6 Combination Plier
8.7 TRY SQUARE
A try square or try-square is a woodworking tool used for marking and checking 90° angles on
pieces of wood. Though woodworkers use many different types of squares, the try square is
considered one of the essential tools for woodworking. The square in the name refers to the
90° angle. The name 'try square' comes from the concepts of 'trying a surface' (to check a
surface's straightness or correspondence to an adjacent surface) and 'square' (a 90°, or right,
angle).
Fig. 8.7 Try Square
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8.8 SPANNER
A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical advantage in applying torque
to turn objects—usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts—or keep them from turning.
Fig. 8.8 Open End Spanner
8.9 DRILLING MACHINE
A drilling machine, also called a drill press, is a powerful tool used to cut a round hole into or
through metal, plastic, wood, or other solid materials through turning and advancing rotary drill
bits into a workpiece. A drilling machine, also called a drill press, is a powerful tool used to
cut a round hole into or through metal, plastic, wood, or other solid materials by turning and
advancing rotary drill bits into a workpiece. This drilling cutting tool (Drill Bit) is held in the
drill press by a chuck and fed into the work at variable speeds. The speed and feed should be
set properly and coolant needs to be provided for the desired finished part. The drilling machine
can not only be applied in the drilling process but is also useful for many other machining
operations.
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Fig. 8.9 Bosch Portable Drilling Machine
8.10 HACKSAW
A hacksaw is a fine-toothed saw, originally and mainly made for cutting metal. The equivalent
saw for cutting wood is usually called a bow saw. A hacksaw is a hand-powered, small-toothed
saw used for cutting metal pipes, rods, brackets, etc. Hacksaws can also cut through plastic.
The hacksaw has a U-shaped.
Fig. 8.10 Hacksaw
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8.11 UTILITY KNIFE
A utility knife is a knife used for general or utility purposes. The utility knife was originally a
fixed blade knife with a cutting edge suitable for general work such as Cutting sides and
cordage, scraping hides, butchering animals, cleaning fish, and other tasks. Craft knives are
tools mostly used for crafts.
Fig. 8.11 Utility Knife
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CHAPTER – 9
COSTING
Costing has been defined as "The Technique and process of ascertaining costs" whereas
Wheldon has defined the costing as Costing is the classifying and recording the appropriate
allocation of expenditure for the determination of the cost or product of services and for
presentation of suitably purpose of control, and guidance of management. It may also be
defined as the system, which systematically wounds all the expenditure determine the sort of
manufactured products is differs from costing. Costing is determination of cost after knowing
the expenditure, incurred in various departments on the product while estimating is the pre-
determination of cost based on the assumptions and previous experiences.
9.1 AIM OF COSTING
The important aims of costing and objectives of costing are
• To determine the cost of each article.

• To determine the cost incurred during each operation and to keep control over the
workers.
• To provide information to ascertain the selling price of the production
• To supply information for detection of wastage.
• It helps in reducing the total cost of reducing the wastage.
• It suggests changes in design, when the cost is higher.
• To help in formulating the policies for charging the prices of the products
9.2 STANDARD COST
It is the predetermined cost of a product. A standard cost indicates what a cost should be and
not what a cost must be. This is the main difference between standard cost and estimate cost It
is used as a device to check and lower overhead expenses and improving efficiency... This is
achieved by comparing actual cost with standard cost. The difference is then checked and
corrective actions are taken. The standard cost is once set where standard methods for products
are possible. These are therefore applicable where similar jobs are produced in large numbers.
These are not applicable where job production is followed.
Generally standard costs are not flexible but when sudden variation in the material cost or
any change in the production methods occurs, standard costs must be modified

9.3 ADVANTAGES OF STANDARD COST
• It provides a check on various expenses

• It provides in deciding the budget
• It helps reduction in wastage of material and labour
• It helps in budgetary control
• It helps in price determination.
• It is a measure for arriving at the efficiency of the whole concern.
9.4 STANDARD COSTING
Standard costing is "the preparation and use of standard cost and their comparison with actual
cost and analysis of variances to their causes and points of incidents". In other words, standard
costing is a system in which controls the cost of each unit through determination beforehand
of what should be the cost and then comparing it with the actual cost. Thus, standard cost is a
predetermined or budgeted cost of a unit of a product and helps in comparing with actual cost.
Thus, we can see that standard costing is complementary to budget costing; since a system of
budgeted control cannot function unless cost of production of each unit is strictly controlled.
9.5 STANDARD COSTING VS BUDGETARY CONTROL
Common Principles
Establishing predetermined standard, targets or yardsticks of Performance.

