EITK Notes (A-2023)

Essence of Indian Traditional Knowledge
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE (UNIT 1) 2
Culture and its General characteristics 2
Culture and Civilisation 3
Culture and Heritage 4
Importance of Culture in Human Life ……………………………….…………………………………………………………4
Ancient Indian Culture ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7
Medieval Indian Culture ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………10
Modern Indian Culture ………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………12
INDIAN LANGUAGES, CULTURE AND LITERATURE (UNIT 2) 16

Sanskrit Language 17
South Indian Languages 28
North Indian Languages 30
ESSENCE OF VEDIC SCIENCES (UNIT 3) 33

Baudhayana Sulba sutra 34
Value of √2 37
Meaning of Mahasankalpa …………………..…………………………………………………………………………………. 39
Vastuguna Deepika ……………….……………..…………………………………………………………………………………. 39
Vastuguna Deepika ……………….……………..…………………………………………………………………………………. 39
FINE ARTS IN INDIA (ARTS, TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING) (UNIT 4) 33

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EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA (UNIT 5) 1

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UNIT-1
1|Page Compiled by PPBharadwaja
INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE
(Introduction to Culture: Culture, civilization, culture and heritage, general characteristics of
culture, importance of culture in human literature, Indian Culture, Ancient India, Medieval India,
Modern India)
Concept of Culture
The English word Culture is derived from the Latin term cult or cultus meaning tilling, or cultivating
or refining and worship. In sum it means cultivating and refining a thing to such an extent that its
end product evokes our admiration and respect. This is practically same as the word "Samskriti" of
the Sanskrit language.
Culture is a way of life

The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language you speak in and the God you worship all are
aspects of culture. In very simple terms, we can say that culture is the embodiment of the way in
which we think and do things. It is also the things that we have inherited as members of society. All
the achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called culture. Art, music,
literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and science can be seen as aspects of
culture. However, culture also includes the customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living and one‘s
outlook on various issues of life. Culture refers to the patterns of thought and behaviour of people.
It includes values, beliefs, rules of conduct, and patterns of social, political and economic
organisation. These are passed on from one generation to the next by formal as well as informal
processes. Culture consists of the ways in which we think and act as members of a society. Thus, all
the achievements of group life are collectively called culture. Culture is the product of such an
organization and expresses itself through language and art, philosophy and religion. It also
expresses itself through social habits, customs, economic organisations and political institutions.
Culture has two types: (i) material, and (ii) non-material. The first includes technologies,
instruments, material goods, consumer goods, household design and architecture, modes of
production, trade, commerce, welfare and other social activities. The latter includes norms, values,
beliefs, myths, legends, literature, ritual, art forms and other intellectual-literary activities. The
material and non-material aspects of any culture are usually interdependent on each other.
Sometimes, however, material culture may change quickly but the non-material may take longer
time to change.
General Characteristics of Culture

Now let us discuss some general characteristics of culture, which are common to different cultures
throughout the world.
Culture is learned and acquired: Culture is acquired in the sense that there are certain behaviours
which are acquired through heredity. Individuals inherit certain qualities from their parents but
socio-cultural patterns are not inherited. These are learnt from family members, from the group
and the society in which they live. It is thus apparent that the culture of human beings is
influenced by the physical and social environment through which they operate.
Culture is shared by a group of people: A thought or action may be called culture if it is shared and
believed or practiced by a group of people.

Culture is cumulative: Different knowledge embodied in culture can be passed from one
generation to another generation. More and more knowledge is added in the particular culture as
the time passes by. Each may work out solution to problems in life that passes from one
generation to another. This cycle remains as the particular culture goes with time.
Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost as new cultural traits are
added. There are possibilities of cultural changes within the particular culture as time passes.
Culture is dynamic: No culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is changing constantly as
new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying or changing the old ways. This
is the characteristics of culture that stems from the culture‘s cumulative quality.
Culture gives us a range of permissible behaviour patterns: It involves how an activity should be
conducted, how an individual should act appropriately.
Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts. Although these
parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another forming culture as whole.
Culture and Civilisation

The word ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ are often used synonymously. However, they have clearly
defined meanings differentiating them. ‘Civilization’ means having better ways of living and
sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. It also includes organizing societies into
politically well-defined groups working collectively for improved conditions of life in matters of
food, dress, communication, and so on. Thus some groups consider themselves as civilized and
look down upon others. This disposition of certain groups has even led to wars and holocausts,
resulting in mass destruction of human beings.
On the otherhand ‘culture’ refers to the inner being, a refinement of head and heart. This
includes arts and sciences, music and dance and various higher pursuits of human life which are
also classified as cultural activities. One who may be poor and wearing cheap clothes may be
considered ‘uncivilized’, but still he or she may be the most cultured person. One possessing
ostentatious wealth may be considered as ‘civilized’ but he may not be cultured’. Therefore, when
we think of culture, we have to understand that it is different from civilization. As we have seen,
culture is the ‘higher levels of inner refinement’ of a human being. Humans are not merely physical
beings. They live and act at three levels: physical, mental andspiritual. While better ways of living
socially and politically and better utilization of nature around us may be termed as civilization. This
is not enough to be cultured. Only when the deeper levels of a person’s intellect and
consciousness are brought into expression can we call him/her ‘cultured’.
Culture and Heritage

Cultural development is a historical process. Our ancestors learnt many things from their
predecessors. With the passage of time they also added to it from their own experience and gave
up those which they did not consider useful. We in turn have learnt many things from our
ancestors. As time goes we continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent and
sometimes we give up some which we don’t consider useful any more. This is how culture is
transmitted and carried forward from generation to next generation. The culture we inherit from
our predecessors is called our cultural heritage. This heritage exists at various levels. Humanity as a
whole has inherited a culture which may be called human heritage. A nation also inherits a culture
which may be termed as national cultural heritage.
Cultural heritage includes all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to human beings
by their ancestors from generation to generation. They are cherished, protected and maintained
by them with unbroken continuity and they feel proud of it.
A few examples would be helpful in clarifying the concept of heritage. The Taj Mahal, Swami
Narayan emple of Gandhinagar and Delhi, Red Fort of Agra, Delhi’s Qutub Minar, Mysore Palace,
Jain Temple of Dilwara (Rajasthan) Nizamuddin Aulia’s Dargah, Golden Temple of Amritsar,
Gurudwara Sisganj of Delhi, Sanchi Stupa, Christian Church in Goa, India Gate etc., are all
important places of our heritage and are to be protected by all means.
Besides the architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual
achievements, philosophy, treasures of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are also
the part of heritage. In Indian context the contributions of Baudhayan, Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya
in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; Kanad and Varahmihir in the field of
Physics; Nagarjuna in the field of Chemistry, Susruta and Charak in the field of Medicines and
Patanjali in the field of Yoga are profound treasures of Indian Cultural heritage. Culture is liable to
change, but our heritage does not. We individuals, belonging to a culture or a particular group,
may acquire or borrow certain cultural traits of other communities / cultures, but our
belongingness to Indian cultural heritage will remain unchanged. Our Indian cultural heritage will
bind us together e.g., Indian literature and scriptures namely Vedas, Upanishads Gita and Yoga
System etc. have contributed a lot by way of providing right knowledge, right action, behavior and
practices as complementary to the development of civilization.
IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HUMAN LIFE

Culture is closely linked with life. It is not an add-on, an ornament that we as human beings can
use. It is not merely a touch of colour. It is what makes us human. Without culture, there would be
no humans. Culture is made up of traditions, beliefs and ways of life, from the most spiritual to the
most materialistic. It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human beings are creators of
culture and, at the same time, culture is what makes us human.
A fundamental element of culture is the issue of religious belief and its symbolic expression.
We must value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to make progress in terms of
interfaith dialogue, which is actually an intercultural dialogue. As the world is becoming more and
more global and we coexist on a more global level we can’t just think there’s only one right way of
living or that any one is valid. The need for coexistence makes the coexistence of cultures and
beliefs necessary. In order to not make such mistakes, the best thing we can do is get to know
other cultures, while also getting to know our own. How can we dialogue with other cultures, if we
don’t really know what our own culture is? The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty
and Goodness are closely linked with culture. It is culture that brings us closer to truth through
philosophy and religion; it brings beauty in our lives through the Arts and makes us aesthetic
beings; and it is culture that makes us ethical beings by bringing us closer to other human beings
and teaching us the values of love, tolerance and peace.
Indian Culture
Indian culture is one of the most ancient cultures of the world. The ancient cultures of Egypt,
Greece, Rome, etc. were destroyed with time and only their remnants are left. But Indian culture is
alive till today. Its fundamental principles are the same, as were in the ancient time. One can see
village panchayats, caste systems and joint family system. The teachings of Buddha, Mahavira, and
Lord Krishna are alive till today also and are source of inspiration. The values of spirituality, praying
nature, faith in karma and reincarnation, non-violence, truth, non- stealing, Chastity, Non-
Acquisitiveness, etc. inspire people of this nation, today also. Material development and materials
come under civilization while Art of Living, customs, traditions come under culture.
Material development is possible to a limit. This is the reason, that the civilizations got
destroyed while Indian culture is present till today because the basis of development was
spirituality and not materialism. Thus, Indian culture can be called an ancient culture, whose past
is alive even in the present.
The reminiscent of the stone-age found in Pallavaram, Chingalpet, Vellore, Tirunalvelli near
Madras, in the valley of river Sohan, in Pindhighev area in West Punjab, in Rehand area of
Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh, in Narmada Valley in Madhya Pradesh, in Hoshangabad and
Maheshwar, make it clear that India has been the land of development and growth of human
culture. On the basis of excavation done in places like Harappa and Mohanjodaro etc. we come to
know the developed civilization and culture of the pre-historical era, which was flourished around
3000 B.C. Thus, Indian culture is about 5000 years old. According to Indologists, Indian
culture stands not only for a traditional social code but also for a spiritual foundation of life. Indian
culture is an invaluable possession of our society. Indian culture is the oldest of all the cultures of
the world. Inspite of facing many ups and downs Indian culture is shinning with all it‘s glory and
splendor. Culture is the soul of nation. On the basis of culture, we can experience the prosperity of
its past and present. Culture is collection of values of human life, which establishes it specifically
and ideally separate from other groups.
Indian culture is as many sided as life: It includes intellectual and social aspects of any human
being. It also takes account of the aesthetic instinct as well as the spiritual impulses of human
being. It has also, an effect, an appeal to the subconscious as a force making for the formation of
character.
Look at the map of India and you see India is a vast country with a lot of diversity in her
physical and social environment. We see people around us speaking different languages, having
different religions and practising different rituals. You can also see these diversities in their food
habits and dress patterns. Besides, look at the myriad forms of dance and music in our country. But
within all these diversities there is an underlying unity which acts as a cementing force. The
intermingling of people has been steadily taking place in India over centuries. A number of people
of different racial stock, ethnic backgrounds and religious beliefs have settled down here. Let us
not forget that the composite and dynamic character of Indian culture is a result of the rich
contributions of all these diverse cultural groups over a long period of time. The distinctive
features of Indian culture and its uniqueness are the precious possession of all Indians.
Continuity and Change: Many great cultures had developed in different countries and regions of
the world. Many of them have perished or have been replaced by other cultures. However Indian
culture has had an enduring character. Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads of
continuity can be traced throughout the course of Indian history right up to the present day.
The point to be noted here is that continuity and change in our civilization has gone hand in
hand. In fact, a remarkable feature of Indian culture is that along with continuity it has kept on
changing, whereas, the basic spirit of our culture continued. It has kept on discarding what was
becoming irrelevant in the modern age. In our long history, there have been periods of ups and
downs. As a result, movements have grown and reforms brought about. The reform movements in
the Vedic religion brought about by Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century BC and the religious and
social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in modern India are a few examples
when revolutionary changes were brought about in Indian thought and practices. Yet the thread of
basic philosophy of Indian culture continued and still persists. Thus, a process of continuity and
change has always been a feature of Indian culture. This shows the dynamic character of our
culture.
Variety and Unity

A large number of languages and dialects are spoken in our country which has led to the growth of
a great variety of literature. People belonging to great religions of the world co-exist here in a
harmonious manner. Do you know that India is home to many religions of the world like Jainism,
Buddhism, Sikh-ism and of course Hinduism. Numerous styles of architecture, sculpture and
painting have developed here. Different styles of music and dance, both folk and classical, exist in
the country. So also are numerous festivals and customs. This wide variety has led to the making of
Indian culture both composite one and rich and beautiful at the same time. Why is there so much
variety in our culture? There are many reasons for this. The vastness of the country and variation
in its physical and climatic features is an obvious reason for the variety.
The second important reason for the variety in our culture is the intermingling among
various ethnic groups. Since time immemorial, people from far and near have been coming and
settling here. We find people belonging to different racial stocks like the Proto-Australoids, the
Negroids and the Mongoloids living in India. Various ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks, Kushanas,
Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also came to India, settled here and
intermixed with the local population. The people belonging to other cultures brought their cultural
habits, thoughts and ideas, which got amalgamated into the existing culture. You will be surprised
to know that it was only around 2nd century BC that stitched clothes such as salwars, kurtas,
topees, etc. were brought to India, by the Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians. Prior to that Indians
wore clothes which were unstitched. The latest is the introduction of shirts, trousers, skirts, etc.
which were brought by the Europeans in the eighteenth century. India through the ages has shown
a remarkable capacity for assimilation of ideas. This has contributed to the variety and richness of
our culture.
Along with contacts with outside cultures, cultural exchange between different regions of
India has also continued. The Chikan work of Lucknow, Phulkari embrodery of Punjab, Kantha
embroidery of Bengal, Patola of Orissa show a distinct regional style. Although the centres in the
South, North, East and West of India have their characteristic cultures, yet these did not develop in
absolute isolation. Inspite of physical barriers, Indians used to travel from one part of the country
to another for trade or pilgrimage. Some regions were joined together through conquests or by
alliance. As a result, people transmitted cultural habits and thoughts from one part of the country
to the other. Military campaigns too took people from one place to another. This helped in
exchanging ideas. Such contacts have led to the development of commonness in Indian culture,
which has been maintained throughout our history. Another unifying factor is climate. Despite
geographical diversity and climatic variations India experiences an inherent unity. The system of
monsoons is the most important component of the Indian climatic pattern and this gives unity to
the whole country. The coming of the monsoon has ensured that agriculture remains the main
occupation of the people of India. On the other hand, the differences in physical features have
affected the food habits, dress, houses and economic activities of people leading to the formation
of social, economic and political institutions. These factors in turn influenced the thinking and
philosophy of the people. The variety in physical features and climate of India has thus led to the
development of a variety of cultures in different regions. The typical features of different regions
have given some identity to these cultures.
The composite nature of our culture is reflected in our music, dance forms, drama and art
forms like paintings, sculpture and architecture as well. Our literature in different languages also
reflects this composite nature.
Unity in diversity is reflected in our political forms as well. During the early Vedic period,
society was pastoral, that is, people used to move from place to place in search of pastures. But as
these people started practising agriculture, they settled down. This settled life led to community
development and growth of towns which needed rules and regulations. Thus emerged a political
organisation. This included the sabhasand samitiswhich were political bodies through which
people participated in governance. In course of time, the concept ofrashtraemerged and
possession of territory became the new measure of power. In some places, republics came up. The
period from sixth to fourth century BC is known as the age of mahajanapadasin India. In these
kingdoms kings had more powers. Subsequently large empires were also established with
emperors exercising absolute powers. You may be aware of ancient rulers such as Ashoka,
Samudragupta and Harshavardhana. The Mughals also established a vast empire in India. The
British established themselves in India and in l858, India became a part of the British Empire.
However in 1947, we were able to gain our freedom after a long struggle. Today we are a
sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic and a uniform system of government prevails
over the length and breadth of the country.
Ancient Indian Culture

India has a continuous history covering a very long period. Evidence of neolithic habitation dating
as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. However, the first notable
civilization flourished in India around 2700 BC in the north western part of the Indian
subcontinent, covering a large area. The civilization is referred to as the Harappan civilization.
Most of the sites of this civilization developed on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries.
The culture associated with the Harappan civilization is the first known urban culture in India. The
Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation, drainage system and
broad well-laid roads. They built double storied houses of burntbricks each one of which had a
bathroom, a kitchen and a well. The walled cities had other important buildings such as the Great
Bath, Granaries and Assembly Halls. Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans who
were living in rural areas. Those living in the cities carried on internal and external trade and
developed contacts with other civilizations such as Mesopotamia. They were excellent potters.
Various types of utensils, toys, seals, figurines have been excavated from different sites. Harappans
also had the technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying. The bronze sculpture of a
dancing girl found in Mohenjodaro testifies the sculptural skills and aesthetic sense of the
Harappans. Shell, ivory, bone and faience were used as material for different crafts and objects.
Lothal was a dockyard situated in Dholaka Taluk of Ahmedabad in Gujarat. It was also a
wellplanned wall city. It was an important centre of sea trade with the western world. Another
important town in Gujarat was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was in Rajasthan.
Numerous seals carrying the images of the one-horned rhinoceros known as unicorn, the
Ages peepal leaves and a male god throw light on the religious beliefs of the Harappans. It appears
that they worshipped plants and animals and the forces of nature. They worshipped a male god
resembling Lord Shiva of later times and a mother goddess among others. They probably believed
in life after death and also in charms and spells. Seals engraved with animal figures like the
humped bull, elephant and rhinocerous suggest that these animals were considered sacred.
‘Peepal’ has been found depicted on many seals.
Harappans knew how to write and most of their seals contain some form of script. But
unfortunately, no one has yet been able to decipher that script. As a result, our knowledge of the
Harappan civilization is based on the archaeological evidence alone. The figures of men and
women on various seals found in the excavations reveal that the people knew the art of spinning
and weaving. They were perhaps the first people to cultivate cotton. A large number of Indus seals
found in Mesopotamia which indicated of a possible trade between the Indus valley and
Mesopotamian civilization.
By 1800 BC the Harappan civilization began declining. However, we do not know the exact
reasons why this happened.
Vedic culture
A few centuries after the decline of the Harappan civilization, a new culture flourished in the same
region and gradually spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains. This culture came to be known as
the Aryan culture. There were significant differences between this culture and the culture which
preceded it.
Aryans settled on the banks of rivers Indus (Sindhu) and Saraswati (which is now non-
existent). They composed many hymns in honour of the gods and goddesses they worshipped.
These were compiled in four Vedas - the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharvana Veda.
The word Veda means the sacred spiritual knowledge. These vedas were considered infallible as
they imparted the highest spiritual knowledge. Initially the Vedas were transmitted orally. Since
our knowledge of the early Aryans is based on these Vedas, the culture of this period is referred to
as the Vedic Culture.
Scholars divide the Vedic period into the earlier and later Vedic period. The earlier is
represented by the Rig Veda while the latter by all other Vedic literature including the Brahmanas,
Aranyakas and Upanishads. Two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas,
though compiled much later, also throw light on the life and society of an earlier period. For this
period archaeological evidence has also been found in some areas of Uttar Pradesh.
Society and Religion in Vedic period

Though Aryan society was patriarchal, women were treated with dignity and honour. The family
was the smallest social unit; several families (kula) made a village (grama) and several villages
formed a Vis. A number of villages formed a tribe or Jana which was ruled by a chief called rajan.
His chief function was to protect the tribe from external attack and maintain law and order. He
was assisted by the members of two councils called sabhaand samiti. The Purohita performed
religious functions while the senani looked after military activities. There was no concept of the
state or kingdom at this stage. Although the post of Rajan had become hereditary, he could be
removed from power if found weak and inefficient or cruel.
Towards the later Vedic period, society was divided into four varnas – Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras. This was also called the Varna-Vyavastha. To begin with it denoted
categories of people doing different kinds of functions but with the passage of time this division
became hereditary and rigid. The teachers were called Brahmans, the ruling class was called
Kshatriyas, farmers, merchants and bankers were called Vaishyas while the artisans, craftsmen,

labourers were called Shudras. Moving from one occupation to another became difficult.
Simultaneously, the Brahmans also occupied a dominant position in the society.
Another important social institution of the time was the system of chaturashrama or the
division of life span into four distinct stages i.e. brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education and
disciplined life in guru’s ashram), grihastha (a period of family life), vanaprastha (a stage of gradual
detachment and sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from worldly life). However it
should be noted that these stages were not applicable to women or to the people of lower varnas.
Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom, had access to education and were often
free to choose their partners through swayamvara. Purdah and sati was not prevalent. The
ultimate aim of life was to attain moksha or salvation through the pursuit of dharma, artha and
Kama. Karma or performance of duty without any expectation or return was preached in the
Bhagavad Gita.
The early Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and personified them as gods and
goddesses. Indra, Agni, Varuna, Marut were some of their gods while Usha, Aditi, Prithvi were
some of their goddesses. Some of the solar Gods and goddesses referred to in the Rig Veda are
Surya, Savitri and Pushan. Yajna (sacrifice) was performed along with chanting of Vedic hymns.
People poured ghee (clarified butter) and other ingredients into the fire to invoke the blessings of
gods. Agni or fire was looked upon as an intermediary between Gods and humans. The Vedic
people prayed individually as well as collectively for the welfare of the Jana.
There was a change in religious practices during the later Vedic period. The prominent Gods
of the early Vedic period like Indra, Agni and Varuna lost their prominence and popularity. Their
place was taken by a new trinity of Gods where Brahma enjoyed the supreme position, while
Vishnu became the preserver and Shiva completed the trinity. The religion became extremely
ritualistic. Sanskrit mantras, which were the monopoly of Brahmins, became an essential part of all
religious functions. This made the Brahmins very powerful and the Yajnas expensive. Participation
in them was restricted to the upper three classes. The kings performed Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and
Vajapeyasacrifices to establish their position. It is very interesting to know that some elements of
the culture of the Vedic Age have survived over a period 3,000 yrs and continues to be a part of
Indian culture even today. By the end of the latter Vedic age changes started occurring in the
society. For the first time people started discussing certain beliefs such as creation of the universe,
life after death and essence of life. These were questions which were dealt with in great detail in
the Upanishads.
Material life and economy

The Aryans were primarily pastoral and agricultural people. They domesticated animals like cows,
horses, sheep, goats and dogs. They ate simple food consisting of cereals, pulses, fruits,
vegetables, milk and various milk products. They drank a beverage called Soma. Games of chess,
chariot racing etc. were their modes of entertainment.
In the early period there was no money transaction or taxes. Bali or voluntary donation was
prevalent. Cows were the measure of wealth. As the time passed, extensive use of iron brought
great changes in their material life. Iron axes enabled them to clear forests leading to the
expansion of agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains. Iron tools resulted in varied crafts and
technology. Use of iron weapons and horses enabled them to fight wars and defend themselves
better against enemies. Increasing number of crafts, availability of surplus food and growth of
population led to specialisation of skills and urbanisation.
Towns and cities grew and territorial states emerged. High quality earthenware called
‘Painted Grey Ware’ and ‘Northern Black Polished Ware’ have been found in many areas. Coins
came into circulation. Trade was carried on, both overland and through waterways, enhancing
material prosperity. By sixth century BC, there were some sixteen large territorial states in North
India and upper Deccan known as Mahajanapadas. Important among them were Anga, Magadha,
Kosala, Kashi, Kuru, and Panchala.
Medieval Indian Culture

During the medieval period the relationship between the classical and the folk was not disturbed.
In ancient India the classical tradition was linked not only to Sanskrit but there were also streams
of the classical tradition associated with Pali and Tamil. Sanskrit was the bearer of the Hindu
classical tradition and the Mahayana Buddhist tradition and some of the Jain science traditions as
well. Pali was the vehicle of the Theravadi Buddhist tradition and Tamil was the bearer of the
South Indian classical tradition.
Developments in the field of religion, folk art and language in India during the medieval
times have been important milestones in the evolution of the composite culture of India. New
religions movements like Sufi and Sikhism along with Bhakti movement contributed to this
process. If you look around, you will see the impact of Islam on many aspects of Indian culture. You
might have visited some famous monuments in India. These monuments stand as the symbols of
the composite nature of Indo-Islamic culture in India. You can also see how various religions in
India, including Islam, have influenced each other. Besides, every region in India is famous for
giving shape to some folk art or the other. Development of folk arts through which the common
people display their creativity is another significant aspect of Indian culture. The various regional
languages that we speak today too have an interesting history which evolved during this period.
The Muslims first came to India in the eighth century AD mainly as traders. The rulers of
Delhi, who ruled from 1206-90, were Mamluk Turks. They were followed by the Khiljis, Tughlaqs,
Sayyids and Lodis, who ruled northera India from Delhi till 1526. All these rulers were called
Sultans.
They were fascinated by the socio-cultural scenario in this country and decided to make
India their home. The traders who came to India from Central and West Asia carried back with
them traces of Indian science and culture. As aresult they became cultural ambassadors of India by
disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world and from there to Europe. The immigrant
Muslims also entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people and learned to live together
in harmony. There was mutual exchange of ideas and customs. The Muslims also brought with
them their religion, Islam which had a deep impact on Indian society.
Art and Architecture
It was in the field of art and architecture that the rulers of this period took a keen interest. The
composite cultural characteristic of the medieval period is amply witnessed in these fields. A new
style of architecture known as the Indo- Islamic style was born out of this fusion. The distinctive
features of Indo-Islamic architecture were the (a) dome; (b) lofty towers or minarets; (c) arch; and
(d) the vault.
The Mughal rulers were great lovers of nature. They took pleasure in spending their time in
building beautiful forts and gardens. The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh and the
Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage. There were waterways and fountains
criss-crossing these gardens and finally, there were gardens with stages or levels. The water, while
cascading from one stage to another, was made to fall in small streamlets with lamps lit behind
them, making the water shimmer and lend a special charm to the whole atmosphere. It could also
10 | P a g e Compiled by PPBharadwaja
be made to flow over a chiselled and sloping slab, so that the water flowing over it shimmered.
The best example of this type of garden is the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore (now in Pakistan). The
Lahore garden has three stages. But a better example can be seen in India at Pinjore Garden
situated on the Chandigarh-Kalka road where we have a seven-stage garden. This impressed the
British so much that they created a three-stage garden in the Vice-Regal Lodge (now the
Rashtrapati Bhawan) in New Delhi, It was on these very lines that the famous Vrindavan Garden in
Mysore were built in the twentieth century.
The pietradura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became very popular in the days of
Shah Jahan and the finest examples of this type of work are available in the Red Fort in Delhi and
the Taj Mahal at Agra. Besides, the structures within the Fatehpur Sikri complex, the forts at Agra
and Lahore and the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore are an important part of our heritage.
During this period mosques, tombs of kings and dargahscame to dominate the landscape.
Religion
The Sufis were not the only popular religious teacher of the time. There were also the Bhakti
saints. Their teachings were similar to those of the Sufis but they had been teaching for a longer
time. They were popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders in the towns. The people in
the villages also flocked to listen to them.
The Sufi and Bhakti saints had many thoughts and practices in common. Their essential belief was
in the need to unite with God. They laid stress on love or devotion as the basis of the relationship
with God. To achieve all this a Guru or a Pir was needed.
The Bhakti saints attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship. They disregarded
caste and encouraged women to join in their religious gatherings. The Bhakti saints did their entire
teaching in the local vernacular language to make it comprehensible even to simple minds.
Development of Folk Arts

The rural masses got opportunities to display their creative skills in many fields. Several occasions
associated with agricultural operations, for example the tilling of soil, sowing of saplings, picking of
cotton, pulling out the weeds and many other social functions provided opportunities for singing
and dancing. The festivals and rituals we perform today have continued from the past with
necessary changes in keeping withtime.
The advent of rains became occasions for dancing and merry-making. The gods were invoked and
special pujasoffered in the temples. It was also an occasion for enjoying the swings. Similarly,
ladies on their spinning wheels accompanied by other ladies would sit together and sing till late
into the night. This was a common sight in almost all the villages in India.
It is important to note that almost every region developed its own peculiar dance form with a local
flavour. Thus Garba, Kalbella, Bhangra, Gïddha, Bamboo dance, Lavaniand innumerable other
dance forms, came into existence. Today, some of these are performed during the Republic Day
celebrations as well as on other festive occasions.
Formal education was not considered very important for women but this did not prevent
them from showing their talent in various other fields. They displayed their creativity in
needlework. In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on odhanis, shirts and ghagras. The
Rajasthanis also created beautiful designs of tie and dye work in fabrics used both by women and
men. Even today, we find the people of Rajasthan as the most colourfully dressed in India. Their
lavishness could be seen in the way they decorate their animals (horses, bullocks, camels and even
elephants). In Punjab, the girls created beautiful phulkaris. In and around Lucknow, came up the
chikanwork on shirts, salwars, odhanis and even sarees.
South India
Between the ninth and eleventh centuries AD, a dynasty known as the Cholas was ruling the
Cholamandalam region in Southern India. The Cholas developed a strong army, besides a powerful
navy. Rajendra Chola is said to have conquered some Indonesian islands. They also developed
democratic institutions at the village level. Even Buddhism and Jainism flourished in this region.
Literature, fine arts, sculpture and metal castings of the highest order flourished under their
patronage.
The fourteenth century saw the rise of a new state called Vijayanagara now called Karnataka. To
the north of this state across the Tungabhadrariver rose a new Islamic state, called the Bahamani,
now known as Andhra Pradesh. The Bahamani and Vijayanagara kingdoms were pitted against
each other over the rich Raichur Doab.
In the Cholamandalam region, the Tamil language was popular. In Karnataka, Kannada, in
Andhra, Telegu and in Kerala, Malyalam flourished, all having different scripts. It is just possible
that originally the entire region spoke Tamil, as it is a very old language. But by the middle ages,
the four languages had come to have distinct identities. However, between the fourteenth and the
sixteenth centuries, Vijayanagara achieved great heights. Some foreigners, who visited these areas
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, have praised the kings, the town and the people. The
remains of Vijayanagara found in Hampi dazzle the world even today.
During the Chola period, Kanchi became a great seat of learning. The Vijayanagara kings also
became great patrons of art and leaming.
INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY [Modern India culture]

