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CHAPTER 8 – MEMORY:

Memory is a reconstructive process; psychologists use 3 different models to explain it:

1. Video/Camera: accurate preservation of data
2. Computer: specialized components used for specific functions at diff times
3. Filing Cabinets: many memory files for storage
These models are incorrect as we do not accurately capture, store and retrieve
information in the absence if biases

Just because something is in our visual field doesn’t mean we pay attention to it, or that
it is encoded, or actively remembered.

However, encoding happens when attention makes a selection of sensory info,

therefore, there is limitless encoding to what we pay attention to,

Problems with Memory Metaphors:

Data:
Stored data is identical to inputted information.
Retrieved data is identical to inputted information.

Memory:
Stored memory includes personal details and interpretations.
Retrieved memory may be altered or lost.

Forgetting – stored memories are frequently lost as time passes.

Data does not equal memory.
Several people watching the same event will usually remember it differently.
Memories can change and be forgotten over time.

3 Processes of Memory:

Psychologists study how memory is acquired, encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Incoming sensory info → Acquisition & Encoding → Storage → Retrieval

1. Encoding – how information initially enters into memory; highly

dependent on attention, retrieval cues encoded here
2. Storage – how the record of memory is maintained over time; can be
modified.
3. Retrieval – recovering stored information; dependent on retrieval cues
(information that triggers memory).
*Cues integrated during memory encoding.
*The longer the Storage time without retrieval practice the greater chances for
inaccuracies
*Inaccuracies occur if anything goes wrong during any of the 3 stages
Herman Ebbinghaus:

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Cue-Response Mechanism – one memory acts as a cue to trigger another

memory i.e. encoding and retrieval done through “sensory/environment” cues

Memory is a serial learning task.

Learning → Retention/Storage → Testing

Each word connects the word before and after it; like pearls in a necklace.

Our ability to recall recently encoded information decreases rapidly over time.
o Ability to recall words was highest immediately following learning.

Basic Memory Task:

Control Group: Distracted during encoding

Experimental Group: Asked to learn

1. Encoding Phase – subject learns a list of items, words, or pictures.

2. Retrieval Phase – subjects are tested for their memory of the items
presented during the encoding phase.

Experimental group performed better than control

Results overtime:
1 encoding phase/4 retrieval phases > 4 encoding phases/1 retrieval phase

Experiments using Basic Memory Task:

Recall Test – generate as many items as one can remember; not given
any external cues. Ex. Short Answer

Recognition Test – several items shown; asked to mark whether each item is
new or old, cue similarities can lead to false memories. Ex. Multiple Choice

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve – total forgetting always increases; rate of forgetting

decreases over time.

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Forgetting:
Reduces the potential interference from out-of-date memories; allows for more
efficient remembering of current information i.e. Ebbinghaus studying nonsense
syllables

 Memory Savings – difference in the time it takes to memorize a list at test vs

retest (Ebbinghaus).

 Decay Theory – memories fade with time; explains STM loss, but not LTM
loss as forgotten memories can later be recalled regardless of time passed

Memory loss due to not having the right cue to retrieve memory i.e.
Interference
 Interference – a cue that was once associated with one memory is now
associated with another, making it more difficult to retrieve the original memory.

Proactive Interference:
Interfering information was learned prior to the specific memory; ex. old memory
from French interfering with the retrieval of one’s newer memory for Spanish words.

Evidence:
Experimental group reads lists A and B; control group reads B.
Proactive interference in play if the experimental group remembers fewer
words than the control group.

Retroactive Interference:
New information interferes with the retrieval of old information.

Evidence:
Experimental group studies lists A and B; control group studies list A and is
distracted.
Both groups recall words from list A; retroactive interference occurs if the
experimental group remembers fewer words than the control group.

Temporary Forgetting/ Tip-of-Tongue State:

often occurs for people’s names and common words.

Evidence:
Jeopardy-like, low frequency word test i.e. What is plasma
Words that induce this state in the past will do so in the future; word is more
associated with error-prone process each time it’s in this state.

Repression:
Freud – horrific memories can be repressed as a defense mechanism.

Evidence:

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Directed forgetting paradigm: subjects told to intentionally forget studied items and thus
recall fewer of the intentionally forgotten words
*therapy like hypnosis can sometimes plant false memories

Models – describe/organize data; make specific hypotheses that are studied

through controlled experiments in the lab.

Multi-Store Model:
Proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin.
Memory is composed of short and long-term storage systems.

Sensory Memory:
Transient maintenance of perceptual and physical information from the recent past; not
limited by attention.
 Iconic Memory – visual information; represented by the visual system.
 Echoic Memory – auditory information; represented by the auditory system.

The physical or sensory characteristics of stimuli are briefly stored in sensory

memory, which has a large capacity because it does not require attention.