Measuring actual performance as compared torn yard stick
Locating variances between actual cost and standard cost performance
Disclosing reasons of such variances. <Suggesting corrective actions where necessary.
9.6 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Although estimating and costing both are required to decide the price of the product even where
the two are different.
Estimating is aimed to calculate the probable cost of the product before the manufacturing
starts, and while costing is the determination of actual cost of the product by adding various
elements of expenses incurred. Estimation an engineer and costing require the knowledge of
accounts and therefore costing is done by accounts. Estimation for castes about the probable
cost and one can know before the manufacture that the manufacturing of the product shall be
profitable or not but costing tells after the manufacturing that the product is profit or not.
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9.7 PROCEDURE FOR COSTING
Actual expenditure incurred in various departments on different times are collected by the
costing department. The expenditure is then divided under the following heads.
➢ Direct material cost

➢ Direct labour cost
➢ Factory overheads
9.8 COSTING METHODS
However, the following are the important methods of costing.
1. Multiple cost
2. Job cost
3. Departmental cost
4. Unit costs
5. Process costs
6. Operating costs
9.9 COST CONTROL
How to control cost: so far, we have studied elements of cost such as material, labour and
expenses. If we make a systematic check on each and every element of cost then it can be kept
in control. If businessmen have not any check and scientific way of calculating the total cost
of the products produced then he may not earn desired profits and he may even run into losses.
Therefore, to earn profits it is essential to keep control over each and every element of cost
such as
1. Control over primary cost

2. Control over overhead
3. Control over indirect materials and tools
9.10 ADVANTAGES OF EFFICIENT COSTING
✓ It gives data for comparing actual cost and estimated cost

✓ It provides data for overhead charges to assist in the preparation of estimates in the future.
✓ It helps the management for forming policies for price distribution
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✓ It provides information of detailed expenditure so that it can be checked, when it is tending
to exceed
✓ It keeps control over selling price.
✓ The main advantage of costing is to compare the output of the persons of same trade and
working on same type of machines.
✓ It helps in determining the efficiency of administrative and operating frictions and decides
the weak point, where wastage and expense need check.
9.11 PRICE DETERMINATION
Marketing policy of sales department

Government policy
Customers willingness to offer
While deciding its pricing policy marketing department considers the following factors.
Competitors prices for similar merchandise
Marketing policy of sales department
Government policy
Customer willingness to offer
While deciding its pricing policy marketing department considers the following factors
Marginal and total utility
9.12 MARKETING CONSIDERATIONS FOR PRICING
Following are some of the policies, which are generally adapted for considering marketing
considerations.
a) High Price Volume Vs Low Price and High Volume

Depending up on the market size and the type of competition, marketing department decides
whether it will earn more profit even if sales is less or will have less profit margin and increased
total profit.
b) Formation of Price Cartel

This is common in duopoly or oligopoly situations. Prices are determined and received from
time to time by the cartel, although formations of cartel are illegal.
c) Price Cutting
This is done as a marketing strategy to drive the competitors from market
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d) Penetration Pricing
Deliberately keeping the price low in order to achieve market share as quickly as possible.
e) Price Revision
Prices are revised due to escalation or imposition of new texts or revision in tax rate. However,
while revising the price competitor's mood should be kept in mind.
9.13 COST CONSIDERATION FOR PRICING
Full cost pricing - In this method the final price of the product is determined after adding
fixed percentage of profit to the total cost of a product.
Conversion cost pricing - Principle behind this is that profit should be charged only on the
expense made on the charging and not on the purchased material.
Marginal cost pricing - In this system a minimum price is fixed and the sales
person/executive has more latitudes. His objective is to maximum the profit under the
circumstances.
9.14 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
An invitation to tender the supply install or manufacture any item is accompanies with standard
specifications. They are specifications, which gives complete information.
These are standardized for
a. Similarity
b. Easy availability
c. Safety
d. Cost reduction
e. Quality
f. Marketing process
Standard specifications in our country are published by "BUREAU OF INDIAN