Rise of the West and Its Impact on India
Among the European countries, the Portuguese and then the Dutch (Netherland/Holland), the
French and finally, the British entered into a race to control the trade from India. The British
ultimately succeeded in not only controlling trade but also the country and for about two centuries
India remained under the domination of Britain and the entire human resources of India recklessly
exploited and India's wealth was drained away for the benefit of the ruling nation. To further their
interest the British used the prevailing social and political situation in India. Where a large number
of states had cropped up after the decline of the Mughal Empire. The British took advantage of this
situation and had one ruler fight against the other or supported a usurper to the throne. Though
Tipu Sultan of Mysore tried to use the same principle as used by the British that is making use of
the rivalry between the French and the British, he could not match the superior diplomacy and fire
power of the British.
The British domination of India was built upon successive phases. The first phase consisted
of taking hold of the Indian trade. They bought Indian goods at very low prices and sold them in
the Western markets at very high prices, thereby making enormous profits without giving anything
to the peasants. In this, they were helped by the Indian Seths and gomastas. In the second phase,
the British took control of the production activities in a manner that would suit their export
objectives. In the process they successfully destroyed the Indian industries. This was because India
was a potential buyer of their goods. The third phase was an intensified phase of British Imprialism
and colonial exploitation when India was ruled by the British for fulfilling British economic
interests.
The Britishers came to India for making profits through trade. Slowly they gained political
and economic control of the country. After the Battle of Plassey (Nawab of Bengal+french VS East
India Co.) in 1757 A.D., they had become the real masters of Bengal. They used political control
over Bengal to increase their trade and export of foreign goods. They eliminated the Indian as well
as foreign rivals in trade so that there could be no competition. They monopolised the sale of raw
cotton and made the Bengal weaver pay exorbitant prices. They imposed heavy duties on Indian
goods entering Britain so as to protect their own industry.
With the coming of the industrial revolution in Europe, the Indian industries were hit very
hard. By 1813, the Indian handicrafts lost both the domestic as well as the foreign market. Indian
goods could not compete with the British factory-made products, where machines were used.
On the other hand, the English merchants had accumulated a lot of wealth which they now
invested in setting up industries and trade. The East India Company helped in financing and
expanding their industrial base. During this time there was a class of manufacturers in England
who benefitted more from manufacturing than trading. They were interested in having more raw
materials from India as well as sending their finished goods back. Between 1793 and 1813, these
British manufacturers launched a campaign against the company, its trade monopoly and the
privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately in 1813, they succeeded in abolishing the East India Company’s
monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic colony of industrial England.
As a result, Indian hand made goods faced extinction as British machine-made goods were
cheaper. These goods either had a free entry or paid very low tariff rates to enter India. Indians
were to be modernised so that they could develop taste for western goods and buy them. The
Indian industries suffered as a result of exploitation at the hands of the British, who did not at all
care about Indian trade interests. They did not protect Indian trade nor did they introduce any
advanced technology in the country during this period. Indian handicrafts suffered when foreign
goods were given free entry. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when they
entered Britain. Indian sugar mills paid duty three times its original price when sent to Britain. So,
the trade from India virtually came to a stop.
India had become an excellent consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of raw
materials by the year 1813 A.D. Since England wanted to exploit India for commercial gains, that is,
by buying raw materials and selling finished goods, they introduced steam ships and railways in
India. The railways opened a vast market to the British and facilitated export of Indian raw
material abroad.
Do you know that it was in 1853 that the first railway line running from Bombay to Thane was
opened to public? The railways connected the raw material producing areas with the exporting
ports and vise versa. As a result British goods flooded the Indian market.
Do you know that the railways played an important role in the national awakening of the country,
too? They helped to bring people and ideas come closer together—something that the British had
never anticipated. Isn’t this ironical?
Do you know that it was again in 1853 that Dalhousie opened the first telegraph line from Calcutta
to Agra and also introduced the postal service in India?
Economy
Indian in the eighteenth century was a picture of many contrasts and contradictions. Economically
agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Since the rulers were constantly at war, they
did not have the time to improve agricultural conditions of the land. Foreign trade was flourishing
under the Mughals. India imported pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits from the Persian Gulf
region; Coffee, gold, drugs and honey from Arabia; tea, porcelain and silk came into India from
China; luxury goods were also brought in from Tibet, Singapore, Indonesian Islands, Africa and
Europe.
Indian exported raw silk, silk fabrics, indigo, sugar, pepper and many other things. India’s
cotton textiles were famous all over the world. In spite of such a favourable balance of trade,
India’s economic condition could not improve for ages because of constant warfare. Within the
country, there were revolts of the Sikhs, Jats, Marathas and from outside, foreign invasions, like
that of Nadir shah (1739 A.D.) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (1761), were common. By the eighteenth-
century European countries like France, England, Portugal and Spain were interested in trading
with India. They helped in creating more political and economic instability in the country and
ultimately, they destroyed its economy. But, by this time, India’s fame had spread all over the
world as a land of beautiful handicrafts.
Socially, there was no unity of pattern in the social and cultural life of the people. Whether
they were Hindus or Muslims, there was division among them on the basis of region, tribe,
language and caste. Caste rules were to be observed in matters of marriage, diet, inter-dining as
well as in choosing a profession. Anyone found disobeying rules was most likely to be thrown out
of the community.
In the field of science that India, which was so advanced, had by now neglected her mathematics
and sciences. They remained ignorant of the advances made in the field of science by the West.
Teachers were respected in society during those times. Education was steeped in tradition. The
students were taught reading and writing along with arithmetic. Girls seldom went to school.
Education was not patronised by the State, but by the local rulers, members of the aristocracy and
benevolent contributors.
Society & Culture

By the turn of the century, the condition of women had little to be happy about. The birth of a girl
child was considered to be unfortunate. Girls were married off in their childhood. Polygamy was
permitted. Women had no right to property or divorce. Perpetual widowhood was the injunction
of the society, especially amongst the upper castes. These widows could not wear coloured
clothes, or attend marriages since their presence was considered inauspicious. As child marriages
were common in such occasions sometimes even the infant girls became widows and were
condemned to perpetual widowhood. Inter-caste marriages were not allowed. Even the prevailing
social system did not permit a person from a lower caste to eat with a person of a higher caste.
The condition of Muslim women was much the same. They faced immense hardship due to the
practice of purdah, polygamy, lack of education and rights to property.
Christian priests came to India along with the employees of the East India Company to
perform their religious rituals at the time of baptism, marriage, burials and church service. But
these priests soon started preaching Christianity to the non-Christian employees of the Company
as well. Slowly they started opening schools that were attended by the Indian children. It were
these missionaries, who also started the printing press and magazines for disseminating Christian
precepts and literature.
Along with Christian propaganda, English education was introduced which had a great
impact on the society and economy of India. Though the purpose of introducing English education
was to fulfil British political and administrative needs, it opened the windows for Indians to the
West. They imbibed new ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy, equality and freedom. Soon
English language also became the lingua franca of the English educated Indians and acted as a
cementing force.
Printing presses were the biggest boon which the West had conferred on India growing
literate population. Since the new printing presses were not costly, their number grew at a fast
pace. This, in turn, encouraged a large number of writers to produce literature in different Indian
languages. Their original works as well as translations and adaptations of old Indian and Western
classics helped enrich our cultural heritage. This helped to bring about an awakening of the
Indians.
Weeklies, fortnightly journals and daily newspapers were published almost in every
language. Although the total number of readers of newspapers was small as compared to their
number in the European countries, a whole new set of national literature in the form of novels,
essays and poems played a significant role in generating nationalism. Bankim Chandra’s
Anandmutt, Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neeldarpan, Bhartendu HarishChandra’s Bharat Durdashan,
Subramania Bharti’s writing in Tamil and Altaf Hussain’s works in Urdu stirred the minds of the
Indians.
UNIT-2
INDIAN LANGUAGES & LITERATURE
[Indian Languages, Culture and Literature: Indian Languages and Literature-I: the role of
Sanskrit, significance of scriptures to current society, Indian philosophies, other Sanskrit
literature, literature of south India; Indian Languages and Literature-II: Northern Indian
languages & literature]
Sanskrit
Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages. The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and
Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit. There is also a variety of secular and regional literature. By
reading about the languages and literature created in the past, we shall be able to understand our
civilization better and appreciate the diversity and richness of our culture. All this was possible
because of the language that developed during that time.
Sanskrit is the most ancient language of our country. It is one of the twenty-two languages
listed in the Indian Constitution. The literature in Sanskrit is vast, beginning with the most ancient
thought embodied in the Rig Veda, the oldest literary heritage of mankind. It was Sanskrit that gave
impetus to the study of linguistics scientifically during the eighteenth century. The great
grammarian Panini, analysed Sanskrit and its word formation in his unrivalled descriptive grammar
Ashtadhyayi.
The Buddhist Sanskrit literature includes the rich literature of the Mahayana school and the
Hinayana school. The most important work of the Hinayana school is the Mahavastu which is a
storehouse of stories. While the Lalitavistara is the most sacred Mahayana text which supplied
literary material for the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa.
Sanskrit is perhaps the only language that transcended the barriers of regions and boundaries.
From the north to the south and from the east to the west there is no part of India that has not
contributed to or been affected by this language. Kalhan‘sRajataranginigives a detailed account of
the kings of Kashmir whereas with Jonarajawe share the glory of Prithviraj. The writings of
Kalidasa have added beauty to the storehouse of Sanskrit writings.
The Vedic Literature

The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and were
handed down orally from one generation to the other. The preservation of the Vedas till today is one
of our most remarkable achievements. To be able to keep literary wealth such as the Vedas intact
when the art of writing was not there and when there was a paucity of writing material is
unprecedented in world history. The word Veda literally means knowledge. In Hindu culture, Vedas
are considered as eternal and divine revelations. They treat the whole world as one human family
"Vasudaika Kutumbakam".
There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharvana Veda.
Each Veda consists of the Samhita part, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads and
Vedic literature also includes Shat-Angas namely Shiksha, Kalpam, Niruktam, Vyakaranam,
Chandas, Jyotisham.
It is very difficult to determine the age of the Vedas and also the time they were written. Max
Muller says that the Rig Veda was composed before 1000 B.C. While according to Lokmanya
Tilak it appeared before 6000 B.C.
The Rig-veda Samhita

The Rig-Veda Samhita which has come down to us belongs to the branch known as the Sakala
Shakha. It consists of 1,028 suktas (hymns) including eleven additional hymns. These hymns, which
are made up of a varying number of mantras in the form of metrical stanzas, are distributed in ten
books called mandalas. The formation of the mandalas was governed mainly by the principle of
homogeneity of authorship.
Among the classes of the Vedic Aryans certain families had already acquired some measure
of socio-religious importance. The mantras, or hymns, which the progenitor and the members of any
of these families claimed to have seen were collected in the book of that family. The nucleus of the
Rig- Veda mandalas 2 to 7 are formed of six such family books, which are respectively ascribed to
the families of Gritsamada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaja, and Vashista. The eighth
mandala belongs to the Kanvas. The ninth mandala is governed by the principle of the homogeneity
not of authorship but of subject-matter, for all the suktas in this mandala relate to soma (an
intoxicating juice). The 1st and the 10th mandalas, each of which has 191 hymns, are miscellaneous
collections of long and short suktas.
Tradition requires that before starting the study of any sukta one should know 4 essential things
about it: rishi (authorship); devata (subject-matter); chandas (metre); and viniyoga (ritualistic
application). The poets of the Rig-Veda show themselves to have been conscious artists and they
sometimes employed various stylistic and rhetorical devices. The majority of the suktas in the
RigVeda are of the nature of prayers addressed to different divinities usually with background
descriptions of their various exploits and achievements. Apart from these prayers and their
mythology, however, we do get in some suktas the Rig-Veda intimations of the further development
of Vedic thought in the directions of ritualism and philosophical speculation. In connection with the
latter, special mention may be made of the Hiranyagarbha-sukta and the Purusha-sukta.
The Yajur-Veda Samhita

The Yajur-Veda is essentially ritualistic in character. Indeed, the Yajur Veda may be regarded as the
first regular text book on Vedic ritual as a whole. It deals mainly with the duties of the adhvaryu
(fire-priest), who is responsible for the actual performance of the various sacrificial rites.
Incidentally, it may be mentioned that while the Sama-Veda represents a very early stage in the
history of Indian music, the Yajur Veda marks the beginning of Sanskrit prose. Tradition speaks
variously of the Yajur-Veda having 86 or 101 shakhas. But for our present purpose we may consider
only its two main recensions, the Krishna Yajur-Veda and the Shukla Yajur-Veda. The difference
between these two recensions lies not so much in their content as in their arrangement. In the
Krishna Yajur-Veda the mantras (mostly derived from the Rig-Veda) and the yajus (sacrificial
formulas in prose) and their ritualistic explanations (called the Brahmana) are mixed up together.
That is to say, in the matter of form and content, the Samhita of the Krishna Yajur-Veda is not
particularly distinguishable from the Brahmana or the Aranyaka of that Veda. As against this, the
Samhita of the SuklaYajur-Veda contains the mantras and yajus only, reserving the corresponding
ritualistic explanation and discussion for the Satapatha Brahmana which belongs to that Veda.
From among the many schools of the Krishna Yajur-Veda the Samhitas of only 4 schools are
available today, either entirely or in fragments. These four schools are: the Taittiriya, the Kathaka,
the Maitrayani, and the Kapisthala-katha. The Taittiriya School is traditionally divided into two
branches, the Aukhya and the Khandikeya. The Khandikeya is further subdivided into five
branches: the Apastamba, the Baudhayana, the Satyasadha, the Hiranyakesin, and the Bharadwaja.
The Taittiriya School has preserved its literature perhaps most fully amongst all the Vedic
schools, maintaining its continuity from the Samhita period, through the Brahmana, the Aranyaka,
and the Upanisad periods, to the Sutra period. It is presumably on account of this fact that the
Taittiriya School is often equated with the whole of the Krishna YajurVeda.
The name Taittiriya is variously explained. There is, for instance, the legend which narrates
how Yajnavalkya, who had developed differences with his teacher Vaisampayana, vomited the
Veda which he had learned from his teacher; how, at the instance Vaisampayana, his other pupils,
assuming the form of tittiri birds, consumed the vomited Veda; how, consequently, the Veda so
recovered by the tittiri birds was called the Taittiriya-Veda; and how, finally, Yajnavalkya secured
from the Sun-god another Veda which came to be known as the Sukla or bright Yajur-Veda. It is
also suggested that, on account of the interspersion in it of the mantras and the brahmana portion,
the KrsnaYajur-Veda appears variegated like a taittiri bird, and is therefore called the Taittiriya
Samhita. However, the most satisfactory explanation of the name seems to be that an ancient sage
called Tittiri was traditionally regarded as the seer of this Veda.
The Sama-Veda Samhita

Sama means melody or songs. This Veda consists of 16,000 ragas and raginis or musical notes. Out
of total 1875 verses only 75 are original and others are from the Rig Veda. The Sama Veda
prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda. It may be called the book of
Chants (Saman). This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period.
The Sama-Veda Samhita is a collection of mantras prescribed for chanting at various soma
sacrifices by the udgatr (singer-priest) and his assistants, thus this Veda serves an avowedly
ritualistic purpose. Though called Sama-Veda, it is not strictly speaking a collection of samans
(chants). The Sama-Veda, as we have said, is essentially a derivative production in the sense that
most of its mantras are derived from the Rig-Veda. Three distinct stages may be inferred in the
evolution of this Veda. The Sama-Veda is actually a collection of such samayoni-mantras. The
collection is in two main parts: the Purvardka and the Uttarardika. The Purvardka consists of 585
single verses, of which the first 114 are addressed to Agni, the next 352 to Indra, and the last 119 to
Soma. The Uttarardika consists of 1,225 verses grouped into 400 units of connected verses. The
total number of mantras in the Sama-Veda, excluding the repeated ones, is 1,549, all of which
(except 78) are taken from the Rig-Veda, mostly from its eighth and ninth mandalas (books).
The Atharva-veda Samhita:

In contrast to the Rig- Veda, the Atharva- Veda is essentially a heterogeneous collection of mantras.
It concerns itself mostly with the everyday life of the common man, from the pre-natal stage to the
post-mortem. The interest of the Atharva-Veda is varied and its impact is irresistible.
The purohita (priest) of a Vedic king was expected to be an adept in both white and black
magic, and in order to discharge adequately the duties of his responsible office he naturally
depended on the mantras and practices of the Atharva-Veda. Thus it was that this Veda also came to
be called the Purohita-Veda. It was also called the Kshatriya-Veda, because it included within its
scope many practices specifically relating to the Ksatriya rulers.
The Atharva-Veda consisted of magically potent mantras and was therefore, according to one
view, called the Brahma-Veda. But there is another reason why it is called the Brahma-Veda, which
is far more significant. On account of the peculiar character of the contents of the Atharva-Veda, it
was, for a long time, not regarded as being on a par with the other three Vedas, called trayi. As a
reaction against this exclusive attitude of the Vedic hierarchy, the Atharva-Vedins went to the other
extreme and claimed that their Veda not only enjoyed by right, the full status of a Veda, but actually
comprehended the other three Vedas. The view had already been independently gaining ground that
the Rig-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, and the Sama-Veda were essentially limited in scope and that
Atharva-veda alone was truly limitless. The sponsors of the Atharva-Veda claimed that this
Brahman was adequately embodied in their Veda, and that the Atharva-Veda was therefore the
Brahma-Veda.
However, it is not unlikely that the name Brahma-Veda became stabilized because the priest
of the Atharva-Veda in the Vedic ritual was called Brahman. The Atharva-Veda is usually
considered to be a Veda of magic, and magic bccomes effective only through the joint operation of
mantras and the corresponding practices. The Atharva-Veda Samhita itself contains only the
mantras, while its various practices are described in its many ancillary texts, particularly in its five
kalpas. The Atharva-Veda is accordingly sometimes referred to as the Veda of the five kalpas. But
mystic and esoteric verses are there in the Atharva-Veda, and this justifies in a way its claim to be
regarded as the Brahma-Veda, dealing specifically with Brahman, the supreme Spirit, the other three
being more or less connected with the ritual of worship.
The contents of the Atharva-Veda are remarkably diverse in character. There are in this Veda
charms to counteract diseases and possession by evil spirits. The AtharvaVeda presents perhaps the
most complete account of primitive medicine. There are also prayers for health and long life, for
happiness and prosperity. There are also spells pertaining to the various kinds of relationship with
women, sthreekarmani. Another significant section of this Veda contains hymns which concern
themselves with affairs involving the king (rajakarmani) and others which are intended for securing
harmony in domestic, social, and political spheres.
As for black magic, the Atharva-Veda bounds in formulas and imprecation, for exorcism and
counter-exorcism. Polarity may be said to be one of the most striking features of the Atharva-Veda,
for side by side with the incantations for sorcery and black magic, it contains highly theosophical or
philosophical speculations. These speculations, indeed, represent a significant landmark in the
history of Indian thought. As has been mentioned, the Rig-vedaand the Atharva vedaare the only
two primary Samhitas, the other two Samhitas being mostly derivative in character. Again, it is to
be noted in the same context that the Sama-vedaand the Yajur-vedamay be styled as Samhitas since
they are, in a sense, collections of mantras, but in them are reflected tendencies which are not of the
Samhita period but are of the Brahmana period.
The Upanishads
The word upanisad is interpreted variously. It is made to correspond with the word upasana which is
understood to mean either worship or profound knowledge. The word is also connected with the
Pali word upanisa and thus made to mean something like cause or connection. In his bhasya
(commentary) on the Taittiriya Upanisad Sri Shankara interprets upanisad as that which destroys
ignorance. But the sense most commonly signified by the word upanisad is the esoteric teaching
imparted by the teacher to the pupil who sits (sad), near him (upa), in a closed select (ni), group.
The Upanisads are also called the Vedanta, because they represent the concluding portion of the
apauruseyaVeda or Shruti, or the final stage in Vedic instruction, or the ultimate end and aim of the
teachings of the Veda.
The Upanishads are one of the most significant sources of the spiritual wisdom of India, and
are traditionally regarded as one among the "prasthanatrayi" of Indian philosophy. Also, one cannot
fail to be impressed by certain notable features of the Upanisads, such as: their unity of purpose in
spite of the variety in their doctrines; the note of certainty or definiteness which informs them; and
the various levels at which they consider and represent reality.
There are over 200 Upanisads. The Muktikopanisad gives a traditional list of 108 Upanisads,
of which 10 belong to the Rig-Veda, 19 to the SuklaYajur-Veda, 32to the Krishna Yajur-Veda, 16
to the Sama veda, and 31 to the Atharva veda, but even out of these, usually, 10 Upanishads, known
as dashopanishads, are regarded as the principal Upanishads. They are ISHA, KENA, KATHA,
PRASHNA, MUNDAKA, MANDUKYA, AITEREYA, TAITTARIYA, BRUHADARANYAKA,
and CHANDOGYA, these are traditionally connected with one or the other Vedic Shaka.
The Ishavashyopanishad belongs to the Shukla Yajur Veda and is included in the Vajasaneya
Samhita as its last adhyaya. This Upanisad, which derives its name from its first word, emphasizes
the unity of being and becoming, but in this connection, it speaks of Isha, the Lord, rather than of
Brahman. It elaborates the doctrine of vidya (knowledge) and avidya (ignorance), and sets forth the
view that a fusion of both is a necessary precondition for the attainment of amaratva (immortality).
The Kena Upanisad, which also derives its name from its initial word, forms part of the Sama
Veda. It consists of four sections, of which the first two, which are in verse, deal with Brahman,
higher knowledge (para vidya), and immediate liberation (sadyomukti); while the last two sections,
which are in prose, deal with Isvara, lower knowledge (apara vidya), and gradual liberation (krama-
mukti).
One of the better-known Upanisads is the Katha or Katopanisad, which belongs to the
Krishna Yajur-Veda. It consists of two chapters which have three vallis (sections) each. For the
background of its philosophical teaching it has the striking legend of Yama and Nachiketa. A note
worthy point about this Upanisad is that it has many passages in common with the Bhagavad-Gita.
The Prashna Upanisad, Mundaka Upanisad, and the Mandukya Upanisad belong to the
Atharva-Veda. The Prashna Upanisad, as its name suggests, deals, in its six sections, with six
questions relating to such topics as the nature of the ultimate cause, the significance of Om, and the
relation between the Supreme and the World.
The name Munda is suggestive of renunciation, and in its three chapters this Upanisad
discusses sannyasa (renunciation) and paravidya as against samsara (the world) and apara-vidya.
Incidentally, India‘s national motto satyameva jayate (truth alone triumphs) is taken from this
Upanisad.
The Mandukya Upanisadis a very small text consisting of only twelve stanzas, but it has
attained a significant place in the philosophical literature of India on account of the fact that
Gaudapada, Sankara‘s preceptor, wrote a commentary on this Upanisad, his famous Mandukya-
karika, which may be said to contain the first systematic statement of the doctrine of absolute
monism, later elaborated upon and given full form by sri Adi-Sankara.
The Taittiriya Upanisad is a part of the larger literature complex of the Taittiriya School of
the Krishna Yajurveda. As has been pointed out, the seventh, eighth, and ninth books of the
Taittiriya Aranyaka constitute the TaittiriyaUpanisad, the tenth and last being the Mahanarayana
Upanisad. The Taittiriya Upanisad is divided into three sections called vallis: the Siksa-valli, the
Brahmananda-valli and the Bhrigu-valli.
The Aitareya Upanisad of the Rig-Veda is equivalent to the Aitareya Aranyaka. By far the
most important of the Upanisads are the Chandogya and the Brhadaianyaka. The Chandogya
Brahmana, belonging to the Gauthama Sakha of the Sama-Veda, consists of ten chapters. The last
eight chapters constitute the Chandogya Upanisad.
The Bruhadaranyaka Upanisad, which belongs to the Sukla Yajur-Veda, is the biggest and
perhaps the oldest of the Upanisads. The Kanva Bruhadaranyaka Upanisad (which, incidentally,
Sankara chose for his commentary) is analogous to the last six chapters of the sixteenth kanda of the
Kanva Satapatha Brahmana. Added to these ten traditionally recognized Upanisads are three others,
making altogether the thirteen principal Upanisads. These three are the Svetasvatara and the Maitri,
or Maitrayani, both of which belong to the KrsnaYajur-Veda, and the Kausitaki which belongs to
the Rig-Veda.
The Svetasvataropanisad10, which has six chapters and 113 stanzas, is essentially a theistic
text. It presents the supreme Brahman as Rudra, the personal God, and teaches the doctrine of bhakti
(devotion).
As for the age of the principal Upanisads, they may be said to extend roughly over a period from the
8th to the 3rd century B.C., the older ones among them being decidedly pre-Buddhistic.
The Upanishads gave the people a philosophy but not a religion.
Shad-Angas (Vedangas)
There are 6 vedangas, they are known as shad-angas (6 limbs) of vedas, these are the auxilary
disciplines which are useful in undersatnding and interpreting the vedas in their correct sense. The
six Vedangas are: 1) Shiksha (phonetics); 2) Chandas (metrics); 3) Vyakarana (grammar); 4)
Nirukta (etymology); 5) kalpa (socio-religious practices and rituals); and 6) Jyotisha (astrology &
astronomy). Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters,
structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-
Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of Hindu Philosophy.
The word Kalpa-Sutra usually meant a whole literary corpus comprising the Srauta-Sutra, the
Gruhya-Sutra, and the Dharma-Sutra; these, broadly speaking, refer respectively to the religious, the
domestic, and the social aspects of the life of the people. These Sutras primarily seek to regulate and
codify the practices which were already in vogue, but at the same time they also initiate new
practices or modify the old ones in accordance with the times and the traditions of the school in
which they originated.
The response of Hinduism to external and internal challenges was one of gradual assimilation and
adaptation rather than of opposition and isolation, and the tendency to synthesize various religious
practices and philosophical doctrines into a single harmonious way of life and thought.
-Dr. Binod Bihari Satpathy
Other Religious & Philosopical Literature
The Ithihasas (Ramayana &Mahabharatha)
The sanskrith word Ithihasa means traditional accounts of former events. These epics (Ramayana &
Mahabharata) were in existance long before we know writing. They were transmitted orally for
many generation. Before they were committed to writing, the epic stories gathered many accretions;
and even after they were written down, additions and alterations continued. The diverse nature of
the changes made explains the great popularity of the epics throughout the length and breadth of
India. Though the epic stories are very old and some of them hark back to Vedic times, their present
forms are of a much later date. It is generally believed that the Mahabharatahad attained its present
form by about the 4th century A.D and the Ramayana probably assumed its present shape a century
or two earlier.
The Ramayana is one of two Hindu epics, the other being the Mahabharata. Whereas the
Mahabharata is a heroic (or folk) epic deriving from an oral tradition, the Ramayana is more nearly
a literary epic, written in conscious imitation of the heroic tradition. Whatever the original may have
been, the Ramayana has been altered many times by subsequent rewriting and critical revision. In its
extant versions, the Ramayana contains about twenty-four thousand couplets (less than one-fourth
the length of the Mahabharata) and is divided into seven chapters (the Mahabharatahas eighteen
chapters). Of the seven chapters of the Ramayana, the central story covers chapters 2 through 6;
chapter 1 is introductory. Chapter 7 provides both monologue to and critique of the preceding six
chapters. The Ramayana, unlike the Mahabharata, has unity in its narrative, which stems from its
concentration on one main story.
The Ramayana is more ornate than the Mahabharata, more refined and sophisticated. The
Ramayana, indeed, is a marvellous piece of art which India can legitimately be proud of. In the
whole range of Sanskrit literature, there are very few poems more charming than this one by the
adikavi Valmiki. The classical purity, clearness, and simplicity of its style, the exquisite touches of
true poetic feeling with which it abounds, its graphic descriptions of heroic incidents and nature‘s
grandest scenes, the deep acquaintance it displays with the conflicting workings and most refined
emotions of the human heart, all entitle it to rank among the most beautiful compositions that have
appeared at any period or in any country.
The Mahabharata, as we know it today, is the outcome of a long process of addition,
assimilation, expansion, revision, and redaction. Presumably, it originated as a bardic-historical
poem called Jaya samhita, which had the eventful Bharata war as its central theme. In the course of
time, a large amount of material belonging to the literary tradition of the bards, which had been
developing side by side with the mantratradition embodied in the Vedic literature, was added to the
historical poem, thereby transforming it into the epic Mahabharat. This transformation of Jaya
samhitainto Mahabharatreceived added momentum from another and, from our point of view, more
significant factor, the rise of Krishnite Hinduism.
The Mahabharata, which must have assumed its present form in the first centuries before and
after Christ, is traditionally believed to consist of 100,000 stanzas divided into 18 parvas.
The Puranas
Purana (पुराण) means event of the past. It is also defined as (सर्गश्च प्रतिसर्गश्च वंशो मन्वंतराणि च। वंशानुचरितं चैव पुराणं
पंचलक्षणम्॥) the composition which describes or explains the following 1. Creation of 5 elements 2.
Creation of all kinds of life form 3. Family history of great dynasties 4. History of Gods and great
sages 5. Discription of great people.
There are 18 puranas originally composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa, they are 1.Brahmapurana
2.Shivapurana 3.Vishnupurana 4.Lingapurana 5.Garudapurana 6.Brahmandapurana
7.Kurmapurana 8.Markandeyapurana 9.Mastyapurana 10.Naradapurana
11.Bhagavathapurana 12.Bhavishyapurana 13.Varahapurana 14.Vayupurana
15. Agnipurana 16.Brahmavaivartapurana 17.Padmapurana 18.Skandapurana.
Astika philosophical system (Shat Darshanas):

1. Samkhya (Kapila):
Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems, and it postulates that everything in
reality stems from purusha (self or soul or mind) and prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy). It is
a dualist philosophy, although between the self and matter rather than between mind and body as in
the Western dualist tradition, and liberation occurs with the realization that the soul and the
dispositions of matter (steadiness, activity and dullness) are different.
2. Yoga (Patanjali):
The Yoga school, as expounded by Patanjali in 2nd Century B.C., accepts the Samkhya psychology
and metaphysics, but is more theistic, with the addition of a divine entity to Samkhya's twenty-five
elements of reality. The ancient sage Patanjali describes the yogic path to self-realization
as ashtanga (अष्टाङ्ग).The relatively brief Yoga Sutrasare divided into "ashtanga" (eight limbs, they are
1.Yama 2. Niyama 3. Asana 4. Pranayama 5. Pratyahara 6. Dharana 7. Dhyana 8.Samadhi,
reminiscent of Buddhism's Noble Eightfold Path, the goal being to quiet one's mind and achieve
kaivalya (solitariness or detachment).
3. Nyaya (Gautama):
The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras, written by Aksapada Gautama in the 2nd Century
B.C. Its methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by the
majority of the Indian schools, in much the same way as Aristotilean logic has influenced Western
philosophy. Its followers believe that obtaining valid knowledge (the four sources of which are
perception, inference, comparison and testimony) is the only way to gain release from suffering.
Nyaya developed several criteria by which the knowledge thus obtained was to be considered valid
or invalid. In this sense, NYAYA is equivalent in some ways to Western analytic philosophy.
4. Vaisheshika (Kanada):
The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., and it is atomist and
pluralist in nature. The basis of this school's philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe
are reducible to a finite number of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that
causes consciousness in these atoms. The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged
because of their closely related metaphysical theories (although Vaisheshika only accepted
perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge).
5. Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini):

The main objective of the PurvaMimamsa school is to interpret and establish the authority of the
Vedas. It requires unquestionable faith in the Vedasand the regular performance of the Vedic fire-
sacrifices to sustain all the activity of the universe. Although in general the Mimamsa accept the
logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, they insist that salvation can only be
attained by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas. The school later shifted its
views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahmanand freedom, allowing for the release or escape
of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity.
6. Vedanta (Adi shankaracharya):
The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the
Upanishads (mystic or spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas
(instructions for ritual and sacrifice). The Vedanta focus on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual
connectivity, more than traditional ritualism. Due to the rather cryptic and poetic nature of the
Vedanta sutras, the school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way
and producing its own series of sub-commentaries: Advaita (the best-known, which holds that the
soul and Brahman are one and the same), Visishtadvaita(which teaches that the Supreme Being has
a definite form, name - Vishnu - and attributes), Dvaita (which espouses a belief in three separate
realities: Vishnu, and eternal soul and matter), Dvaitadvaita (which holds that Brahman exists
independently, while soul and matter are dependent), Shuddhadvaita(which believes that Krishna is
the absolute form of Brahman) and Achintya BhedaAbheda (which combines monism and dualism
by stating that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from Krishna, or God).
(Nastika system) Charvaka Philosophy:

Also known as Lokayata, charvaka is a materialistic, skeptical and atheistic school of thought. Its
founder was Charvaka, author of the Barhaspatya Sutras in the final centuries B.C., although the
original texts have been lost and our understanding of them is based largely on criticism of the ideas
by other schools. As early as the 5th Century, Saddaniti and Buddhaghosa connected the Lokayatas
with the Vitandas (or Sophists), and the term Charvaka was first recorded in the 7th Century by the
philosopher Purandara, and in the 8th Century by Kamalasila and Haribhadra. As a vital
philosophical school, Charvaka appears to have died out some time in the 15th Century.
According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans and
pleasure the ultimate object in life. Charvaka recognises no existence other than this material world.
Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by Charvakas. Out of the
five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do not recognise ether as it is not
known through perception. The whole universe according to them is thus consisted of four
elements.
The Smritis
The Smritis are the texts which describe the traditional rules and regulations goverining the
individual and social behavior of human beings basing on their Varna. In other words, we can say
that the Smritis are the Civil and Criminal codes of that time. The famous Smritis are Narada Smriti,
Manu Smriti, Parashara Smriti and Yagnavalkya Smriti, etc.
There are many other literary works in Sanskrith by various people. Saints like Sri Gaudapada, Sri
Adi-Shankaracharya, Sri Vidyaranya and learned individuals like Madhavacharya, Sayanacharya
wrote commentaries (Bhashyas) on vedas and upanishads.
Maha-bhashya of Patanjali from the 2nd century BC is among the earliest known Bhashyas.
Sri Adi-Shankaracharya's writings come under various categories. For instance, he worteBhasya
(commentaries), prakaranagranthas (treatises), Stotras, and Bhajans.
Poets like Kalidasa wrote novels viz. Meghasandesham, Abhignanashakuntalam, Raghuvmsam,
Kumarasambhavam.etc...other great literacy works, which marked the golden era of Indian literature
include ‘Mricchakatika’ by Shudraka, ‘Swapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa, 'Buddha charitha' by
Ashvaghosha and ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha. Some other famous works are Chanakya’s
‘Arthashastra’ and Bhartruhari wrote Shatakas.
We also have a large body of books dealing with various sciences, law, medicine and
grammar. To this class belong the law books called the Dharmasutras and smritis, together known
as Dharmashastras. The Dharmasutras were compiled between 500 and 200 BC. These lay down
duties for different varnasas well as for the kings and their officials. They prescribed the rules
according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited. They also prescribe punishments for
persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery. The Manu-smriti tells us about the role of man and
woman in society, their code of conduct and relationship with each other.
Kautilya’s Arthashastrais an important treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the state of
society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient Indian polity
and economy.
Buddhist and Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrit and Sanskrit

The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents. The
earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South Bihar. The
Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.
The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets Vinaya
Pitika, Sutta Pitika and AbhidhammaPitika. Vinaya Pitika deals with rules and regulations of daily
life. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while
AbhidhammaPitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics. It includes discourses on various
subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems.
The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are the most interesting
stories on the previous births of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was finally born as
Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma passed through more than 550 births, in many cases even
in the form of animals. Each birth story is called a Jataka. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the
social and economic conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They
also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.
The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in
Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakarnas, Chhedab Sutras
and Malasutras. Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri,
(eighth century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). Jainism helped in the growth of a
rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages
which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain texts
refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
Famous Sanskrit Authors of the Gupta Period

The Gupta period was India’s golden age of culture and one of the greatest and most glorious times.
The Gupta kings patronized the classical Sanskrit literature. They helped liberally the scholars and
poets of Sanskrit. This enriched the Sanskrit langauge. Infact Sanskrit language became the
language of cultured and educated people. Many great poets, dramatists and scholars appeared
during this period and works in Sanskrit reached great heights.
1. Kalidas: Poet Kalidas wrote many beautiful poems and plays. His works in Sanskrit are
considered the gems of Literature. He wrote passionate plays and poems. His wonderful skill is
exhibited in his poems Meghaduta, Ritusamhara, Kumar Sambhavam and Raghuvamsham. His
plays are Abhignana Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashiyam and Malavikaganimithram.
2. Vishakhdutta: Vishakhdutta was another great play writer of this period. He wrote two great
historical plays like- Mudra Rakshas and Devi Chandra Gupta.
3. Shudraka: He wrote an exciting play MrichchhaKatikam or the Toy Cart. It is a great source of
socio-cultural conditions of that time.
4. Harisena: Among the great poets and play writers of the Gupta period was Harisena. He wrote
poems praising the valour of Samudra Gupta. It is inscribed on Allahabad pillar.
5. Bhasa: He wrote 13 plays (Swapna Vasavadatta, Pratigna Yaugandharayana, Uru bhangam,
Karna Bhara and Daridra charudatta, etc,,,) which echo the lifestyle of that era along with its
prevalent beliefs and culture.
6. Dandi:
Literature of South India (Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam Literature)

The four Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malyalam developed their own
literature. Tamil being the oldest of these langauges began writing earlier and produced the sangam
literature, the oldest literature in Tamil.
Telugu Literature
The first famous Telugu composition is"Andhra Mahabharatam". Andhra Mahabharatm was witten
by Nannaya (1, 2 and a part of 3rd chapter), Tikkana (chapters 4 to 18) and Yerrapragada (the
remaining part of 3rd chapter) over a periods of time from 1020 CE to 1400 CE. These 3 poets
together know as Kavitrayam of Telugu Literature.
The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature. NachanaSomanatha, a court poet
of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam. Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the
greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of great merit. His work AmuktaMalyada is
regarded as an excellent prabandha in Telugu literature. Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly
known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court. Among them
1) AllasaniPeddana, the author of Manucharitra, was the greatest. He was known as Andhra
kavitapitamaha.
2) Nandi Timmana the author of Parijathapaharanam
3) MadayagariMallana authored Rajashekharacharitra is a prabandha dealing with the wars and
loves of Rajashekhara, king of Avanti.
4) Dhurjati: A devotee of Shiva composed two poetical works of great merit known as
Kalahastiswara Mahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam
5) AyyalarajuRamabhadra: Two works Ramabhyudayam and Sakalakathasara-Sangraham.
6) Pingali Surana: composed two works Raghavapandaviyam and Kalapuranodayam. In the former,
he attempted a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
simultaneously.
7) Ramaraja Bhushana: Authored Vasucharitram. He was also known as Bhattumurti. His other
works include Narasabhupaliyam and Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam. It is a poetical work on
the model of Raghavapandaviyam. One can read in it stories of Nala as well as Harishchandra.
8) Tenali Ramakrishna: The court jester, was an interesting figure of the Krishnadevaraya’s court.
His practical jokes on high-placed men of the time are recounted with pleasure even today.
Ramakrishna was the author of PandurangaMahatmayam which was considered one of the
greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
Kannada Literature
Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada and Sanskrit writers as
well. Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature. Madhava wrote
Dharmanatha purana on the fifteenth tirthankara. Another Jain scholar, Uritta Vilasa, wrote
DharmaParikshe. The Sanskrit works of the period include Yadavabhyudayam by
VedanathaDesika and Parasara Smriti Vyakhya of Madhavacharya.
Kannada language developed fully after the tenth century AD. The earliest known literary
work in Kannada is Kavirajamargawritten by the Rashtrakuta King, Nripatunga
Amoghavarsha I. Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana
and Vïkramarjiva Vijayain the tenth century AD. Pampa lived in the court of ChalukyaArikesari. In
his poetic skill, beauty of description, delineation of character and development of rasa, Pampa is
unrivalled. Ponna and Ranna were two other poets who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta
Krishna III. Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti Purana and Ranna wrote AjitanathaPurano. Together
Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned the title ratnatraya (the three gems).
In the thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature. Harishvara wrote
Harishchandra Kavya and Somanatha Charitawhereas Bandhuvarma wrote Harivamshabhyudaya
and Jiva-Sambodhana. Under the patronage of later Hoysala rulers, several literary works were
produced. Rudra Bhata wrote Jagannathavijaya. Andayya’s Madana Vijaya or Kabbïgara Kava is
a work of special interest in pure Kannada without the mixture of Sanskrit words. Mallikarjuna’s
Suktisudharnava, the first anthology in Kannada and Kesiraja’s Shabdamanidarpanaon grammar
are two other standard works in the Kannada language.
Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
under the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings. Poets of all religious groups made important
contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana This is
the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmikis Ramayana. Lakshamisha who
lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaïmini Bharata and earned the titled of Kamata-
Karicutavana-Chaitra (the spring of the Karnataka mango grove).
The other eminent poet of this period was the great Sarvajna, popularly known as the
people’s poet. His aphoristic tripadi (three-lined) compositions serve as a source of wisdom and
ethics. A special mention may be made of Honnamma, perhaps the first outstanding poetess in
Kannada. Her Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a Devout Wife) is a compendium of ethics.
Malayalam Literature
Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam emerged
around the eleventh century AD. By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognised as an independent
language.
Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokasandisan are two great works. Rama
Panikkar and Ramanuj and Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature. Though it
developed much later compared to other South Indian languages, Malayalam has made a mark as a
powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of journals, newspapers and magazines are
published in Malayalam. When people read and write in their own language, they enjoy it more.
This is because language is a part of their culture. It is so well interwoven in their social life that
they can express and feel their emotions as well in their own language. This, must also be the case
with you and your language also.
Tamil or Sangama Literature

Tamil as a written language was known since the beginning of the Christian era. It is, therefore, no
wonder that considerable Sangama literature was produced in the early four centuries of the
Christian era, although it was finally compiled by 600 AD. Poets who participated in these
assemblies were patronised by kings and chieftains produced the Sangama literature over a period of
three to four centuries. Poets, bards and writers, authors came from various parts of South India to
Madurai. Such assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and the literature produced in these assemblies
was called “Sangama literature”. There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight
anthologies called Ettuttokoi. There are two main groups – the Patinenkil Kanakku (the eighteen
lower collections) and Pattupattu (the ten songs). The former is generally assumed to be older than
the latter, and considered to be of more historical importance. Thiruvallurar’s work ‘Kural’ is
divided into three parts. The first part deals with the epics, the second part with polity and
government and the third part with love.
The contributions of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’ which has been
translated into many langauges are noteworthy. The Sangama literature is a collection of long and
short poems composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They are secular
in nature and of a very high quality. Three such sangams were held. The poems collected in the first
sangam have been lost. In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have been collected.
Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with grammar
and poetry. In addition, we have the twin epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. These two
were composed around the 6th century AD. The first is considered as the brightest gem of Tamil
literature and deals with a love story. The second epic was written by a grain merchant of Madurai.
These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of Tamils from 2nd century to 6th century AD.
From the 6th to 12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars (saints
who sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the great Bhakti movement which engulfed the
entire Indian sub-continent. During this period, Kambaramayanam and Periya Puranam were two
Tamil literary classic writers.
Northern Indian Languages & Literature

We have already seen how languages evolved in India right upto the early medieval period. The old
apabhramshahad taken new forms in some areas or was in the process of evolving into other forms.
These languages were evolving at two levels: the spoken and the written language. The old Brahmi
script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change. The alphabets during Ashoka’s period
were uneven in size but by the time of Harsha, the letters had become of the same size and were
regular, presenting the picture of a cultivated hand.
The studies have indicated that all the scripts of present northern Indian languages, except
that of Urdu, have had their origin in old Brahmi. A long and slow process had given them this
shape. If we compare the scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we can easily understand this
change. As for the spoken word, there are over 200 languages or dialects spoken in India at present.
Some are widely used while others are limited to a particular area. Out of all these, only twenty-two
have found their way into our Constitution.
A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include Braj Bhasha,
andAvadhi (spoken in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken around Mithila), and
Rajasthani and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is another variant or dialect of Hindi.
This classification has been made on the basis of literature produced by great poets over a length of
time. Thus, the language used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name of Braj Bhasha; that
used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitmanasa is called Avadhi and the one used by Vidyapati has been
termed as Maithili. But Hindi, as we know it today is the one called Khadi Boli. Though Khusrau
has used Khadi Boli in his compositions in the thirteenth century its extensive use in literature
began only in the nineteenth century. It even shows some influence of Urdu.
Urdu
Urdu emerged as an independent langauge towards the end of the 12th century AD. Arabic and
Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks and the Mongols. Persian remained
the court langage for many centuries. Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction between
Hindi and Persian.
After the conquest of Delhi (1192), the Turkish people settled in this region. Urdu was born
out of the interaction of these settlers and soldiers in the barracks with the common people.
Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a formal language when the
authors started using Persian script. It was further given an impetus by its use in Bahamani states of
Ahmadnagar, Golkunda, Bijapur and Berar. Here it was even called dakshinior daccani (southern).
As time passed, it became popular with the masses of Delhi.
Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People even wrote accounts of
later Mughals in Urdu. Gradually it achieved a status where literature-both poetry and prose-started
being composed in it. The last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar wrote poetry in it. Some of his
couplets have become quite well known in the Hindi and Urdu speaking areas.
Urdu was given its pride of place by a large number of poets who have left inimitable
poetry for posterity. The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusrau (1253-1325). He started
writing as a poet in the reign of Sultan Balban and was a follower of Nizam ud-din Auliya. He
is said to have composed ninty-nine works on separate themes and numerous verses of poetry.
Among the important works composed by him are Laila Majnun and Ayina-I-Sikandari
dedicated to Alau-din-Khalji. Among other well-known poets are Ghalib, Zauq, and Iqbal.
Iqbal’s Urdu poetry is available in his collection called Bang-i–dara. His Sarejahan se achcha
Hindostanhamara is sung and played at many of the national celebrations in India. No army
parade is considered complete without the army band playing this tune. In big Indian cities like
Delhi these are many programmes in which famous singers are invited to sing nazams or Ghazals
written by famous poets like Ghalib, Maum, Bulley Shah, Waris Shah besides many others.
So, you can imagine how rich our language and literary culture must have been to continue till
today. It has enriched our lives and is central to people meeting and intermingling with each other.
Among the best prose writers were people like Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar, who wrote the
famous Fasanah-i-Azad. Even in the early days, Munshi Prem Chand, who is supposed to be a
doyen of Hindi literature, wrote in Urdu. Urdu has given us a new form of poem that is called a
nazm. Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums in this language.
Slowly it became quite popular. Pakistan has adopted Urdu as the state language.
Hindi Literature
There was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya,
Marathi and Gujarati during this time. In the South, Malayalam emerged as an independent
language in the 14th century the emergence of all these languages resulted in the decline of Sanskrit
as they came to be used as the medium through which the administrative machinery functioned. The
rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of these regional langages by the various saints helped in
the growth and development of regional languages. We have already noted the various dialects that
developed in northern and western India. Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Raso is supposed to be the
first book in the Hindi language. It is an account of exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. In its imitation
several other literary workswere written. The language went on changing as the area where it was
used expanded. New words to express new situations were either coined or taken from areas coming
under its influence. Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance and Bharata’s
Natyashastrawas kept in mind by Hindi writers. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there
started a movement in southern India that was called the Bhakti movement. As its influence reached
the north, it started affecting the prose and poetry that were being composed in Hindi. Poetry now
became largely devotional in nature. Some of the poets like Tuisidas wrote poetry in a language
which was of that region only, while others like Kabir, who moved from place to place added
Persian and Urdu words as well. Though it is said that Tuisidas wrote Ramcharit Manas based on
Valmiki’s Ramayana, he also alterd situations and adds quite a few new scenes and situations based
on folklore. For example, Sita’s exile is mentioned in Valmiki’s version but it is not mentioned in
Tulsidas’s account. Tuisidas has deified his hero while the hero of Valmiki is a human being.
Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. and the 14th
C.E. It was characterized as Veergatha Kala i.e the age of heroic poetry or the Adi Kala (early
period). It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chivalry and poetry. The most famous
figures from this period were Kabir and Tulsidas. In modern times, the Khadiboli dialect became
more prominent and a variety of literature was produced in Hindi.
Similarly, Surdas wrote his Sur Sagarin which he talks of Krishna as an infant, a young lad
indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in dalliance with the gopis. These poets made a deep
impression on the minds of the listeners. If the festivals associated with Rama and Krishna have
become so very popular, the credit goes to these poets. Their versions became the source of
inspiration not only for other poets but also for painters in the medieval ages. They inspired
Mirabai, who sang in Rajasthani language, and Raskhan, who, though a Muslim, sang in praise of
Krishna. Nandadasa was an important Bhakti poet. Rahim and Bhushan were a class apart. Their
subject was not devotion, but spiritual. Bihari wrote his Satsain the seventeenth century; it gives us
a glimpse of shringar (love) and other rasas.
All the above mentioned Hindi poets, except Kabir, expressed their sentiments essentially to
satisfy their own devotional instincts. Kabir did not believe in institutionalised religion. He was a
devotee of a formless God. Chanting His name was the be-all and end-all for him. All these poets
influenced the north Indian society in a manner that had never happened earlier. As it is easier to
remember poetry than prose, they became immensely popular.
During the last 150 years, many writers have contributed to the development of modern India
literature, written in a number of regional languages as well as in English. One of the greatest
Bengali writers, Rabindranath Tagore became the first Indian to win the Nobel Prize for literature
(Geetanjali) in 1913. However, it is only with the beginning of nineteenth century that-Hindi prose
came into its own. Bharatendu Harishchandra was one of the earliest to produce dramas in Hindi
which were basically translations of texts written in Sanskrit and other languages. But he set the
trend. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was another author who wrote translations or made adaptations
from Sanskrit. Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l838-94) wrote novels originally in Bangla. They came to
be translated into Hindi and became very popular. Vande Mataram, our national song, is an excerpt
from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s contribution to Hindi cannot be ignored.
Originally a Gujarati and a scholar of Sanskrit, he advocated Hindi as a common language for the
whole of India. He started writing in Hindi and contributed articles to journals essentially engaged
in religious and social reforms. Satyartha Prakashwas his most important work in Hindi. Among the
other names who have enriched Hindi literature, is that of Munshi Prem Chand, who switched over
from Urdu to Hindi. Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’, achieves recognition because he questioned the
orthodoxies in society. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight issues
related to women. Maithili Sharan Gupt is another important name. Jaishankar Prasad wrote
beautiful dramas.
Hindi Language Makes Progress in Modern Period

Hindi Language: The development of modern language started at the end of the 18th century. The
main writers of this period were Sadasukh Lal and Enshallah Khan. Bhartendu Harishchandra also
strengthened Hindi language. Similarly, Raja Lakshman Singh translated Shakuntala into Hindi.
Hindi continued to develop in adverse circumstances as the office work was done in Urdu.
Bhartendu Harish Chandra, Mahavira Prasad Dwivedi, Ramchandra Shukla and Shyam
Sunder Das were the main among the prose writers of Hindi literature. Jai Shanker Prasad,
Maithalisharan Gupta, Sumitranandan Pant, Suryakant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Mahadevi Verma,
Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ and Haribans Rai ‘Bacchan’ made great contribution to the development
of Hindi poetry. Similarly Prem Chand, Vrindavan lal Verma and Ellachandra Joshi wrote novels
and enriched Hindi literature.
If we look at the above writers, we find that they all wrote with a purpose. Swami Dayanand
wrote in order to reform the Hindu society and rid it of false beliefs and social evils. Munshi Prem
Chand tried to draw the attention of the society to the miserable existence of the poor and Mahadevi
Verma recipient of Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian award highlighted the conditions
of women in the society. ‘Nirala’ became the pioneer of awakening of Modern India.
BENGALI, ASSAMESE AND ORIYA LITERATURE
After Hindi, the next significant literature was the one that developed in Bengal. The Baptist
Mission Press was established in Serampore near Calcutta in 1800. East India Company founded the
Fort William College in the same year. It provided training to civil servants of the Company in law,
customs, religions, languages and literatures of India to enable them to work more efficiently. In this
regard, a very important landmark was achieved by William Carey, who wrote a grammar of
Bengali and published an English-Bengali dictionary and also wrote books on dialogues and stories.
It may be noted that the grammar and dictionaries are important in the development of a literature.
They guide the writers as to the correctness of a sentence and also help them in finding suitable
words for a particular situation and idea. Although the aim of the press run by the missionaries was
mainly to propagate Christian faith but other presses run by local people helped in the flourishing of
non-Christian literature. Scores of pamphlets, small and big books and journals were produced. In
the meantime education spread, although at a very slow pace. But after 1835, when Macaulay won
the battle against Orientalists, it spread at a faster pace. In 1854 came Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch
and in 1857 the three universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were established. Besides
textbooks for schools and colleges, other literature were also produced. However it was Raja Ram
Mohan Roy who wrote in Bengali besides English that gave impetus to Bengali literature. Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91) and Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820-86) were two other writers of this
early period. In addition to these, Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l834-94), Sharat Chandra Chatterji
(l876-1938), and R.C. Dutta, a noted historian and a prose writer, all contributed to the making of
Bengali literature. But the most important name that influenced the whole of India was that of
Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941). Novels, dramas, short stories, criticism, music and essays, all
flowed from his pen. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913 for his Geetanjali.
However, a few things need to be noted about the influence of Western ideas which
permeated Bengal and later on other parts of India. Upto 1800, most of the literature produced was
limited to religion or courtly literature. The Western influence brought the writers closer to the man
in the street. The subjects were mundane. Some religious literature was also produced but it hardly
said anything new.
The final years of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century saw a new
subject, nationalism, being taken up. Two things were seen in this new trend. The first was the love
for old history and culture and an awareness of the facts of British exploitation. The second was a
clarion call for arousing the Indians to drive out the foreigners, both by persuasion and force. This
new trend was expressed by Subrahmanyam Bharti in Tamil and Qazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali. The
contributions of these two writers in arousing the nationalistic sentiments in the readers was
tremendous. Their poetry was translated into other Indian languages.
Assamese - Like Bengali, Assamese also developed in response to the Bhakti movement.
Shankardeva who introduced Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the growth of Assamese poetry.
Even the Puranas were translated in Assamese.
The earliest Assamese literature consisted of buranjis (court chronicles). Shankardev has left
several devotional poems, which people song with rapturous pleasure, but it was only after 1827
that more interest was shown in producing Assamese literature. Two names, Lakshmi Nath
Bezbarua and PadmanabaGohain Barua cannot be forgotten. From Orissa, a couple of names are
worth mentioning and these are Fakirmohan Senapati and Radha Nath Ray, whose writings deserve
considerable attention in the history of Oriya literature.
The works of Upendra Bhanja (1670 - 1720) were important as they ushered a new period of
Oriya literature. In Orissa the works of Saraladasa are regarded as the first works of Oriya literature.
Marathi Literature
Maharashtra is situated on a plateau where a large number of local dialects were in use. Marathi
grew out of these these local dialects. The Portuguese missionaries started using Marathi for
preaching their gospel.
The earliest Marathi poetry and prose is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived in the
thirteenth century. He wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. He was the one who
started the kirtantradition in Maharashtra. He was followed by Namdev (l 270-1350), Gora, Sena
and Janabai. All these sang and popularised the Marathi language. Their songs are sung even today
by the Verkaripilgrirns on their way to Pandharpur pilgrimage. Almost two centuries later, Eknath (l
533-99) came on the scene. He wrote the commentaries on the Ramayana and the Bhagawat Purana.
His songs are very popular all over Maharashtra.
Then came Tukarama (1598-1650). He is supposed to be the greatest Bhakti poet of them all.
Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers. He was the
devotee of Rama. He inspired Shivaji. The closing years of the nineteenth century saw an upsurge in
the Marathi literature. It was a nationalist movement that made Marathi prose popular and
prominent. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (l 857-1920) started his Journal Kesariin Marathi. This helped the
growth of Marathi literature. But the role of Keshav Sut and V.S. Chiplunkar was no less. Hari
Narayan Apte and Agarkar wrote novels which became very popular. All these prose writers made
great contribution to the development of Marathi literature. The name of H.G Salgaokar is
remembered for writing inspirational poetry. Besides, the names of M.G. Ranade, K.T. Telang, G.T.
Madholkar (poet and novelist) are no less important.
UNIT-3
ESSENCE OF VEDIC SCIENCES
Scientific approach (Mathematics: Baudhayana Sulbasutra; Geography: Mahasankalpa; Astronomy:
Bruhat Samhitha) in Vedic Literature and proper understanding of Indian Religious literature
(Dashopanishads) & Practices (Meaning of Mahasankalpa, Vastugunadeepika). Western
understanding of Indian philosophy. Reform Movements in Modern India (Bhakti & Sufi
movements & Reforms of Raja Rammohan Roy, Dayananda Saraswati, Swamy Vivekananda,
Aligarh movement and Jyoti Rao phule only).
Religion is the science of the self. Morality and ethics have their foundation in religion. Religion
played an important part in the lives of the Indians from the earliest times. It assumed numerous
forms in relation to different groups of people associated with them, though dispersed
geographically. Religious ideas, thoughts and practices differed among various groups and
transformations and developments took place in various religious forms in the course of time.
Religion in India was never static in character but was driven by an inherent dynamic
strength. Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and religious traditions of the
land. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and existence. Indian sages
called “Rishis” or ‘seers’, developed special techniques of transcending the five senses (the sense of
sight, sense of hearing, sense of smell, sense of taste and the sense of touch) and the ordinary mind,
which is collectively called yoga. With the help of these techniques, they delved deep into the
depths of consciousness and discovered important truths about the true nature of human being and
the universe.
The sages found that the true nature of the human being is not the body or the mind, which are ever
changing and perishable but the self. Knowledge of the self was given the utmost importance.
Religion in ancient India meant a way of life which enables a human to realize his true
nature. Thus, philosophy provided a correct view of reality, while religion showed the correct way
of life; philosophy provided the vision, while religion brought about the fulfillment; philosophy was
the theory, and religion was the practice. Thus, in ancient India, philosophy and religion
complemented each other.
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The philosophy must give a theory which will be simplest in its nature and, at the same time, will
explain all the principles which are left as insoluble by science. At the same time it will harmonize
with the ultimate conclusions of science as well as establish a religion which is universal and is not
limited by sects or doctrines or dogmas.
When we are concerned with philosophy as a science, it means a set of thoughts put into a
system, such that one of them does not contradict another in the set and the entire set as a whole is
coherent. ‘Science means knowledge partially unified, while philosophy means knowledge
completely unified. Beyond the knowable is the unknowable, but in that realm of the unknowable
laid the solution of all the principles regarding the nature of the soul, of the heavens, of God and
everything’.
–Herbert Spencer --
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Scientific approach in VEDIC LITERATURE

Vedas are the base of all types of knowledge that has originated in Bharath/India. One can find the
roots of almost all branches of modern Sciences in Vedas especially branches of Mathematics and
Physical Sciences like Astronomy, Geography and Botany.
To understand the scientific approach in Vedic literature, let us first understand what is known as
Vedic literature.
Vedic literature primarily includes Vedas (Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishads). The
following block diagram shows the various branches and sub-branches of Vedic literature.
Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple, in the sense that it consisted mainly of worship
of deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers. They don't make
distinctions between secular (in the worldly sense) and sacred knowledge (as we understand worldly
and spiritual knowledge today). This framework offers the basis for these statements to be
interpreted in multiple ways in multiple contexts (astronomical, spiritual, terrestrial etc). The
knowledge of mathematics and geometry were all deemed important and worthy of formulations
into mantras (hymns). Some of the hymns, which deal with cosmology, imply that the rishis were
very familiar with the size, shape and the movement (revolution and rotation) of the celestial bodies.
Since the Vedas are not texts on mathematics but mention a lot of mathematical concepts, it
could be interpreted that mathematics as a science also existed. It is unlikely that in Vedic mantras,
stray statements on mathematical concepts like progressions, concept of infinity and zero existed
without mathematics as a academic discpline. Since Vedas came down as an oral tradition from very
ancient times, it is more of an indicator of the kind of concepts that existed as truthful statements to
be accepted as basic axioms than a definition/explanation or a proof of those mathematical concepts.
The method of proof of a particular theorem was developed much later when the “Darshanas”
(records of experiential knowledge of the “rishis”) were expounded.
The Rig Veda is the oldest of the Vedas and contains a wealth of knowledge on a variety of
subjects. Some of them relate to the broader fields of mathematics, geometry, algebra, calculus,
trigonometry, etc. of which a subset is described here.
Baudhayana Sulbasutra
Geometry is used throughout the Rig Veda. However, unlike modern geometry, the emphasis was
not on proofs but on usage. Furthermore, the rishis had knowledge of the concept of precision, and
this is evident from various descriptions of applications and use of geometry. Further, the depth of
precision was based on the requirements of the task or study being described. For example,
descriptions of constructions of residential and other buildings, Vedic altars, temples, etc. were
limited in precision to the necessary requirement, whereas descriptions of astronomical phenomena
were given in greater precision.
The Rig Veda is full of references to words, used in rituals and the meaning of the words can
be found in subsequent Brahmanas and in the Sulba Sutras pointing to geometrical figures. For
example, three types of fire altars, “garhapatya, ahavaniya and dakshina” are mentioned in the Rig
Veda but defined in the Shatapatha Brahmana as being square, circular and semi circular
respectively and also the three aforesaid geometrical shapes having the same area. Considering that
ritualistic fire altar designs were not changed over a very long period of time and that the shastras
were recited for several millennia before being written down, the rishis must have had a method to
calculate the square root of 2 and the value of pi, without which they would not be able to determine
whether the three altars had the same area or not.
The “Sulbasutras” are part of Kalpa (one of Vedangas [shadangas]) meaning socio-religious
practices and rituals. “Kalpa” text is like lab manual explaining how to perform a “Yagna or Yaga”
with all the intricate details.
Meaning of the Sanskrit words “Sulba” is “rope/thread” and “sutra” means formula or theorem
(अल्पाक्षरम् असन्दिग्धम् सारवत विश्वतो मुखम् । अस्तोभम् अनवद्यम् च सूत्र: सूत्रविदो विदु: ॥), “sulbasutra” meaning formula
explained with the dimensional measurements made with the help of a rope/thread. In the Vedic era, fire
altars were to be constructed using the knowledge of sulbasutra and there were different types of fire
altars, for instance an optional fire altar in the shape of a bird shayana (falcon), the area of this type of
fire altar is 7½ square “Purushas”. “Purusha” is a unit of length which equals to 96 “angulas”, and 1
“angula” equlas to 34 sesame grains stacked up face to face.
Sulbasutras are written by 8 Rishis. Among these Sulbasutra texts, sutras written by Baudhayana,
Manu, Apastamba and Katyayana carry much importance.
48th sutra from 1st chapter of Baudhayana rishi’s sulba sutras

The 48th sutra of the 1st chapter of Bodhayana sutra is read as follows:
“दीर्घचतुरस्रस्याक्ष्णया रज्जुः पार्श्वमानी तिर्यग् मानी च यत् पृथग् भूते कु रूतस्तदुभयं करोति ॥. It literally means that a square with a side
which is equal to the diagonal of a rectangle produces the area which will be equal to the total area
of another 2 squares whose sides are equal to the same rectangle’s length and breadth. That means,
the areas of the squares produced separately by the length and breadth of a rectangle together equals
the area of the square produced by the same rectangle’s diagonal. This is the same as the so-called
Pythagoras theorem but put in a different phraseology.
Baudhayana has repeated the statement with regard to square also since the concept of right
angled triangle may not have probably existed then. The statement means: “The diagonal of a square
produces double the area (of the square itself)”. Now this theorem is known after the name of
Pythagoras (c.540 BC). But there is no clear evidence to show that he discovered the theorem. It
was centuries after his death, that tradition started attributing this theorem to him. It was Cicero
(c.50 BC) who associated the name of Pythagoras with the theorem for the first time.
Baudhayana does not give the proof. Also it is not known as to how Vedic people or
“sanatanis” arrived at the result. Historians have proposed different hypotheses regarding this.
Value of √2
Baudhayana, Apastamba and Katyayana gave the approximate value of √2 as the sum of a series,
1 1 1
i.e. 1+ 3 + + which works out to 1.419. It can be seen that this value bears a high
(3∗ 4 ) (3 ∗ 4 ∗ 34)
degree of accuracy. The original expression by Baudhayana is as follows: “समस्य द्विकर्णि प्रमाणं तृतीयेन वर्धयेत।
तच् चतुर्थेनात्मचतुस्त्रिंशोनेन सविशेषः||. It means that the diagonal of a square having “a” as its side, equals to
a a a a a a
a+ + + . i.e. √2a =a+ + + .
3 (3 ∗ 4) (3 ∗ 4 ∗34 ) 3 (3 ∗ 4) (3 ∗ 4 ∗34 )
Baudhayana adds the word “सविशेषः” which means “with a remainder”. That means the value is not
exact. It is implied that exact value cannot be found.
Apastamba and Katyayana also gave the same value with nearly identical words. Katyayana is more
explicit in stating that the value will always have a remainder.
Science in Maha-Sankalpa
Traditionally maha-sankalpa is the hymn (mantra) chanted before any kind of ritual, let it be “Nitya
karma or Naimittika karma”. It is as follows
-----आद्यब्राम्हण: द्वितीय परार्दे श्वेतवराहकल्पे वैवस्वतमन्वन्तरे कलियुगे प्रधमपादे जम्बूद्वीपे भरतवर्षे भरतखंडे मेरोर्दक्षिण दिग्भागे____प्रदेशे
अस्मिन वर्तमान व्यवहारिक चान्द्रमानेन श्री___नाम संवत्सरे___आयने___रूतौ___मासे___पक्षेतिधौ ___वासरे__
Meaning: Adhyabrahmana Dviteeya parardhe - in the 2nd half of Brahma's life

