UNIT NO 1: BASICS OF GRAMMER:

1.1 Letters, Syllable, Word, Phrase, Sentence, Paragraph.

1.2 Clause, Its Kinds and Use
1.3 Use of Articles
1.1.1 Letter:
A symbol usually written or printed representing a speech sound and constituting a unit of an alphabet
A direct or personal written or printed message addressed to a person or organization.
A letter is a type of grapheme, which is a functional unit in a writing system: a letter (or group of letters)
represents visually a phoneme (a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a
particular language). Letters are combined to form written words, just as phonemes are combined to form
spoken words. A sequence of graphemes representing a phoneme is called a multigraph. A digraph is a
case of polygraphs consisting of two graphemes.[3] Examples of digraphs in English include Ch, sh, and th.
Some phonemes are represented by three letters, called a trigraph, such as sch in German.
The same letterform may be used in different alphabets but have different sounds. The letters ⟨H⟩, ⟨Η⟩ and
⟨Н⟩ look rather alike but are the Latin H, Greek eta and Cyrillic en respectively; conversely the letters ⟨S⟩,
⟨Σ⟩ (sigma) and ⟨С⟩ (Es (Cyrillic)) from these alphabets each represent (approximately) the same [s] sound.
The basic Latin alphabet is used by hundreds of languages around the world,[4] but there are many
other alphabets.
1.1.2 Syllables:
We often see there are different kinds of words in English some are small in length having maximum 2 to 8
alphabets and some are large in length having more than 10 alphabets. It is difficult to pronounce these
words having more than 8 alphabets. To ease this, we break down the words into shorter parts and spell
them easily. This is known as syllable.
Definition of Syllable:
In simple words we can define syllable as one or more letters representing a large word consisting of a
single uninterrupted sequence of speech sound.
Syllable Examples:
The word “Geography” is composed of three syllables: ‘geo’, ‘gra’, and ‘phy’. Similarly, the word
“Handkerchief” is also composed of 3 syllables: ‘hand’, ‘ker’, and ‘chief’.
Syllable Structure:
Syllables are considered as the phonological “building blocks” of words. They also influence the rhythm of
English language, its prosody, poetic meter and stress patterns.
Single syllable words are known as ‘monosyllable’, two syllables’ words are known as ‘disyllable’, three
syllables’ words are known as ‘trisyllable’ and words having more than three syllable are known as
‘polysyllable
PHRASE AND CLAUSE:
Difference Between Phrase & Clause

Phrase Clause

A group of words standing together as a conceptual A grammatical arrangement that contains a set
unit and do not have a subject and a verb of words having a subject and a verb.

Phrase is component of a clause Clause is a component of a complete sentence

Each word of a phrase has a meaning but collectively Clause gives complete meaning and can even
it does not form complete sense like a sentence. i.e., it be a complete sentence when standalone
does not give a complete meaning when standalone
 A part of sentence without the two parts of speech A part of sentence having the two parts of
i.e., Sentence and Predicate and (does not convey any speech i.e. Subject and Predicate (gives
idea) complete idea)

Phrase Example – Clause Example –

 Fish Swims in the Water  Fish Swims in the water

 She is sleeping on the floor  She is sleeping on the floor
 They will meet at the concert  They will meet at the concert
 Over the horizon  He smiled
 She is sketching on the Wall  She is sketching on the Wall

SENTENCE
A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full-
stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark.
The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough idea by giving a
statement/order, or asking a question, or exclaiming.
Example:

He is a good boy (statement), Is he a good boy? (question), What a nice weather! (exclaiming).

Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the subject of a sentence can be
hidden, but the verb must be visible and present in the sentence. Verb is called the heart of a sentence.
Example:

Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible)
KINDS OF SENTENCE:
1. Assertive or Declarative Sentence.
2. Imperative Sentence
3. Interrogative Sentence
4. Exclamatory Sentence
Assertive or Declarative Sentence
An assertive sentence is also called a declarative sentence, as these sentences assert, state, and declares
also. This sentence relates to facts, thoughts, opinions, and beliefs, ending with a full stop.
These are the most usable sentences, among others, which can be of any length that contains a subject snd
an object.
Examples
 David loves traveling with friends.
 The moon is the satellite of the earth.
Imperative Sentence
An Imperative sentence expresses an order, request, command, and suggestion. We use this type of
sentence on our daily basis. In an imperative sentence, the subject is always the second person that is you,
and that’s why we can easily recognize them.
as we can say that-
 An imperative sentence can mainly be found in stories, novels,
biographies/autobiographies, literature.
 Imperative sentences can be used to make ads.
While writing these sentences, we should know points-
 For normal command, the sentence must end with a full stop.
 For forceful command, the sentence should end with an exclamation sign (!).
Examples:
 Please come here.
  Don’t shout.
 Go to the grocery shop.
Interrogative Sentence
The word interrogate means to ask something. Similarly, an Interrogative sentence means a sentence that
asks a question, and this sentence always ends with a question mark sign (?).
These sentences always get accordingly in the form of a question.
Occasionally, the interrogative sentence’s answers are only yes/no, but sometimes it needs a brief
explanation.
Wherever we need to collect some information, we use the interrogative sentences.
Examples:
 When did he will come to my house?
 Did you complete your assignment, which I had given yesterday?
Exclamatory Sentence
A Sentence that expresses some strong, unexpected, and extraordinary emotion and surprise or sudden
changing thoughts is called an exclamative sentence.
An Exclamative sentence can easily be identified, which always ends with an exclamation sign (!).
Examples:
 Please, talk to me now!
 What the hell, man!
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE:
1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Complex sentence
Kinds of Sentences and Their Punctuation

A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon the number and type(s) of clauses it contains.

Review:

An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.

1. A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one independent clause.

Punctuation note: NO commas separate two compound elements (subject, verb, direct object, indirect
object, subjective complement, etc.) in a simple sentence.
2. A COMPOUND SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined by
A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so),
B. a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, therefore), or
C. a semicolon alone.

Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, and C above):

A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent clause.
B. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause.
C. Independent clause; independent clause.
3. A COMPLEX SENTENCE has one dependent clause (headed by a subordinating conjunction or a relative
pronoun ) joined to an independent clause.

Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, C and D above):

A. Dependent clause, independent clause

B. Independent clause dependent clause

C. Independent, nonessential dependent clause, clause.

D. Independent essential dependent clause clause.

4. A COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined to one or more dependent
clauses.
 Punctuation patterns:

Follow the rules given above for compound and complex sentences.
A compound-complex sentence is merely a combination of the two.
CONNECTORS--COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
Two independent clauses may be joined by
1. Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) Ic, and ic
2. Conjunctive adverbs Ic; therefore, ic.