STANDARDS" and are called Indian Standards. These are written in a very clear and concise
mailer. Their study will give the reader some idea how specifications are to be written. These
are constantly being revised and amended so as to keep them up to date.
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9.15 ELEMENTS OF COST
This topic is very important in the subject "ESTIMATING AND COSTING". If any factor the
cost of the product is calculated so that the exact idea of the amount of profit can be made. We
know that there are different items of expenditure, which are incurred in a factory and all these
are charged on the product of manufacturing. No item of expenditure should be left while
calculating the total cost of any product. This total cost is divided into different for easy a can
be -"heading-known as "ELEMENTS OF COST" accurate calculation, the total cost of a
product manufactured divided into three main elements. They are.
▪ Material Labour
▪ Expenses
Calculation of direct labour cost
For the purpose of calculation of direct labour cost estimates must have knowledge of all
operations, the tools and the machines for production. Estimates should also be taking the
advice of the production department for the estimated time for each operation. Hence should
also consider various allowances like,
1. Set up time
2. Operation time
3. Handling time
4. Manufacturing time
5. The tear down time
6. Miscellaneous time
7. Personnel allowance
8. Fatigue allowance
9. Tool changing and grinding allowance
10. Measurement checking allowance
11. Other allowance for cleaning checking and oiling and getting stocks.
Expenses
We have discussed direct labour cost, direct material cost etc. Bui apart from this you find that
apart from this in each factory there are several other expenses like cost of advertisement
building rent depreciation charges of plants and factory building cost of packing cost of
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transportation salaries and commission to salesman etc. All, these expenditures are known as
expenses.
Expenses may be of two classes

Direct expenses and indirect expenses
Direct expenses -These are those expenses, which can be charged directly to a particular job
and are incurred for that job only.
Indirect expenses - They are also called overhead charges, on cost, indirect charges.
They can be classified as

o Factory expenses
o Administrative expenses
o Selling expenses
o Distribution expenses
9.16 FIXED OVERHEADS
These are those indirect expenses, which remains whatever to be the volume of production.
Examples of fixed overheads are
❖ Salaries of officers.
❖ Depreciation of machine and equipment's.
❖ Interest on capital invested.
❖ Rent on building and insurance.
9.17 VARIBALE OVERHEAD
These are those indirect expenses, which vary with the volume of production. Examples of
these overheads are
• Power of fuel concerned.

• Repairs and maintenance.
• Consumable store supplies.
• Expenses on tools.
9.18 COMPONENTS OF COST
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Prime cost - It consists of direct labour cost and direct expenses. That is prime cost. Prime cost
is also termed as direct cost.
Prime cost - Direct material cost + Direct labour cost + Direct expenses
Factory cost - It consists of prime cost and factory expenses.
Factory cost - Prime cost+ Factory expenses. Factory cost is also termed as works cost.
Office cost - It consists of factory cost and administrative expenses.
Office cost - Factory cost +Administrative expenses
Office cost is also called manufacturing cost or cost of production
Total cost - It includes office cost and selling and distribution expenses.
Total cost Office cost + Selling expenses +distribution expenses.
9.19 SELLING PRICE
Selling is the combination of total cost and profit. The customer gets the article by paying the
price, which is named as selling price.
9.20 ALLOCATION OF ON-COST OVERHEAD COST
It has been discussed above about the various forms of on-cost After estimating the total on-
cost next step is the allocation of the on cost over the production. To run the business in most
economical way it is necessary to know the variation of on-cost with the variation of
production.
Following are the main methods of on-cost allocation;
✓ Percentage on prime cost