Svetavaraha kalpe - in the kalpa of Sveta-Varaha
Vaivaswatha manvantare - in the reigning period of the current manu Vaivaswatha
Ashta Vimsati tamey - in the 28th mahayuga of the current manavantara
Kaliyuge - in this kali-yuga (4 yugas viz. 1.Kruta 2.Treta 3.Dwapara and 4.Kali Yuga)
Prathama Padhe - in the first quarter of this kali-yuga
Jamboodveepe - this denotes the place where the ritual is performed. (India was known as
Jambudveepa because of the reason that the Jambu fruit grows here)
Bharata Varshe, Bharata Kande - in the land of Bharata
Meror Dakshina digbhage - to the South of the Meru Mountain
Asmin Varthamana Vyavaharika - in the current period, which is being followed by the present
generation
Chandramana – calculations based on Moon
Sri___ Nama samvatsare – year bearing _____ name (60 years, starting with Prabhava and ending
with Kshaya, makes one cycle of 60 years)
____Ayane - calculation based on the movement of Sun (dakshinayane or Uttarayane)
____Ritou - denotes the 6 seasons or Ritus - Vasantha, Greeshma, Varsha, Sharadh, Hemantha and
Shishira.
_____Maasey- one of the 12 months in Telugu/Tamil/Kannada/Malayala/Marathi/Oriya/Gujarati,
etc. starting with chaitram and ending with phalguna (the foregoing are the months as per the
Telugu lunar calendar with equivalent names in other Indian languages).
____Pakshey - either Shukla-Paksham (day after Amavasya till and including Pournami) or Krishna
Paksham (day after Pournami till and including Amavasya)
___Subha Thithou - one of the15 days between Pournami and Amavasya (Padyami, Vidiya,
Thadhiya, Chavithi, Panchami, Shashti, Sapthami, Ashtami, Navami, Dashami, Ekadashi,
Dwadashi, Thrayodashi, Chaturdashi, Pournami or Amavasya)
___Vasara Yuktayam - one of the days of the week (Bhanu, Soma, Bhowma, Soumya, Guru,
Bhrugu and Sthira)
____Nakshatra Yuktayam - the day's star or Nakshatram.
Age of COSMOS (in Maha-Sankalpa)

Explanation: As mentioned above “Dvitiya Pararde” mens 2nd half of Brahma’s 100 yrs. Now the
question arises as to what is Brahma’s year? Is it not the same as human year?
Let us understand the Indian way of calculation of days, months and years and then Brahma’s days,
months and years. Let us, for the sake of easy understanding, consider the following. Twenty four
(24) hours make 1 day. Such 15 days make 1 Paksha. 2 such pakshas make 1 Maasa, 6 such masas
make 1 Ayana and 2 such ayanas make 1 Human Year (365 days).
Kaliyuga comprises of 4,32,000 human years; Dwapara Yuga, which comes before Kaliyuga, is of
8,64,000 human years; Treta Yuga, which comes before Dwapara yuga, is of 12,96,000 human
years and the Kruta Yuga, which comes before thretha yuga, is of 17,28,000 human years.
Sum of 4 Yugas (Krita, Threta, Dwapara and Kali) = 1 Mahayuga (4,32,000 + 8,64,000 +
12,96,000 + 17,28,000 = 43,20,000); 1000 such Mahayugas comprise a diurnal-time duration (the
time period when sun shines) i.e half a day of Brahma and is known as a Kalpa. There is an
equivalent night-time of 4,32,00,00,000 years. Hence 1 Day of Brahma is 8,64,00,00,000 human
years [Day-time (4,32,00,00,000) + Night-time (4,32.00,00,000)].
Every kalpa is ruled by 14 manus in succession. The reigning period of a manu is known as
manvanthara which is 71.42 mahayugas.
One day and one night of Brahma together makes one full day of Brahma (8.64 billion years). 360
Brahma days constitute one Brahma year while 100 Brahma years represent the lifetime of Brahma
which is the life of the cosmos. Doing this simple calculation gives the age of the cosmos to be 311
trillion years.
We are presently in the Sveta-Varaha kalpa (meaning the reigning period of Vaivaswatha)
with the 7th manu. In this manvantara we are in the 28th mahayuga. As per our Cosmology, Brahma
is supposed to have completed 50 Brahma years and entered into his 2nd 50 years. That is why he is
called "Parardha-dvaya-jivin"(i.e.) he lives for two “parardhas” (halves). A parardha is half. Two
halves make one. He is called so as he has completed one half of his tenure. These terminologies
makes better sense in relation to the Sankalpa.
The Hindu texts used the lunar cycle for setting months and days, but the solar cycle to set the
complete year creating the challenge of accounting for the mismatch between the nearly 354 lunar
days in twelve months, versus over 365 solar days in a year. They tracked the solar year by
observing the entrance and departure of Sun (at sunrise and sunset) in the constellation formed by
stars in the sky, which they divided into 12 intervals of 30 degrees each. Hindus innovated a number
of systems of which intercalary months became most used that is adding another month after every
32.5 months on an average. As their calendar keeping and astronomical observations became more
sophisticated, the Hindu calendar became more sophisticated with complex rules leading to greater
accuracy.
Carl Sagan, a noted scientist says in relation to this, "The Hindu religion is the only one of the
world's great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an
infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to
those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and
night of Brahma, which is 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and
about half the time since the Big Bang. And there are much longer timescales still. [Carl Sagan,
Cosmos]
According to Scott Montgomery, the Siddhanta tradition at the foundation of Hindu calendars
predates the Christian era, once there were 18 texts of siddhantha tradition out of which only 5 have
survived into the modern era. These texts provide specific information and formulae on motions of
sun, moon and planets, to predict their future relative positions, equinoxes, rise and set times, with
corrections for prograde, retrograde motions, as well as parallax. These ancient scholars attempted
to calculate the time to the accuracy of a thruti (1 thruti = 29.63 microseconds). In their pursuit of
accurate tracking of relative movements of celestial bodies for their calendar, ancient Hindus
computed the mean diameter of the earth, which was very close to the actual 12,742 km (7,918 mi).
The Hindu calendars were refined during the Gupta period (from 5th to 8th Centuries AD), for
instance astronomy by Arayabhatta and Varahamihira in the 5th to 6th century. These, in turn, were
based on the astronomical traditions of Jyotisha, which in the preceding centuries had been
standardised in a number of (non-extant) works such as “Surya Siddanta”. Regional diversification
took place in the medieval period (8th century AD to 18th century AD). The astronomical
foundations were further developed in the medieval period, notably by Bhaskara-II, a prominent
mathematician of 12th century from Kannada region.
Physical Geography Information in Maha-Sankalpa
A place’s absolute location is its exact place on the earth, often given in terms of latitude and
longitude. Location can sometimes be expressed in relative terms also. Relative location is a
description of how a place is related to other places. Relative location can help analyse how two
places are connected and ultimately help people to locate/identify a place without the use of any
instrument or technology.
From ages Indians have knowledge of Geography which can be observed in “mantras”
chanted during the daily routine traditional practices like rituals, let it be “Nitya karma or Naimittika
karma”.
-----आद्यब्राम्हण: द्वितीय परार्दे श्वेतवराहकल्पे वैवस्वतमन्वन्तरे कलियुगे प्रधमपादे जम्बूद्वीपे भरतवर्षे भरतखंडे मेरोर्दक्षिण दिग्भागे श्रीशैलस्य -----
प्रदेश कृ ष्ण गोदावरी मध्यप्रदेश------------------------अस्मिन वर्तमान व्यवहारिक चान्द्रमानेन श्री_____नाम
संवत्सरे_____आयने_____रूतौ____मासे____पक्षेतिधौ_वासरे____
Meaning:
जम्बूद्वीपे (Jamboodveepe) - The island where Jambu trees (Indian Blackberry) are found i.e. India
(India was known as Jambudveepa)
भरतवर्षे – भरतखंडे (Bharata Varshe, Bharata Kande) - In the land of Bharata
मेरोर्दक्षिण दिग्भागे (Meror Dakshina digbhage) - To the South of the Meru Mountain
श्रीशैलस्य ----- प्रदेश – To the ____ side of the Srishaila Mountain
कृ ष्ण गोदावरी मध्यप्रदेश – In the land, which is in between the two rivers Krishna and Godavari (this part of
the “manthra” changes according to the place)
With the help of the above hym our ancestors have tried to explain the relative position of our
country, which was known as Bharata Khanda or Bharata Varsh at that time, which shows the
indepth knowledge of the sages about the topography of the land.
Bruhat-Samhita
The author of the Bruhat-samhita Varaha Mihira, a polymath, was born in Avanti (present day
central India [Madhyapradesh]) in 6th century A.D. Varaha Mihira is the author of several texts on
differenr subjects but most of them are lost. “Pancha siddantika”, “Bruhat-jataka”, “Bruhat-yatra”,
“Yoga yatra”, “Bruhat Vivaha Patala” and “Bruhat Samhita” are a few of his writings.
Bruhat Samhita is a work which discusses various subjects in different chapters like Jyotisha
(astrology), Aditya-cara (the course of Sun), Chandra-cara (the course of Moon), Planetory motion
and the movement of celestial bodies, Pravarsana (Precipitation), Vata-chakra (winds),
Thunderbolts, Dravya-nishcaya (classification of substances), Vastu vidya (Science of Construction
according to local conditions), Pratima Lakshana (making of idols), Vrusabha lakshana (features of
cow and oxen), Chaga lakshana (features of goat), Ashva lakshana (features of horse), Chatra
lakshana (different types and features of umbrellas), Purusha lakshana(physical characteristics of
men), Kanya lakshana (physical characteristics of women),etc..
As described above, in each chapter of Bruhat-Samhita Varaha Mihira deals elaborately with
a particular topic. For instance in the chapter named Chandra-kara he says “The moon is always
nearer to the earth than the sun. One half of the moon is always illuminated by light of the sun and
the other half is dark becaused of it’s own shadow, just like a pot placed in the sun”. So the ancients
knew that only one hemispherical side of the moon is visible from earth because the time period of
rotation is such that the same side of the moon is seen from earth at a particular place.
In the chapter on “ketus” (comets) Varaha mihira divides them into 3 categories namely
celestial, ethereal (exteemely delicate and light in a way that seems not to be of this world) and
terrestrial.
In the chapter by name Kurma vibhaga author gives a detailed description of topography of
India and describes various kingdoms (countries) and their relative positions and star constellations.
In another chapter named Indraayudha lakshana (features of rainbow) Varaha Mihira said
“The many colored rays of Sun falling up on the clouds and being broken by the winds take the
shape of rainbow in the sky”. The aforementioned sentence seems to be a literal translation of one of
the shlokas described in the Bruhat samhitha translated into English by N. Chidambaram Iyer [ ].
This indicates that the ancients knew about the dispersion of light by rain drops.
Coming to mundane life, Varahamihira also described about fluctuations in prices of various
commodities is discussed in another chapter of the Brihatsamhitha.
Varaha Mihira discussed construction of different types of temples and Idol making
processes and procedures in Bruhat Samhita. And in a chapter named “vajralepa-lakshana” he
explained how to prepare a substance, which can be compared to present day cement. This
illustrates a small snippet of building constriuction technology.
Classification of substances is discussed in a chapter named “Drava nishkaya”.
In chapters titled “kusumalatha” and “sasya-jataka” of the same treatise “Bruhatsamhitha”,
varaha mihira talks about flowers, plant types and vegetables.
Varaha Mihira also discussed the making of umbrellas, hand fans and lamps in “Bruhat
Samhita”.
Among the various topics discussed in his book “Bruhat Samhita”, he also explained the features of
oxen, dogs, goats, horses, elephants and cocks.
Gardening is also discussed in a chapter named “Vruksha Ayurveda”. With reference to personal
appearance, it is explained in sufficient detail about pimples in the chapter on“Pitaka lakshana”,
perfume preparation is discussed in “Gandhayukthi” and Bruhat Samhita also mentions seasons and
the effects of seasons on this planet and flora and fauna.
Identification, qualities and prices of Diamonds, Pearls, Rubies, and Emerald are also
elaborately disussed in separate chapters.
This book “Bruhat Samhita” deals with many other simple and complicated aspects like what
object can be used as a tooth brush, the constitution of star constelletions, occurance of Solar and
Lunar eclipses, effects of the planetary motion on earth and human beings, etc.
Nature has been found to speak in thousands of ways and the Bharateeya Rishis from the earliest
times have learnt to hear and understand nature’s language.
All the knowledge discussed by Varaha Mihira in Bruhat-Samhita may or may not hold
ground from the view point of modern Sciences and Scientists, but the whole book is an attempt to
interpret the language of the nature as understood by the Bharateeya Rishis (Indian sages) and
ascertain its bearing on the humans. The relation of humnas to the cosmos and nature is elaborated
in our classical texts.
Vastuguna Dipika
Vastuguna Dipika is a Nighantu (dictionary) Grantha (book) written in Telugu language on
Ayurvedic drugs, diets and usage of certain substances like cloves for oral health, all the foregoing
written in an alphabetical order in Telugu language and it is a much popular book for more than a
century. Yerra Venkata Swamy (retired district Munsif) has authored and published it on 23rd June,
1883 A.D. It was a period when printing was introduced in India. This book was edited and
reprinted eight times by the successors of same "Yerra" family during the period of a century,
almost upto 1983.
The contents of the book have been slowly updated from edition to edition. Vastuguna
Dipika comprises of 1,148 pages on diverse topics arranged in lexical order on substances like
coffee, cabbage, the description of each substance or material has been elaborately dealt with from
the view point of Ayurveda. Certain vegetable bulbs and roots like Lasuna (garlic in English),
Haridra (Tumeric) also have been dealt very elaborately.
In this book several medicinal formulations are grouped according to action and indications.
Mineral drugs and medicinal preparations made from mercury and gold are also dealt in detail.
Along with the properties of drugs and the prescription of a proper diet, the properties and uses of
certain daily routines like bathing, sleeping, exercise etc are explained in the book. An alphabetical
index of diseases in English is found along with the alphabetical indices of drugs in English, Telugu
and Sanskrit languages.
Upanishads
The gist of Upanishads is that they are a collection of philosophical-religious texts that explore the
concepts of the Vedas, the central scriptures of Hinduism. The Upanishads are also known as
Vedanta, meaning "the conclusion of the Vedas", because they complete and interpret the Vedic
teachings. The Upanishads deal with the nature of the self (Atman) and its relation to the ultimate
reality (“Brahman”), which is the source and essence of everything. The Upanishads teach that one
can attain liberation (Moksha) from the cycle of birth and death by realizing one's own true identity
as “Brahman”. The Upanishads are composed of dialogues between teachers and seekers, who ask
questions and receive answers about the spiritual truths. In the days of yore, the teacher used to take
his place usually under a tree in his hermitage, with his students sitting in front of him. The words
“upa” and “nishad” literally mean sitting near the teacher when taken together. There are about 200
Upanishads in total, but the most well-known are the 10 upanishads that are obtained from the four
Vedas. The Upanishads are considered to be among the oldest and most influential texts of
Hinduism (sanathana-dharma) and they also influenced other religions such as Buddhism and
Jainism.
Vedic mantras are the oldest extant record from India of the processes by which the human
mind has established its relation with the various gods and goddesses, with underlying deep
psychological processes leading to profound cosmological concepts. The essence of vedas is that an
individual is interconnected with the various aspects of nature and is related to the cosmos in a
spiritual sense. The human mind of the rishis delved deep into the origin and the purpose of an
individual’s life cycle and related it to his/her ancestors. Worship of nature in all its glory and
veneration of the creative force i.e “prakruti” is found to be intertwined in all the essential religious
practices, rituals and customs.
The Upanishads contain one of the first conceptions of a universal, all-pervading, spiritual
reality leading to a radical monism (absolute non-dualism, or the essential unity of matter and
spirit). Upanishads also contain the understanding by Indian philosophers about nature, life, mind,
and the human body, not to speak of ethics and social philosophy. The darshanas known as classical
systems debate, sometimes with penetrating insight, such matters as the status of the finite
individual; the distinction as well as the relation between the body, mind, and the self; the nature of
knowledge and the types of valid knowledge; the nature and origin of truth; the types of entities that
may be said to exist; the relation of realism to idealism; the problem of whether the visible universe
is related to the self, such are the basic questions raised and the very important problem of moksha,
or liberation (literally “release”), its nature and the paths leading up to it. All the foregoing ideas
reflect a particular concept from the darshanas taken one at a time.
Comparision of Western and Indian Philosophical thinking

There is, in relation to Western thought, a striking difference in the manner in which Indian
philosophical thinking is presented as well as in the mode in which it historically developed. Out of
the Vedic mantras and the Upanishads, many diverse philosophical ideas current in the pre-
Buddhistic era, there emerged with the rise of the age of the sutras (aphoristic summaries of the
main points of a system) a neat classification of systems (darshanas), a classification that was never
to be contradicted and to which no further systems are added or necessary. No new school was
founded, no new darshana came into existence. But this conformism, like conformism to the Vedas,
did not check the rise of independent thinking, new innovations, or original insights. There is,
apparently, an underlying assumption in the Indian tradition that no individual can claim to have
seen the truth for the first time and, therefore, that an individual can only explicate, state, and defend
in a new form a truth that has been seen, stated, and defended by countless others before him, hence
the tradition of expounding one‘s thoughts by affiliating oneself to one of the darshanas.
Indian philosophy offers both surprising points of affinity and illuminating differences. The
differences highlight certain fundamentally new questions that the Indian philosophers asked. The
similarities reveal that, even when philosophers in India and the West were grappling with the same
problems and sometimes even suggesting similar theories, Indian thinkers were advancing novel
formulations and argumentations. Problems that the Indian philosophers raised for consideration,
but that their Western counterparts never did, include such matters as the origin (“utpatti”)
and comprehension (“gnapti”) of truth (“pramanya”).
Indian thought, therefore, provides the historians of Western philosophy with a point of view that
may enrich the knowledge gained from Western thought with Indic ideas. A study of Indian
thought, then, reveals certain inadequacies of Western philosophical thought and makes clear that
some concepts and distinctions may not be as inevitable as they may otherwise seem in western
world view. In a similar manner, knowledge of Western thought gained by Indian philosophers has
also been advantageous to the Indians. (Elaborate with specific examples atleast 2)
Western understanding of Indian Philosophy

There are many famous comments by prominent people from the west on Vedic literature or
sanatana dharma, based on which we can have some undersatanding as to what the west
comprehended as the gist of the Indian Philosophy.
J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904 – 1967) was an American theoretical physicist, best known for his
role as the scientific director of the Manhattan Project, the World War II effort to develop the first
nuclear weapons.
Oppenheimer learned Sanskrit so he could read the Bhagavad Gita in its original form. After
witnessing the first successful nuclear explosion at the Trinity test site in Los Alamos New Mexico
(which took place on 16 July, 1945) Oppenheimer remarked later that it brought to his mind words
from the Bhagavad Gita: “Now I become Death, the destroyer of worlds” (chapter 11, verse 32).
While he was giving a lecture at Rochester University, during the question and answer period
a student asked a question to which Oppenheimer gave a strangely qualified answer:
Student: "Was the bomb exploded at Alamogordo during the Manhattan Project the first one to be
detonated?"
Dr. Oppenheimer: “Well — yes. In modern times, of course."
Some people suggest that Oppenheimer was referring to the brahmastra weapon mentioned in the
Mahabharata.
The appreciation didn’t stop there. So much so he always gave the book (Bhagavad Gita) as a
present to his friends and kept a copy on the shelf closest to his desk. At Franklin Roosevelt’s
funeral he read a passage from the Gita, chapter 17 verse 3 “Man is a creature whose substance is
faith, what his faith is, he is”. In 1963, the Christian Magazine asked him to list his 10 most
influential books, he chose the Bhagavad Gita as one of them.
He believed Western thought needed to borrow ideas from Indian philosophy with great care.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955), the renowned physicist and Nobel laureate, said:"When I read the
Bhagavad-Gita and reflect about how God created this universe everything else seems so
superfluous". One more quotation attributed to him is that “Indians taught the world how to count”.
Hindus were already solving complex mathematical equations like quadratic equations when
westerners were struggling to find the solutions to such type of mathematical problems. Especially
the concept of zero (“shunya” in sanskrith) helped in solving certain types of mathematical
equations.
Mark Twain, the celebrated American writer and humorist, said: "India is the cradle of the human
race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend, and the
great grandmother of tradition. Our most valuable and most instructive materials in the history of
man are treasured up in India only". He also said: "So far as I am able to judge, nothing has been
left undone, either by man or nature, to make India the most extraordinary country that the sun visits
on his rounds. Nothing seems to have been forgotten, nothing overlooked".
Aldous Huxley, the famous English novelist and philosopher, said: "The Bhagavad-Gita is the most
systematic statement of spiritual evolution of endowing value to mankind. It is one of the most clear
and comprehensive summaries of perennial philosophy ever revealed; hence its enduring value is
subject not only to India but to all of humanity". He also said: "The perennial philosophy is
expressed most succinctly in the Sanskrit formula, tat tvam asi ('That art thou'); the Atman, or
immanent eternal Self, is one with Brahman, the Absolute Principle of all existence; and the last end
of every human being is to discover the fact for himself, to find out who he really is".
Henry David Thoreau, the influential American author and transcendentalist, said: "In the morning
I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita in
comparison with which our modern world and its literature seems puny and trivial". He also said:
"Whenever I have read any part of the Vedas, I have felt that some unearthly and unknown light
illuminated me. In the great teaching of the Vedas, there is no touch of sectarianism. It is of all ages,
climbs, and nationalities and is the royal road for the attainment of the Great Knowledge".
Ralph Waldo Emerson, another prominent American author and transcendentalist, said: "I owed a
magnificent day to the Bhagavad-Gita. It was as if an empire spoke to us, nothing small or
unworthy, but large, serene, consistent, the voice of an old intelligence which in another age and
climate had pondered and thus disposed of the same questions which exercise us". He also said:
"The Vedas contain a sensible account of God".
German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. An ardent student of the Upanishads, Schopenhauer

had declared, “In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and as elevating as that of the
Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life. It will be the solace of my death.”
Erwin Schrodinger was moved by the Upanishads. He discussed it with everyone he met and made
determined efforts to incorporate it in his life. Schrödinger was fascinated by the thoughts expressed
in Isha Upanishad which states, “The Brahman forms everything that is living or non-living. The
wise man knows that all beings are identical with his self, and his self is the self of all beings”.
According to Subhash Kak’s book The Wishing Tree (2008), Schrödinger named his dog Atman,
and his conference talks would, by one account, often end with the statement ‘Atman=Brahman’,
that he would call ,somewhat self-aggrandisingly, the second Schrödinger’s equation.
The epitaph on his tombstone reads, “So all Being is a one and only being; and that it continues to
be when someone dies; [this] tells you, that he did not cease to be.”
Niels Bohr had famously said, “I go to the Upanishad to ask questions”. In The Tao of
Physics (1975), Fritj of Capra wrote of the time Heisenberg met Rabindranath Tagore, and that the
“introduction to Indian thought brought Heisenberg great comfort.”
According to Scott Montgomery, the Siddhanta tradition at the foundation of Hindu calendars
predates the Christian era, once there were 18 texts of which only 5 have survived into the modern
era. These texts provide specific information and formulae on motions of sun, moon and planets, to
predict their future relative positions, equinoxes, rise and set, with corrections for prograde,
retrograde motions, as well as parallax. These ancient scholars attempted to calculate the time to the
accuracy of a truti (1 truti = 29.63 microseconds). In their pursuit of accurate tracking of relative
movements of celestial bodies for their calendar, ancient Hindus computed the mean diameter of the
earth, which was very close to the actual 12,742 km (7,918 mi).
Carl Sagan wrote in his book cosmos “A millennium before Europeans were willing to divest
themselves of the Biblical idea that the world was a few thousand years old, the Mayans were
thinking of millions and the Hindus billions.” [Carl Sagan, Cosmos, pg 213-214]
David Frawley on yoga: “yoga is not a new path to follow but a way to become concisous of the
original impetus of life. Yoga is the movement and evolution of life itself.”
REFORM MOVEMENTS IN MODERN INDIA

COMMON CHARECTERISTICS OF RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM
MOVEMENTS:
From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars started the study of ancient
India’s history, philosophy, science, religions and literature. This growing knowledge of India’s past
glory provided to the Indian people a sense of pride in their civilization. It also helped the reformers
in their work of religious and social reform for their struggle against all type of inhuman practices,
superstitions etc. Since they had become associated with religious beliefs, therefore most of the
movements of social reform were of a religious character. These social and religious reform
movements arose among all communities of the Indian people. They attacked bigotry, superstition
and the hold of the priestly class. They worked for abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah
system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities and illiteracy. Some of these reformers were
supported directly or indirectly by the British officials and some of the reformers also supported
reformative steps and regulations framed by the British Government.
THE BHAKTHI MOVEMENT

The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh and twelfth
centuries. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars
(devotees of Vishnu). These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving
bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper. They wrote in local languages,
Tamil and Telugu and were therefore able to reach out to many people. In course of time, the ideas
of the South moved up to the North but it was a very slowprocess. Sanskrit, which was still the
vehicle of thought, was given a new form.Thus, we find that the Bhagavata Purana of ninth century
was not written in the old Puranic form. Centered on Krishna’s childhood and youth, this work uses
Krishna’s exploits to explain deep philosophy in simple terms. This work became a turning point in
the history of the Vaishnavite movement which was an important component of the Bhakti
movement. A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the use of local
languages. The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They also translated Sanskrit
works to make them understandable to a wider audience. Thus, we find Jnanadeva writing in
Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradeva popularising Assamese, Chaitanya and
Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani. In addition,
devotional poetry was composed in Kashmiri, Telugu, Kannad, Oriya, Malayalam, Maithili and
Gujarati.
The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They made no distinction of
caste, creed or religion before God. They themselves came from diverse backgrounds. Ramananda,
whose disciples included Hindus and Muslims, came from a conservative Brahman family. His
disciple, Kabir, was a weaver. Guru Nanak was a village accountant’s son. Namdev was a tailor.
The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked institutionalised religion. The
saints did not confine themselves to purely religious ideas. They advocated social reforms too. They
opposed sati and female infanticide. Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of
Kashmir) composed verses that are popular even today.
Amongst the non-sectarian Bhakti saints, outstanding contribution was made by Kabir and
Guru Nanak. Their ideas were drawn from both Hindu and Islamic traditions and were aimed at
bridging the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims. Let us read in some detail about them.
Kabir (1440-1518) is said to have been the son of a Brahman widow, who abandoned him. He was
brought up in the house of a Muslim weaver. Kabir believed that the way to God was through
personally experienced bhakti or devotion. He believed that the Creator is one. His God was called
by many names - Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc. No wonder then that the
Muslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta and the Sikhs incorporate his songs
in the Adi Granth. The external aspects of religion were meaningless for Kabir. His beliefs and
ideas were reflected in the dohas (Sakhi) composed by him. One of his dohas conveyed that if by
worshipping a stone (idol) one could attain God, then he was willing to worship a mountain. It was
better to worship a stone flour-grinder because that could at least fill stomachs.
Kabir emphasised simplicity in religion and said that bhakti was the easiest way to attain
God. He refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without prior reasoning. For him, a man
could not achieve success without hard work. He advocated performance of action rather than
renunciation of duty. Kabir’s belief in the unity of God led both Hindus and Muslims to become his
disciples.
Kabir’s ideas were not restricted to religion. He attempted to change the narrow thinking of
society. His poetry was forceful and direct. It was easily understood and much of it has passed into
our everyday language.
Another great exponent of the Nankanaschool was Guru Nanak (1469-1539). He was born at
Talwandi (Nakana Sahib). From an early age, he showed leanings towards a spiritual life. He was
helpful to the poor and needy. His disciples called themselves Sikhs (derived from Sanskrit sisya,
disciple or Pali sikkha, instruction).
Guru Nanak’s personality combined in itself simplicity and peacefulness. Guru Nanak’s
objective was to remove the existing corruption and degrading practices in society. He showed a
new path for the establishment of an egalitarian social order. Like Kabir, Guru Nanak was as much
a social reformer as he was a religious teacher. He called for an improvement in the status of
women. He said that women who give birth to kings should not be spoken ill of. His vani (words)
alongwith those of other Sikh Gurus have been brought together in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy
book of the Sikhs.
The Vaishnavite Movement

You have read that the saints such as Kabir, Namdev and Guru Nanak had preached devotion
toward anirankarform of God. During this period, another movement based upon devotion towards a
sakarform of God had also developed. This movement, called the Vaishnavite movement, centered
on the worship of Rama and Krishna, who were seen as incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. Its
main exponents were Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas and Chaitanya. Their path to salvation was
expressed through the medium of poetry, song, dance and kirtans.
Surdas (1483-1563) was a disciple of the famous teacher, Vallabhachara. He was a blind
poet, whose songs are centered on Krishna. His Sursagarrecounts the exploits of Krishna during his
childhood and youth with gentle affection and delightfulness.
The love for Krishna was also expressed through the songs of Mirabai (l503-73). Widowed at
an early age, she believed in a spiritual marriage with her Lord. Her poems have a quality of their
own and are popular even today.
The Vaishnavite movement spread in the east through the efforts of Chaitanya (1484- 1533).
Chaitanya considered Krishna not as a mere incarnation of Vishnu but as the highest form of God.
The devotion for Krishna was expressed through Sankirtans (hymn session by devotees) which took
place in homes, temples and even street processions. Like other Bhakti saints, Chaitanya too was
willing to welcome everyone, irrespective of caste, into the fold. The saints thus promoted a sense
of equality amongst the people.
The worship of Rama was popularised by saints like Ramananda (1400-1470). He considered
Rama as the supreme God. Women and outcastes were welcomed. The most famous of the Rama
bhaktas was Tulsidas (l532-1623) who wrote the Ramacharitmanas.
The Vaishnavite saints developed their philosophy within the broad framework of Hinduism.
They called for reforms in religion and love amongst fellow beings. Their philosophy was broadly
humanist.
The Importance of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements.