A dependent (subordinate) clause may be introduced by

1. Subordinating conjunctions (ADVERB CLAUSE) Dc, ic. or Ic dc.
2. Relative pronouns (ADJECTIVE CLAUSE) I, dc, c. or I dc c.
4. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions, or adverbs (NOUN CLAUSE)
DEFINITION OF PARAGRAPH:
A paragraph develops ONE main idea through a series of related sentences. This main idea is usually
introduced in the first sentence of the paragraph, called the topic sentence. The idea is then developed
further through the sentences that follow.
A paragraph is usually around 250 words and consists of five or six sentences, although this can vary
depending on the purpose of the paragraph, and the length of the piece you are writing. Paragraphs play
an important role in writing because they provide a framework for organising your ideas in a logical order.
Using a clear structure for your paragraphs helps guide the reader through your written work.
Types of Paragraphs – Focus on Description
When considering the type of paragraph, you are about to write, you need to consider a few different
questions. What is the purpose of the paragraph? What are you trying to communicate to your
reader? The answers to these questions will guide you as you consider both the content of your
paragraph and the effect you are trying to achieve. There are many different types of paragraphs. Each
type has a different purpose, and writers make use of different means in achieving each purpose. The
following is a list of some of the paragraph types we will be using in English 12.
 Narrative Paragraph
Narrative paragraphs tell stories. They differ from short stories or novels in length as well as in the
amount of detail provided; they sometimes are little more than brief vignettes. True narrative
paragraphs, however, are similar to short stories in that they feature characters, follow a plot line,
include a conflict which is resolved and are told from an identifiable point of view. They may also
establish a setting or include a moral.
Descriptive Paragraph
The purpose of a descriptive paragraph is to allow the reader to experience the item, phenomenon or
event being described as vividly as possible without physically sensing it. That is, the reader cannot see
it, but knows what it looks like; cannot taste it, but knows whether it is salty or sweet; cannot touch it,
but knows its texture. Descriptive paragraphs typically include modifiers (ex., adjectives, adverbs,
prepositional phrases) and figurative language (ex., metaphors, personification, similes) to help enrich
the "experience" for the reader.
Expository Paragraph
An expository paragraph explains something; its purpose is to help the reader understand. Exposition
often includes techniques such as the use of examples or illustrations to support a point or the use
of some kind of ordering (chronological or numerical, for example) to help a reader follow a process.
Exposition needs to be clear; language is often quite direct although sometimes a writer may use
language devices to help illustrate a point.
Persuasive Paragraph
The purpose of a persuasive paragraph is to convince the reader of something, such as the
writer's position on a controversial topic or a proposal for a new project. The structure is often similar
to that of an expository piece, as it is usually helpful to explain a little bit about the subject, but
rhetorical devices are often employed to help sway the reader's opinion. The language can be highly
charged; the intent is to get a reaction.
Literary Paragraph
Literary paragraphs are paragraphs written about literature; they are part of a genre known as "literary
criticism." This does not mean they are supposed to find fault with a piece of literature; criticism, in
this sense, is an analytical examination of a poem, story, novel, play, essay, or other literary work. The
writer of a literary paragraph must choose a specific aspect of the text to examine and then focus on
that aspect, always referring back to the literature. Literary paragraphs do not make references to
“real life” – the protagonist may be just like the writer’s Great-aunt Gertrude, but this observation has
no place in a literary paragraph. Quotations are often used to support the observations and
evaluations made by the writer.
ELEMENTS OF PARAGRAPH:
The four elements essential to good paragraph writing are: unity, order,
coherence, and completeness.
Unity: Unity in a sentence starts with the subject phrase. Every sentence has one individual, managing
concept that is indicated in its subject phrase, which is generally the first phrase of the sentence. A
sentence is specific around this main concept, with the assisting phrases offering details and
conversation. In order to create a good subject phrase, think about your style and all the details you
want to make. Choose which point pushes the relax, and then create it as your subject sentence.
Order: Order represents the way you arrange your assisting phrases. Whether you choose date order,
order of importance, or another reasonable demonstration of detail, a solid sentence always has a
certain organization. In a well-ordered sentence, people follows along easily, with the design you’ve
established. Order helps people understanding your indicating and avoid misunderstandings.
Coherence: Coherence is the quality that makes your writing understandable. Sentences within a
paragraph need to connect to each other and work together as a whole. One of the best ways to
achieve coherency is to use transition words. These words create bridges from one sentence to the
next. You can use transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above,
below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact). Also, in writing a paragraph, using a consistent verb
tense and point of view are important ingredients for coherency.
 completeness: Completeness means a expression is well-developed. If all words clearly and properly
assistance the significant idea, then your expression is complete. If there are not enough words or
enough information to confirm your dissertation, then the expression is partial. Usually three assisting
words, moreover to a topic expression and completing expression, are needed for a expression to be
complete. The completing expression or last expression of the expression should sum up your
significant idea by strengthening your topic expression.
CLAUSE:
A clause is comprised of a group of words that include a subject and a finite verb. It contains only one
subject and one verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent
and distinguishable.
A clause is “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a
complex or compound sentence
TYPES OF CLAUSE:
 Independent Clause
 Dependent Clause
o Adjective Clause
o Noun Clause
o Adverbial Clause
 Principal Clause
 Coordinate Clause
 Non-finite Clause
Independent Clause
It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*,
yet*.
Example:
o He is a wise man.
o I like him.
o Can you do it?
o Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)
o I read the whole story.
o I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money . (Two independent clauses)
o He went to London and visited the Lords . (Subject of the second clause is ‘he,' so “he
visited the Lords” is an independent clause.)
o Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)
Dependent Clause
It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is also called a subordinate
clause. These help the independent clauses complete the sentence. Alone, it cannot form a complete
sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another clause to complete the
sentence. In each of the dependent clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative
pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
o When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
o I know the man who stole the watch .
o He bought a car which was too expensive .
o I know that he cannot do it.
o He does not know where he was born .
o If you don’t eat , I won’t go.
o He is a very talented player though he is out of form.
Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are –
1. Adjective Clause
It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. Basically, Adjective Clauses have similar qualities
as Adjectives that are of modifying Nouns and hence the name, Adjective Clause. These are also called
Relative Clauses and they usually sit right after the Nouns they modify.
Examples:
o I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.
o Finn is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.
o You there, who is sitting quietly at the corner, come here and lead the class out.

2. Noun Clause

Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun Clauses or Nominal Clauses. These often
start with “how,” “that,” other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and Whom), if,
whether etc.

