Chapter Metals

TOPIC
Metals & Reactivity Series of

Metals
Metals and Alloys

The Reactivity Series
Extraction of Metals
Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

General Properties of Metals
Metals are good conductors of
heat and electricity.
Metals are Malleable and ductile.

Metals usually have high
densities, melting points and
boiling points.
Metals are very hard and strong

Why do metals have high densities,
melting points and boiling points?
Atoms in a metal are

packed tightly in layers
and are held together by
strong metallic bonds.
Why are metals ductile and malleable?
In a pure metal, atoms are of the same

size and packed regularly in layers.
Hence, the layers of atoms can slide over one

another eaily when force is applied.
push
Why do metals conduct electricity?
The outermost electrons of the atoms can break away

easily from the atoms.
The positive (metal) ions

surrounded by a ‘sea of
mobile electrons’.
The mobile electrons allow metals to conduct

electricity.
Why do metals conduct heat?
The mobile electrons allow metals to

conduct heat.
Why are pure metals not widely
used in Industry?
Many pure metals are soft
Many pure metals may react with
air and water and wear away or
corrode easily
Therefore, we often use alloys
instead of pure metals
What are alloys?
An alloy is a mixture of a metal
with one or a few other elements.
For example,
• Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin,
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc,
• Stainless Steel is an alloy of iron,
chromium, nickel and carbon.
Olympic Medals
• The Gold medal is 92.5 %
Silver covered with a thin layer
of Gold.
• The Silver medal is an alloy
called Sterling Silver
(92.5% Silver, 7.5% copper)
• The Bronze medal is an alloy
made of Bronze
(88% copper, 12 % Tin)

Why are metals often used in the
form of alloys?
Reasons :
To make metals harder and stronger
To improve the appearance of metals
To lower the melting points of metals
To make metals more resistant to
corrosion
form of alloys?
Reason 1:
Alloys are stronger and harder than pure metals.

Why are alloys stronger than pure
metals?
When a pure metal is alloyed, a different element

is added to the pure metal.
Atoms of the added element have a different size

from those of the pure metal.
Why are alloys stronger than pure
metals?
This breaks up the regular arrangement of atoms

in the pure metal. The regular arrangement of
atoms in the pure metal is disturbed.
The atoms of different sizes cannot slide over each
other easily.
form of alloys?
Reason 2:
Alloying can also be used to improve the appearance

of the metal.
Pewter is an alloy of tin, antimony and copper.
Pewter looks more beautiful than pure tin.

form of alloys?
Reason 3:
Alloys are also more resistant to corrosion than

pure metals.
Example : Cupronickel (an alloy of copper and
nickel is use in coins because it does not corrode
easily.
form of alloys?
Reason 4:
Alloying is used to lower the melting points of
metals.
Solder is an alloy of tin and lead.
It has a lower melting point than pure tin or pure

lead and can be used to join metals. It can be used
to join electronic parts to circuit boards.
Some common alloys
Alloy Composition Properties Uses
Brass Copper (70%), Does not corrode Coins, musical

zinc (30%) easily; attractive instruments,
yellow colour looks decorative
like gold ornaments,
Stainless Iron (73%), Resistant to Cutlery, utensils,

steel chromium (18%), corrosion, strong Medical
nickel (8%), instruments, pipes
carbon (1%) in chem industries
Solder Tin (50%), Low melting point For joining
lead (50%) metals
Pewter Tin (95%), Bright, shiny, looks Decorative

antimony (3.5%), like silver ornaments
copper (1.5%)
Chemical Properties of Metals
1. Form positive ions by the loss of
electrons, e.g. Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
2. Form ionic compounds,
e.g. metal chlorides and metal oxides.
3. Usually react with dilute acids to give hydrogen
and a salt.
4. React with oxygen to form basic oxides or
amphoteric oxides.
The Reactivity Series
However, a metal may react more or less
vigorously with a substance than another
metal. e.g. Zinc is more reactive than Gold
A metal that reacts faster or more
violently or vigorously is said to be more
reactive than the other metal.
Determining the Order of Reactivity of Metals
Scientists have worked out a list called

the reactivity series.
In the reactivity series, metals are
arranged from the most reactive to
the least reactive.
How is the order of reactivity of
metals determined?
The order of reactivity of metals can be
determined by the:
a) Reaction of metals with cold water or steam
b) Reaction of metals with dilute Hydrochloric
acid
The Reaction Of Metals With Cold Water
Some metals react with cold water to

form the metal hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
The general equation for the reaction is
metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen
A more reactive metal reacts more violently
with cold water .
Reactions Of Different Metals With
Cold Water
Which metals react with steam?
Zinc and Iron do not react with cold water
but they do react with steam. Some metals
reacts with steam to form metal oxide and
hydrogen gas. The general equation for the
reaction is
metal + steam metal oxide + hydrogen
A more reactive metal reacts more violently with
steam
Reactions Of Different Metals With Steam
* Note: Potassium, Sodium and Calcium Reacts

explosively with steam. This reaction should not
be carried out in the school laboratory.
The Reaction of Metals with Dilute
Hydrochloric Acid
Many metals react with dilute acids to
produce a salt and hydrogen gas. When
metals react with dilute hydrochloric
acid, the products are metal chloride and
hydrogen gas. The general equation for
the reaction is
Metal + Dilute Metal + Hydrogen
hydrochloric acid chloride
A more reactive metal reacts more violently with dil. HCl.
Reactions of different metals with
dilute hydrochloric acid
The Reactivity Series of Metals
Based on the reactions of metals with cold
water, steam and dilute hydrochloric acid, we
can place the metals in order of their reactivity.
Most reactive
K Na
Ca Mg
Al Zn
Fe Pb
CuAg
Least reactive
SUMMARY OF REACTIONS