✓ Percentage on direct labour cost
✓ Percentage on direct material cost
✓ Man, hour rate
✓ Machine hour rate
✓ Combination of man hour and machine hour rate
✓ Unit rate method
69
PROCESS CARRIED AND TOTAL COST
1.CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMES
SL Material Machine Labour Overhead

Item Quantity Total
NO. cost cost cost Expense
Aluminium
1 800x800mm 2000 2000 0 0 4000
sheet
2 Bearing 1 1860 0 0 0 1860
Small
3 1 90 0 0 0 90
Bearing
4 Clamper 1 600 0 0 0 600
TOTAL EXPENSE 6550
Table. 9.1 Construction of Frames
2.CONSTRUCTION OF BASE
SL Material Machine Labour Overhead

Item Quantity Total
Forex
500x1000mm 200 0 0 0 200
1 sheet
Wooden
200x350mm 250 200 100 100 650
2 piece
TOTAL EXPENSE 850
Table. 9.2 Construction of Base
70
3.ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
SL
Item Quantity Material Machine Labour Overhead Total
Power
330 0 0 0 330
1 Adapter 1
LDX-218
2600 0 0 0 2600
2 digital servo 2
LFD-06
1680 0 0 0 1680
3 digital servo 1
LD-1501
MG digital 2000 0 0 0 2000
4 servo 1
Wireless
handle and
1 Set 2050 0 0 0 2050
5 handle
receiver
6 Controller 1 2400 0 0 0 2400
TOTAL EXPENSE 11060
Table. 9.3 List of Electronic Components
71
4.OTHER EXPENSES
SL Material Overhead
Item Quantity Rate Total
NO. cost Expense
1 Travel 1000 1000 0 1000
M4*40
2 Copper 70 280 0 280
Column 4
M4*8 Copper
3 15 60 0 60
Column 4
M4*15
Copper 30 120 0 120
Column 4
4
M3*8 Nylon
6 60 0 60
5 Column 10
M3*15 Nylon
6 4 10 40 0 40
Column
7 M4 Screw Nut 20 3 60 0 60
8 M3 Screw Nut 10 3 30 0 30
9 M2 Screw Nut 10 3.5 35 0 35
10 M4*35 Screw 3 5 15 0 15
11 M4*20 Screw 5 4 20 0 20
12 M3*10 Screw 1 5 5 0 5
72
13 M3*8 Screw 10 3.5 35 0 35
14 M3*6 Screw 20 3.5 70 0 70
15 M2*6 Screw 10 3.5 35 0 35
16 M2*5 Screw 35 4 140 0 140
17 Glue 1 65 65 0 65
18 Screwdriver 1 200 200 0 200
TOTAL EXPENSE 2270
Table. 9.4 Other Expenses
73
CHAPTER - 10
ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC ARM
10.1 ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC ARM
Improved safety
Robotic arms help keep workers safe by operating in environments that are hazardous and
executing tasks that present high risk of injury to humans.
Improved efficiency and productivity

Robotic arms can operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week without fatiguing, allowing
businesses to keep production, inspections, or other tasks going continuously to increase
output. Efficiency is important for any business to be competitive today. Robotic arms are
efficient. This is one of the many things that set robot arms apart from humans. Robot arms can
be programmed to perform tasks efficiently and faster saving on time and improving overall
production capacity. This translates to more sales and a better market position.
Enhanced precision
By their very nature, robotic arms perform more consistently and accurately than humans for
tasks that require extreme precision or consistency.
Greater flexibility
As business priorities change, robotic arms can easily be repurposed for new activities or
mounted onto different platforms, such as autonomous mobile robots (AMRs), a stationary
assembly line platform, or wall or shelf, as needed.
Job Creation
Contrary to popular opinion, a robotic arm creates more jobs than the ones they take away. By
introducing a robot arm to your workplace, you create a job for the person who has to oversee
the robot arm working. A robot arm still needs human input to function as well. The more
people need the services of a robot arm, the higher the demand for a production increase which
translates to more jobs for human beings who assemble and program the robotic arm. By
encouraging your workers to embrace and work together in tandem with robots, you are helping