Examples:
o I like what I hear.
o You need to express that it’s crossing a line for you.
o He knows how things work around here.
3. Adverbial Clause
By definition, these are Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means that these clauses have the power
to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.
Examples:
o Alice did the dishes till her legs gave up.
o Tina ran to the point of panting vehemently.
o I went through the book at a lightning speed.
Principal Clause
These have a Subject (Noun/Pronoun), Finite Verb and an Object and make full sentences that can stand
alone or act as the main part of any Complex or Compound Sentence. Independent and Principal Clauses
are functionally the same but named from different perspectives.
Examples:
o I know that boy.
o He can jog every morning.
o Robin fishes like a pro.
Coordinate Clause
Two or more similarly important Independent Clauses joined by Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but
etc.) in terms of Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses.
Examples:
o I like taking photos and he loves posing for them.
o You prefer flying but she always wants to take a bus.
o We are going to visit Terry or he is coming over.
Non-finite Clause

They contain a Participle or an Infinitive Verb that makes the Subject and Verb evident even though
hidden. In terms of a Participle, the Participial Phrase takes place of the Subject or Object of the sentence.

Examples:
o He saw the boy (who was) staring out of the window.
o She is the first person (who is) to enter the office.
o Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up.
ARTICLES:
http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/
DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES
In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. Articles are used before nouns or noun equivalents and
are a type of adjective. The definite article (the) is used before a noun to indicate that the identity of the
noun is known to the reader. The indefinite article (a, an) is used before a noun that is general or when its
identity is not known. There are certain situations in which a noun takes no article.
As a guide, the following definitions and table summarize the basic use of articles. Continue reading for a
more detailed explanation of the rules and for examples of how and when to apply them.
Definite article
the (before a singular or plural noun)
Indefinite article
a (before a singular noun beginning with a consonant sound)
an (before a singular noun beginning with a vowel sound)
Count nouns - refers to items that can be counted and are either singular or plural
Non-count nouns - refers to items that are not counted and are always singular

COUNT NON-COUNT
NOUNS NOUNS

Rule #1 a, an (no article)

Specific identity not
known

Rule #2 the the

Specific identity known

Rule #3 (no article) (no article)

All things or things in
general

For the purposes of understanding how articles are used, it is important to know that nouns can be
either count (can be counted) or noncount (indefinite in quantity and cannot be counted). In addition,
count nouns are either singular (one) or plural (more than one). Noncount nouns are always
in singular form.
For example, if we are speaking of water that has been spilled on the table, there can be one drop
(singular) or two or more drops (plural) of water on the table. The word drop in this example is
a count noun because we can count the number of drops. Therefore, according to the rules applying
to count nouns, the word drop would use the articles a or the.
However, if we are speaking of water in general spilled on the table, it would not be appropriate to
count one water or two waters -- there would simply be water on the table. Water is a noncount noun.
Therefore, according to the rules applying to noncount nouns, the word water would use no article or the,
but not a.
Following are the three specific rules which explain the use of definite and indefinite articles.
Rule #1 - Specific identity not known: Use the indefinite article a or an only with a singular count noun
whose specific identity is not known to the reader. Use a before nouns that begin with a consonant
sound, and use an before nouns that begin with a vowel sound.
 Use the article a or an to indicate any non-specified member of a group or category.
I think an animal is in the garage
That man is a scoundrel.
We are looking for an apartment.
 Use the article a or an to indicate one in number (as opposed to more than one).
I own a cat and two dogs.
 Use the article a before a consonant sound, and use an before a vowel sound.
a boy, an apple
◊ Sometimes an adjective comes between the article and noun:
an unhappy boy, a red apple
 The plural form of a or an is some. Use some to indicate an unspecified, limited amount (but
more than one).
an apple, some apples
Rule #2 - Specific identity known: Use the definite article the with any noun (whether singular or plural,
count or noncount) when the specific identity of the noun is known to the reader, as in the following
situations:
 Use the article the when a particular noun has already been mentioned previously.
I ate an apple yesterday. The apple was juicy and delicious.
 Use the article the when an adjective, phrase, or clause describing the noun clarifies or restricts
its identity.
The boy sitting next to me raised his hand.
Thank you for the advice you gave me.
 Use the article the when the noun refers to something or someone that is unique.
the theory of relativity
the 2003 federal budget
Rule #3 - All things or things in general: Use no article with plural count nouns or any noncount nouns
used to mean all or in general.
Trees are beautiful in the fall. (All trees are beautiful in the fall.)
He was asking for advice. (He was asking for advice in general.)
I do not like coffee. (I do not like all coffee in general.)