Using the Reactivity Series
The reactivity series may be used to explain the following

reactions:
Displacement reactions of metals
Reaction between a metal and the oxide of another metal
Reduction of metal oxide with Carbon
Reduction of metal oxide with Hydrogen
Action of heat on metal carbonates.
The Displacement Reactions of Metals
A more reactive metal can displace a less
reactivee metal from its salt solution.
Solid Iron displaces copper(II) ions from a solution
of copper(II)sulphate.
iron filings
iron(II)
copper(II) sulphate
sulphate solution
solution
Copper metal is precipitated out of the solution as

pink or reddish-brown solid.
The Displacement Reactions of Metals
More reactive metals can displace a

less reactive metals
from their salt solutions.
Metal displacement reactions are redox
reactions
In a metal displacement reaction, the more

reactive metal is oxidised
while the less reactive metal is reduced.
For example, in the reaction between iron and
copper(II) sulphate,
the more reactive metal, iron reduces the copper(II)

ions to copper.
At the same time, iron itself is oxidised to the

iron(II) ions. The ionic equation for the reaction is

Can a less reactive metal displace a
more reactive one?
If a piece of copper foil is dipped into magnesium

sulphate solution, no reaction occurs.
Explanation: Copper is less reactive than magnesium.

It cannot displace magnesium from its salt solution.
Reaction between a metal and
the oxide of another metal
A more reactive metal can reduce the oxide of a less
reactive metal
An example is the reaction between zinc and

copper(II) oxide.
Since Zinc is more reactive than copper, it will form
its positive ions, Zn2+, more readily . Zn2+ ions react
with O2- ions from copper(II) oxide to form zinc oxide.
In this process, copper(II) oxide is reduced to copper.
zinc + coper(II) oxide zinc oxide + copper
Zn(s) + CuO (s) ZnO(s) + Cu (s)
More reactive metals become ions more readily and
form compounds. On the other hand, unreactive
metals tend to stay uncombined. Therefore, if the
experiment shown in the figure, is repeated using a
mixture of zinc oxide and copper powder no
reaction will occur.
The Reduction of Metal Oxides
with Carbon
The oxides of some metals can be reduced to their

metals by heating with carbon.
The general equation for the reaction is:
meal oxide + carbon metal + carbon dioxide
The more reactive a metal is, the more difficult it is
to decompose its oxides.
In other words, the more reactive a metal is, the more

difficult it is to reduce the oxide to the metal by carbon.
The Reduction of Metal Oxides with Carbon
When a mixture of copper(II) oxide and carbon is

heated,
copper(II) oxide is
reduced to copper and
carbon is oxidised to
carbon dioxide.
2CuO + C 2Cu + CO2

The reactions of some metal oxides
with carbon
Metal oxide Reaction
Potassium oxide Oxides are not reduced by carbon

Sodium oxide
Calcium oxide
Magnesium oxide
Aluminium oxide
Zinc oxide Oxides are reduced by carbon
Iron(II) oxide
Lead(II) oxide
Copper(II) oxide
Silver oxide Oxide is reduced by heating
What is the importance of this
reaction in industry?
Metals need to be extracted from their ores.

These ores are mainly made up of metal oxides.
Metals that are below magnesium in the reactivity

series are often extracted from their ores by
reduction with carbon.
Can we extract metals by heating?
If a metal is below copper in the reactivity series,

its oxide will decompose simply by heating.
For example, silver oxide decomposes into silver

and oxygen when it is heated to 200 °C.
2Ag2O 4Ag + O2
The oxides of metals that are above zinc in the
reactivity series are not reduced by carbon.
These oxides are so stable that they can only be

reduced by passing electricity through them.
Reduction of Metal Oxides with Hydrogen
Hydrogen gas can also be used to reduce metal
oxides to the metals.
meal oxide + hydrogen  metal + steam
metal oxide
excess
hydrogen
hydrogen
burning off
fused
calcium
chloride
PbO (s) + H2 (g) → Pb (s) + H2O (g)

Reactions of Metal Oxides with Hydrogen
Metal oxide Reaction with
hydrogen
Potassium oxide Heated metal oxides are
Sodium oxide not reduced.
Calcium oxide
Magnesium oxide
Zinc oxide
Iron(II) oxide Heated metal oxides are
Lead(II) oxide reduced.
Copper(II) oxide
Silver oxide
Recall that zinc oxide can be reduced by carbon.

Action of Heat on Metal Carbonates
Some metal carbonates are more difficult to

decompose by heat than others.
These compounds are more stable to heat than others.