You will recall that the Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed
religious bigotry and social rigidities. It emphasised good character and pure thinking. At a time
when society had become stagnant, the Bhakti saints infused new life and strength. They awakened
a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine social and religious values. Saints like Kabir
and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society along egalitarian lines. Their call to social
equality attracted many a downtrodden. Although Kabir and Nanak had no intention of founding
new religions but following their deaths, their supporters grouped together as Kabir panthisand
Sikhs respectively.
The Sufis
Contrary to the ulemas were the Sufis. The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who were
shocked at the degeneration in political and religious life. They opposed the vulgar display of wealth
in public life and the readiness of the ulema to serve “ungodly” rulers. Many began to lead a retired
ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state. The Sufi philosophy also differed from the ulema.
The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas. They were against formal worship,
rigidity and fanaticism in religion. The Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve religious
satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and service of
humanity. In course of time, the Sufis were divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah
having its own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his disciples lived in a khanqah
(hospice). A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his work.
The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy. Basra in Iraq became
the centre of Sufi activities. It must be noted that the Sufi saints were not setting up a new religion,
but were preparing a more liberal movement within the framework of Islam. They owed their
allegiance to the Quran as much as the ulemas did.
Sufism in India
The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. One of the early
Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly known as
Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure). In the beginning, the main centres of the Sufis
were Multan and Punjab. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Sufis had spread to
Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan. It may be mentioned that Sufism had already taken on a
definite form before coming to India. Its fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders,
system of fasting, prayers and practice of living in khanqahs had already been fixed. The Sufis came
to India via Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and
service to humanity made them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.
Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilahsof the Sufis. However, in
this lesson we shall outline only some of the important ones. These silsilahs were divided into two
types: Ba-sharaand Be-shara. Ba-sharawere those orders that followed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and
its directives such as namaz and roza. Chief amongst these were the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi,
Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs. The beshara silsilahs were not bound by the Sharia. The Qalandars
belonged to this group.
The Chishti Silsilah

In India, the Chishti silsilahwas founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (born c.1142) who came to
India around 1192. He made Ajmer the main centre for his teaching. He believed that serving
mankind was the best form of devotion and therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden. He died
in Ajmer in 1236. During Mughal times, Ajmer became a leading pilgrim centre because the
emperors regularly visited the Sheikh’s tomb. The extent of his popularity can be seen by the fact
that even today, millions of Muslims and Hindus visit his dargah for fufilment of their wishes.
Among his disciples were Sheikh Hamiduddin of Nagaur and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The
former lived the life of a poor peasant, cultivated land and refused Iltutmish’s offer of a grant of
villages. The khanqah of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was also visited by people from all walks of
life. Sultan Iltutmish dedicated the Qutub Minar to this Saint. Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan (Pattan
in Pakistan) popularised the Chishti silsilahin modern Haryana and Punjab. He opened his door of
love and generosity to all. Baba Farid, as he was called, was respected by both Hindus and Muslims.
His verses, written in Punjabi, are quoted in the Adi Granth.
Baba Farid’s most famous disciple Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) was responsible
for making Delhi an important centre of the Chishti silsilah. He came to Delhi in 1259 and during
his sixty years in Delhi, he saw the reign of seven sultans. He preferred to shun the company of
rulers and nobles and kept aloof from the state. For him renunciation meant distribution of food and
clothes to the poor. Amongst his followers was the noted writer Amir Khusrau.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah

This silsilahwas founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. It was established in India by Sheikh
Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He set up a leading khanqahin Multan, which was visited by
rulers, high government officials and rich merchants. Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya openly took
Iltutmisht’s side in his struggle against Qabacha and received from him the title Shaikhul Islam
(Leader of Islam). It must be noted that unlike the Chishti saints, the Suhrawardis maintained close
contacts with the state. They accepted gifts, jagirs and even government posts in the ecclesiastical
department. The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind. Besides these two
silsilahs there were others such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah, and
Naqshbandi Silsilah.
IMPORTANCE OF THE SUFI MOVEMENT

The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti saints who were
engaged in breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a new liberal outlook
within Islam. The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation for more
liberal movements of the fifteenth century. You will read that Sant Kabir and Guru Nanak had
preached a non-sectarian religion based on universal love. The Sufis believed in the concept of
Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being) which was promoted by Ibn-i-Arabi (l165-1240). He opined that
all beings are essentially one. Different religions were identical. This doctrine gained popularity in
India. There was also much exchange of ideas between the Sufis and Indian yogis. In fact the hatha-
yogatreatise Amrita Kundawas translated into Arabic and Persian.
A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden sections of
society. While the Sultan and ulema often remained aloof from the day-to-day problems of the
people, the Sufi saints’ maintained close contact with the common people.
Nizamuddin Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of
religion or caste. It is said that he did not rest till he had heard every visitor at the khanqah.
According to the Sufis, the highest form of devotion to God was the service of mankind. They
treated Hindus and Muslims alike. Amir Khusrau said “Though the Hindu is not like me in religion,
he believes in the same things that I do”.
The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. In fact, The Islamic emphasis
upon equality was respected far more by the Sufis than by the ulema. The doctrines of the Sufis
were attacked by the orthodoxy. The Sufis also denounced the ulema. They believed that the
ulemahad succumbed to world by temptations and were moving away from the original democratic
and egalitarian principles of the Quran. This battle between the orthodox and liberal elements
continued throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Sufi saints tried to
bring about social reforms too.
Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth of a rich regional
literature. Most of the Sufi saints were poets who chose to write in local languages. Baba Farid
recommended the use of Punjabi for religious writings. Shaikh Hamiduddin, before him, wrote in
Hindawi. His verses are the best examples of early Hindawi translation of Persian mystical poetry.
Syed GesuDaraz was the first writer of Deccani Hindi. He found Hindi more expressive than
Persian to explain mysticism. A number of Sufi works were also written in Bengali.
The most notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrau (l 252-1325) the follower of
Nizamuddin Auliya. Khusrau took pride in being an Indian and looked at the history and culture of
Hindustan as a part of his own tradition. He wrote verses in Hindi (Hindawi) and employed the
Persian metre in Hindi. He created a new style called sabaq-i-hindi. By the fifteenth century Hindi
had begun to assume a definite shape and Bhakti saints such as Kabir used it extensively.
Importance of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements

The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by them, which
continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even in later centuries. Akbar’s
liberal ideas were a product of this atmosphere in which he was born and brought up. The
interaction between the Bhakti and Sufi saints had an impact upon Indian society. The Sufi theory of
Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was remarkably similar to that in the Hindu Upanishads. Many
Sufi poet-saints preferred to use Hindi terms rather than Persian verses to explain concepts. Thus,
we find Sufi poets such as Malik Muhamniad Jaisi composing works in Hindi. The use of terms
such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna, Ganga etc. became so common in such literature that an
eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid wrote a treatise Haqaiq-i-Hïndito explain their Islamic equivalents.
The popular verses and songs of the Bhakti saints also served as forerunners of a musical
renaissance. New musical compositions were written for the purpose of group singing at kirtans.
Even today Mira’s bhajansand Tulsidas’s chaupaisare recited at prayer meetings.
RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY (1772 - 1833) AND BRAHMO SAMAJ

Men and women enjoy certain rights and freedom today. But do you know that they were given to
us by the untiring efforts made by certain reformers. Among the great reformers of this period, Raja
Rammohan Roy deserves special mention. He presented a fine combination of East and the West. A
man of great literary talent and well versed in Indian culture, he also made special effort to study
Christianity and Islam so that he could deal with them with understanding. He felt great revulsion
for many practices prevailing in India that enjoyed religious approval.
His main pre-occupation was how to rid the Hindu religion of both image worship, sacrificial
rites and other meaningless rituals. He condemned the priestly class for encouraging these practices.
He opined that all the principal ancient texts of the Hindus preached monotheism or worship of one
God. His greatest achievement in the field of relisious reforms was setting up of the Brahmo Samaj
in the year 1828. The Brahmo Samaj was an important organization of religious reforms. It forbade
idol-worship and discarded meaningless rites and rituals. The Samaj also forbade its members from
attacking any religion. It believed in the basic unity of all the religions. Raja Rammohan Roy
believed that man should adopt truth and goodness and should give up things which are based on
falsehood and superstition.
Raja Rammohan Roy was not merely a religious reformer but a social reformer also. His
greatest achievement was the abolition of Sati in 1929. Raja Rammohan Roy realized that the
practice of Sati was due to the extremely low position of Hindu women. Therefore, he started
working as a stout champion of women’s rights. He worked very hard for years to stop this practice
of ‘Sati’. In the early 1818 he set out to rouse public opinion on the question of Sati. On the one
hand he showed by citing the authority of the oldest sacred books that the Hindu religion at its best
was opposed to the practice and on the other, he appealed to reason and humanity and compassion
of the people. He visited the burining ghats of Calcutta to try and persuade the relatives of widows
to give up their plan of selfimmolation. His campaign against Sati aroused the opposition of the
orthodox Hindus who bitterly attacked him.
Raja Rammohan Roy was also deeply opposed to the caste system that prevailed in Indian
society. A humanist and democrat to the core, he wrote and talked against the caste system. Another
important area that concerned him was Hindu theology. Study of the Vedas and Upanishads gave
him ground to show that monotheism was the original Hindu belief and hence he denounced
polytheism and idolatry. Infact the philosopher did not insist on the creation of a new religion but
merely endeavoured to ‘purify’ the Vedic religion from the crude and most ignorant superstitions.
He proclaimed that there is only one God for all religions and for all humanity. He wrote in Bengali
and English. He was an ardent promoter of English education. He was also well versed in the
Persian language and some of his most liberal and rational ideas were expressed in his early writings
in that language.
He advocated the abolition of polygamy (a practice of man having more than one wife) and
child marriage. He wanted women to be educated and given the right to inherit property. He
condemned the subjugation of women and opposed the prevailing ideas that women were inferior to
men in intellect or in a moral sense. He advocated the rights of widows to remarry.
To bring his ideas into practice, Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha in 1828 which
later came to be known as Brahmo Samaj. It was open to all persons regardless of their colour,
convictions, caste, nationality, and religion. It emphasised human dignity, opposed idol worship and
condemned social evils like sati pratha. It was not meant to be a separate religious sect but only a
place where all those who believed in one true God could meet and pray. No images were allowed
and no sacrifices and offerings permitted.
Debendra Nath Tagore (l817-1905), the son of Dwarkanath Tagore, founder member of
Brahmo Samaj, succeeded Raja Rammohan Roy as the leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He put new life
in the Samaj and propagated Raja Rammohan Roy’s ideas. Keshub Chandra Sen (l838-1884) took
over the leadership of the Samaj from Tagore. The Brahmo Samaj stood for the principles of
individual freedom, national unity, solidarity and collaboration and the democratisation of all social
institutions and relations. It thus became the first organised vehicle for the expression of national
awakening and inaugurated a new era for the people of India. However, the Brahmo Samaj was
weakened by internal dissensions and its influence remained confined to urban educated groups. But
it left its impact on the intellectual, social and political life of Bengal.
SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI (1824-1883) AND ARYA SAMAJ

Attend a meeting of the Arya Samaj any day. You will find many women attending it. They are also
performing yajana and reading the scriptures. This was the basic contribution of Mool Shanker an
important representative of the religions reform movement in India from Gujarat. He later came to
be known as Dayanand Saraswati (l824-1883). He founded the Arya Samaj in 1875.
The most influential movement of religious and social reform in northern India was started
by Dayanand Saraswari. He held that the Vedas contained all the knowledge imparted to man by
God and essentials of modern science could also be traced in them. He was opposed to idolatry,
ritual and priesthood, particularly to the prevalent caste practices and popular Hinduism as preached
by the Brahmins. He favoured the study of western science. With all this doctrine, he went about all
over the country and in 1875 founded the Arya Samaj in Bombay.
Satyarth Prakash was his most important book. The use of Hindi in his writings and
preachings made his ideas accessible to the common people of northern India. Arya Samajis
opposed child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. It made rapid progress in Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
A Network of schools and colleges for boys and girls was established throughout northern
India to promote the spread of education. Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School of Lahore, which soon
developed into a premier college of Punjab, set the pattern for such institutions. Instruction was
imparted through Hindi and English on modern lines. Lala Hansraj played a leading role in this
field. In 1902, Swami Shradhananda started the Gurukul near Hardwar to propagate the more
traditional ideas of education. This was set up on the pattern of ancient Ashrams.
Arya Samaj tried to inculcate the spirit of self-respect and self-reliance among the people of
India. This promoted nationalism. At the same time one of its main objectives was to prevent the
conversion of Hindus to other religions. It also prescribed a purificatory ceremony calldsuddhi for
those Hindus who had been converted to other religions like Islam and Christianity.
THE RAMAKRISHNA MISSION AND SWAMI VIVEKANANDA (1863-1902)

GadadharChattopadhyaya (l836-86) was a poor Brahmin priest who later came to be known as
Ramakrishna Paramahansa: His education did not proceed beyond the elementary stage and he had
no formal education in philosophy and Shastras. He dedicated his life to God. He believed that there
were many roads to God and the service of man was the service of God, because man was the
embodiment of God. Hence sectarianism had no place in his teachings. He realised the divinity in
humanity and looked upon the service of mankind as a means to salvation. Narendra Nath Datta
(l863-1902) later known as Swami Vivekananda was the most devoted pupil of Ramakrishna
Paramahansa who carried the message of his Guru Ramakrishna all over the world, especially in
America and Europe.
Vivekananda was proud of India’s spiritual heritage, but he believed that no individual or
nation can live by holding himself or itself apart from the community of others. He condemned the
caste system, rigid rituals, century old superstitions and advocated liberty, free thinking and
equality. Vivekananda was indeed, a patriot from the core of his heart. He had tremendous faith in
the evolution of Indian culture and an intense zeal to revive all that was good and great in her
culture so as to serve her in all possible ways for her onward march.
Swami Vivekananda laid stress on Ramakrishna’s teaching on the essential oneness of all
religions. He promoted the Vedanta philosophy which he considered the most rational system.
The principal feature of Vivekananda’s social philosophy was his insistence on the
upliftment of the masses. For him, service to the poor and downtrodden was the highest religion. To
organise such service, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897. This Mission to date has
played an important role in providing social service in times of national distress like famine, floods,
and epidemic. Many schools, hospitals, orphanages are run by it.
In 1893 he participated in the World Religious Conference (Parliament of Religions) at
Chicago in the United States of America. He argued that Vedanta was the religion of all and not of
the Hindus alone. His address there made a deep impression on the people of other countries and
thus helped to raise the prestige of Indian culture in the eyes of the world. Though his mission was
mainly of religious nature, he was keenly interested in the improvement of all aspects of national
life. He expressed his concern for the miserable and poor conditions of the people and said that
neglect of the masses is a sin. He frankly stated, “It is we who are responsible for all our misery and
all our degradation.” He urged his countrymen to work for their own salvation. For this purpose
bands of workers devoted to this cause were trained through the Ramakrishan Mission. Thus,
Vivekananda emphasized social good or social services.
OTHER REFORMERS
Bal Shastri Jambekar was one of the first reformers in Bombay. He attacked Brahmanical orthodoxy
and tried to reform popular Hinduism. In 1849, the Parmahansa Mandali was founded in Poona,
Satara and other towns of Maharashtra. Its followers had faith in one God and they opposed caste
system. At its meetings, members took food cooked by low-caste people. They favoured education
of women and supported widow remarriage.
KandukuriVeeresalingam (1848-1919) pioneered the movement in support of widow remarriage
and girls’ education in Andhra. Veda Samaj founded in Madras in 1864 advocated discarding of
caste distinctions and promotion of widow remarriage and women’s education. It condemned the
superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism and propagated belief in one supreme God.
An important movement particularly significant for the emancipation of the so-called backward and
oppressed sections of Indian society was started by Shree Narayana Guru (1854-1928) in Kerala. In
1903 he founded the Shree narayana Dharma ParipalanaYogam (SNDP) to carry on the work of
social reform. Shree Narayana Guru considered differences based on caste and religion as
meaningless and advocated what he called ‘One Caste, one Religion and on God’ for all.
ALIGARH MOVEMENT AND SAYYID AHMAD KHAN

The most notable of the Muslim reformers was Sayyid Ahmed of Rai Bareilly, in Uttar Pradesh. He
attracted the Muslim artisans of the declining weaving towns of Allahabad and Patna finding a
ready audience and giving the common people dignity and an identity through a common faith at a
time of social dislocation. He realised that unless the Muslims adapted themselves to the changed
circumstances of British rule, they would be deprived of all new opportunities for status and
prosperity. He was highly impressed by modern scientific thought and worked all his life to
reconcile it with Islam. He interpreted the Quran in the light of rationalism and science. He
urged the people to develop a critical approach and freedom of thought. He also warned against
fanaticism, narrow-mindedness and exclusiveness. He asked the people to be broadminded and
tolerant. In 1883 he said: “Now both of us (Hindus and Muslims) live on the air of India, drink the
holy waters of the Ganga and Jamuna. We both feed upon the products of the Indian soil… we are a
nation and the progress and welfare of the country, and both of us, depend on our unity, mutual
sympathy, and love, while our mutual disagreement, obstinacy and opposition and illfeeling are sure
to destroy us”.
Syed Ahmed Khan rightly felt that isolation would harm the Muslim community and to prevent that
he did his best to create a link with the progressive cultural forces of the outside world. He worked
hard to remove the hostility of the British rulers towards the Muslims whom they considered as their
real enemies.
He felt that the religious and social life of the Muslims could be improved only with the help of
modem Western scientific knowledge and culture. Therefore, promotion of modern education was
the first task. As an official, he founded schools at many places. He got many Western books
translated into Urdu. He started the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 at Aligarh. It
was meant to be a centre for spreading Western sciences and culture. Later, this college grew into
the Aligarh Muslim University.
The liberal, social and cultural movement started by Sayyid Ahmad Khan among the
Muslims is known as the Aligarh Movement as it originated in Aligarh. The Anglo-Oriental College
was the centre of this movement. It aimed at promoting modern education among Muslims without
weakening the ties with Islam. It became the central educational institution for Indian Muslims.
The Aligarh Movement was largely responsible for the Muslim revival that followed. It
provided a focal point for the scattered Muslim population in different parts of the country. It gave
them a common fund of ideas and a common language - Urdu. A Muslim press was developed for
the compilation of works in Urdu.
Sayyid Ahmad’s efforts extended to the social sphere as well. He worked for social reforms.
He wanted women to be educated and advocated the removal of the purdah. He was also against
polygamy.
REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG PARSIS
Religious reform began among the Parsis in Mumbai in the middle of the 19th century. In 1851, the
Rehnumai Maz’dayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was founded by Nauroji Furdonji,
Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee and others. They started a journal Rast Goftar, for the purpose of
social-religious reforms among the Parsis. They also played an important role in the spread of
education, especially among girls. They campaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in the
religious field and initiated the modernization of Parsi social customs regarding the education of
girls, marriage and the social position of women in general. In course of time, the Parsis became
socially the most westernized section of Indian society.
Jyotirao Phule
Jyotirao Phule was a social reformer, thinker and social activist who was born in 1827 in Katgun,
Satara District, Maharashtra. He was the first person in modern India to launch a movement for the
liberation of caste-oppressed toilers and women irrespective of the caste. He was educated at a
Marathi school, with a three-year break at a mission school in Poona. In 1848 Phule began his work
as a social reformer interested in the education of low caste boys and girls, he started a school for
girls of low and untouchable castes. Savitribai Phule, Jyotiba’s wife, backed his efforts to guarantee
women and girls the right to an education. Savitribai, one of the few literate women of her day,
learned to read and write from her husband Jyotirao. Jyotiba founded a ladies’ school in 1851 and
invited his wife to instruct the students there. Later, he established two additional schools for girls
as well as an indigenous school for people from lower castes, namely the Mahars and Mangs.
He was the founder of Satyashodak Samaj which was devoted to secure social justice and human
rights of low-caste people. In 1888, Vithalrao Krishnaji Vandekar had bestowed Jyotirao Phule with
an honorific Mahatma title, meaning ‘venerable’ or ‘great-souled’. He is credited with founding the
first Hindu orphanage for unfortunate children and also worked against caste and gender
discrimination.
UNIT – 4
FINE ARTS IN INDIAN (ART, TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING)
Indian Painting, Indian handicrafts, Music, divisions of Indian classic music, modern Indian music,
Dance and Drama, Indian Architecture (ancient, medieval and modern), Science and Technology in
India, development of science in ancient, medieval and modern India.
Indian Painting
Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early times as is evident from the remains
that have been discovered in the caves, and the literary sources. The history of art and painting in
India begins with the pre-historic rock painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.) where we have drawings
and paintings of animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted
deer left drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had already appeared on the seals
of Harappan civilization. Both Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of various types and
techniques for example, Lepyachitras, lekhachitras, Dhulitchitras and Patachitra. The first was the
paintings wherein some paste like material is used, the second one was line drawing and painting on
textile while the third one was painting on the floor.
The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figures
in many royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.) mentions numerous paintings
or Patas. The 6th Century AD text on aesthetics-Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has mentioned painting
amongst 64 kinds of arts and says that it was based on scientific principles. The Vishnudharmottara
purana (7th century A.D.) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra which describes the six
organs of painting like variety of form, proportion, lustre and portryal of colour etc. Thus,
archaeology and literature testify to the flourishing of painting in India from pre-historic times. The
best specimens of Gupta paintings are the ones at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees,
flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka. Mural paintings are done on walls and rock
surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. 9 depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave
no. 10 Jataka stories are depicted. But the best paintings were done in the 5th – 6th centuries AD
during the Gupta age. The murals chiefly depict religious scenes from the life of the Buddha and the
Buddhist Jataka stories but we also have secular scene. Here we see the depiction of all aspects of
Indian life. We see princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads over their
shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, together with all the many beasts, birds and flowers of
India.
Materials used in the paintings

Different materials were used in different types of paintings. Mention of chitrashalas (art gallery)
and Shilpasashtra (technical treatises on art) have been made in literary sources. However, the
principal colours used were red ochre (dhaturaga), vivid red (kumkum or sindura), yellow ochre
(haritala), indigo (blue) lapis lazuli blue, lampblack (kajjala), chalk white (Khadi Mitti) terra verte
(gerumati) and green. All these colours were locally available except lapis lazuli which came from
Pakistan. Mixed colours e.g. grey were used on rare occasions. Use of colours were decided by the
theme and local atmosphere.
Remains of Buddhist paintings have also been found at the Buddhist caves at Bagh in the
North and at various Deccan and southern sites of sixth and ninth centuries. Though the theme of
these paintings is religious but in their inner meanings and spirit, nothing could be more secular,
courtly and sophisticated. Though only a small part remains of these paintings but they depict a
crowded world of Gods and goddesses semi divine being like kinnars and apsaras, a rich and varied
flora and fauna, gaiety, love, grace and charm. Example can be seen in cave 3 at Badami
(Karnataka), at temples of Kanchipuram, at Jain caves of Sittanavasal (Tamil Nadu) and the Kailasa
and Jain caves at Ellora (eighth and ninth centuries). Many other South Indian temples such as
Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur are decorated with wall paintings on themes from epics and
mythology. If Bagh, Ajanta and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and Deccan at
its best, Sittana Vassal, Kanchipuram, Malayadipatti and Tirunalaipuram show the extent of its
penetration in the south. The paintings of Sittanavasal (abode of the Jaina Siddhas) are connected
with Jaina themes while the other three are Saiva or Vaishnava in theme and inspiration. Despite
having a very traditionally secular design and theme the paintings of these times started showing the
impact of medieval influences i.e. flat and abstract surfaces on the one hand and linear and
somewhat angular designs on the other.
Art in Medieval India

During the period of Delhi Sultanate, mural painting has been reported from the royal palaces and
royal bed-chambers and mosques. These chiefly depict flowers, leaves and plants. During the time
of Iltutmish (1210-36) we have references of paintings. During the time of AlauddinKhalji (1296-
1316) we have mural painting, miniature painting (of illustrated manuscripts) and paintings on
cloths. During the Sultanate period, we notice the Persian and Arabic influences on Indian painting.
We have references of the coming of Persian and Arabic illustrated manuscripts from Iran and the
Arab world for the Muslim elites. During this period, we have paintings from other regional states.
The decorative paintings of the palace of the Gwalior king Man Singh Tomar impressed both Babur
and Akbar.
During 14th – 15th centuries A.D. miniature painting emerged as a powerful movement in
Gujarat and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and Eastern India because of the patronage of
rich Jain merchants. Mandu in M.P., Jaunpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal in Eastern India
were other great centres of manuscripts illustrated with paintings.
In Eastern India, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, during the Pala kingdom in the 9th – 10th
century A.D., a new kind of painting developed called the miniature painting. The miniature, as the
name suggests, were small works which were made on perishable materials. In this category,
Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm leaves. They resemble the Ajanta
style, but on a miniature scale. These were made on the request of the merchants, who donated them
to the temples and monasteries.
From the thirteenth century onwards, the Turkish Sultans of northern India brought with
them important features of Persian court culture. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries illustrated
manuscripts of Persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal, Delhi, Jaunpur, Gujarat and the
Deccan. The interaction of Indian painters with Persian traditions resulted in the synthesis of the
two styles evident in the works of the sixteenth century. During the early sultanate period,
significant contribution to the art of painting was made by the Jain community of Western India.
Illustrated manuscripts of Jain scriptures were presented to temple libraries. These manuscripts
depicted the lives and deeds of the Tirthankars. The art of textual illustration got a new look under
the Mughals. Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual
illustrations. From this period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as
the most vital form of art. Emperor Akbar patronised artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun
brought two Persian painters to his court. For the first time painters’ names were recorded in
inscriptions. Some great painters of this period were Abd-us-Samad Dasawanth and Basawan.
Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. Within a few years
anintegrated and dynamic style resulted from the synthesis of Persian and Indian style and the
independent style of Mughal painting was developed. Between 1562 and 1577 a series of nearly
1400 cloth paintings were produced representing the new style and were placed in the imperial
studio. Akbar also encouraged the art of making portraits.
The art of painting reached its heights during the period of Jahangir who himself was a great painter
and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use vibrant colours such as peacock blue and red and were
able to give three dimensional effects to paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das and Manohar were the most
gifted painters of Jahangir’s time. Mansur had made an outstanding portrait of the artist Abul Hasan
and specialised in paintings of birds and animals. Though Shah Jahan was more interested in
architectural splendours, his eldest son Dara Shikoh patronised painting like his gradfather. He
preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his painting. However, withdrawal of
royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in the
country. This helped in the development of the art of painting in Rajasthan and the Punjab
hillsgiving rise to distinct schools of paintings, for example, Rajasthani and Pahari Schools. These
works were painted on a small surface and were called miniature painting. They painted themes
drawn from epics, myths and legends. Other themes were Barahmasa (seasons) and Raga mala
(melodies). Miniature painting was also developed at local centres like Kangra, Kulu, Basoli, Guler,
Chamba, Garhwal, Bilaspur, and Jammu.
The rise of the Bhakti movement in India in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries also inspired
illustrative texts on the themes of Vaishnava devotional cults. In the pre-Mughal era mural paintings
on the walls of temples gained prominence in the northern part of India.
Art in the Modern Period

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries paintings comprised semi westernised local
styles which were patronised by British residents and visitors. Themes were generally drawn from
Indian social life, popular festivals, and Mughal monuments. These reflected the improvised
Mughal traditions. Shaikh Zia-ud-Din’s bird studies for Lady Impey and the portrait paintings of
Ghulam Ali Khan for William Fraser and Colonel Skinner are the examples of some excellent
paintings of this period.
In the later nineteenth century art schools on the European model were established in major
Indian cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore
depicting mythological and social themes became highly popular at this time.
Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell and Ananda Kehtish
Coomaraswamy played an important role in the emergence of the Bengal school of Art. The Bengal
School had a great flowering at Shantiniketan where Rabindranath Tagore set up the Kala Bhavan.
Talented artists like Nandalal Bose, Binod Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij rendered training
to aspiring artists. Nandalal often derived inspiration from Indian folk art and also from Japanese
painting while Binod Behari Mukerjee was deeply interested in oriental traditions. Jamini Roy,
another great painter of this period, drew inspiration from Qrissa’s patapainting and Kalighat
painting of Bengal. Amrita Shergil, a great painter received education in Paris and Budapest.
Considered a prodigy from a Sikh father and Hungarian mother, she painted on Indian themes in
bright colours especially Indian women and peasants. Though she died very young, she left behind a
rich legacy of Indian paintings.
Gradually some deeper changes took place in the thinking of the English educated urban
middle class which began to be reflected in the expressions of the artists. Increasing awareness
about British rule, ideals of nationalism and the desire for a national identity led to creations which
were distinct from earlier art traditions.
In 1943, during the period of the Second World War Calcutta painters led by Paritosh Sen,
Niroda Majumdar and Pradosh Dasgupta formed a group who depicted the condition of the people
of India through new visual language, and novel techniques.
Another significant development was the formation of the Progressive Artists Group in
Bombay in 1948 under Francis Newton Souza. The group also included S .H. Raza, M.F.Hussain,
K.M. Ara, S.K. Bakre and H.A. Gode. This group broke away from Bengal School of Art and
represented the modern forceful art of independent India.
In the 1970s artists began to critically survey their environment. Daily encounters with
poverty and corruption, the political morass of the country, the explosive communal tension, and
other urban issues became the themes or subject matter of their works.
The Madras School of Art under Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury and K.C.S Paniker emerged
as an important art centre in post independence period and influenced a new generation of modern
artists.
Some of the artists who made their mark as modern Indian artists are Tyeb Mehta, Satish Gujral,
Krishan Khanna, Manjit Bawa, K.G. Subramaniyan Ram Kumari, Anjolie Ela Menon, Akbar
Padamsee, Jatin Das, Jehangir Sabavala and A. Ramachandran.
Two government institutions have been set up to promote art, music etc in India. The National
Gallery of Modern Art has the largest collection of modern art under one roof. The second one is the
Lalit Kala Akademi which recognises and patronizes artists in all fields.
Decorative Art
The artistic expression of the Indian people is not limited to painting on canvas or paper only.
Decorative painting on walls of homes even in rural areas is a common sight. Rangoli or decorative
designs on floor are made for auspicious occasions and pujas whose stylised designs have been
passed on from one generation to the other. The designs are called rangoliin the North, alpanain
Bengal, aipanin Uttaranchal, rangavalli in Karnataka, Kollam in Tamilnadu and mandanain Madhya
Pradesh. Usually rice powder is used for these paintings but coloured powder or flower petals are
also used to make them more colourful. Adorning walls of houses and huts is also an old tradition.
The following are some of the examples of folk art of this kind.
Mithila Painting
Mithila painting also known as Madhubani folk art. It is the traditional art of the Mithila region of
Bihar. They are produced by village women who make three dimensional images using vegetable
colour with few earthen colours and finished in black lines on cow dung treated paper. These
pictures tell tales especially about Sita’s exile, Ram-Laxman’s forest life, or depict the images of
Lakshmi, Ganesha, Hanuman and others from Hindu mythology. Apart from these women also
paint celestial subjects like sun and moon. Tulsi, the holy plant also is to be found in these paintings.
They also show court scenes, wedding and social happenings. Drawings in Madhubani pictures are
very conceptual. First, the painter thinks and then she “draws her thought”. No pretence is there to
describe the figures accurately. Visually they are images that speak in lines and colours and are
drawn for some rituals or festivals on household and village walls to mark the seasonal festivals or
special events of the life cycle. Intricate flora, animal and birds motifs can also be found along with
geometrical designs to fill up the gap. In some cases it is a special practice for mothers to make
these art items in advance for their daughters as a marriage gift. These paintings also convey advice
on ways to lead a good married life. There is also a social variation in subjects and use of colours.
One can identify the community to which the painting belongs from the colours that are used in
them. Paintings made by the upper, more affluent classes are colourful while those made by the
lower caste people use red and black line work. But the technique of painting is safely and zealously
guarded by the women of the village to be passed on by the mother to the daughter.
Nowadays Madhubani art is being used as decorative gift items, greeting cards and has become a
source of income for local women folk.
Kalamkari Painting
The literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). This art got enriched as it came
down from one generation to another. These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh. It is hand
painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyes applied on cloth. Vegetable dyes are used for
colour in the Kalam Kari work. A small place Sri-Kalahasti is the best known centre of Kalamkari
art. This work is also found at Masaulipatnam in Andhra Pradesh. This art is mainly related to
decorating temple interiors with painted cloth panels, which was developed in the fifteenth century
under the patronage of Vijaynagar rulers. Subjects are adopted from the Ramayana, the
Mahabharata and Hindu religious mythology. This art form is a continuous legacy from father to
son. After deciding the subject of the painting, scène after scene is painted. Every scene is
surrounded by floral decorative patterns. These paintings are made on cloth. They are very durable
and flexible in size and made according to theme. Figures of deities have a very rich
borderembellishments and were created for the temples. Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda, the
Masulipatnam kalamkari was widely influenced by Persian motifs and designs. The outlines and
main features are done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are later done using the pen. This
art was started on garments, bed covers and curtains. The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick
pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair attached to the other end to serve as brush or pen. The
kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting colours from plant roots, leaves, along with salts of iron,
tin, copper, alum etc.
Phad Paintings
Phad is a type of scroll painting. The paintings depicting exploits of local deities are often carried
from place to place and are accompanied by traditional singers, who narrate the theme depicted on
the scrolls. This type of painting is a most famous painting of Rajasthan, mainly found in the
Bhilwara district. Phad painting depicts the heroic deeds of a heroic figure, the daily life of a
peasant, rural life, animals and birds, flora and fauna. These paintings are created using bright
colours and subtle colours. The outlines of the paintings are first drawn in black and later filled with
colours. The main themes of the phad paintings depict the deities and their legends and the stories of
erstwhile Maharajas. Raw colours are used for these paintings. The unique features of phad
paintings are the bold lines and a two-dimensional treatment of figures with the entire composition
arranged in sections.
The art of painting the phads is approximately 700 years old. It is said that it was originated
in Shahpura, some 35 kms from Bhilwara in Rajasthan. The continuous royal patronage gave a
decisive impetus to the art which has survived and flourished for generations.
Warli Painting
Warli painting derives its name from a small tribe inhabiting the remote, tribal regions of
Maharashtra. These are decorative paintings on floors and walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’ tribes’ homes
and places of worship. Trees, birds, men and women collaborate to create a composite whole in a
Warli painting. These paintings are made mostly by the women as part of their routine at auspicious
celebrations. Subjects are predominantly religious with simple and local materials like white colour
and rice paste and local vegetable glue on a plain contrasting background, made in a geometric
patterns like squares, triangles, and circles. Dots and crooked lines are the units of these
composition. Flora and fauna and people’s day to day life also form a part of the painted. The
paintings are expanded by adding subject after subject in a spiraling manner. The rhythm of the
Warli way of life is beautifully captured in simple images. Unlike other tribal art forms, Warli
paintings do not employ religious iconography and is a more secular art form.
Kalighat Painting
Kalighat painting derives its name from its place of origin Kalighat in Kolkata. Kalighat is a bazaar
near the Kali temple in Kolkota. Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to
make images of gods and goddesses in the early nineteenth century. These paintings on paper made
with water colours comprise clear sweeping line drawings using bright colours and a clear
background. Subjects are images of Kali, Lakshmi, Krishna, Ganesha, Shiva, and other gods and
goddesses. In this process, artists developed a unique new form of expression, and effectively
portray a wide range of subjects commenting on the social life of Bengal. Similar kind of pata
paintings may be found in Orissa. This painting form has its roots in the culture upheavds of 19th
century colonial Bengal.
As its market grew, the artists began to liberate themselves from the routine depiction of
Hindu deities and began to explore the world of contemporary social events in their paintings. The
genre derived much inspiration from the introduction of photography, western style theatrical
performances, the rise of babu culture in Bengal as a result of the impact of British colonial and
administrative system. The emergence of the unique lifestyle of the nouveau riche of Kolkota in
response to these diverse influence also inspired these paintings. All these stimuli gave birth to a
new imagery that occupied the centre stage of Bengali literature, theatre and visual arts of the
period. Kalighat paintings became the best mirror of this cultural and aesthetic shift. Based on their
preexisting models of the Hindu deities, the artists created a whole repertoire of images, courtesans,
actresses, heroines, pompous babus and conceited dandies, resplendent in their fancy attire and hair
styles, smoking pipes and playing the sitar. Kalighat paintings are often referred to as the first works
of art that came from Bengal.
Indian Handicrafts
India is a virtual treasure house of the most exquisite handicrafts. Simple objects of daily life have
been crafted with delicate design which give expression to the creativity of the Indian artisan. Every
state of India can boast of some unique creation which is special to the region, for example,
Kashmir is famous for embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silk and walnut wood furniture.
Rajasthan is famous for its tie-and-dye (bandhni) fabrics, jewellery, using precious stone and jems,
blue glazed pottery and minakari work. Andhra Pradesh is famous for Bidri work and Pochampally
saris while Tamil Nadu is well known for bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris. Mysore is
well known for silk, sandalwood items and Kerala is famous for ivory carvings and rosewood
furniture. Chanderi and kosa silk of Madhya Pradesh, chikan work of Lucknow, Brocade and silk
saris of Benaras, cane furniture and goods of Assam, Bankura terracotta modelling and handloom
items of Bengal are just a few examples of unique traditional decorative arts and crafts which
constitute the heritage of modern India. These arts have been nurtured for thousands of years and
provided employment to a great number of artisans who carried forward the art to the next
generation. Thus you see how the Indian artisans with their magic touch can transform a piece of
metal, wood or ivory into objects of art.
PERFORMING ARTS: MUSIC, DANCE AND DRAMA