Additional Information Regarding the Use of Articles

 When indicating an unspecified, limited amount of a count or noncount noun, use some.
My cousin was seeking some advice from a counselor (not advice in general or advice about everything, but
a limited amount of advice).
I would love some coffee right now (not coffee in general, but a limited amount of coffee).
We might get rain tomorrow. Some rain would be good for the crops (a certain amount of rain, as opposed
to rain in general).
There are some drops of water on the table (a limited number, but more than one drop).
  Noncount nouns are those which usually cannot be counted. Following are some common
examples:
◊ Certain food and drink items: bacon, beef, bread, broccoli, butter, cabbage, candy, cauliflower, celery,
cereal, cheese, chicken, chocolate, coffee, corn, cream, fish, flour, fruit, ice cream, lettuce, meat, milk, oil,
pasta, rice, salt, spinach, sugar, tea, water, wine, yogurt
◊ Certain nonfood substances: air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain, silver,
snow, soap, steel, wood, wool
◊ Most abstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun, happiness, health,
honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, truth, wealth
◊ Areas of study: history, math, biology, etc.
◊ Sports: soccer, football, baseball, hockey, etc.
◊ Languages: Chinese, Spanish, Russian, English, etc.
◊ Other: clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage, lumber, machinery, mail, money,
news, poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work
 Geographical names are confusing because some require the and some do not.
◊ Use the with: united countries, large regions, deserts, peninsulas, oceans, seas, gulfs, canals, rivers,
mountain ranges, groups of islands
the Gobi Desert
the United Arab Emirates
the Sacramento River
the Aleutians
◊ Do not use the with: streets, parks, cities, states, counties, most countries, continents, bays, single lakes,
single mountains, islands
Japan
Chico
Mt. Everest
San Francisco Bay

Examples of the Use of Articles

I do not want a gun in my house (any gun).
The gun is in his closet (implies there is a specific gun).
I am afraid of guns (all guns in general).
She sent me a postcard from Italy (an unspecific postcard - not a letter, not an e-mail).
It's the postcard that I have in my office (one specific postcard).
Getting postcards makes me want to travel (any postcard in general).
I have a dog (one dog).
The dog is very friendly (the dog that I have already mentioned).
Dogs make great pets (dogs in general).
Greta needs furniture in her apartment (furniture is a noncount noun).
She is going to select the furniture that she needs (the specific furniture that she needs).
She hopes to find some furniture this weekend (an unspecified, limited amount of furniture).
We are going to see the Statue of Liberty this weekend (the only Statue of Liberty).
UNIT NO #2:
PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUN AND ITS KINDS:
NOUNS
The first real word you ever used probably was a noun-a word like mama, daddy, car, or cookie. Most
children begin building their vocabularies with nouns. A noun names something: a person, place, or thing.
Most other parts of our language either describe nouns, tell what a noun is doing, or take the place of a
noun.
Nouns have these characteristics:
 They are abstract or concrete.
 They are proper or common.
 Most are singular or plural, but...
 Some are collective.