The thermal stability of metal carbonates can

be tested by heating them in a dry test tube.
metal carbonate
limewater

Metal carbonate Observation
Potassium carbonate Unaffected by heat

Sodium carbonate
Calcium carbonate Decompose into metal oxide and
Magnesium carbonate carbon dioxide on heating
Zinc carbonate
Iron(II) carbonate
Lead(II) carbonate
Copper(II) carbonate
Silver carbonate Decomposes into silver and
carbon dioxide on heating

The thermal stability of the metal carbonate

is related to the position of the metal in the
reactivity series.
The more reactive the metal is, the more
difficult it is to decompose its compounds.

The Stability of Metal Compounds
Compounds of metals which are high

up in the reactivity series are stable and
not easily decomposed by heat.
Compounds of metals low down in the
reactivity series, unstable, and are often
decomposed by heating or easily
reduced.

The Stability of Metal Oxides
The Oxides of metals above Zinc in the
reactivity series can only be reduced to their
metals by using electrolysis. At the cathode,
reduction occurs.
Al3+ (l) + 3e- → Al (s)
The oxides metals that are below
Aluminium can be reduced to their metal by
reducing agents like carbon or hydrogen.
ZnO (s) + C (s) → Zn + CO
CuO (s) + H2 (g) → Cu (s) + H2O (g)
The Stability of Metal Oxides
As you go down the series, reduction

becomes easier because the metals
prefer to exist as atoms instead of ions.
For example the oxides of Hg, Ag, Pt no
need of reducing agent– just heating
their oxide enough.
2HgO (s) → 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)

The Stability of Metal Hydroxides
Hydroxides of metals from calcium and

below decompose to their corresponding
oxides and give off steam, on heating.
Metal hydroxide → metal oxide + steam
Ca(OH)2 (s) → CaO (s) + H2O (g)
KOH and NaOH are stable to heat

Hydroxides of Hg, Ag and Pt unstable,
do not exist.
The Stability of Metal Carbonates
Except Sodium and Potassium carbonates
most carbonates undergo thermal
decomposition to form metal oxide and give
off carbon dioxide gas. This can be confirmed
by bubbling the gas through lime water, which
turns milky with carbon dioxide.
Metal carbonate → Metal oxide + carbon dioxide
PbCO3 (s) → PbO (s) + CO2 (g)
Carbonates of Hg, Ag and Pt unstable,
do not exist.
The Stability of Metal Nitrates
All nitrates decompose on heating.
Potassium and Sodium nitrates decompose to
form nitrites and oxygen
2KNO3 (s) → 2KNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
Metal Nitrates → Metal oxide + Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen
Most other metal nitrates decompose to
form metal oxides, nitrogen dioxide (reddish
brown fumes) and oxygen
2Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

The Stability of Metal Nitrates
The Nitrates of Hg, Ag, Pt decompose to form

their metal directly and give off nitrogen dioxide
and oxygen gases because their oxides are
unstable on heating
Nitrates of metals bottom of the activity series→
Metal + Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen
2AgNO3 (s) → 2Ag(s) + 2NO2 + O2(g)

The Stability of Metal compounds

Using the Reactivity Series to Deduce
the Order of Reactivity of Metals
The reactivity series of metals can be used to
• Predict the behaviour of a metal from its position in
the reactivity series
• predict the position of an unfamiliar metal in the
reactivity series from a given set of experimental results.
Example 1.
Tin is below iron but above lead in the
reactivity series. Predict the reaction between
tin(II) oxide (SnO) and
(a) Carbon,
(b) Magnesium.
Solution:
(a) Order of reactivity: iron > tin > lead
Since the oxides of both iron and lead can be
reduced by carbon, tin(II) oxide will undergo the
same reaction. Tin(II) oxide will be reduced by
carbon on heating to form tin and carbon
monoxide.
SnO (s) + C (s) → Sn(s) + CO(g)
2SnO (s) + C (s) → 2Sn(s) + CO2(g)
Solution:
(b) Magnesium is more reactive than tin.
It has a higher tendency to form its positive
ions (and compounds). Thus, it will reduce
tin(II) oxide to tin and form magnesium oxide at
the same time.
The more reactive metal can reduce the oxide
of less reactive metal
Mg (s) + SnO (s) → MgO(g) + Sn(s)
Example 2.
When a piece of chromium is placed in zinc
sulphate, no reaction occurs. When a mixture of
chromium powder and iron (III) oxide is heated
strongly, a reaction takes place. Deduce the
position of chromium in the reactivity series.

Solution:
Since chromium does not react with zinc
sulphate solution, it must be less reactive than
zinc, i.e. below zinc in the reactivity series. Since
it reacts with Iron(III) oxide, it must be more
reactive than iron. Thus chromium is below zinc
but above iron in the reactivity series.
Knowing the reactivity series also helps us to
choose suitable methods for extracting metals
and to prevent iron from rusting.
64 of © Boardworks Ltd 2006
Ores
Ores
Some sulfide minerals: iron pyrite

(fool’s gold), FeS2; black galena, PbS;
yellow orpiment, As2S3.
How do we extract metals from
their ores?
There are three main stages involved in
obtaining metals from their ore.
1. Concentrating the metal ore