Experiment:

Participants view arrays of 3 rows of #s for 50ms, then listened for a low, medium, high
tone to indicate which row to report to. Accurate reporting if tone immediately follows
presentation, if tone 1s later, no recollection/reporting thus sensory memory decays at
an extremely fast rate.

Short-Term Memory Buffer

Available for a short period of time;
 Unrehearsed selected information stays in STM for ~20 s; CHK exp

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 Rehearsed (repeated) information stays for longer.

Not stored permanently;
Information can be transferred to long term memory through rehearsal.
Chunking – information is organized into sets of familiar meaningful groups of
items; increases STM:12 items: fbicbcbmocia: fbi cbc bmo cia
George Miller: Short Term Memory Capacity = 7 ± 2 items.
Example: Leonard Shelby Memento retains STM

Working Memory: Short-Term 2.0

Upgrade to the original conceptualization of STM; has three short term buffers/stores:

1. Phonological Loop – 7 ± 2 items maintains information that can be rehearsed

verbally.
2. Visuospatial Sketchpad – temporarily represents/manipulates visual
information/map
3. Episodic Buffer – draws on the other buffers alongside other stored LTM.
Remembering past events/episodes
*Central Exclusive – coordinates and manipulates information that is maintained in
the buffers; allows for working memory to be more flexible than short-term memory.

Long-Term Memory:
Once information is transferred from STM into LTM, new information is organized
according to prior knowledge.
Concepts that are more closely related are more directly connected.
Information transferred both ways; ex. remembering the past (LTM → STM).
Past memories largely linked to attention (top-down control).
Schemas – mental frameworks for interpreting the world around us based upon
prior experiences. Leads to expectations i.e expect to see books in a professors
office

If LTM and STM represent separate stores of memory that interact dynamically,
changes caused by manipulating specific variables can be isolated.

Long-Term Memory Systems:

Declarative/Explicit Memories – memory from factual information.
a) Semantic Memories – information not tied to a specific place or time “roses are
red”, have the word “it”
b) Episodic Memories – tied to a particular place and time i.e. personal experience

Non-Declarative Memories – learned actions and procedures, skills, implicit

memories that are difficult to explain
a) Procedural (skills) Memories i.e. explaining how to ride a bike

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Where is LTM stored in the brain?

Hippocampus is vital for STM memory and trace formation, but LTM processes are
apparent throughout the cortex,
o Hippocampus still important for the coordination of memories for activation
in consciousness. Repeated coactivation strengthens cortex so that
coactivation can occur without its assistance

Ex. H.M. acquired amnesia: removal of hippocampus to reduce severity of

epilepsy/seizures but resulted in retrograde amnesia, couldn’t remember events before
surgery and anterograde amnesia, couldn’t form lasting memories. Could only use
STM, remote memories secure, rehearsal to learn new tasks

Effect of Rehearsal: Evidence of Multi-Store Model

Free-Recall Paradigm: Most compelling evidence

Participants study a list of words presented one at a time; each word represents a
specific spot in the list.
Greater recall of words at the beginning and end of the list.
 Primacy Effect:
a. Occurs when there is increased rehearsal of early items over later ones.
b. Items at the beginning of the list enter STM first and have the most
opportunity to be rehearsed.
c. ↑ rehearsal = Greater chance of being transferred into LTM.
d. Thought to be retrieval of words from LTM
 Middle of the list have less opportunity for rehearsal/LTM transfer than those
at the start.
 Recency Effect

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a. least opportunity for rehearsal/LTM transfer, but recall is high.

b. The more recent items replace the previous items to occupy short-term
memory.
c. Thought to be retrieval from STM

Improving Primacy:
Primacy effect is enhanced when using a longer time interval, relative to a shorter
time interval between presented items.
↑ time between item presentations ↑:
b) Amount of times each item can be repeated.
c) Probability of item being stored in long-term memory.
d) Performance recalling first couple of items.

Diminishing Recency:
A manipulation that causes the most recent contents of the STM to be
replaced/disrupted ↓ the Recency Effect.
Disrupting the short-term memory buffer affects the Recency Effect.
Performing a distracting task ↓ the Recency Effect.
Distractions require STM resources; causes the most recent items to be
disrupted from the STM buffer.

Something can influence both Primacy and Recency Effects however, RE is never
increased in this course

The Serial Position Curve:

Memory is strongest for items at the
beginning and end of a list.