In English, nouns are often preceded by noun markers--the articles/adjectives a, an, the, or some for
example; or possessive words like my or your. A noun always follows a noun marker, though adjectives or
other words may come between them:
my former roommate
a sunny June day
an objective and very thorough evaluation
some existential angst
Because of their noun markers, you could safely guess that roommate, day, evaluation and angst are nouns
(even if you didn't know what angst was). Although not all nouns are preceded by markers, you can use a
noun marker test to identify many, including abstract nouns. Consider this example:
Enthusiasm and willingness to work hard are a remedy for the existential angst of many students.
Remedy is marked as a noun by the noun marker a. Angst is preceded by the noun marker the. Students is
preceded by the adjective (adjectives modify nouns) many. Test the remaining words: can you have an
enthusiasm or some enthusiasm? Certainly: "I have an enthusiasm for snowboarding" or "Show some
enthusiasm!" So enthusiasm is a noun. Can you have an and or some and? Uh, no. So and is not a noun.
Can you have a willingness or some willingness? Sure, you can have "a willingness to learn"; willingness is
also a noun.
Every noun is either abstract or concrete.
Nouns like enthusiasm, willingness and angst are abstract nouns. Abstract nouns name things we cannot
see, touch, or detect readily through our senses. Abstract nouns name ideas (existentialism, democracy),
measurements (weight, percent), emotions (love, angst), or qualities (responsibility). Concrete nouns, on
the other hand, name persons, including animals (cousins, Roger Rabbit), places (beach, Chico), or things
we can see, touch, or otherwise detect through our senses (smoke, beer).
Every noun is either proper or common.
A proper noun identifies a particular person, animal, place, thing, or idea--Roger Rabbit, for example. The
first letter of each word of a proper noun is capitalized. A common noun does not name a particular person
or thing; rather, it refers to a whole class or type. Common nouns do not require capitalization.
Proper noun common
(capitalized) noun
Sierra Nevada Crystal
is his favorite beer.
Wheat
The Rooks and the are our local soccer and
teams.
Rangers baseball
is one of the largest
Bidwell Park parks.
municipal
Lundberg Family Farm is a sustainable, organic farm.
Most nouns are either singular or plural...
Most nouns are made plural with the addition of s or es. Thus, instructor becomes instructors,
and class becomes classes. Some nouns have irregular plural forms: man becomes men,
and woman becomes women. Child becomes children, and person becomes people.
Many people, both men and women, believe that having children will be a remedy for their existential
angst.
Some nouns have the same form in both singular and plural: "A moose is crossing the river. No, wait--
three moose are crossing the river!"
...but some nouns are collective.
A collective noun names a collection or group of things. Although a collective noun refers to a group of
many things, it is usually singular in form. We think of a collective noun as singular because its members
act in one accord:
The army is withdrawing from those Asian countries that are in negotiations.
Here, army is a collective noun referring to a group of many people acting with one will. We treat it as a
singular noun. Countries is a plural noun. If several countries joined together to form an alliance, we could
say this:
The Asian alliance is united in its determination to repel foreign invaders.
In some instances a collective noun describes a group that is not acting with one will, whose members
rather are taking independent, divergent actions. In this case, the collective noun is treated as a plural to
reflect the plurality of the members' actions:
The jury were unable to come to any consensus.
If the jury had reached a unanimous decision, we would have said:
The jury was unanimous in its verdict.
PRONOUN AND KINDS OF PRONOUN:
PRONOUNS
Pronouns replace nouns. Without them, language would be repetitious, lengthy, and awkward:
President John Kennedy had severe back trouble, and although President John Kennedy approached stairs
gingerly and lifted with care, President John Kennedy did swim and sail, and occasionally President John
Kennedy even managed to play touch football with friends, family members, or co-workers.
With pronouns taking the place of some nouns, that sentence reads more naturally:
President John Kennedy had severe back trouble, and although he approached stairs gingerly and lifted
with care, he did swim and sail, and occasionally he even managed to play touch football with friends,
family members, or co-workers.
The pronoun he takes the place of the proper noun President John Kennedy. This makes President John
Kennedy the antecedent of the pronoun. The antecedent is the noun or pronoun that a pronoun replaces.
There are six types of pronouns:
Personal Reflexive

Indefinite Relative

Possessive Demonstrative

Personal pronouns
Since nouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, personal pronouns also refer to specific persons,
places, or things. Pronouns have characteristics called number, person, and case.
Number refers to whether a pronoun is singular (him) or plural (them). Thus John Kennedy
becomes he or him, while the president's friends would be they or them.
Person is a little more abstract. The first person is the person speaking-I. The sentence "I expect to
graduate in January," is in the first person. The second person is the one being spoken to–you: "You may be
able to graduate sooner!" The third person is being spoken of-he, she, it, they, them: "She, on the other
hand, may have to wait until June to graduate." A pronoun must match (agree with) its antecedent in
person as well as number. So graduating students must be referred to as they or them, not as us; a
valedictorian must be referred to as he or she, him or her, not as we or you.
Case refers to what job a pronoun can legally perform in a sentence. Some pronouns can be subjects and
others cannot. For example, we are allowed to say "I expect to graduate soon," but we are not allowed to
say "Me expect to graduate soon." Pronouns that may be subjects are in the subjective case; they
are subject pronouns. Some pronouns cannot be subjects; they are, instead, used as direct objects, indirect
objects, or objects of prepositions. They are in objective case; they are object pronouns: "His uncle
hired him after graduation." "Uncle Joe gave her a job, too." "Without them, he would have been
shorthanded."

First person Second person Third person

 Subjective Objective Subjective Objective Subjective Objective

I, we me, us you you he, she, it, they him, her, it, them

Subject pronouns also are used after linking verbs, where they refer back to the subject: "The valedictorian
was

she."
Indefinite pronouns
While personal pronouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, indefinite pronouns refer
to general persons, places, or things. Indefinite pronouns all are third-person pronouns and can be subjects
or objects in sentences.
Many indefinite pronouns seem to refer to groups–everybody seems like a crowd, right?-and so are often
mistakenly treated as plurals ("Everybody overfilled their backpack"). However, any indefinite pronoun that
ends in -one, -body, -thing is singular: "Everybody overfilled his (or her) backpack." The following indefinite
pronouns are usually singular; if one of these words is the antecedent in a sentence, the pronoun that
refers to it must also be singular. Thus, we must write, "Does anyone know," rather than "Do anyone
know"; "Each of them knows," rather than "Each of them know"; and "Someone left her cell phone," rather
than, "Someone left their cell phone."
Indefinite pronouns, singular

anyone anybody anything either each

no one nobody nothing another one

someone somebody something any

everyone everybody everything

On the other hand, some indefinite pronouns are plural:

Indefinite pronouns, plural

both few many several

Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs and plural pronouns: "Both were rewarded for their courage."
"Many attend in spite of their other obligations."
A few indefinite pronouns can be either singular or plural, depending on the context:

Indefinite pronouns, singular or plural

most any all none some neither

Thus, we may write, "All is well," (singular) in reference to the general condition of things, or
"All are attending," (plural) in reference to individuals. (For more, look up count and non-count nouns in an
English grammar reference or online.)
(Some of the indefinite pronouns above can also be used as adjectives. In "Many left their trash on the
riverbank," many is a pronoun replacing swimmers. In contrast, in "Many students went tubing on the
river," many is an adjective modifying students. For more information, see the TIP sheet "Adjectives.")
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns replace possessive nouns. Thus, Jamie's Corvette becomes her Corvette. Possessive
pronouns never take apostrophes.

Possessive pronouns

my our your his, her its their whose

mine ours yours his, hers theirs

In the table above, the words in the upper row must accompany nouns: her Corvette, our Nissan. The
pronouns in the lower row stand alone, as replacements for the adjective + noun pair– "Hers is fast; mine is
slow."
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns add emphasis. They always follow a noun or personal pronoun and do not appear
alone in a sentence: "Jamie herself changed the tire." "She herself changed the tire." The meaning is that
she, and no one else, changed the tire, and the emphasis is on the independence of her action. Reflexive
pronouns also show that someone did something to himself or herself: "She surprised herself with how
well she did on the test."
Reflexive pronouns

yourself himself, herself, itself

myself ourselves
yourselves themselves

A reflexive pronoun cannot replace the subject of a sentence, such as in "Burcu and myself are taking that
class together." Instead, use a personal pronoun: "Burcu and I are taking that class together" or "Burcu
and I myself are taking that class together."
There is no theirself or theirselves. "They waxed the car themselves at home." There is no hisself: "Jesse
taught himself French."
Relative pronouns
A relative pronoun begins a clause that refers to a noun in a sentence. (A clause is a word group with its
own subject and verb.) Who begins a clause that refers to people: "Krista is the math tutor who helped me
the most." That may refer either to persons or things: "Laura is the math tutor that knows the most about
calculus; calculus is the class that I am taking in the fall." Which begins a clause that refers to things:
"Statistics, which is the interpretation of collected numerical data, has many practical applications."
Relative pronouns

that who whoever whose

which whom whomever what

Who is a subject pronoun; it can be the subject of a sentence: "Who was at the door?" Whom is an object
pronoun. It cannot be the subject of a sentence, but it can be a direct or indirect object or the object of a
preposition: "Don't ask for whom the bell tolls." Who and whom often appear in questions where the
natural word order is inverted and where the words you see first are the pronouns who or whom, followed
by part of the verb, then the subject, then the rest of the verb. So it isn't always easy to figure out if you
should use who or whom. Is it "Who did you visit last summer?" or "Whom did you visit last summer?" To
decide, follow these steps:

1. Change the question to a statement: "You did visit who/whom last summer." This restores
natural word order: subject, verb, direct object.
2. In place of who/whom, substitute the personal pronouns he and him: "You did visit he last
summer"; "You did visit him last summer."
3. If he, a subject pronoun, is right, then the right choice for the original question is who–another
subject pronoun. If him, an object pronoun, is correct, then the right choice for the original
question is whom–another object pronoun.
4. Based on step three, above, correctly frame the question: "Whom did you visit last summer?"