2. Extracting crude metal from the ore
3. Refining the metals.
How do we extract metals from
their ores?
How do we extract metals from their ores?
There are Two main methods for

extracting metals from their ores :
-reducing the ore to the metal using carbon
-Electrolysis (using electricity to decompose
the molten compound to the metal)
The position of metal in the reactivity series
determines the method used for its
extraction. The more reactive metal is, the
harder it is to extract the metal form its ore.
How do miners decide the method of
extraction?
potassium
sodium
electrolysis. Electrolysis can
calcium also be used to purify copper.
magnesium
increasing reactivity
aluminium
(carbon)
zinc Metals less reactive than
carbon can be extracted from
iron
their ores by reduction using
lead carbon, coke or charcoal.
(hydrogen)
copper
silver
gold can occur native /
uncombined and do not need
platinum
to be extracted.
Iron
Occurrence : Iron is the second most

abundant metal after Aluminium.
Nearly 5% of the earth curst is made
from Iron compounds. It has been
known to human being for a long time.
(1500BC). Even Today Iron metal is
very important and it has profound
effect upon the development of the
country.
Iron
Ores of Iron :
Hamematite : Iron (III) Oxide, Fe2O3
Magnetite: Ferro ferric oxide, Fe3O4
Pyrite : (fool’s Gold), FeS2
Siderite: Iron (II) carbonate FeCO3
Extracting Iron from Haematite
The main ore of iron is haematite.

Haematite contains iron(III) oxide mixed
with impurities such as sand and clay.
Iron is extracted from haematite in a blast
furnace.
magnetite
haematite
A Blast Furnace
Haematite,
coke (which is mainly carbon),
limestone (calcium carbonate)
are added at the top of the
blast furnace.
Blasts of hot air are

blown into the furnace
near the bottom.
Chemical Reactions that Take Place
in a Blast Furnace
1. Production of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon in coke burns in hot air to
produce carbon dioxide.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

Limestone decomposed by heat to form
carbon dioxide and calcium oxide.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Chemical Reactions that Take
Place in a Blast Furnace
2. Production of Carbon Monoxide
As carbon dioxide rises up in the
blast furnace, it reacts with more
coke to form carbon monoxide.
C (s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)
Chemical Reactions that Take
Place in a Blast Furnace
3. Reduction of Haematite to Iron
Carbon monoxide reduces iron(III)
oxide in haematite to iron.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
Molten iron is formed and it runs to the bottom of
the blast furnace.
Waste gases e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide escape
from the top of the blast furnace.
Chemical Reactions that Take Place
in a Blast Furnace
4. Removal of Impurities
Impurities such as silicon(IV) oxide are
removed by calcium oxide.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(l)
CaSiO3 is called calcium silicate or slag. It

floats on top of molten iron. It is tapped off
separately from the iron.
What is steel?
The Iron that is extracted from the blast

furnace is known as cast iron or pig iron. It
is not useful as it contains impurities.
Hence most of it goes into producing steel.
Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon

and/or other metals.
How is steel made from cast iron?
Steel – making involves two main stages:

Oxidation and alloying


How are steel made?
• Molten iron (cast/pig iron) from

the blast furnace.
• Pig iron undergoes TWO

STAGES
• Purification by oxidation
• alloying
MAKING STEEL
molten Fe (cast iron)
Reacted with oxygen /

adding basic oxides such as CaO
removal of slag
and waste gases
Alloying
wrought iron
(pure iron)
Different types of Steel and their Uses
There are many types of steel. The

properties and uses of the steel vary with:
•The metal (s) added;
•The amount of carbon and metal (s) added
Each type has different amounts of
carbon and other metals added.
Each type of steel has its own properties

and uses.
There are 2 main types of steel:
carbon steel and alloy steel.
Types of Uses Special Composition

steel properties
Mild steel Car bodies and Hard, strong 99.5% iron and up
machinery and malleable to 0.25% carbon
High carbon Cutting and Strong but 0.45% -1.5%
steel boring tools brittle carbon
Stainless Equipment in Resistant to contains little
steel chemical plants, corrosion amount of carbon,
cutlery and nickel and
surgical chromium
instruments
STEEL
carbon steel alloy steel
mild steel manganese
high carbon stainless steel

Carbon steels are general purpose steels which contain mainly iron
and carbon.
Mild steel (or low carbon steel) contains 99.5% iron and up to
0.25% carbon. It is strong and malleable.
It is used to make car bodies and machinery

High carbon steel contains 0.45 – 1.5% carbon.
It is strong but brittle.
High carbon steel is used to make knives, hammers, chisels,

saws and other cutting and boring tools.
Alloy steels consist of iron and carbon together with one or
more of the following metals:
manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), tungsten (W)
and vanadium (V).
Manganese is used to increase strength

and hardness.
Chromium and nickel is introduced to improve resistance to

corrosion.
Stainless steel
is an alloy of iron, chromium, nickel and a little carbon.
It does not rust and is, therefore, used extensively for
making cutlery and surgical instruments.
What is rusting?
When an object made of iron is exposed to moist

air for some time, a reddish-brown substance
slowly forms on the surface of the metal. This
substance is called rust.
The process that produces rust is
known as rusting or the corrosion
of iron.
Rust has the chemical name hydrated iron(III)

oxide.