India is a land of rich culture and heritage. Since the beginning of our civilization, music, dance and
drama have been an integral aspect of our culture. Initially, these art forms were used as medium of
propagation for religion and social reforms in which music and dance were incorporated to gain
popularity. From the Vedic era to the medieval period, the performing arts remained an important
source of educating the masses. The Vedas laid down precise rules for the chanting of Vedic hymns.
Even the pitch and the accent of singing different hymns have been prescribed. There was more of
exemplary presentation through them than education or social reforms. Presently, these art forms
have become means of entertainment for people all over the world.
Concept of Performing Arts

What is art? “Art is an expression of all characteristics of the human mind aesthetically”. These
characteristics, i.e. the varied human emotions, are known as ‘RAS’. In Hindi, ‘ras’ literally means a
sugary juice. It signifies the ultimate satisfaction or ‘aanand’. Human emotions can be categorized
into nine sub-headings or ‘navras’. They are:
1. Hasya — laughter
2. Bhayanak — Fear
3. Raudra — chivalrous
4. Karuna — pathos
5. Vira — courage
6. Adbhuta — astonishing
7. Bhibhatsa — terrifying glory
8. Shaanti — peace
9. Shringaara — decorating one’s self
Art reflects human emotions and human beings spontaneously express their frame of mind through
various art forms. Thus the intellectual mind merges with the artistic streak, giving birth to art. The
expression is reflected in various styles like singing, dancing, drawing, painting, acting, sculpture.
Some of these are expressed through live performances and others through visual arts. Sketching,
painting, sculpture are visual arts. Singing, dancing, acting are attributes of performing arts. Music
from time immemorial has been the most popular art form of India.
The earliest tradition of Indian music may be traced to Sama Veda which contained the
slokas that were put to music. Chanting of Vedic hymns with prescribed pitch and accent still form
a part of religious rituals. The earliest text dealing exclusively with performing arts is Bharata’s
Natyashashtra (compiled between 2nd century BC and 2nd century AD) which has six chapters on
music. Another major text is Matanga’sBrihaddesicompiled between eight and ninth century AD. In
this work ragas were first named and discussed at great length. Sangeet Ratnakarawritten by
Sarangdeva in the thirteenth century mentions 264 ragas. A variety of string and wind instruments
were invented over the period of time. In ancient texts references have been made to flutes, drums,
veena, and cymbals. Many rulers such as Samudragupta, King Bhoja of Dhara and King
Someshavra of Kalyana patronised music. The Gupta monarch Samudra Gupta was himself an
accompolished musician. In some of his coins, he is shown playing on the Veena. Music was also
associated with the worship of Gods and Goddess in the temples. In the twelfth century, Jayadeva of
Orissa produced the most brilliant raga kavya, the Gita Govinda, each song of which was set in a
raga and was composed on the theme of love of Radha and Krishna. Abhinavagupta’s (993-1055)
Abhinava bharati provides useful information about music. Tamil music has a number of terms and
concepts parallel to what is found in Sanskrit texts. The Saivite Nayanars and Vaishnavite Alvars
too set their psalms (poems) to music.
Similarly in the medieval period the Sufi and Bhakti saints encouraged music. Qawwalis
were sung in Sufi khanqahsand devotional music like kirtan and bhajan became popular with the
Bhakti saints. Names of Kabir, Mirabai, Surdasa, Chandidasa, Tulsidasa, Vidyapati are closely
associated with religious music. Great scholars like Amir Khusrau contributed equally to the
promotion of music. The legendary ruler of Malwa, Baz Bahadur and his wife Rupmati introduced
new ragas. KitabeNavraswritten by Ibrahim Adil Shah II during the seventeenth century is a
collection of songs in praise of Hindu deities as well as Muslim saints. The most famous musician
of Akbar’s court was Tansen and there was nobody to match him, even though there were all kinds
of singers. Baiju Bawra was also a well-known musician during Akbar’s time. The patronage given
to these artists by the ancient and medieval rulers have been instrumental in keeping the traditions
alive. Infact the Mughal rulers were great patrons of music. According to Lanepoole- “Babar
himself was fond of music. He is supposed to have developed some very popular musical style
forms like Qawalis, Khayal, etc. Humayun was said to have illustrated Indian texts on music. Akbar
composed songs and encouraged musicians. Swami Haridas and his disciples composed many songs
in different tunes. PundarikaVittal was a great scholar of music who wrote the famous Ragamala.
Hindustani Music was also enriched by devotional songs sung by Mira Bai, Tulsidas and Surdas.
Divisions of Indian Classical Music

During the medieval period Indian classical music was broadly based on two traditions, the
Hindustani classical music prevalent in North India and the Carnatic music of South India.
Hindustani Classical Music

Hindustani classical music may be traced back to the period of the Delhi Sultanate and to Amir
Khusrau (AD 1253-1325) who encouraged the practice of musical performance with particular
instruments. He is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced
new ragas. Most of the Hindustani musicians trace their descent to Tansen. Different styles of
Hindustani music are Dhrupad, Dhamar, Thumri, Khayal and Tappa. It is said that Tansen’s music
had the effect of magic. He could stop the rising waves of the Yamuna and by the force of his
‘Megh Rag’ he could cause the rain to fall. Infact his melodious songs are sung in every part of
India even now with great interest. Some of Akbar’s courtiers patronised Musicians like
BaijuBawra, Surdas etc.
The most popular ragas are: Bahar, Bhairavi, Sindhu Bhairavi, BhimPalasi, Darbari, Desh,
Hamsadhwani, Jai Jayanti, MeghaMalhar, Todi, Yaman, Pilu, Shyam Kalyan, Khamboj.
India also has a rich variety of musical instruments of different types. Amongst the stringed
instruments the most famous are sitar, sarod, santoor and sarangi. Pakhawaj, tabla and Mridangam
are precussion or tal giving instruments. Likewise, flute, shehnai and nadaswaram are some of the
chief wind instruments.
The musicians of Hindustani classical music are usually associated to a gharana or a
particular style of music. Gharanas refer to hereditary linkages of musicians which represent the
core of the style and distinguish them from the other. The gharanas function in guru shishya
parampara, that is, disciples learning under a particular guru, transmitting his musical knowledge
and style, will belong to the same gharana. Some famous gharanas are Gwalior gharana, Kirana
gharana, and Jaipur gharana. Devotional music like kirtan, bhajan, ragas contained in the Adi
Grantha and singing in the Majlis during Muharram also deserve a special place in Indian music.
Along with this, folk music also shows a very rich cultural heritage.
Carnatic Music: The compositions in Carnatic music may be attributed collectively to three
composers who lived between AD 1700 and 1850. They were Shyam Shastri, Thyagaraja and
Mutthuswami Dikshitar. Purandardasa was another great composer of Carnatic music. Thyagaraja is
revered both as a saint and an artist and epitomises the essence of Carnatic music. The main
compositions are known as kriti and are devotional in nature. The three great musicians
experimented with new forms. Some notable musicians of this period are Maha Vaidyanath Ayyar
(1844-93), Patnam Subrahmanya Ayyar (l854-1902) and Ramnad Srinivasa lyengar (l860-1919).
Flute, veena, nadaswaram, mridangam, ghatam are some of the instruments to accompany Carnatic
music.
Despite contrasting features between Hindustani and Carnatic music, one can find some similarities,
for example, the Carnatic alapana is similar to alap in Hindustani classical. Tilana in Carnatic
resembles Tarana of Hindustani. Both lay stress on tala or talam.
MODERN INDIAN MUSIC

With the British rule came Western music. Indians adopted some of their instruments such as violin
and clarinet to suit the demands of Indian music. Orchestration of music on stage is a new
development. Use of cassettes replaced oral transmission of tunes and ragas. Performance which
were earlier limited to a privileged few have now been thrown open to the public and can be viewed
by thousands of music lovers throughout the country. Music education no longer depends on the
master-disciple system but can be imparted through institutions teaching music.
Musicians
Amir Khusrau, Ramtanu Pandey (famously known as Tansen), Baijnath Mishra(famously known as
BaijuBawra), Gopal Nayak, Swami Haridas, Pt. V.D. Paluskar, Thyagaraja, MutthuswamiDikshitar,
Pt. Omkar Nath Thakur, Pt.Vinaik Rao Patwardhan, Ustad Chand Khan, Bade Ghulam Ali Khan,
Faiyaz Khan, Nissar Hussain Khan, Amir Khan, Pt. Bhimsen Joshi, Pt. Kumar Gandharva,
KesarbaiKerkar and Smt. Gangubai Hangal are all vocalists. Among the instrumentalists Ahmed
JaanThirakwa, Allauddin Khan, Pt. Ravi Shankar, Bismillah Khan, AllaRakkha Khan, Zakir
Hussain are some of the well known musicians.
Folk Music
Besides classical music India has a rich legacy of folk or popular music. This music represents the
emotion of the masses. The simple songs are composed to mark every event in life.They may be
festivals, advent of a new season, marriage or birth of a child. Rajasthani folk songs such as Mand
and Bhatiali of Bengal are popular all over India. Ragini is a popular form of folk songs of Haryana.
Folk songs have their special meanings or messages. They often describe historical events
and important rituals. Kashmir’s Gulraj is usually a folklore and Pandyani of Madhya Pradesh is a
narrative put to music. Muslims sing Sojkhwani or mournful songs during Muharram and Christmas
carols and choral music are sung in groups on the festive occasions.
DANCES OF INDIA
In the Brahmanas, Jaiminiya and Kausitaki dance and music are mentioned together. The Epics are
full of references to dances on earth and heaven. Like music, Indian dance has also developed a rich
classical tradition. It has a great power of expression and emotions while telling a story.
In India, the art of dancing may be traced back to the Harappan culture. The discovery of the bronze
statue of a dancing girl testifies to the fact that some women in Harappa performed dances.
In traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression to
religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of the
cosmic cycle. The popular image of Shiva in the form of Nataraja clearly shows the popularity of
dance form on the Indian people. There is not a single temple atleast in the southern part of the
country which does not show the sculptures of the dancers in their different forms. Infact classical
dance forms like Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Manipuri, Kuchipudi and Odisi are an important
part of our cultural heritage. It is difficult to say at what point of time dance originated, but it is
obvious that dance came into existence as an effort to express joy. Gradually dances came to be
divided as folk and classical. The classical form of dance was performed in temples as well as in
royal courts. The dance in temples had a religious objective whereas in courts it was used purely for
entertainment. In both cases for the artists devoted to this art form, it was no less than praying to
God. In southern India Bharatanatyam and Mohiniattam developed as an important aspect of the
rituals in temples. Yakshagana, a form of Kathakali in Kerala, tells us stories of Ramayana and
Mahabharata whereas Kathak and Manipuri are mostly related to the stories of Krishna and his leela
(exploits). Performance of Odissi is related to the worship of Lord Jagannath. Though the Krishna
leelaand the stories related to Lord Shiva was the theme of Kathak, this dance came to be performed
in royal courts in medieval times. Romantic gestures contained in Thumri and Ghazal that were also
performed with accompanists for the kings, reflect this aspect. Manipuri dance was also preformed
for religious purposes. Folk dances evolved from the lives of common people and were performed
in unison. In Assam people celebrate most of the harvesting season through Bihu. Similarly, Garba
of Gujarat, Bhangra and Gidda of Punjab, bamboo dance of Mizoram, Koli, the fisherman’s dance
of Maharashtra, Dhumal of Kashmir, and Chhau of Bengal are unique examples of performing arts
that gave expression to the joys and sorrows of the masses.
As far as the analytical study of this art form is concerned, the Natyashastra of Bharata, is a
primary source of information, and basically deals with drama. Bharata has discussed dance and its
various angas (limbs) in detail. Facial expressions, body movements, hastamudras and the footsteps
have all been brought together under three broad categories namely, as nritta (pada sanchalan),
nritya (angasanchalan) and natya (abhinay). Both men and women took keen interest in dance but
generally women dancers were looked down upon in society. However, with the efforts of great
music thinkers and various religious and social reform movements, people have started to hold
women performers with great respect.
In the south, temples, kings’ courts and other parts of the building provided an important
stage for all dancers. Navaras, mythological tales of Rama, Krishna, Ganesh, Durga were all enacted
in the form of dance. Some rulers of the north like Wajid ali Shah was a great patron of music and
dance and here the seeds of the Lucknow gharana or ‘school of dance’ was sown. The modernday
dancers like Pt. Birju Maharaj have come from the Lucknow school of dance. In the medieval
period, the south remained very rigid with the rules of dances that were imbibed from ancient
Sanskrit texts. It became a seat of learning and institutions of dance sprung up first in the southern
region.
In the modern period, we find maximum dance forms in the south Indian classical dance
stream. They are Kucchipudi, Bharatnatyam, Mohiniatyam, Kathakali. On the eastern side, Odissi
dance flourished greatly.
Along with classical dance forms, folk dance also flourished. In most of the regions the local
dance form became very popular. Manipuri dance, Santhal dance, Rabindranath’s dance, drama,
chhau, ras, gidda, bhangra, garba are some of the folk dances that have flourished in India. They are
equally popular and have extreme acumen and innovation. Practically every region of our country
has developed their own rich tradition of folk dances. For example, the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask
dance of Ladakh, Wangla of Meghalaya, Bhutia or Lepcha dance of Sikkim. Similarly, we also have
some dances which are called martial dances like Chholia of Uttranchal, Kalaripaittu of Kerala,
Thang-taa of Manipur among the more famous ones.
Presently, all the three art forms are flourishing in the country. Musical institutions have
opened up giving opportunities to many. Schools, universities have departments of music. Indira
Kala Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh is a university of music, GandharvaMahaVidyalaya, Kathak
Kendra and many institutes in the south are all propagating music in their own ways. Music
conferences, Baithaks, lecture, demonstrations are all spreading music to nooks and corners of
India. Societies like Spic-macay, India International Rural Cultural Centre have worked very hard to
bring about a rapport and bondage with artists and the modern generation.
Abroad musicians have also flourished and different institutions of music started by Pt. Ravi
Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, and Alla Rakkha etc. are prestigious teaching centres for
foreigners. Many foreign universities also have facilities of art forms giving degrees and diplomas
to students. All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform and participate in various
festivals and occasions.
Well-known Dancers of Modern India

Kathak: Pt. Birju Maharaj, Pt. Shambhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Pt. Gopi Krishna, and
Pt.LacchuMaharaj.
Bharatanatyam: Saroja Vaidyanathan, Padma Subhramaniam, Geeta Chandran.
Odissi: Kelucharan Mahapatra, Sanjukta Panigrahi, Kiran Sehgal and Madhavi Mudgal.
Kuchpudi: Swapna Sundari, Satya Narayan Sarma, Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy and SonalMansingh.
ARCHITECTURE-ORIGINS AND INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
Architecture is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to build his
own shelter to live in. Man first began to create and fix his own shelter when he stepped out from
the natural habitat of dense jungle covers. With the artistic faculties of man awakened in the search
for larger and better-sheltered spaces, he began to build, with inherent aesthetic sense, shelters that
seemed pleasing to the eye.Thus, emerged architecture which is a combination of needs,
imagination, capacities of the builders and capabilities of the workers.
Architectural Forms and Construction Details: Architecture accommodated the local and
regional cultural traditions and social requirements, economic prosperity, religious practice of
different times. Hence, the study of architecture reveals to us the cultural diversities and helps us
understand the rich traditions of India.
Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the country.
Apart from these natural and obvious evolutions from the pre-historic and historic periods,
evolution of Indian architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic
developments. Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-
continent, each in their way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian architecture.
External influences have also shaped the nature of Indian architecture and so has the influence of
different regions of the country. Let us have a look at the process of evolution of Indian
Architecture.
HARAPPAN PERIOD AND ARCHITECTURE

The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro and several other sites of the Indus Valley
Civilisation revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilisation with expert town planning
and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well planned roads and
houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture existed in India before the coming of
the Aryans. The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavated under the Archaeological
Survey of India established by the British.
The Harappan people had constructed mainly three types of buildings-dwelling houses pillared halls
and public baths.
Main features of Harappan remains are:

1. The settlements could be traced as far back as third millennium BC.
2. Some important settlements were excavated on the banks of the river Indus particularly at the
bends that provided water, easy means of transportation of produce and other goods and also
some protection by way of natural barriers of the river.
3. All the sites consisted of walled cities which provided security to the people.
4. The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut each other at right angles.
5. The Indus Valley people used standardised burnt mud-bricks as building material.
6. There is evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps were public buildings,
administrative or business centres, pillared halls and courtyards, there is no evidence of temples.
7. Public buildings include granaries which were used to store grains which give an idea of an
organised collection and distribution system.
8. Along with large public buildings, there is evidence of small one roomed constructions that
appear to be working peoples quarters.
9. The Harappan people were great engineers as is evident from the public bath that was
discovered at Mohenjodaro. The ‘Great Bath’ as it is called, is still functional and there is no
leakage or cracks in the construction.The existence of what appears to be a public bathing place
shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this culture. It is significant that most
of the houses had private wells and bathrooms.
10. At some sites a dominant citadal was excavated in the western part containing the public
buildings including the granaries. This can perhaps be treated as evidence of some kind of political
authority ruling over the cities.
11. There is evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities which shows
that there may have been a fear of being attacked.
12. Lothal, a site in Gujarat also has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished in
those times by sea.
Another remarkable feature was the existence of a well planned drainage system in the residential
parts of the city. Small drains from the houses were connected to larger ones along the sides of
the main roads. The drains were covered and loose covers were provided for the purpose of
cleaning them. The planning of the residential houses were also meticulous. Evidence of stairs
shows houses were often double storied. Doors were in the side lanes to prevent dust from
entering the houses.
The most important features of Harrapan architecture are their superior town planning
skills and cities that have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid layout. Roads cut each
other at right angles and were very well laid out. As the Indus Valley settlements were located on
the banks of the river, they were often destroyed by major floods. In spite of this calamity, the
Indus Valley people built fresh settlements on the same sites. Thus, layers upon layers of
settlements and buildings were found during the excavations. The decline and final destruction of
the Indus Valley Civilization, sometime around the second millennium BC remains a mystery to this
day.
Many thick layers of well baked bricks laid in gypsum mortar were joined together for the
purpose of making the whole construction very strong. The strength of the buildings can be seen
by the fact that they have successfully survived the ravages of atleast five thousand years.
The Harappans had the knowledge and skill of sculpting and craft. The world’s first bronze
sculpture of a dancing girl has been found in Mohenjodaro. A terracotta figure of a male in a yogic
posture has also been excavated. Beautiful personal ornaments, soft stone seals with a pictoral
script and images of humped bulls, Pashupati unicorn have also been excavated.
The Vedic Aryans who came next, lived in houses built of wood, bamboo and reeds; the Aryan
culture was largely a rural one and thus one finds few examples of grand buildings. This was
because Aryans used perishable material like wood for the construction of royal palaces which
have been completely destroyed over time. The most important feature of the Vedic period was
the making of fire altars which soon became an important and integral part of the social and
religious life of the people even today. In many Hindu homes and especially in their marriages,
these fire mortar play an important role even today. Soon courtyard and mandaps were build with
altars for worship of fire which was the most important feature of architecture. We also find
references of Gurukuls and Hermitages. Unfortunately, no structure of the Vedic period remains to
be seen. Their contribution to the architectural history is the use of wood along with brick and
stone for building their houses.
In the 6th century B.C. India entered a significant phase of her history. There arose two new
religions - Jainism and Buddhism and even the Vedic religion underwent a change. Almost
simultaneously larger states sprang up which further provided for a new type of architecture from
this period i.e. the expansion of Magadha into an empire, the development of architecture
received further impetus. From now it was possible to trace Indian architecture in an almost
unbroken sequence.
Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism helped in the development of early architectural style.
The Buddhist Stupas were built at places where Buddha’s remains were preserved and at the
major sites where important events in Buddha’s life took place. Stupas were built of huge mounds
of mud, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks. One was built at his birthplace Lumbini;
the second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath
where he gave his first sermon and the fourth at Kushinagar where he passed away attaining
Mahaparinirvanaat the age of eighty.
Buddha’s burial mounds and places of major events in his life became important landmarks
of the significant architectural buildings in the country. These became important sites for Buddha’s
order of monks and nuns - the sangha. Monasteries (viharas), and centres of preaching, teaching
and learning came up at such places. Congregational halls (chaitya) for teaching and interaction
between the common people and the monks were also built up.
From now on religion began to influence architecture. While Buddhists and Jains began to
build stupas, Viharas and Chaityas, the first temple building activity started during the Gupta rule.
EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD

An important phase of Indian architecture began with the Mauryan period. The material prosperity
of the Mauryans and a new religious consciousness led to achievements in all fields. Megasthenes,
the Greek ambassador of SelucasNikator who visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta
Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement. It was a large palace carved out of
wood.
In the Mauryan period (322-182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture saw a great
advancement. Mauryan art and architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks. During
the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars were erected on which teachings of ‘Dhamma’
were inscribed. The highly polished pillars with animal figures adorning the top (capitals) are
unique and remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been accepted as the emblem of
the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about 50 tonnes and is about 50 ft high.
The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the achievement of Mauryan a
architechture. The gateways of the Sanchi Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting scenes from
Jataka stories are specimens of the skill and aesthetic sense of the artisans.
The blending of Greek and Indian art led to the development of Gandhara art which
developed later. The other schools of art and architecture were the indigenous Mathura school
and Amaravati School. A large number of statues of the Buddha were built by the artisans of these
schools especially after first century AD under the influence of the Kushanas. Under the Gandhara
School of art life-like statues of Buddha and Bodhisattavas were made in the likeness of Greek gods
even, though the ideas, inspirations and subjects were all Indian. Rich ornaments, costumes,
drapery were used to impart physical beauty. The sculptures were in stone, terracotta, cement like
material and clay.
The figures of the Mathura school were made of spotted red stone. They had more of
spiritual look in them. Here along with Buddha we find sculptures of Jainadieties also.
The Amaravati School developed under the patronage of the Satavahanas of the Andhra region. A
great stupa was built at Amaravati in the Lower Godavari region. The walls of the stupa are
adorned with bas relief, had carved medallion and decorative panels. Nagarjunkonda is another
place that is famous for Buddhist architecture.
The Gupta period marks the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu temples. An
example of this is the temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district) which had a central shrine or garbhagriha
where the image of the deity was placed. Another temple at Bhitrigaon (Kanpur district) are two
fine examples of this period.
Cave Architecture
The development of cave architecture is another unique feature and marks an important phase in
the history of Indian architecture. More than thousand caves have been excavated between
second century BC and tenth century AD. Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of
Maharashtra, and Udaygiri cave of Orissa. These caves hold Buddhist viharas, chaityas as well as
mandapas and pillared temples of Hindu gods and goddesses.
Rock-cut temples
Temples were hewn out of huge rocks. The earliest rock-cut temples were excavated in western
Deccan in the early years of the Christian era. The chaitya at Karle with fine high halls and polished
decorative wall is a remarkable example of rock-cut architecture. The Kailash temple at Ellora built
by the Rashtrakutas and the ratha temples of Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas are other
examples of rock-cut temples. Most probably the stability and permanence of rocks attracted the
patrons of art and builders who decorated these temples with beautiful sculptures.
FREE-STANDING TEMPLES
The temple building activities that began during the Gupta rule continued to flourish in later
periods. In southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later the rulers of the
Vijaynagar kingdom were great builders of temples. The Pallava rulers built the shore temple at
Mahabalipuram. Pallavas also built other structural temples like Kailashnath temple and Vaikuntha
Perumal temples at Kanchipuram. The Cholas built many temples most famous being the
Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore. The Cholas developed a typical style of temple architecture of
South India called the Dravida style, complete with vimanaor shikhara, high walls and the gateway
topped by gopuram. Magnificent temples were built at Belur, Halebid where the stone engravings
reached even greater heights.
In north and eastern India magnificent temples were also constructed and the style followed by
them is referred to as the Nagara style. Most of them consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the
garbhagriha (sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall).
Orissa has some of the most beautiful temples such as the Lingaraja temple built by the Ganga
rulers and the Mukteshwara temple at Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannath temple at Puri.
The sun temple at Konark was built in thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga ruler Narshimha
Deva I. The temple is dedicated to Surya (the sun god) and has been designed as a twelve-wheeled
chariot.
The temple complex at Khajuraho was built by Chandella rulers between the tenth and eleventh
centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Most important among them is the
Kandariya Mahadev temple.
Mount Abu in Rajasthan is known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain tirthankaras. These
were built in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture. These were built under the
patronage of Solanki rulers.
Somnath temple at Gujarat, Vishwanath temple at Banaras, Sri Krishna temple in Mathura,
Kamakhya temple at Guwahati, Shankaracharya temple at Kashmir and the Kali temple at Kalighat
of Kolkata are some other important temples which bear testimony to temple building activity of
the Indian sub continent.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE
Delhi-Sultanate
With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture- the
architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. The engineering features of these buildings
were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and tombs built by the rulers had
these features which were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture and a new
synthesis in architecture was achieved. This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized
the services of the local Indian craftsmen who were very skillful and had already constructed
beautiful buildings. In the buildings that came up we find the simplicity of the Islamic structure as
well as the detailed sculptures and designs they made on their own indigenious structures. A
middle path was followed in all their designs in the architecture of this period.
The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub
Minar. The latter is a tower, whose height is 70 metres. It is a tapering tower that has five stories.
There are beautiful engravings of calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower. Many other
buildings were later constructed by the Sultans. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam
mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway is called the Alahi
Darwaja and is one of the most beautiful architectural designs even today. Decorative elements
were used to make the building outstanding in its beauty. He also built the Hauz Khas in Delhi
which was a hydraulic structure. The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and the forts of
Tughlaqabad are some examples. Though their buildings were not beautiful but had very strong
walls, massive as well as impressive. During the Afghan rule the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and
Shershah’s tomb at Sasaram were built. The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous
styles were adopted and utilised by the builders. During these years, the Turks were still in the
process of settling down. The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who made sudden invasions
from the north. This is why the buildings of this period are strong, sturdy and practical.
Regional Kingdoms
With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful
buildings having their own style were constructed. The Jama Masjid, the SadiSaiyyad Mosque and
the shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a few examples of this architecture. In Mandu (central India)
the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built. In the Deccan, the Sultans erected a
number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the Madarsaof Mahmud Gawan at Bidar,
Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fort at Golkunda are just a few famous buildings.
Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these buildings vary in design and style from the
buildings of north India. In Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of
roof construction were some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal like
the Adina mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, KhilDarwaza and Tantipara mosque at
Gaur. In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen covering the
dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble and is made of yellow
and black marble inlay work beautifully done by craftsmen. The rulers of Vijayanagar, an empire
which was established during this period also erected many beautiful buildings and temples and
had a number of achievements to their credit. Though only ruins remain but the temples of
Vithalswami and Hazar Rama at Hampi are good examples.
MUGHALS
The synthesis of style which began earlier reached its zenith during this time. The architecture of
Mughal style started during Akbar’s rule. The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at
Delhi. In this magnificent building red stone was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is
placed in the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal. Akbar built forts at
Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Bulund Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire.
This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is
about 41 m high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim
Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, IbadatKhana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri
reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements. During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s
Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula
which was built entirely of marble. Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He
used marble extensively. Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietraduro) beautiful arches and
minarets were the features of his buildings. The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all
the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan. The Taj Mahal, the tomb of
Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the architectural features that were developed
during the Mughal period. It has a central dome, four elegant minarats, gateway, inlay work and
gardens surrounding the main building. The Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence
on the buildings of the later period. The buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian
style and had courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the architecture of this style living beings-
elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets.
Monuments Built by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri

The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. He erected many important buildings. The
crowning achievements of his reign was the building of his new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri., 40km
from Agra. Fatehpur Sikri is a romance of stones. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is the most
imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Saint Salim Chisti is exquisite in its beauty. Jodha Bai
Palace is a fine example of ancient Indian architecture. The Jama Masjid was built with the
influence of the Persian style. The Dewan-i-Amm and the Dewan-i-Khas are famous for their
planning and decoration. The Ibadat Khana and Panch Mahal are another notable buildings. The
Panch Mahal is a pyramidal structure in five storeys. It was build on the pattern of a Buddhist
Vihara.
From 1526, the Mughal architecture gave a totaly different dimension to tomb building.
These are built on platforms and are surrounded by gardens laid out with ornamental fountains. A
famous example is the mosque at Fatehpur Sikri - three domes of 290 ft by 470 ft and with two
royal tombs.
Another famous tomb is Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra (A.D. 1593-1613). The Taj Mahal, Agra
(A.D. 1630) built by Shah Jehan is considered one of the ‘Wonders of the World’. It is a royal tomb
in marble built on a platform 18ft high and 313 ft. square. Each corner is marked by a minaret
133ft high. The central dome is 80 ft. high and 58ft in diameter. Marble is inlaid with semi-precious
stones like jasper and agate. It stands by the bank of the river Jamuna in the middle of marble
terraces, fountains and lakes flanked by cypress trees. Mughal architecture declined with the
failing political power of the Mughal Empire.
A unique architectural development in the Mughal time was the beautiful gardens
developed around the tombs and other buildings. The Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir and lahore
were developed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan respectively. The Mughals encouraged cultural and
architectural growth of India.
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE AND THE MODERN PERIOD
The colonial influence can be seen in office buildings. Europeans who started coming from
sixteenth century AD constructed many churches and other buildings. Portuguese built many
churches at Goa, the most famous of these are Basilica Bom Jesus and the chruch of Saint Francis.
The British also built administrative and residential buildings which reflect their imperial glory.
Some Greek and Roman influence can be observed in the colonnades or pillared buildings.
Parliament House and Connaught Place in Delhi are good examples. The architect Lutyens,
designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s residence. It is built of sandstone and has
design features like canopies and jaali from Rajasthan. The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, the
former capital of British India, is a huge edifice in marble. It now houses a museum full of colonial
artefacts. Writers’ Building in Calcutta, where generations of government officers worked in British
times, is still the administrative centre of Bengal after independence. Some Gothic elements can
be seen in the church buildings like St. Paul’s Cathedral in Calcutta. The British also left behind
impressive railway terminals like the Victoria Terminus in Mumbai. More contemporary styles of
building are now in evidence, after Independence in 1947. Chandigarh has buildings designed by
the French architect, Corbusier.
In Delhi, the Austrian architect, Stein, designed The India International Centre where
conferences are held by leading intellectuals from all over the world and more recently, the India
Habitat Centre which has become a centre of intellectual activities in the capital.
In the past few decades, there have been many talented Indian architects, some trained in premier
schools of architecture like the School of Planning and Architecture (SPA) in Delhi. Architects like
Raj Rewal and Charles Correa represent this new generation. Raj Rewal has designed the SCOPE
Complex and Jawahar Vyapar Bhavan in Delhi. He takes pride in using indigenous building material
like sandstone for construction and also combines steps and open spaces from the plazas of Rome.
An example of this is the C1ET building in Delhi. Charles Correa from Mumbai is responsible for the
LIC Building in Connaught Place, Delhi. He has used glass facades in the high-rise to reflect light and
create a sense of soaring height.
In domestic architecture in the last decade, Housing Cooperative Societies have mushroomed in all
metropolitan cities combining utility with a high level of planning and aesthetic sense.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA
Development of Science in Ancient India
Mathematics has been called by the general name of Ganita which includes Arithmetic’s,
Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Arithmetic is called by several names such as Pattin
Ganita (calculations on board), Anka Ganita (calculations with numerals). Geometry is called Rekha
Ganita and Algebra, Bija Ganita (algebra), Astronomy and Astrology are included in the term
Jyotisa.
India has a rich heritage of science and technology. The dependence on nature could be
overcome by developments in science. In ancient India, religion and science worked in close
proximity. Let us find out about the developments in the different branches of science in the
ancient period.
Astronomy
Astronomy made great progress. The movement of planets came to be emphasized and closely
observed. Jyotish vedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy but the more basic
problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is a concise text containing 121
verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining the true
position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation
of the eclipses. The reason he gave for eclipse was that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its
axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when the
shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it caused Solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory
explained it as a process where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been
described by Varahamihira in Pancha-Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of
astronomy present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific
outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were studied in
ancient India. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology which stressed
more on beliefs than scientific explorations.
Mathematics
Town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement
and geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian
mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras. Apastamba in second century
BC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. This
knowledge helped in the construction of fire altars where the kings offered sacrifices. The three
main contributions in the field of mathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and
the use of zero. The notations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These
numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC.
Brahmagupta’s BrahmasputaSiddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number,
hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with
other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which
led to the origin of Trignometry.
The Surya Siddhantais a very famous work. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita of the sixth century A.D.
is another pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the moon rotated
around the earth and the earth rotated around the sun found recognition and later discoveries
were based on this assertion. Mathematics and astronomy together ignited interest in time and
cosmology. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became the cornerstones for further
research and progress.
Medicine
Diseases, cure and medicines were mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. Fever, cough,
consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases mentioned. The
diseases are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s body. The remedies
recommended were replete with magical charms and spells.
From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Varanasi emerged as
centres of medicine and learning. The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhitaby Charak
and Sushrutsamhitaby Sushruta. How important was their work can be understood from the
knowledge that it reached as far as China, Central Asia through translations in various languages.
The plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have been mentioned in Charaksamhita.
Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around fourth century AD. Sushruta was a
pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and
least liable to fallacy”. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. Along with this he also mentions the
methods of operations, bone setting, and cataract and so on. The surgeons in ancient India were
familiar with plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips). Sushruta mentions 760 plants. All parts
of the plant roots, barks, flowers, leaves etc. were used. Stress was laid on diet (e.g. salt free diet
for nephrites). Both the Charaksamhitaand the Sushrutsamhitabecame the predecessors of the
development of Indian medicine in the later centuries.
Metallurgy
The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point
towards a highly developed metallurgy. The Vedic people were aware of fermenting grain and
fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing.
By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of alloys
like brass and bronze were taking place. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of
the high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were produced and utilised for
making medicines. This technology was also used for other crafts like producing dyes and colours.
Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta frescoes reflect on the quality of colour. These paintings
have survived till date.
A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (Near Bhagalpur).
Geography
The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to study geography. Though the
people were clear about their own physical geography, that of China and also the Western
countries, they were unaware of their position on the earth and the distances with other
countries. Indians also contributed to shipbuilding. In the ancient period, voyages and navigation
was not a familiar foray for the Indians. However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat has the remains of a
dockyard proving that trade flourished in those days by sea. In the early medieval period with the
development of the concept of tirtha and tirtha yatra, avast mass of geographical information was
accumulated. They were finally compiled as parts of Puranas. In many cases separate sthala
purana was also compiled.
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

During the medieval period (eleventh to eighteenth century) science and technology in India
developed along two lines: one concerned with the already charted course of earlier traditions and
the other with the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and European influence.
The maktabsand madrasascame into existence that followed a set curricular. These institutions
used to receive royal patronage. The two brothers, Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azzizullah,
specialists in Rational Sciences (Magulat), headed the madrasasat Sambhal and Agra. Learned men
from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were invited to teach in these madrasas.
A large number of karkhana (workshops) were maintained by the kings and the nobles to
supply provisions, stores and equipment to royal household and government departments. The
karkhanasnot only worked as manufacturing agencies but also served as centres for technical and
vocational training to young men. The karkhanastrained and turned out the artisans and craftsmen
in different branches, who later set up their own independent karkhanas (workshops).
Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some important
subjects like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public administration
and agriculture were included in the course of studies for primary education. Though special
efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms in education, yet science did not make much
headway during this period. Efforts were made to seek a kind of synthesis between the Indian
traditional scientific culture and the prevalent approach to science in other countries.
Biology
Hamsadeva compiled Mrga-pasi-sastra in the thirteenth century which gives a general, though not
always scientific account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. The medieval rulers as
warriors and hunters, kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons. Animals, both
domesticated and wild, existed in their menageries. Akbar showed special interest in producing
good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses. Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri,
recorded his observations and experiments of weeding and hybridisation. He described about
thirty-six species of animals. His court artists, especially Mansur, produced elegant and accurate
portraiture of animals, some of which are still preserved in several museums and private
collections.
As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their
floral portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants.
Mathematics
Brahmagupta the great 7th century mathematician has given a description of negative numbers as
debts and positive numbers as fortunes, which shows that ancient Bharatiyas knew the utility of
mathematics for practical trade.
In the early medieval period the two outstanding works in mathematics were Ganitasara by
Sridhara and Lilavati by Bhaskara. Ganitasara deals with multiplication, division, numbers, cubes,
square roots, mensuration and so on. Ganesh Daivajna produced Buddhi vilasini, a commentary on
Lilavati, containing a number of illustrations. In 1587, Lilavati was translated into Persian by Faidi.
Bija Ganitawas translated by Ataullah Rashidi during Shah Jahan’s reign. Nilkantha Jyotirvid, a
courtier of Akbar, compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of Persian technical terms. Akbar
ordered the introduction of mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the educational
system. Bahauddin Amuli, Nasiruddin Tusi, Arraq and Al-Kashi made valuable contributions to this
field. Nasiruddin Tusi, the founder director of the Maragha observatory, was recognised as
anauthority.
Chemistry
Before the introduction of writing paper, ancient literature was preserved generally on palm leaves
in South India and birch-bark (bhoj-patra) in Kashmir and other northern regions of the country.
Use of paper began during the medieval period. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad,
Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore were well-known centres of paper production. During Tipu’s
time, Mysore possessed a paper-making factory, producing a special type of paper that had a gold
surface. The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country, differing
only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials.
The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in guns. Indian
craftsmen learnt the technique and evolved suitable explosive compositions. They were aware of
the method of preparation of gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios
for use in different types of guns. The principal types of fireworks included those which pierced
through air (rockets), produced sparks of fire, blazed with various colours and ended with
explosion. Tuzuk-i--aburigives an account of the casting of cannons. The melted metal was made to
run into the mould till full and then cooled down. Besides explosives, other items were also
produced. Ain-i-Akbarispeaks of the ‘Regulations of the Perfume Office of Akbar’. The attar of
roses was a popular perfume, the discovery of which is attributed to the mother of Nurjehan.
Mention may also be madehere of the glazed tiles and pottery during the period.
Astronomy
In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical
notions appeared. Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Delhi were the main observatories. Firoz Shah
Tughaq established observation posts at Delhi. Firoz Shah Bahmani under Hakim Hussain Gilani
and Syed Muhammad Kazimi set up an observatory in Daulatabad. Both lunar and solar calendars
were in use.
Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Firoz Shah developed an astronomical instrument
called Yantraja. Parameshvara and Mahabhaskariya were famous families of astronomers and
almanac- makers. NilakanthaSomasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatta. Kamalakar
studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy. He was an authority on Islamic knowledge as well. Jaipur
Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura
and Jaipur.
Medicine
There was an attempt to develop specialised treatises on different diseases. Pulse and urine
examinations were conducted for diagnostic purposes. The SarangdharaSamhitarecommends use
of opium for medicines. The rasachikitsasystem, dealt principally with a host of mineral medicines
including metallic preparations. The Tuhfat-ul-Mumininwas a Persian treatise written by
Muhammad Munin in seventeenth century which discusses the opinions of physicians.
The Unani Tibb is an important system of medicine which flourished in India in the medieval
period. Ali-bin-Rabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine as well as the Indian
medical knowledge in the book Firdausu-Hikmat. The Unani medicine system came to India along
with the Muslims around the eleventh century and soon found a congenial environment for its
growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, MajinyeDiyae, incorporating the Arabic, Persian
and Ayurvedic medical knowledge. Firoz Shah Tughlaq wrote a book, TibbeFirozshahi.The
TibbiAurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, is based on Ayurvedic sources. The Musalajati-
Darashikohiof Nuruddin Muhammad, dedicated to Darashikoh deals with Greek medicine.
Agriculture
In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural practices was more or less the same as that in
early and early ancient India. Some important changes, however, were brought about by the
foreigners such as the introduction of new crops, trees and horticultural plants. The principal crops
were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane and indigo. The Western
Ghats continued to yield black pepper of good quality and Kashmir maintained its tradition for
saffron and fruits. Ginger and cinnamon from Tamilnadu, cardamom, sandalwood and coconuts
from Kerala were becoming increasingly popular. Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple,
cashew and pineapple were the important new plants which made India their home in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The region of Malwa and Bihar were also well known for the
production of opium from the poppy plants. Improved horticultural methods were adopted with
great success. The systematic mango grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the middle of
the sixteenth century.
In the field of irrigation, wells, tanks, canals, rahats, charas (bucket made of leather) and
dhenkli, were used to lift water with the help of yoked oxen, which continued to be the means of
irrigation. Persian wheel was used in and around Agra region. In the medieval period, agriculture
was placed on a solid foundation by the State which brought about a system of land measurement
and land classification, beneficial both to the rulers and to the tillers.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN INDIA

Before considering the progress of science and technology in India since independence, it is
necessary to understand what we mean by the terms of science and technology. Science can be
defined as any systematic activity that seeks to gain knowledge about the physical world.
Technology is that activity which seeks to put this knowledge to productive use. As these
definitions show, science and technology are clearly interlinked in the present-day world.
In India the role of science and technology in national development has been duly
recognised by the government. The Second Five Year Plan emphasised that “the most important
single factor in promoting economic development is the community’s readiness to apply modem
science and technology”. In 1971, the Department of Science and Technology (DST) was set up to
promote new areas of science and technology. Similarly State Councils of Science and Technology
have also been established at the state levels. As part of the national policy, the government is
promoting various research and development schemes to encourage scientific activities. In this
section, we will take up some of the main areas in which scientific knowledge and modem
technology have made an impact.
Agriculture
It is mainly because of the application of modern science and technology in agriculture that India is
able to produce 314.15 million tonnes of food grains today as compared to 50 million tonnes thirty
ears ago. These applications range from the cultivation of hybrid seeds to energy management in
agriculture and post-harvest technology. In these efforts the Indian Council for Agricultural
Research has played a leading role. Through seventy three agricultural, thirty two veterinary, eight
agricultural engineering and one dairy colleges, the ICAR has been playing a key role in the
scientific education of the farmers as well as others engaged in different sectors of agriculture,
animal husbandry, fisheries and forestry. The challenges that lie ahead in agriculture are in the
areas of increasing the yields of rice, pulses, oilseeds and many cash crops; initiating plantations
and promoting social forestry; and shifting from agriculture based on chemical fertilizers to organic
fertilizers.
Industry
It is in the field of industry that modern science and technology made its earliest and most
revolutionary impact. In India the government has consistently tried to use modern science and
technology for industrial development. Two government organisations, Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) and Defence Research and Development Orgnisation (DRDO) cover
between them a wide range of science and technology research for civil and defence purposes. A
large number of items have emerged from CSIR laboratories for industrial production, such as,
indigenous agricultural machinery, chemicals, drugs and pesticides, products in the areas of food
echnology, furnished leather goods, glass and ceramics, colour television, and receiver sets. The
research carried out in the field of coal, such as, upgrading of coal and extraction of electricity
from coal has been effectively utilized. In the area of defence, India’s own technological capability
has increased considerably. The most recent example of such capability is the advanced research
that is now being done to produce missiles in India. Some missiles have already been tested for
further development.
Nuclear Energy
India’s aim is to utilise nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. During the last sixty three years, since
the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948, India has made significant progress in
the field of nuclear technology. In 1957, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) was
established at Trombay. It is the largest single scientific establishment in the country. Nuclear
power stations have already been established at Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan),
Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP) and Kakrapar (Gujarat). The adoption of modern technology
has led to the increase in indigenous content of nuclear power reactors constructed in India. As a
result, India is today one of the few countries in the world which can indigenously design,
construct and operate nuclear reactors without relying on foreign help. Besides nuclear sciences,
research and development work in fields such as electronics, medicine, biology, agriculture,
metallurgy is also being done at some nuclear centres.
Space Technology
The Indian space programme is directed towards the goal of self-reliance in the use of space
technology for national development. Over the years, the space programme has established itself
with a succession of achievements. They include the launching of the first Indian space satellite
Aryabhatta in 1975 and then Bhaskara I and Bhaskara II from the Soviet Union, the Rohini satellite
on India’s own SLV-3 rocket and the Apple satellite on the European Arianne rocket. A far-reaching
experiment in education through satellite, SITE, was conducted in India in 1975. Subsequently,
INSAT I-IB, launched in 1983, provided radio, television, telecommunication and meteorological
services. A perspective of major space mission planned for the decade 1985-95 aims at using space
technology for nationwide application in communication, survey and management of natural
resources and meteorology.
Electronics
Since independence, India has acquired the capability to produce a wide variety of electronic
goods such as radio and television sets, communication systems, broadcasting equipments, radars,
nuclear reactors, power control systems and underwater systems. A very large part of the
components required for these are produced indigenously. The production of electronic goods has
been growing at the rate of 18 per cent per annum over the past decade. Today we are even
exporting electronic goods to different parts of the world. Further, computers have been
introduced to improve efficiency and enhance production. Major facilities, recently set up, include
the Semi Conductor Limited (Chandigarh), National Computer Centre (Bombay), National
Information Centre (New Delhi) and a number of regional computer centres.
Medical and Health Sciences

In the field of medicine there have been many achievements. Major advances have been made in
preventing and treating various diseases. Small pox has been eradicated. Treatment of diseases
like tuberculosis, malaria, filaria, goitre, and cancer has been considerably improved. Research is
being carried out to control communicable diseases. Research based activities have already
increased life expectancy appreciably and death rate has declined, while schemes such as the
immunisation programme have reduced infant mortality considerably. Improved medical facilities
in the form of government-run hospitals and dispensaries, research councils, and primary health
centres for rural areas are also being provided.
Ocean Development
India has many interests in the field of ocean development, such as, exploration of offshore oil,
fishery resources to increase food supplies, etc. A department of Ocean Development was
established in 1981, under the charge of the Prime Minister, to coordinate and direct India’s
activities in the field of ocean research. This department has two vessels ORV Sagar Kanya and
FORV Sagar Sampada, which have advanced facilities for working in the field of physical, chemical,
biological, geological and geophysical oceanography and meteorology. India’s achievements during
the past few years include sea-bed mining using the research ship Gaveshna and setting up of
research station named Dakshin Gangotri on the Antartica.
Other Areas
Apart from the major areas mentioned above, India has made much progress in several other
fields as well. These include the activities of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission in oil exploration
and refining and of the National Committee Environment Planning in environment protection and
production of solar energy. A Central Ganga Aurthority has been set up to check pollution in the
river Ganga by using sewage treatment plants.
Evaluation of Progress of Science and Technology
It is clear that progress of science and technology in India has been quite significant. Many new
methods, products and better-quality goods have been developed in the country. India has made
rapid progress in the frontier areas of science and technology like space research and atomic
energy. At present the country has a strong base in modem technology. It also has the third largest
scientific and technical manpower in the world.
At the same time there have been some serious shortcomings in this progress. For instance,
in basic products like textiles and steel, India has been importing foreign technologies. Continuous
import of foreign technology shows lack of ability to create new technology to suit our needs and
this creates dependence on other countries. Excessive reliance on foreign technology is also visible
in the important areas of defence, where the latest weapons are often imported from other
countries. Apart from this weakness in creating new technology, India has also lagged behind in
developing technology to meet the needs of the poor. In the area of housing for instance, India is
yet to develop, low-cost technology to meet the needs of the poor who do not have houses.
Advances in the fields of nuclear and space research are praiseworthy but these have not helped
the poor people so far. We may say that the progress of modem science and technology have not,
as yet, benefited the people of India equally.
UNIT-5
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA
Education in ancient, medieval and modern India, aims of education, subjects, languages, Science
and Scientists of Ancient India, Science and Scientists of Medieval India, Scientists of Modern
India
What did the ancient Indian Education System Look Like?

Like the culture and traditions of India, the system of education also has a rich history of its own.
Majorly influenced by the Hindu religion, the knowledge acquired by people of ancient times was
passed on from one generation to another and is reflected even in the teachings of today. Here’s a
brief take on what the system of education was like during the early days of the Indian civilization.
In the olden days, there was no formal education in India. A father passed on knowledge,
primarily related to his occupation, to his child. Much later, two systems of education emerged –
Vedic and Buddhist. The Vedic system revolved around the Gurukulas, where vedas, vedangasand
Upanishads were taught, while the Buddhist system preached the thoughts of the major Buddhist
schools. The language of education was Sanskrit for the Vedic system and Pali for the Buddhist
system.
What was unique about ancient Indian education?

Education in ancient India was quite different from the rest of the world back then. The society
and state couldn’t interfere with the curriculum or the administration. To get an education, a child
had to leave home and live with a teacher in a gurukul for the entire duration of his studies. No fee
was charged for education; in fact, the teacher took care of everything, including food, clothing
and housing. According to this system, physical labor was of utmost importance. So, even if a child
was interested in acquiring philosophical knowledge, he would still have to do some manual work
every day. Debates and discussions were a part of education, even in ancient days.
When could a child start acquiring education?

In the Vedic system, a child started his education at the age of five. To mark this commencement,
the Vidyarambha ceremony, which included worshiping Goddess Saraswati and learning alphabets
for the first time, was conducted. Leaving home and starting to live with ateacher required the
child to conduct another ceremony called Upanayana. Boys practiced this ceremony at different
ages according to their castes (only children of the Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya did so).
In the Buddhist system, a child started his education at the age of eight, with a ceremony
called Pabbajja or Prabrajya. Unlike the Vedic system, this initiation ceremony could be practiced
by boys of all castes. After this, the child would leave home and go to live in a monastery under the
guidance of his teacher (a monk).
The education of women

Education for women was quite important in ancient India. They were trained in housekeeping, as
well as in dancing and music. Girls also had to conduct the Upanayana ceremony. Educated
women were divided into two classes –Sadyodwahas, those who pursued their education just until
they got married, and Brahmavadinis, those who never married and continued studying
throughout their lives. Vedas and Vedangas were taught to women, too, but were limited to
religious songs and poems necessary for rituals. Some notable Vedic and Upanishad women
scholars were Apala, Indrani, Ghoshala, Lopamudra, Gargi and Maitreyi.
What were the subjects of study?
Both Vedic and Buddhist systems of education had different subjects of study. The Vedic system
comprised of the four Vedas (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda), six Vedangas
(ritualistic knowledge, metrics, exegetics, grammar, phonetics and astronomy), the Upanishads,
Tarka Shastra (logic and reasoning), Puranas (history), and more. The main subjects in the Buddhist
system were the three Pitakas (Vinaya, Abhidhamma and Sutta), the most recognized works of all
18 Buddhism schools. Certain other subjects common to both the systems were arithmetic,
military science, law, performing arts, ethics, and art and architecture.
The period of learning and vocational education

Mastering one Veda took 2 years. Thus, depending on how many subjects the student wanted to
learn, the study period varied accordingly. The education could go on for as long as 48 years.
In order to earn a livelihood, men needed to know an art form. As per the ancient Indian
education system, there were about 64 art forms, including dance, music, jewel making, sculpture,
agriculture, and medical sciences. To acquire vocational Ancient educationaltraining in a particular
art form, men were required to work as trainees under a master to gain expertise. They were
taught without any cost, and food and boarding were also taken care of by the master.
Methods of teaching
Though teaching in groups was common back then, students were also taught individually by their
teachers based on their capabilities and aptitudes. Oral recitation was the basic medium of
imparting knowledge and was practiced through various methods like introspection (listening,
contemplation and concentrated contemplation), storytelling, memorization, critical analysis,
practical study and seminars.
Institutions
Just as we have world renowned universities today, there were popular educational institutions
here during the ancient times as well. Four of these institutions were quite prominent and known
for different specializations. The University of Nalanda was famous for its cosmopolitan character
and its department of logic. Takshasila University, in an area what is now modern-day Pakistan,
was well-known across the world for its medical school and was the chief learning centre in 6th
century BC. What Nalanda University was to east India, Vallabhi was to the west of India. It was
also a famous study center that specialized in subjects like law, medicine and economics, and
had students attending from all parts of the country. Vikramshila was yet another esteemed
institution, best for Tantric Buddhism.
Different types of institutions through which education was imparted to people in ancient
India.In the first instance there was the popular system under which the teacher, as a settled
householder, admitted pupils of a tender age and imparted instructions to them.
We also get references in the earlier period when a child received education from his
father. Usually the pupils were admitted by the teachers on request by the preceptor and the rite
of upanayana was performed. The students usually spent twelve years with their guru. During this
period the student lived at the house of teacher and performed several duties as a means of his
moral and spiritual discipline.
The usual duties performed by the students included begging for the teacher, collection of wood
for sacrificial fires, looking after the house work as well as the cattle. They devoted the rest of the
time to their studies.
On his part the teacher had also to fulfill certain moral and spiritual conditions. He was to
be well versed in sacred lore and live entirely as a Brahman. He was expected to teach his pupil the
truth as was known to him, without concealing anything. Education was open to people of all
classes of the Indo-Aryan stock. But the course of training and subjects were not uniform for
students of all castes.
While the Brahmana student was specially trained up for teaching and performing sacrifices
for others and receiving gifts, the Kshatriya was taught about defence or protection of his people.
But we frequently come across references in Upanishads of Brahmanas of the learned Kshatriyas
and princes who studied the Vedas and attained proficiency in the sacred lore, which was special
property of the Brahmans. For example king Janaka of Videha was a learned Kshatriya who
imparted sacred knowledge to the Brahmanas.
Women were also permitted to receive education in Ancient India. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad we
get a reference to Gargi taking important part in the philosophical discussions. The Upanishads
also mention several women taking as teachers.
Education was imparted through discourses by the teachers. The students could ask questions and
were supposed to introspect and contemplate on those topics. They were to acquire knowledge
about Ultimate Truth and Reality through meditation.
The acquisition of knowledge was supposed to precede by annihilation of all desire and
annihilation of the illusion of a manyfold universe, of the consciousness of plurality. This could be
attained through sannyasa and yoga.
The former meant casting off of one’s home, possessions and family and all that stimulated
desire. Yoga meant withdrawal from all organs of sense and concentrating mind on the Inner Self
endeavors with a view to secure union with Atma.
The second type of institutions were meant for the imparting of advanced education to the
students who were not satisfied with the knowledge acquired as students and were popularly
known as academies. Usually, the specialists and literary celebrities held academic meetings in
different parts of the country for the purpose of philosophical discussion.
The students keen to acquire advanced education held discussions with these specialists and
learnt the truth about the Atma. Participation in debates with these academies enabled the
students to check their knowledge which they had acquired at elementary schools. In addition to
these academies located in different areas, the king often called special national gatherings or
Congress, in which the representative thinkers of the country of various schools were invited to
meet and exchange their views. Such Congresses helped a great deal in the spread of learning in
those days. We learn of one such Congress of rishis in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Satapatha
Brahmana and the Vayu Purana.
Education in the Medieval Period

The period under the medieval India comes from about the 10th century A.D. to the middle of the
eighteenth century, i.e. before the British rule. During this system, the Muslim system of education
was predominant. Education in medieval India was a domain that was limited to a few to a large
extent, who were involved in the management of transmission, it was something technically that
was within the reach of everyone.
The rise of Mohammedanism is one of the most remarkable events in the history of the
world. The entire history of India underwent transformations with the rise of Mohammedanism.
The Mohammedan invasions in India took place from the beginning of the eighth century A.D. The
Arabs and the Turks introduced most of the new customs, cultures and institutions within the
country. Out of these, one of the most remarkable was the Islamic pattern of education, which was
different to a major extent from the Buddhist and the Brahmanic systems.
The transformations that were brought about in the system of education since the ancient
times is a reflection that there have been changes and transformations in the social contexts. The
system of education in medieval India primarily focused upon Islamic and the Mughal system.
Objectives of Education in Medieval India
1. During the Muslim period, the education was meant to extend the knowledge and propagate
Islam.
2. The impartment of education took place with the propagation of Islamic principles, laws and
social conventions.
3. Education was based on religion and its main purpose was to make the individuals religious-
minded.
4. The Muslim education aimed at the achievement of material wealth and prosperity.
Organization of Education
It was unfortunate that some of the renowned and prominent institutes of higher learning of the
Hindus have been destroyed by the Muslim rulers. The most notable example is that of the
Nalanda. It was an international centre for learning. In the medieval period of education, emphasis
was put upon religion-oriented education. The individuals possessed strong beliefs and viewpoints
that religion-oriented education would inculcate the knowledge, values, morals and ethics among
the individuals, which are vital for existence. Elementary education was imparted in the
pathshalas, which existed both in urban and rural areas. Pathshalas were organized mostly in the
verandahs of the building or underneath the trees. There were separate houses for the pathshalas
and there were not any establishment of buildings for them.
Students from the elementary level were trained in terms of arithmetic, calculations,
weights, measures, shapes and so forth. Therefore, mathematics was regarded as essential.
Literature was another subject that was focused upon. In addition, the other subjects that were
taught in educational institutions included, science, social science, astronomy, accountancy, public
administration and religious education. In some of the schools, students were also given
instruction regarding Hindu mythology.
The institutions that provided school education were known as the maktabs. Whereas,
those institutions that made provision of higher learning were known as the madrasas. The
maktabs were generally run by public donations, while the madrasas were maintained by the
rulers and the nobles. There were six different types of institutions, these include, those that were
maintained by the rulers and the nobles, those that were launched by the individual scholars with
the help and support obtained from the state or donations, those that were associated with the
mosques, those that were associated with the tombs, those that were started by the individual
scholars and those that were attached to the Sufi hospices.
During this period, women were not allowed to go in front of the outsiders without
covering their faces. This was known as the purdah system. Due to the prevalence of the purdah
system, education among women was not given recognition. The presence of the Hindu religion
schools, where Sanskrit was the medium of instruction and the maqtabas of the Muslim religion,
where Persian was the medium of instruction, led to the formation of a new language, Urdu. It was
generally written in Persian characters with the words of Arabic and Persian origin. The origination
of vocational and technical education were regarded to be major developments under the Muslim
period.
Education In the medieval period, the Islamic system of education replaced the Vedic
system of education and Buddhist education system. The reason being, it was felt that there was
an increasing need for Islamic administration. The Islamic system of education was introduced with
the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. Islam gives great importance to education, which is the
process of teaching, acquiring or learning knowledge. In the Islam religion, education renders a
significant contribution in leading to progression and enhancement of every individual, so that he
can be successful in securing his future and living an efficient life. The system of education in
medieval India was structured on the lines of the tradition of education that was developed under
the Abbasids of Baghdad. The scholars belonging to countries such as, Samarqand, Bukhara and
Iran looked up to the Indian scholars for guidance. Amir Khusrau, a scholar from the Indian sub-
continent, not only developed the skill of writing, prose and poetry, but also formulated a new
language, suitable to the local conditions. Some of the contemporary scholars, like Minhaj-us-Siraj,
Ziauddin Barani and Afif have written about Indian scholarship (Education in India). In this period,
there were number of subjects that were introduced, these include, logic, mathematics,
geometry, history, geography, accountancy, public administration, literature, science, and
astronomy.
EDUCATION IN MODERN INDIA