Problems with Multi-Store Model

Unclear how information is transferred; is STM the first step to LTM?
Unclear whether STM is really capacity limited at 7 ± 2

Levels of Processing Principle: Alternative to Multi-Store Model

Craik & Lockhart
 Memory not divided into separate stores; more like a continuum.
 Memory performance depends on the level at which items are encoded;
improves for increasingly deeper levels of processing; Items encoded at
a deeper level (more attention/elaboration) last longer in memory than
at a shallower level (less attention/elaboration) and thus have a better
lasting memory trace

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 Since principle deals with traces, knowing how info transferred is not
necessary
 The more we try to organize and understand the material, the better we
remember it; paying attention to surface details leads to poorer recall.
 Criticism: Vague model; does not go in-depth about what a “deeper”
level is.

Shallow Level:
Effortless
Encode physical characteristics.
Encoding requires little effort.
Poor memory performance.

Deeper Level:
Effortful
Encode semantic characteristics.
Encoding requires significant effort.
Better memory performance.

Craik & Lockhart Influence of processing in everyday life:

Skimming (shallow) vs Reading (Deep)

When processing is manipulated during encoding:

o Shallow / Physical – is the word in capital letters?
o Moderate / Acoustic – does the word rhyme?
o Deep / Semantic – does it have the word “it” in a sentence?

Enriched Encoding:
 Mnemonic Strategy – information encoded with yourself in mind is better
remembered than if you had someone else in mind; also known as the self-
referent effect.
 Reflects the deepest level of processing: self>meaning>rhyme>case

Encoding Specificity:
Memory encodes all aspects of an experience; the context that we learn
information in is encoded along with the information itself.
Environmental cues are encoded together with memories for items and events.
Preserving encoding context improves subsequent recall of a memory.
The effectiveness of the context as a cue is largely dependent on the specificity of its
relations to the item i.e. water + scuba divers

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Scuba divers experiment:

Divers recalled lists of words by a) land and b) water
Findings: participants able to better retrieve info in original encoded environment
Conclusion: external environment contains cues to help retrieval; Memory is
better for items encoded and retrieved in the same environment.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing:
Memory is aided when similar processes are engaged at encoding and retrieval.
Words processed/encoded in semantic sentences are better remembered than those
in rhyming sentences and vice versa

Memory Errors, Illusions and Fluency:

Loftus – our susceptibility to false memories indicate that memory is a reconstructive

process, and is open to re-interpretation.

Loftus’ Experiment/Evidence:
Lost in a mall experiment: researchers ask kids 4 questions about childhood, 1 is a
fake story about being lost in the mall and being comforted by a kind old lady before
being reunited with family, 20% of participants were convinced this false memory is
true therefore proving memory is a reconstructive process

Misinformation Effect – creation of false memories by incorporating new

erroneous information with an old memory.

Loftus’ Experiment/Evidence:
Fake Disney land advertisements featuring bugs bunny (Warner Brothers) 16%
recalled shaking hands with him as a child

Language plays a role:

Language used during questioning can lead to new and possibly false info:

Loftus’ Experiment/Evidence: Lecture

Car accident
Q1: How fast was where the cars going when they ____ into each other?
Estimation of speed varied based on the verb smashed>collided>bumped>0
Smashed people remembered seeing broken glass even though there was not any

Eyewitness Process: To avoid issues with memory, the following is required:

1. Non-suspects in a line up should resemble the description of the subject
2. Avoid giving pre-during-post-identification feedback until eyewitness has
completed all

Source Confusion:

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Source Monitoring – process by which we make attributions about the origins of

memories.

Source Monitoring Error – failing to recall exactly where you learned this
information.

(Processing) Fluency – the ease with which an experience is processed; some

experiences are more fluent than others. (top down, inductive)
Familiar experiences processed more fluently than novel (new)
experiences.
We can process fluency correctly but end up with a different result i.e.
feeling someone is familiar and turns out the individual’s twin is in your
class

Attribution – judgment tying together causes with effects; used to make sense
of fluency.

The time between exposure and recall affects our attributions to fluency.
Ex: Becoming famous overnight experiment: Phase 1 subject asked to read
names off a list, followed by immediate or a delayed presentation of a second list
with both old normal names and new names in Phase 2 and then rate names
based on celebrity status. If phase 2 presented immediately after phase 1 list,
subjects able to accurately. If phase 2 presentation is delayed by 24hrs, the old
normal names are rated more famous than the new names even though they are
not celebrities.
This is False Fame Effect – form of source monitoring error; incorrectly
judging a name as being famous because it seems familiar (fluently
processed).

Reality Monitoring – ability to discriminate real memories from those that are
imagined.

Repeated imagination of any event can lead to the event being falsely
remembered; can confuse false events with actual events.

Ex 2: Vending Machine Experiment: subjects visit different locations of campus and

are asked to perform or imagine bizarre actions beside vending machine i.e. propose;
subjects later on claimed they actually proposed rather than imagined it thus making a
source monitoring AND reality monitoring error

Imagining a familiar action would most likely lead to the formation of a false memory
over that of a bizarre action

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