The equation for rusting is
4Fe + 3O2 + 2xH2O 2Fe2O3.xH2O

Investigation
The essential conditions for rusting are studied in
the following investigation

Results of Investigation
From the results of investigation we can conclude that

Both air and water are needed for rusting to occur.
The presence of sodium chloride increases the speed of
rusting. Besides NaCl, acidic substances such as SO2
and CO2 also speed up the rusting process.
What conditions are essential for
rusting?
1. Both air and water are needed for rusting
to occur.
2. The presence of sodium chloride

increases the speed of rusting.
3. Acidic substances such as sulphur dioxide

and carbon dioxide also speed up the
rusting process.
Rust Prevention
There are 3 general methods of rust prevention:
using a protective layer
using a sacrificial metal
using alloys

How does using a protective layer
prevent rusting?
We coat the metal object with a

protective layer of substance.
We can coat the iron/steel surface with
paint or grease, covering it with plastic,
electroplating it or dip plating it.
The iron/steel is thus kept away from
water and oxygen.

How does using a sacrificial metal
prevent rusting?
If we attach a metal that is more reactive

than iron (e.g. Mg or Zn), it will corrode
instead of iron.
The magnesium or zinc is
‘sacrificed’ to protect the iron or
steel.
Examples: zinc blocks are
attached to a ship’s hull.
magnesium blocks are attached to
underground pipes.
How does using alloys prevent
rusting?
Stainless steel (an alloy) contains nickel

and chromium.
On exposure to air and moisture, a very

hard coating of chromium(III) oxide,
Cr2O3, forms on the surface of stainless
steel, protecting it from further corrosion.

Protection against corrosion. (Left) Galvanized
objects are steel coated with zinc. (Right)
Steel is plated with chromium for appearance as
well as protection against corrosion.

CORROSION PROTECTION
There are several methods for protecting metals against corrosion.
The most widely used
are
1. Plating the metal with a thin layer of a less easily oxidized
metal
2. Connecting the metal directly to a “sacrificial anode,” a piece
of another metal that
is more active and therefore preferentially oxidized
3. Allowing a protective film, such as a metal oxide, to form
naturally on the surface
of the metal
4. Galvanizing, or coating steel with zinc, a more active metal
5. Applying a protective coating, such as paint

(a) Cathodic protection of buried iron pipe. A magnesium or
zinc bar
is oxidized instead of the iron. The “sacrificial” anode
eventually must be replaced.

(c) Galvanizing is another method of
corrosion protection. Even if the zinc coating is
broken, it is still oxidized in preference to
the less reactive iron as long as the two metals
remain in contact.

(b) Cathodic protection of a ship’s hull. The small yellow
horizontal strips are blocks of
titanium (coated with platinum) that are attached to the ship’s
hull. The hull is steel (mostly
iron). When the ship is in salt water, the titanium blocks become
the anode, and the hull the
cathode, in a voltaic cell. Because oxidation always occurs at the
anode, the ship’s hull (the
cathode) is protected from oxidation (corrosion).
Recycling Metals
Metals are finite resources.
This means that the amounts of the various metals

in the Earth are limited.
With the increasing demand for metals, our natural

resources will not last much longer.

The world’s reserves of raw metals may last longer if
• we can find new ore deposits
• we find substitutes to replace metals.
A good example is the replacement of some metal parts in
cars with plastic or ceramic parts.
• we recycle metals.
Metals are readily recycled — old metal objects can be
crushed and melted for reuse.

Advantages of Recycling
• With a decrease in mining for ores, land will be free for

other uses such as agriculture.
• Air and water pollution will also be greatly reduced.
• Fewer landfills will be required to dispose of both used
metal objects and waste material from metal extraction.
This will help save on the cost of building landfill sites.
• By recycling metals instead of extracting them from ores,
we are also conserving our limited fossil fuel reserves.

How are some metals commonly recycled?
Lead, iron and aluminium are mainly recovered by

scrap metal recycling.
Lead is recovered from car batteries.
Iron and steel is also recycled from scrap metal.
Aluminium is recycled mainly from drink cans and

food containers.

Economic Issues of Recycling
One problem with recycling metals is that recycling can also

be extremely costly.
The different types of metals must be separated before they

can be recycled.
There is the cost of transporting the scrap metal to the

processing plant.
Additional costs are incurred to sort and clean the scrap

metal.

Social Issues of Recycling
Compared to extracting metals from ores, recycling does not

produce as much waste as that may endanger human health.
With the increasing human population worldwide, more land
will be needed.
It would be wise to start developing metal recycling programs

and processes that are cost-effective and environmentally
friendly now.
It takes effort and time for communities and businesses to

practise recycling as a way of life.

Zinc
a. Occurrence:
the main ores of zinc are:
. Zinc blende, ZnS
. Calamine, ZnCO3
. Zincite, ZnO

b. Extraction:
Zinc metal can be extracted from
its ore Zinc blende (ZnS) or
Calamine (ZnCO3).
The Steps are:
i. Roasting the ore:
The ore is roasted in air and
converted to an oxide form.
2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2

ii. Reduction of Zinc Oxide:
Zinc oxide is reduced to zinc by
carbon monoxide or coke.
ZnO(s)+CO(g)→Zn(g)+CO2(g)
ZnO (s) + C (s) → Zn (l) + CO (g)
Pure Zinc can be obtained from

the impure zinc produced earlier
by re-distillation. Granulated Zinc
is obtained by pouring molten zinc
into water.