The modern education system was introduced during the British rule. In the 1830s Lord Thomas
Babington Macaulay brought English language to India and the syllabus was limited to modern and
specific subjects like science, mathematics, language, history, geography and civics. Subjects like
philosophy and metaphysics were considered unnecessary at school level education system. The
mode of teaching was mainly confined to classroom and the teacher student relationship became
stronger. The education system in India got shaped by the influence of various institutions
throughout different periods. During the second half of nineteenth century Rama Krishna Mission
and the Theosophical Society of India tried to combine the western pattern of education with the
congenial ancient knowledge to inspire the young minds of Indians and making them more open
and accepted universally. For a rational mind set intellectuals had come together from various
countries and have translated their knowledge and skills. Education became free and was allowed
to be pursued by anyone without any discrimination like caste, creed religion and color. As India
progressed and got its independence from the British colonial modern education system gradually
evolved. Presently in the Indian School System has four levels pre-primary, primary, secondary and
higher secondary. There are two national level boards Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE) and Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) and also state boards. Government run
schools and the private schools mainly follow both CBSE and ICSE board for their students.
However, with the introduction of E-Learning through technology many of the private schools are
moving towards digitization. Some of the schools have increased their student’s engagement with
the smart teaching techniques like digital textbooks.
There has been a radical change in the Indian education system from teaching religion, Vedas,
scriptures etc. to coaching technologies like virtual reality, programming and others. After
Independence India established numerous schools to foster education in every region among
every stratum of the society. English medium schools have sprouted up in every corner of the
country therefore it is important for the parents to identify the potentials of their child and send
them to the school that is giving the best of education and co-scholastic outlook.
The educational system established by the British in India was colonial in character. It was
designed to prepare Indians only for taking certain subordinate positions in government offices. The
main educational objective of colonial education can better be understood from the declaration of
Lord William Bentinck in his educational policy (1835): “We want a class of persons Indian in
blood and colour but English in tastes in opinion, in morals and in intellect.” The Wood’s Despatch
declared almost the same policy. The aim of British education was to inculcate European knowledge
in the minds of the Indians. But after independence the Indian leaders had realised the inherent
defects in the system of education introduced by the British. After the achievement of independence,
a new phase had begun in the history of education.
Administration of Education Since 1947, Education Department in the Center has developed
in a full-fledged Ministry under the Central Government. The education at the State level is
primarily the responsibility of the State Governments; the Union Government is concerned only
with the coordination and determination of academic standards in respect of higher education,
research and scientific and technical education. The problem of standards and co-ordination in the
sphere of higher education is now the responsibility of the University Grants Commission. Co-
ordination in regard to primary and secondary education is secured through All-India Councils. The
Union Government is also managing Central Universities of Delhi, Aligarh, Benaras and
Shantiniketan and other such institutions of national importance as may be decided by the
Parliament of the country. The Central Advisory Board of Education lays down the general
educational policy. The Board has four Standing Committees dealing with the primary, secondary,
university and social education. These Standing Committees formulate aims and objectives, assess
present position and draw up future plans of development in their respective fields. In the States
there is an education minister assisted by subordinate Ministers and then a secretary to execute the
government’s plans. The Director of Education controls the Elementary and Secondary education in
states with the help of inspectorate, which is directly responsible for the supervision of schools.
The Universities in India are purely autonomous bodies, where as secondary institutions are
partly under the State Government, partly under local bodies and largely under private control, but
recognized and aided by the State departments of education. The majority of educational institutions
are managed on grant-in–aid basis, by non-governmental agencies, such as local bodies, religious or
denominational trusts, private associations or individuals.
University Education Commission (1948-49) was the first Commission on education after
Independence. Its major emphasis was on higher education but it also touched upon the issues
related to school education. The Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr S.
Radhakrishan, a great visionary of modern era.The Commission made, after extensive deliberations,
some very significant recommendations, many of which are pertinent even in the contemporary
context. The recommendations were as follows:
1. The aim of education must be to awaken and promote the innate ability of a person and to train
him/her for development of self and democratic attitudes. Thus, the purpose of education is to
acquaint an individual with his/her cultural heritage and to impart professional and vocational
training.
2. The Commission emphasized the role of post-graduate education, training and research for the
advancement of knowledge.
3. It stressed the university’s role in studying agriculture in an agrarian economy like India and
suggested that special attention should be paid to the development of higher education in rural areas.
It also emphasized that the scientific and technical base of the education system should be
strengthened.
4. Realizing the importance of the medium of instruction, the Commission recommended that
English as a medium of instruction in higher education should be replaced as early as possible by an
Indian language.
5. A university degree should not be required for government administrative services. Special State
examination for recruitment to various State services should be organized.
6. Realizing the deficiencies of the examination system and the magnitude of the wastage, the
Commission recommended a thorough study of the scientific methods of educational testing and
appraisal.
In subsequent years, several Commissions and Committees were also appointed by the
government for educational restructure and changes in the system of higher education in India. The
important documents that have been published are:
1. Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66

2. Towards an Enlightened and Human Society- A Perspective Paper on Education, 1960
3. National Policy on Education, 1968
4. Draft Policy on Education, 1978
5. National Commission on Teachers-II, 1983
6. Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective, 1985
7. National Policy on Education, 1986
8. National Policy on Education: A Programme of Action, 1986
9. National Policy on Education: A Programme of Action, 1992
The concerns of education articulated during the freedom struggle were revisited by the National
Commissions – The Secondary Education Commission (1952- 53), and The Education Commission
(1964-66). A separate education commission was appointed under the chairmanship of
Dr.Lakshamanaswami Mudaliyar in 1952 to address the issues related to school education. The
Secondary Education Commission presented its report in 1953 which had recommendations on
almost all aspects of secondary education.
Based on the recommendation of ‘Kothari Commission’, the first National Policy on Education was
formulated by the Government of India in 1968. After seventeen years of experiment, an attempt
was made to evaluate the national education policy, 1968. At the threshold of the new century, it
was felt that a mere review and minor modification would not be enough. Hence, on becoming
Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi had declared, in January 1985, that a new education policy to equip
the country both scientifically and economically to enter the 21st century would be formulated soon.
Accordingly, the Ministry of Education, Government of India had prepared a document ‘Challenge
of Education– A Policy Perspective’ in 1985. The Government of India declared its new education
policy under the title “National Policy on Education, 1986” which was intended to prepare India for
the 21st century.
As per the National Policy on Education (1968), the aim of education is “to promote national
progress, a sense of common citizenship and culture and to strengthen national integration”.
Education should foster among students an understanding of the diverse cultural and social
characteristics of the people living in different parts of the country. As per the National Policy on
Education (1968) the aims of education should be:
1) To foster all round material and spiritual development of the individual, as well as, the society as
a whole.
2) To promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy,
socialism and secularism, equality of the sexes, national cohesion, removal of social barriers etc.
3) To provide education of comparable quality to all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location
or gender.
4) To develop manpower for different levels of the economy which would further guarantee national
self-reliance.
5) To develop a scientific temper and independence of mind and spirit.
6) To reconstruct the educational system to improve its quality at all stages, and give much greater
attention to science and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer relationship
between education and the life of the people.
7) To inculcate in the mind of the students the importance of national integration and certain
national values like secular, scientific and moral values.
8) To strengthen the world view and motivate the younger generations towards international
cooperation and peaceful coexistence.
9) To promote equality, it is necessary to provide equal opportunity or access, but also provide
conditions for success.
10) To develop awareness of the importance of protection of environment and observance of the
norms of a small family.
11) To encourage students towards the cherished goal of life long education through open and
distance education.
On April 20, 1986 a New Educational Policy was placed before the Indian Parliament for
consideration and approval. It was a result of the renewed priority assigned to Education by the
Government of Late Shri Rajiv Gandhi. The policy had the following objectives:
1. Vocationalization of education; particularly at the secondary stage of education, the curriculum
should be job-oriented.
2. To awaken people about the various scientific and technological developments and to make the
students at the various stages of education aware of the same in order that they may utilize them in
their future life.
3. To encourage the governmental and non-governmental efforts for wiping out illiteracy and to
emphasize the necessity of adult education, formal education and open schools.
The basic recommendations of the policy were related to national form of education, more emphasis
on learning, delinking degree for any service, vocationalization of education, importance on moral
values, emphasis on reforms in the examination system, education of the weaker section of the
society, starting of an All India Educational Service, starting of Open Universities, establishing
many Navodaya Vidyalayas, women education, Operation Blackboard and preservation of culture.
To encounter the educational challenges in 21st century, National Knowledge Commission
(NKC) was constituted in June 2005 by the Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh, under the
Chairmanship of Mr. Sam Pitroda, to prepare a blueprint for reform of our knowledge related
institutions and infrastructure which would enable India to meet the challenges of the future. NKC
has submitted recommendations on areas such as Right to Education, libraries, language, translation
portals and knowledge networks.
Some aims which reflects our Constitutional commitments are as follows:
1) Development of Democratic Citizenship and values in the people.
2) Training in skilful living.
3) Development of Social, Moral and Spiritual Values.
4) Promoting National Consciousness.
The basic aims which form the basis of National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) are 1.Lifelong
Learning 2.Democratic Values 3.Meaningful work leading to Social Transformation 4.Development
of Creativity 5.Development of Life Skills 6.Independence of Thought and Action 7. Holistic
Development of Children.
Recommendations of the Yashpal Committee 2009

The most recent Yashpal Committee, 2009 emphasized that at the undergraduate level students
should be exposed to various disciplines like humanities, social sciences, aesthetics etc.,in an
integrated manner. This should be irrespective of the discipline they would like to specialize in,
whether general or professional higher education like medicine, engineering, etc. Therefore, the
Committee recommended thatprofessional institutions, including IITs and IIMs, should be returned
to universities in a complete administrative and academic sense by abolishing intermediary licensing
bodies. Such a measure will open the possibility of new kinds of course designing for professional
learning in all fields from management and architecture to medicine and engineering. Whether the
IITs and IIMs should be returned to universities or not require an intense informed debate, the
roleplayed by them cannot be undermined.
In 2019, the Ministry of Human Resource Development released a Draft New Education Policy
2019, which was followed by a number of public consultations. The Draft NEP discusses reducing
curriculum content to enhance essential learning, critical thinking and more holistic experiential,
discussion-based and analysis-based learning. It also talks about a revision of the curriculum and
pedagogical structure from a 10+2 system to a 5+3+3+4 system design in an effort to optimise
learning for students based on cognitive development of children.
Salient features of NEP 2019

 The policy aims to universalize the pre-primary education by 2025 and provide
foundationalliteracy/numeracy for all by 2025.
 It proposes new Curricular and Pedagogical Structure, with 5+3+3+4 design covering the
children in the age group 3-18 years. Under this, Pre-Primary & Grades 1-2 is considered as
foundational Stage; Grades 3-5 as Preparatory Stage; Grades 6-8 as Middle Stage and Grades
9-12 as Secondary Stage. This is an academic restructuring only; there will be no physical
restructuring of schools.
 Universal Access & Retention with 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio for all school education by
2030.
 Children learn languages, most quickly between 2-8 years, and multilingualism has great
cognitive benefits for students. Therefore, a three-language formula has been proposed.
 It proposes the teaching of other classical languages and literature, including Tamil, Telugu,
Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Pali, Persian, and Prakrit in schools.
 A new independent State School Regulatory Authority (SSRA) to be created.
 It aims to consolidate 800 universities & 40,000 colleges into around 15,000 large,
multidisciplinary institutions.
 The policy proposes three types of Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs): Research
Universities, Teaching Universities and Autonomous degree-granting colleges.
 It aims to provide autonomy to all higher education institutions. Higher education institutions
to be governed by Independent Boards with complete academic and administrative
autonomy.
 An autonomous body called the National Research Foundation (NRF) to be set up through an
Act of Parliament.
 Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog or the National Education Commission - apex body - to be
constituted. It will be chaired by the Prime Minister and will comprise eminent
educationalists researchers, Union Ministers, representation of Chief Ministers of States,
eminent professionals from various fields.
 MHRD to be re-designated as the Ministry of Education (MoE).
 Increase in public investment by the Central and State Governments to 20% of overall public
expenditure over a 10-year period.
 The policy focuses on online learning as an alternative to regular classroom interaction
between teachers and students. It helps in achieving the twin objectives of cutting costs and
increasing enrollment.
 It aims to protect and promote our culture through the study of classical languages, mother
tongues, and regional languages.
INDIAN SCIENTISTS (ANCIENT)

Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in India. Ancient
Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics as well as various branches of
science. In this section, we will read about the developments in Mathematics and the scholars who
contributed to it. You will be surprised to know that many theories of modern-day mathematics
were actually known to ancient Indians. However, since ancient Indian mathematicians were not
as good in documentation and dissemination as their counterparts in the modern western world,
their contributions did not find the place they deserved. Moreover, the western world ruled over
most of the world for a long time, which empowered them to claim superiority in every way,
including in the field of knowledge. Let us now take a look at some of these contributions of
ancient Indian mathematicians.
1. Kanad (6th century BC)

Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian
philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a child, he
was interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a match to any
modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, material universe is made up of kanas (anu/atom),
which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further subdivided. Thus, they
are indivisible and indestructible. This is, of course, as you may be knowing, what the modern
atomic theory also says.Kanada also dicussed “abhava-pardartha” in his writings which is explained
by modern science as anti-matter.
2. Susruta (6th century BC)

Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the
healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He studied human anatomy with the help of a dead body.
In Susruta Samhita, over 1100 diseases are mentioned including fevers of twenty-six kinds,
jaundice of eight kinds and urinary complaints of twenty kinds. Over 760 plants are described. All
parts, roots, bark, juice, resin, flowers etc. were used. Cinnamon, sesame, peppers, cardamom,
ginger are household remedies even today.
In Susruta Samhita, the method of selecting and preserving a dead body for the purpose of
its detailed study has also been described. The dead body of an old man or a person who died of a
severe disease was generally not considered for studies. The body needed to be perfectly cleaned
and then preserved in the bark of a tree. It was then kept in a cage and hidden carefully in a spot in
the river. There the current of the river softened it. After seven days it was removed from the
river. It was then cleaned with a brush made of grass roots, hair and bamboo. When this was done,
every inner or outer part of the body could be seen clearly.
Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and
ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts). In those days, cutting of nose and/or ears was a
common punishment. Restoration of these or limbs lost in wars was a great blessing. In Susruta
Samhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations. Surprisingly, the
steps followed by Susruta are strikingly similar to those followed by modern surgeons while doing
plastic surgery. Susruta Samhita also gives a description of 101 instruments used in surgery. Some
serious operations performed included taking foetus out of the womb, repairing the damaged
rectum, removing stone from the bladder, etc.
3. Baudhayan (6th century BC)

Baudhayan was the first one ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which were later
rediscovered by the western world. The Baudhāyanasūtras are a group of Vedic Sanskrit texts
which cover dharma, daily ritual, mathematics, etc. They belong to the Taittariyabranch of the
Krishna Yajurveda School and are among the earliest texts of the genre, perhaps compiled in the
8th to 6th centuries BCE. The value of pi was first calculated by him. As you know, pi is useful in
calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What is known as Pythagoras theorem today is
already found in Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutra, which was written several years before the age of
Pythagoras.
4. Aryabhatta (476 - 550 AD)

Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was a
pioneer in the field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a summary
of mathematics of his time. There are four sections in this scholarly work.In the first section he
describes the method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets.In the second section, we
find difficult questions from topics of modern-day Mathematics such as number theory,
geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita (algebra). The remaining two sections are on astronomy.
Aryabhatta showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept. Discovery
of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance between the earth and the moon. The
discovery of zero also opened up a new dimension of negative numerals. As we have seen, the last
two sections of Aryabhattiya were on Astronomy. Evidently, Aryabhatta contributed greatly to the
field of science, too, particularly Astronomy.
In ancient India, the science of astronomy was well advanced. It was called
Khagolshastra.Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta
studied. Infact science of astronomy was highly advanced and our ancestors were proud of it. The
aim behind the development of the science of astronomy was the need to have accurate
calendars, a better understanding of climate and rainfall patterns for timely sowing and choice of
crops, fixing the dates of seasons and festivals, navigation, calculation of time and casting of
horoscopes for use in astrology. Knowledge of astronomy, particularly knowledge of the tides
and the stars, was of great importance in trade, because of the requirement of crossing the
oceans and deserts during night time. Disregarding the popular view that our planet earth is
‘Achala’ (immovable), Aryabhatta stated his theory that ‘earth is round and rotates on its own
axis’ He explained that the appearance of the sun moving from east to west is false by giving
examples.One such example was: When a person travels in a boat, the trees on the shore appear
to move in the opposite direction. He also correctly stated that the moon and the planets shined
by reflected sunlight. He also gave a scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipse clarifying
that the eclipses were not because of Rahhu and/or Ketu or some other rakshasa (demon).
5. Brahmgupta (598-668 AD)

In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights far beyond others. In his methods of
multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. He introduced
negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm Sputa Siddantika
through which the Arabs came to know our mathematical system.
6. Bhaskara-1 (600 - 680 AD): He was a 7th century mathematician, who was the first to write
numbers in the Hindu decimal system with a circle or the zero, and who gave a unique and
remarkable ratinal approximationof the sine function in his commentary on Aryabatta's work. This
commentary, Aryabhattiyabhasya, written in 629 CE, is among the oldest known prose works in
Sanskrit on mathematics and astronomy. He also wrote two astronomical works in the line of
Aryabhatta's school, the Mahabhaskariya and Laghubhasariya.
7. Charaka
Charak is considered the father of ancient Indian science of medicine. He was the Raj Vaidya (royal doctor)
in the court of Kanishka. His Charak Samhitais a remarkable book on medicine. It has the description of a
large number of diseases and gives methods of identifying their causes as well as the method of their
treatment. He was the first to talk about digestion, metabolism and immunity as important for health and
so medical scienc. In Charak Samhita, more stress has been laid on removing the cause of disease rather
than simply treating the illness. Charak also knew the fundamentals of Genetics. Don’t you find it
fascinating that, thousandsof yearsback, medical science was at such an advanced stage in India.
INDIAN SCIENTISTS (MEDIEVAL)

1. Mahaviracharya (9th Century AD)
There is an elaborate description of mathematics in Jain literature. Jain gurus knew how to solve
quadratic equations. They have also described fractions, algebraic equations, series, set theory,
logarithms and exponents in a very interesting manner. Jain Guru Mahaviracharya wrote Ganit
Sara Sangraha in 850 A.D., which is the first textbook on arithmetic in present day form. The
current method of solving Least common Multiple (LCM) of given numbers was also described by
him. Thus, long before John Napier introduced it to the world, it was already known to Indians.
2. Bhaskaracharya-2 (12thCentury AD)

Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka. He is
famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic),
Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of planets), some times
these are considerd as independent works. Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic
Method to solve algebraic equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by
European mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an English man,
James Taylor, translated Lilavati and made this great work known to the world.
Bhaskaracharya's work on calculus predates NEWTON and LEIBNIZ by atleast 500 years. He is
particularly known in the discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to
astronomical problems and computations. While Newton and Leibniz have been credited with
differential and integral calculus, there is strong evidence to suggest that Bhāskara was a pioneer
in some of the principles of differential calculus. He was perhaps the first to conceive the
differential coefficient and differential calculus.
3. Varahamihira (6th Century AD)

Varahamihira was another wellknown scientist of the ancient period in India. He lived in the Gupta
period. Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology and ecology. He
was one of the first scientists to claim that termites and plants could be the indicators of the
presence of underground water. He gave a list of six animals and thirty plants, which could indicate
the presence of water. He gave very important information regarding termites (Deemak or insects
that destroy wood), that they go very deep to the surface of water level to bring water to keep
their houses (bambis) wet. Another theory, which has attracted the world of science is the
earthquake cloud theory given by Varahmihira in his Bruhat-Samhita. The thirty second chapter of
this samhita is devoted to signs of earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence
of planets, undersea activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormal
behaviour of animals.
Another field where Varahamihira’s contribution is worth mentioning is Jyotish(Astrology).
Astrology was given a very high place in ancient India and it has continued even today. Jyotish,
which means science of light, originated with the Vedas. It was presented scientifically in a
systematic form by Aryabhatta and Varahmihira. You have already seen that Aryabhatta devoted
two out of the 4 sections of his work Aryabhattiyam to astronomy, which is the basis for Astrology.
Astrology is the science of predicting the future. Varahamihira was one of the nine gems, who
were scholars, in the court of Vikramaditya. Varahamihira’s predictions were so accurate that king
Vikramaditya gave him the title of ‘Varaha’.
4. Nagarjuna
Nagarjuna was a tenth century scientist. The main aim of his experiments was to transform base
elements into gold, like the alchemists in the western world. Even though he was not successful in
his goal, he succeeded in making an element with gold-like shine. Till date, this technology is used
in making imitation jewelry. In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has discussed methods for the
extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.
SCIENTISTS OF MODERN INDIA

1. Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858-1937)
He was born on 30 November, 1858 at Mymensingh, now in Bangladesh, where he had his early
education. He had his higher education at St. Xaviers College, Calcutta. In 1885 he was appointed
Assistant Professor of Physics at the Presidency College but refused to take salary because it was
nearly half of that of an Englishman. Later on, he decided to become a scientist to recover the fame
that India enjoyed all over the world in ancient times. He made an apparatus to study the properties
of electric waves. For his paper on “The Electromagnetic Radiation and Polarization of Electric
Ray”, he was made a Knight in 1917 and Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1920. He was
the first Indian scientist in Physics to receive this honour.
Dr. Bose is famous all over the world as the inventor of Crescograph that can record even the
millionth part of a millimeter of plant growth and movement. DrBose proved through graphs taken
by the Crescograph that plants have a circulatory system too. Crescograph has also shown that the
upward movement of sap in plants is the activity of living cells.
Dr. Bose also made many other instruments famous all over the world as Bose instruments,
to prove that even metals react to outward stimuli. Bose’s instruments have shown, how even steel
and metals used in scissors and machinery get tired and regain efficiency after a period of rest.
Besides Crescograph and other Bose instruments, his wireless inventions too antedated those
of Marconi. He was the first to invent a wireless coherer (radio signal detector) and an instrument
for indicating the refraction of electric waves. When someone drew his attention towards this fact,
he simply remarked that it is an invention which is more important for mankind than the inventor.
2. Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-1920) Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan (FRS) better known as Srinivasa
Iyengar Ramanujan, one of India’s greatest mathematical geniuses was born at Erode in Tamil
Nadu on 22nd December, 1887. His love of mathematics was unusual. Numbers seemed to draw
him by a strange magnetism. He started working and developing his own ideas in mathematics. He
used to write his ideas and results and make notes on his findings. Three of his research note
books are available to us. They are called Ramanujan’s Frayed Notebooks. He could not complete
his college education as he kept on developing his ideas and started posing problems and solving
them in the Journal of Indian Mathematical Society. In 1911, he published in the same journal a
brilliant research paper on Bernoulli Numbers. This got him recognition and he became well known
in Madras circles as a mathematical genius. Lack of formal education made it very difficult for him
to make both ends meet. With great difficulty he could get the job of a clerk at Madras Port Trust
which proved fortunate for him. Here he came in contact with many people who had training in
mathematics. He found a book ‘Orders of Infinity’written by G. H. Hardy. He wrote a letter to him
in which he mentioned 120 theorems and formulae. Hardy was quick to recognise his genius and
he responded by arranging for him a passage to London. Despite his lack of required qualification,
he was allowed to enroll at Trinity College from where he got his Bachelor of Science degree in less
than two years. He formed a wonderful team with Hardy and J.E. Littlewood and made amazing
contributions to the field of mathematics. He published many papers in London. He was the
second Indian to be elected Fellow of the Royal Society of London and the first Indian to be elected
Fellow of Trinity College. Ramanujan had an intimate familiarity with numbers. In 1917, he fell
seriously ill, but the numbers remained his friend, though his body betrayed him. Unfortunately,
his health became worse and he returned to India in 1919, “With a scientific standing and
reputation”. He died in 1920. His mathematical genius is a proof that India indeed is the birthplace
and source of great mathematical ideas.
3. Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman (1888-1970)

Chandrasekhara V. Raman, popularly known as C.V. Raman, was not only a great scientistbut also
believed in the promotion of human well being and human dignity. He won theNobel Prize for
Physics in 1930. He was the first Asian to receive this award. C.V. Raman was born on 7 November
1888 in Tiruchirapalli, in Tamil Nadu. His father was a professor of Physics and Mathematics. He
grew up in an environment of Sanskrit literature, music and science. Nature had gifted him with
great power of concentration, intelligence and spirit of inquiry. Even in his childhood, he was
popular as a child genius.
He stood first in the Indian Audit and Accounts (IAAS) Examination and was appointed as
Assistant Accountant General in the Finance Department in Calcutta at the age of nineteen. He
sacrificed his high post for his love for science and joined the Science College of Calcutta University
as a professor of Physics. Due to his deep love of music, he started working on musical instruments
like the veena, violin, tabla and mridangam. In 1921 he read a paper on the theory of Stringed
Instruments before the Royal Society of London. In 1924, he was made Fellow of the Royal Society.
On his journey to England, he was greatly attracted by the blue colour of the sea. He was
curious to know why it remained blue even when big waves rolled up. Then he got the intuitive
flash that it was due to the breaking up of sun’s light by water molecules. He conducted many
experiments and prepared a long paper on molecular scattering of light and sent it to the Royal
Society of London. The world of science was dumb struck at the brilliance of his mind. Dr. Raman’s
life is a great example for us to follow. Even when India was under British rule and there was
hardly any basic infrastructure for experimentation, he used his great mind as his laboratory. He
proved through the example of his life, how our ancestors formulated great theories using the
power of their mind.
4. Homi Jehangir Bhabha (1909-1966)

Dr.Homi Jehangir Bhabha was a great scientist. He led India into atomic age. He is called the father
of Indian Nuclear Science. He was born on 30th October, 1909 in a famous Parsi family. Even as a
boy, he showed his intelligence and won many prizes. He did his early studies in Mumbai. He took
a degree in Mechanical Engineering from Cambridge, completed research work there and received
his doctorate in 1935. Till 1939, he carried outstanding original research relating to cosmic
radiation. He returned to India when the Second World War started. Dr. Bhabha joined the Indian
Institute of Sciences at Bangalore as a Reader at the request of Dr. C.V. Raman. Soon he became a
Professor of Physics. It was here that he got the idea of building a research institute for some of
the new areas of Physics. He took a very bold decision and wrote a letter to Sir DorabJi Tata trust
suggesting that an institution should be established which would lay the foundation of India as a
world nuclear power. This institute would produce its own experts and the country would not have
to depend on outside sources. As a result, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was
started in 1945, at Dr. Bhabha’s ancestral home.
India’s first atomic research centre now called Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) was
established at Trombay. India’s First atomic reactor, Apsara was also established under his expert
guidance. Bhabha became the first chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission set up in 1948. His
studies in the field of atomic energy are considered of great importance in international circles. He
served as the chairman of international conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy, supported
by the United Nations. The Government of India honoured him with Padma Bhushan. In 1966, Dr.
Bhabha died in a plane crash.
5. Dr Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai (1919-1970)

Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai is another great genius of modem India. He was the main personality
behind the launching of India’s first satellite Aryabhatta. He received his primary education at a
school run by his parents. He studied cosmic rays under the guidance of Dr.C.V. Raman and
received his Ph.D. degree from Cambridge University. His studies of cosmic rays have made it clear
that cosmic rays are a stream of energy particles coming from the outer space. While reaching the
earth, they are influenced on the way by the sun, the earth’s atmosphere and magnetism. Dr.
Sarabhai had a multifaceted personality. He was a great industrialist. Today, there are many
industries founded by him such as Sarabhai chemicals, Sarabhai Glass, Sarabhai Geigy Ltd., Sara
Bhai Merck Ltd. and many others. He also helped in saving crores of rupees for India by starting
the mission of manufacturing military hardware and producing antibiotics and penicillin in India
which were being imported from abroad. He was also the founder of Ahmedabad Textile Industrial
Association and Ahmedabad Money Association. In this way, he established a large number of
successful industries. Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai established many institutes which are of
international repute. Most notable among them are Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) which
are considered world class for their management studies. He was the Chairman of the Indian
National Commission for Space Research (INCOSPAR) and of the Atomic Energy Commission. He
directed the setting up of Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS). He also made
plans to take education to the villages through Satellite communication. He was awarded the
Padma Bhushan in 1966 and the Padma Vibhushan after his death. His death was a great loss to
the nation.
6. Dr.A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (1931 - 2015)

Dr A.P.J Abdul Kalam, the eleventh President of India was born on 15 October, 1931, in the island
town of Rameshwaram, in Tamil Nadu. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian
honour in 1997 for his contributions in the field of science and engineering.
Dr. Kalam had his primary education at Rameshwaram. He passed his class ten exams from
Schwartz High School, Ramanathapuram and obtained a degree in Aeronautical Engineering from
Madras Institute of Technology. Dr. Kalam served in Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
from 1963 to 1982. At Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, he developed the Satellite Launch Vehicle
(SLV3), which put the satellite Rohini into orbit. In 1982, as Director, Defence Research
Development Organisation (DRDO), he was given the responsibility of Integrated Guided Missile
Development Programme (IGMDP). He developed five projects for defence services Prithvi, Trishul,
Akash, Nag and Agni. He led India into an era of self-dependence. Agni, which is a surface-to-
surface missile, is a unique achievement. Its successful launch made India a member of the club of
highly developed countries.
The light weight carbon material designed for Agni has been used to make calipers for the
polio-affected. The material has reduced the weight of calipers to 400gmsfrom 4 kgs. It is a great
blessing for human beings. The material has also been used for making spring like coils called
stents, which are used in Balloon Angioplasty for treating heart patients.
DrKalam’s life is a symbol of the true spirit of India. He is a real follower of Indian tradition
and religion. He has integrated science with religion and philosophy. He strongly believes in being
guided from inside i.e. “relying more on inner signals and less on external cues” as well as doing
duties selflessly.

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Essence of Indian Traditional Knowledge

INDIAN LANGUAGES, CULTURE AND LITERATURE (UNIT 2) 16

ESSENCE OF VEDIC SCIENCES (UNIT 3) 33

FINE ARTS IN INDIA (ARTS, TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING) (UNIT 4) 33

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA (UNIT 5) 1

Culture is a way of life

General Characteristics of Culture

2|Page Compiled by PPBharadwaja

Culture and Civilisation

Culture and Heritage

IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HUMAN LIFE

Variety and Unity

Ancient Indian Culture

Society and Religion in Vedic period

8|Page Compiled by PPBharadwaja

Material life and economy

Medieval Indian Culture

Development of Folk Arts

INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY [Modern India culture]

Society & Culture

The Vedic Literature

The Rig-veda Samhita

The Yajur-Veda Samhita

The Sama-Veda Samhita

The Atharva-veda Samhita:

Astika philosophical system (Shat Darshanas):

5. Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini):

(Nastika system) Charvaka Philosophy:

Buddhist and Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrit and Sanskrit

Famous Sanskrit Authors of the Gupta Period

Literature of South India (Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam Literature)

Tamil or Sangama Literature

Northern Indian Languages & Literature

Hindi Language Makes Progress in Modern Period

Scientific approach in VEDIC LITERATURE

48th sutra from 1st chapter of Baudhayana rishi’s sulba sutras

Meaning: Adhyabrahmana Dviteeya parardhe - in the 2nd half of Brahma's life

Age of COSMOS (in Maha-Sankalpa)

Comparision of Western and Indian Philosophical thinking

Western understanding of Indian Philosophy

German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. An ardent student of the Upanishads, Schopenhauer

REFORM MOVEMENTS IN MODERN INDIA

THE BHAKTHI MOVEMENT

The Vaishnavite Movement

The Importance of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements.

The Chishti Silsilah

The Suhrawardi Silsilah

IMPORTANCE OF THE SUFI MOVEMENT

Importance of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements

RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY (1772 - 1833) AND BRAHMO SAMAJ

SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI (1824-1883) AND ARYA SAMAJ

THE RAMAKRISHNA MISSION AND SWAMI VIVEKANANDA (1863-1902)

ALIGARH MOVEMENT AND SAYYID AHMAD KHAN

REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG PARSIS

Materials used in the paintings

Art in Medieval India

Art in the Modern Period

PERFORMING ARTS: MUSIC, DANCE AND DRAMA

Concept of Performing Arts