them acquire and develop new technical and engineering skills and knowledge which they
otherwise did not have.
Accuracy
Robot arms are precise and accurate. Due to the accuracy of the robot arms, the final products
are of high quality which translates to longevity which appeals to the customer. This leads to
more sales and better profit margins for the company.
High Productivity
Assigning a robotic arm, the work a human was doing can lead to increased productivity. A
robot arm can carry out the bulky and tiresome work and leave human beings with enough time
to focus on innovative projects or ample time for them to respond to emails, talk with clients,
and much more. This is an advantage for any company because the robot arm is working on
the production side of things and your human employees are working on the interactive side of
your company. This leads to high-quality products and satisfied clients.
Consistent Speed
A robot arm does not get affected by human factors such as fatigue, stress, or stress which
limits a human employee’s capacity to work and speed of work. A robot arm is a perfect
employee that needs no vacation, or off days. They can work continuously day and night
without stopping leading to a faster production time. They substitute humans from having to
meet impossible deadlines, working at impossible speeds, and trying to achieve a constant
product quality that is not possible for a human.
Improve Factory Working Conditions

Work that is dull, dangerous, dirty or difficult is assigned and is suitable for robots. As a result,
the workers who carried out this work previously, are now able to engage in other tasks in
improved working conditions. Other tasks that are more engaging mentally and that are a much
better to their health.
75
CHAPTER - 11
DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC ARM
As robotic arms play a pivotal role in the many fields, they guarantee to be a major part of the
future society. With several advantages that robotic arm can offer, you cannot keep your eyes
closed towards the disadvantages.
They Need Constant Monitoring

Robots have to be monitored at all times to ensure that they do not get any mechanical faults
which would cause them to stall. This could lead to losses to the company. With the
advancements in technology, monitoring robots has become very easy. It can even be done
remotely. The robots are able to send feedback of their processes via text to the operator. In
case of a technical hitch, it can also be corrected remotely without having to stop the robot.
Robots Are Not Creative or Innovative

Robots do not have the capacity to be creative or innovative. Robots can only complete tasks
as they are instructed to through programming. Robots do not have the capacity to tell when
consumer preferences are changing and what they want. Manufacturing companies therefore
must always keep their eyes on the market and adapt to the market changes.
Fear of Job Losses

Robots are seen to be taking over jobs that are already being carried out by human workers.
With their cost effectiveness and mechanical ability, they can replace human workers in the
factory once they have stronger capabilities. Collaborative robots are helping eliminate this
fear. Rather than replacing the human worker, robots are tools that assist the human worker in
the factory

CHAPTER - 12
CONCLUSION
The main focus of this work was to design, and programme robotic arm the robot arm was
designed with six degrees of freedom and talented to accomplish accurately simple tasks, such
as light material handling the robot arm is equipped with several servo motors which do links
between arms and perform arm movements. A microcontroller that drives the servo motors
with the capability of modifying position.
The programming is done on ATMEGA-328p Microcontroller using Arduino programming
and multiple servo controller and Bluetooth module. And you can control the robotic arm also
using android device, in today’s world, this Robotic arm has turned out very benevolent.
Besides Robotics and Automation, these kinds of arms have applications in other fields also.