Extraction of Zinc:
The raw materials used in the
extraction of zinc are zinc blende,
coke and air. The main ore of zinc
is zinc blende (ZnS). The ore is
first crushed and treated to remove
waste rock and other impurities.
The zinc blende is then roasted
(strongly heated) in air to form
zinc oxide:
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g)→2ZnO(s)+2SO2(g)
Zinc oxide is then heated with coke in a blast furnace.

A blast of air is blown into the
bottom of the furnace. The excess
carbon reacts with oxygen in the air
to form carbon monoxide:
2C(s)+O2(g) → 2CO(g)
Higher up the furnace carbon
monoxide reduces zinc oxide to zinc:
ZnO(s)+CO(g)→Zn(g)+CO2(g)
The carbon dioxide formed can react
with more carbon to reform CO:
CO2(g)+C(s) → 2CO(g)
Some zinc oxide may also react
directly with the carbon:
ZnO(s)+C(s)→Zn(g)+CO(g)
The temperature in the furnace is
higher than the boiling point of zinc.
So the zinc vapour is carried up
through the furnace by the stream of
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
The vapour condenses in trays at the
top of the furnace together with lead
which is extracted at the same time.
The zinc is then purified by
distillation.
This method only produces about

20% of the world’s zinc. Electrolysis
of zinc sulphate is now preferred
because this produces much purer
zinc.

c. Properties of Zinc:
Zinc is a silvery white metal.
It is brittle at room temperature
but malleable and ductile. Like all
metals, it is a good conductor of
heat and electricity. It melts at
4200C and boils at 9070C.

Common Chemical Reactions:
a. Reaction with air:
Zinc tarnishes on exposure to air

due to the formation of a thin
protective layer of oxide.
However, Zinc burns to form oxide
when heated in air:
2Zn (s) + O2 (s) → 2ZnO (s)

Common Chemical Reactions…..
b. Reaction with water:
No reaction except with steam at
red heat, hydrogen is liberated.
Zn (s) + H2O (g) → ZnO (s) + H2 (g)
c. Reaction with acids:

Pure zinc is slow to react, impure
zinc reacts readily with dilute
hydrochloric and sulphuric acids
to liberate hydrogen gas.
Common Chemical Reactions:
Zn(s)+2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq)+H2(g)
Zn(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ZnSO4(aq)+H2(g)
Hot, concentrated sulphuric acid

oxidizes the zinc metal to form
zinc sulphate, sulphur dioxide, and
water.
Zn(s)+2H2SO4(Conc.) →
ZnSO4(aq)+H2O(l) + SO2(g)

d. Uses of Zinc :
large quantities of zinc are used
for galvanizing (to protect iron
and steel from rusting)
Zinc is fairly high in the activity
series of metals and is used as the
outer negative electrode of dry
cells.
It is extensively used to make
brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.

Aluminium
a. Occurrence:
Aluminium is the third most abundant element in
the earth’s crust and occurs widely distributed as
silicates in rocks and clay but never in the free
state. Some of the well known compounds of
aluminium are:
. Bauxite (hydrated aluminium oxide) Al2O3.2H2O
. Mica, feldspar, K2Al2Si6O16
. Kaolin, (China clay), Al2Si2O7.2H2O
. Cryolite (sodium hexafluoro aluminate, Na3AlF6

Figure: Bauxite mining.
b. Extraction of Aluminium metal:
the metal is mostly extracted from bauxite
which contain about 60% aluminium oxide,
the rest being impurities such as sand and
iron(III) oxide. The process of extraction of
aluminium is known as the Hall’s process. It
involves the following steps:
i. Purification of Bauxite by Bayer’s process:
Bauxite is powdered and dissolved in a hot
and concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
Aluminium oxide is an amphoteric oxide and
dissolves in sodium hydroxide to from a
solution of sodium aluminate (NaAlO2).
Al2O3 (s)+ 2NaOH (aq) → 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Iron(III) oxide, sand and other impurities do not dissolve during
this process and are removed by filtration.
ii. Sodium aluminate solution is diluted
with water in tanks and cooled. Then,
aluminium hydroxide will precipitated.
NaAlO2(aq)+ 2H2O(l)→ Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq)
The precipitate of aluminium hydroxide is

filtered off, washed, dried and heated
above 1000oC to form a pure aluminium
oxide, also called alumina.
Al(OH)3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 3H2O(g)

iii. Reduction of aluminium oxide to metallic
Aluminium by electrolysis:
reduction of aluminium oxide is not possible by
carbon, carbon monoxide, or hydrogen because
aluminium oxide is very stable compound. It is
extracted from its oxide by electrolysis as
follows.
Aluminium oxide has a high melting point and
is not readily soluble in water, but it is
dissolved in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6). The
molten cryolite reduces the m.p. of Aluminium
oxide and acts as an electrolyte.

Extraction of Aluminium metal by Hall’s cell

The electrodes are made of carbon. The
reaction taking place at the electrodes are:
Cathode : Al3+ + 3e- → Al
Anode : 2O2- → O2 + 4e-
C + O2 → CO2
Overall reaction : 4Al3+ + 6O2- → 4Al + 3O2
At the working temperature of the cell, oxygen
reacts with the carbon of the anode (graphite)
to produce carbon dioxide. The anode has,
therefore, to be replaced frequently. Cheap
sources of electricity must also be readily
available near the plant to make the process
commercially valuable.
C. Properties of Aluminium metal:
Aluminium is silvery white metal. It is highly
malleable and ductile. It is good conductor of
heat and electricity. m.p. 660 oC and b.p.
2470oC.
Since aluminium is located high up in the
reactivity series of metals, it has been expected
to react with both air and water. However, there
is no apparent reaction in either case. This is
because the aluminium metal rapidly reacts
with the air and gets covered with a thin layer of
its oxide which prevents further attack. But, it
burns in air at about 800oC forming its oxide
and nitride.
But, it burns in air at about 800 oC forming its
oxide and nitride.
4Al (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Al2O3 (s)
2Al (s) + N2 (g) → 2AlN (s)
it also reacts with steam to produce aluminium
oxide and hydrogen gas.
4Al (s) + 3H2O (g) → Al2O3 (g) + 3H2 (g)
Due to the formation of the oxide layer,
aluminium does not react with cold dilute
hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid; but it reacts
vigorously with warm dilute hydrochloric acid
to liberate hydrogen gas.
4Al (s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
And similarly with hot dilute sulfuric acid.
2Al (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Aluminium reacts with hot, concentrated
sulfuric acid and aluminium sulphate, water,
and sulphur dioxide are produced. Remember
that hot, concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong
oxidizing agent.
2Al(s)+6H2SO4(aq)→Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6H2O(g)+3SO2(g)
Aluminium does not react with dilute or
concentrated nitric acid. Hence, it can used for
transporting and storing nitric acid.

And similarly with hot dilute sulfuric acid.
2Al (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Aluminium reacts with hot, concentrated
sulfuric acid and aluminium sulphate, water,
and sulphur dioxide are produced. Remember
that hot, concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong
oxidizing agent.
2Al(s)+6H2SO4(aq)→Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6H2O(g)+3SO2(g)
Aluminium does not react with dilute or
concentrated nitric acid. Hence, it can used for
transporting and storing nitric acid.

Aluminium reacts with hot sodium hydroxide
solution to form sodium aluminate and
hydrogen gas.
Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 2H2O(l) → NaAlO2(aq) + 3H2(g)

d. Uses of Aluminium:
1. Aluminium, being a good conductor of
electricity, and lighter and cheaper than
copper is used to make overhead cables for
conveying electric power. To make the
overhead aluminium cables stronger, the
metal is woven around a central core of
steel. It replaces copper because cables of
aluminium are lighter than copper cables,
and so need less massive poles to carry
them.
2. Because Aluminium, is so malleable,
great quantities of it are used in aluminium
foil. Being non-toxic, aluminium is used for
packing food, milk bottle caps, cases for
frozen foods, wrapping sweets, cigarettes,
etc. In addition, it conducts heat well and
is made passive by nitric acid. Hence, it is
used in making cooking utensils.

3. It reflects light and heat when it is highly
polished, and so is used in car head-lamp
reflectors, as a thermal insulator, in solar
cookers, etc. Aluminium blankets are used
to wrap premature babies. They keep the
baby warm by reflecting heat back to the
body. Fire-fighters wear aluminium fabric
suits to reflect heat away from their bodies.

4. Aluminium powder, which consist of tiny
flakes of the metal, suspended in a suitable
oil medium has extensive use as aluminium
paint. It is used to prevent iron from
rusting.
5. Aluminium is used to make alloys.
Alloys of aluminium, for example,
duralumin, alnico, etc are light and strong.
They are used in the construction of bodies
of vehicles, buses and airplanes.
Copper
a. Occurrence:
copper is a fairly abundant metal in
the Earth’s crust. It occurs in both
free as well as combined states. The
most important ores of copper are:
. Chalcocite, Cu2S
. Chalcopyrite, CuFeS2
. Cuprite, Cu2O.
. Green malachite Cu2(OH)2CO3
. Blue azurite Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2
b. Extraction of Copper:
It is extracted from its common
ore chalcopyrite, CuFeS2 by
chemical reduction method.
Extraction of copper is a complex
process, in which the ore is first
roasted in air and then reduced.
The final process is refining the
crude copper which obtained from
the ore. The chemical reactions
taking places in the extraction of
copper are:
i. Roasting of the ore:
The ore is strongly heated in a vertical
cylindrical furnace. The possible chemical
reaction is:
2CuFeS2(s)+ 4O2(g)→ Cu2S(l) +2FeO(s) +3SO2(g)
some of the copper(I) sulphide is also
oxidized to form copper(I) oxide.
2Cu2S (s)+ 3O2(g)→ Cu2O(l) + 2SO2(g)
The roasted ore is heated with lime stone.
This removes the impurities like silica sand
and iron(II) oxide as a slag. The slag will
float on the top of the melted copper(I)
oxide-sulphide mixture.
The reactions are:
SiO2 + CaCO3 → CaSiO3 + CO2
FeO + SiO2 → FeSiO3
ii. Reduction to metallic copper:
In the extraction of copper, a reducing
agent is not used. However, self-
reduction will take place between
copper(I) sulphide and copper(I) oxide.
Cu2S (l)+ 2Cu2O (l)→ 6Cu(s) + SO2(g)
iii. Refining of the metal: The crude
copper metal is refined using electrolysis.
Electrolytic Purification
To purify copper, we
perform electrolysis of
aqueous copper(II)
sulphate, but
using copper
electrodes.
In this case, the electrodes
are called reactive
electrodes.
Electrolysis of aqueous copper(II)
sulphate using copper electrodes
Ions present:
Cu2+, SO42– , H+ and

OH–

Purification of copper
Anode: impure copper
Cathode: a thin sheet

of pure copper
Electrolyte: aqueous
copper(II) sulphate.