REFERENCE
1. C. F. Olson, Lab. JP, Technol. CIo, Pasadena, ―Probabilistic self-localization for mobile
robots‖; IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation 16,1, 55-66, 2000.
2. R.B. Gillespie, J. E. Colgate, M. A. Peshkin, ―A general framework for robot control‖;
IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, 17,4, 391-401, 2001.
3. Devendra P. Garg and Manish Kumar, ―Optimization Techniques applied to multiple
manipulators for path planning and torque minimization‖; Engineering Applications of
Artificial Intelligence 15, 3-4, 241-252, 2002.
4. J. C. Trinkle and R. James Milgram, ―Complete Path Planning for Closed Kinematics
Chains with Spherical Joints‖; SAGE International Journal of Robotic Research 21, 9, 773-
789, 2002.
5. M. Gemeinder and M. Gerke, ―GA-based Path Planning for Mobile Robot Systems
employing an active Search Algorithm‖; Journal of Applied Soft Computing 3, 2, 149-158,
2003. ―Six-servo Robot Arm‖ from www.arexx.com.cn on 13-11-2011 pg: 1-18
6. Jegede Olawale, Awodele Oludele, Ajayi Ayodele, ―Development of a Microcontroller
Based Robotic Arm‖, in Proceedings of the 2007 Computer Science and IT Education
Conference pg: 549-557.
7. Six-servo Robot Arm‖ from www.arexx.com.cn on 13- 11-2011.
8. Robotic Arm‖ - www. NASA explores. com
9. Robot software‖ from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia on 04-3-2012
10. ATMEL – short notes‖, www.atmel.com
11. Arduino MCU‖, - www.arduino.com
12. Servomotors & system design components‖, - www.bhashaelectronics. Com
13. Robert J. Shilling "Fundamentals of robotics analysis and control ".
14.GORDON McCOMB" The robot builders' bonanza ".
15. www.wikipedia.com/robotic. 42
16. G. J. Monkman" Robot Gripper ".
17. http://www.instructables.com/
18. J. M. Selig "Introductory Robotics"
19. Andrease Wolf "Grippers in Motion"

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ROBOTIC ARM

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INSTITUTION VISION AND MISSION

To become a centre of excellence committed to moulding technologically competent and

1. To ensure a viable academic ambience conducive to intellectual growth and skill

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT VISION AND MISSION

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Apply knowledge of basic mathematics, science and

Identify and analyze well-defined engineering

Design solutions for well-defined technical problems

Use engineering management principles individually,

Ability to analyze individual needs and engage in

Students acquire technical and managerial skill that make

Students acquire theoretical background of each course

PROGRAM EDUCATION OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

On successful completion of the program, the graduates are expected

SECOND GROUP STUDENTS

Multi-degree of freedom robots is playing very important role in different application of

Keywords: - Robot, Manipulator, Fusion 360, Kinematics, Position, Actuator, Sensor.

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vii

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS 1

3 COMPONENTS OF ROBOTIC ARM 8

3.1 END EFFECTOR 8

4.1 SIX DEGREE OF FREEDOM 19

5.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN 20

5.2 ROBOT AND HUMAN MOTION COMPARISON 22

5.4 FACTOR OF SAFETY 28

5.5 FUSION 360 DESIGN 28

5.6 EXOSKELETON DESIGN 32

5.7 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS 32

6 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS 42

6.1 SERVO MOTOR (ACTUATOR) 43

6.3 JUMPER WIRES AND CONNECTORS 46

6.4 POWER ADAPTER 48

6.5 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT 48

7.1 C PROGRAM COGE 51

10 ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC ARM 74

11 DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC ARM 76

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS 1

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTIC ARM 3

2.1 HISTORY OF ROBOTICS 6

3.1 END EFFECTOR 8

3.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ACTUATORS 9

3.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SENSORS 12

3.4 CONTROLLER BLOCK DIAGRAM 13

3.5 CNC ROBOT CONTROLLER 13

3.6 ROBOTIC ARM CONTROLLING SOFTWARE 15

4.1 JOINTS OF ROBOTIC ARM 17

4.2 SIX DEGREE OF FREEDOM 19

5.1 MECHANICAL LINKS OF ROBOTIC ARM 20

5.2 JOINTS AND LINKS IN COMPARE WITH HUMAN ARM 21

5.3 JOINTS AND LINKS OF ROBOTIC ARM 22

5.4 ROBOT AND HUMAN MOTION COMPARISON 22

5.5 ALUMINIUM SHEET 24

5.6 MANUFACTURING OF ALUMINIUM 27