Purification of copper
At the anode:
Cu(s)  Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
During electrolysis, the
impure copper anode
dissolves.
Impurities such as silver
and platinum fall to the
bottom of the cell. They
are called ‘anode slime’.
A layer of pure copper

At the cathode:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e–  Cu(s) is deposited on the
cathode.
What happens when aqueous
copper(II) sulphate is electrolysed
using reactive (copper) electrodes?
a) No gas is evolved at the anode.

b) The copper anode slowly becomes
smaller.
c) Copper is deposited on the cathode.
d) The blue colour of the aqueous solution
remains unchanged.

Electroplating - Copper plating
Anode: pure copper

At the anode:
Cu(s)  Cu2+(aq) + 2e– Cathode: the metal
object to be copper-
plated
Electrolyte: aqueous
copper(II) sulphate
At the cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e–  Cu(s)

C. Properties of Copper:
Copper is a soft, extremely ductile,
and malleable metal with a
characteristic reddish-brown colour.
It is easily formed into wires, tubes,
and sheets. It is an excellent
conductor of electricity and is the
metal most often used for that
purpose.

Reactions of Copper:
Since copper is below hydrogen in the
reactivity series of metals, it is not very
chemically active. Some of the common
chemical reactions of copper are given
below.
1. Reaction with air:
Pure air has no action on the metal.
When exposed for some time to moist air
copper becomes coated with a green
basic carbonate, malachite.
This then protects the metal from further
corrosion. When air is passed over
heated copper, it forms a black film of
copper(II) oxide on its surface.
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
2. Reaction with acids:
-No reaction with dilute or conc. HCl.
-No reaction with dilute sulphuric acid,
unless air is blown through the mixture
during the reaction to form copper(II)
sulphate and water.
2Cu + 2H2SO4 + O2 → 2CuSO4 + 2H2O
-with conc. Sulphuric acid copper forms
sulphur dioxide gas (never gives H2 gas)
Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
- It reacts with Conc. And dilute nitric acid
to form different oxides of nitrogen.
For example:
Cu +4HNO3(conc.) → Cu(NO3)2+2NO2+H2O
3Cu +8HNO3(dil.) → 3Cu(NO3)2+2NO+4H2O
3. Reaction with water: It does not react
with cold water or steam.
d. Uses of Copper:
1. Extensively used as electrical wiring.
2. Its inertness and workability account for
its use as drinking water tanks and pipes,
roofing and in cooking utensils.
3. It is also much used for ornamental
purposes.
4. Copper forms strong alloys with other
metals. For example, Brass (Cu + Zn),
Bronze (Cu + Sn).

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TOPIC

Metals & Reactivity Series of

Metals and Alloys

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Metals are Malleable and ductile.

Metals are very hard and strong

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Atoms in a metal are

In a pure metal, atoms are of the same

Hence, the layers of atoms can slide over one

The outermost electrons of the atoms can break away

The positive (metal) ions

The mobile electrons allow metals to conduct

The mobile electrons allow metals to

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Alloys are stronger and harder than pure metals.

When a pure metal is alloyed, a different element

Atoms of the added element have a different size

This breaks up the regular arrangement of atoms

Alloying can also be used to improve the appearance

Pewter is an alloy of tin, antimony and copper.

Pewter looks more beautiful than pure tin.

Alloys are also more resistant to corrosion than

It has a lower melting point than pure tin or pure

Brass Copper (70%), Does not corrode Coins, musical

Stainless Iron (73%), Resistant to Cutlery, utensils,

Pewter Tin (95%), Bright, shiny, looks Decorative

Scientists have worked out a list called

Some metals react with cold water to

* Note: Potassium, Sodium and Calcium Reacts

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The reactivity series may be used to explain the following

Copper metal is precipitated out of the solution as

More reactive metals can displace a

In a metal displacement reaction, the more

the more reactive metal, iron reduces the copper(II)

At the same time, iron itself is oxidised to the

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

If a piece of copper foil is dipped into magnesium

Explanation: Copper is less reactive than magnesium.

An example is the reaction between zinc and

The oxides of some metals can be reduced to their

In other words, the more reactive a metal is, the more

When a mixture of copper(II) oxide and carbon is

2CuO + C 2Cu + CO2

Potassium oxide Oxides are not reduced by carbon

Metals need to be extracted from their ores.

Metals that are below magnesium in the reactivity

If a metal is below copper in the reactivity series,

For example, silver oxide decomposes into silver

These oxides are so stable that they can only be

PbO (s) + H2 (g) → Pb (s) + H2O (g)

Recall that zinc oxide can be reduced by carbon.

Some metal carbonates are more difficult to

These compounds are more stable to heat than others.

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The thermal stability of metal carbonates can

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Metal carbonate Observation

Potassium carbonate Unaffected by heat