Similarly, whoever is a subject pronoun, and whomever is an object pronoun. Use the same test for,
"Whoever/whomever would want to run on such a humid day?" Change the question to a statement,
substituting he and him: "He (not him) would want to run on such a humid day." The right word, therefore,
would be whoever, the subject pronoun. On the other hand, you would say, "Hand out plenty of water
to whomever you see." You would see and hand the water out to him, not to he; this sentence requires the
object pronoun.
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns indicate specific persons, places, or things: "That is a great idea!" That is a
pronoun referring to the abstract noun idea.
Demonstrative pronouns

this these

that those

(Like some indefinite pronouns, demonstrative pronouns can also be used as adjectives. In "That band
started out playing local Chico clubs," that modifies the noun band.)
For more on pronouns, see the TIP Sheets "The Eight Parts of Speech," "Pronoun Reference," and "Relative
Pronouns: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses."
VERB AND ITS KINDS:
VERBS
If a noun was the first word you ever spoke (Mama or cookie), a verb probably followed just as soon as you
learned that "Give cookie" got you better results than "Cookie." In a sentence, the verb expresses what the
subject does (She hopes for the job) or what the subject is (She is confident). All verbs are one of three
types:
 Action verbs
 Linking verbs
 Helping verbs
Action verbs
In a sentence, an action verb tells what the subject does. Action verbs express physical or mental
actions: think, eat, collide, realize, dance. Admittedly, some of these seem more active than others.
Nevertheless, realize is still as much a verb as collide:
I finally realized my mistake.
The outfielder collided with the second-baseman.
She dances every Friday night.
(In the present tense, statements with subjects of he, she, or it, we add an s to the verb: I
go downstairs, we go downstairs, and ballplayers go downstairs, but he goes downstairs and Loren
goes downstairs. For more, see the TIP Sheet "Subject-Verb Agreement.")
Linking verbs
Linking verbs are the couch potatoes of verbs, that is, not very active at all. In a sentence, a linking verb
tells what the subject is rather than what it does; linking verbs express a state of being. For example, all the
forms of the verb to be are linking verbs:

3rd person (she, he, it;

1st person (I; we) 2nd person (you)
they)

present am; are are is; are

past was; were were was; were

[have] been; [had] [have] been; [had]

participle [has] been; [had] been
been been

These verbs connect a subject, say, Loren, with more information about that subject: Loren is an athlete,
or Loren was glad.
Another set of linking verbs are those pertaining to our five senses--seeing, tasting, touching, hearing, and
smelling--and how we perceive the world: the verbs appear, seem, look, feel, smell, taste, and sound, for
example. When used as linking verbs, they connect the subject with a word offering more information
about that subject:
Loren seems anxious about the test.
The well water tastes wonderful.
My carpet still feels damp.
You sound hoarse.
The curtains smell a little smoky.
As linking verbs, these "sense" verbs have about the same meaning as is. Loren seems anxious is roughly
equivalent to Loren is anxious; the curtains smell smoky is about the same as the curtains are smoky.
However, these same "sense" verbs can sometimes be action verbs instead. The real test whether one of
these verbs is or is not a linking verb is whether it draws an equivalence with the subject, almost like a
math equation: Loren = anxious; curtains = smoky. Consider the sentence I can't taste my lunch because I
have a cold. Taste here does not draw an equivalence between I and lunch; rather, here it is an action
verb, something the subject does. In the sentence Can you smell smoke? smell does not describe what the
subject is, but what the subject does; it is an action verb.
Other common linking verbs include become, remain, and grow, when they link the subject to more
information (either a noun or an adjective) about that subject:
You will soon become tired of the monotony.
Pha has become a very responsible teenager.
I remain hopeful.
Daniel grew more and more confident.
Again, these verbs might be action verbs in other sentences, such as in I grew carrots.
Helping verbs...
Verbs often appear with helping verbs that fine-tune their meaning, usually expressing when something
occurred. The complete verb is the main verb plus all its helping verbs.
Verb tense is the name for the characteristic verbs have of expressing time. Simple present tense verbs
express present or habitual action, and simple past tense verbs express actions that were completed in the
past; neither simple present nor simple past tense verbs require helping verbs. However, most other verb
tenses require one or more helping verbs. Moreover, some helping verbs express more than just time-
possibility, obligation, or permission, for example.
...have, has, had
Every verb has three basic forms: present or simple form, past form, and participle form. All participle
forms require a helping verb that fine-tunes the time expression:
Comets have collided with earth many times.
Stan had known about the plan for some time.
The table below demonstrates these three forms with their required helping verbs:

present or simple form past form participle form participle + helper

collide collided collided has, have, had collided

is was been has, have, had been

choose chose chosen has, have, had been

know knew known has, have, had been

Participles used as verbs in a sentence must be used with has, have, or had. Participles used without
helpers become adjectives: The early explorers sailed beyond the known world.
...to be: am, are, is, was, were, been
Verbs with -ing endings require a helper from the to be family of verbs. These progressive verb tenses
express ongoing present action, continuous past action or future planned action:
They are still working on the contract.
Phanat was studying all night.
Holly had been reviewing her notes since the day before.
We are holding student elections next September.
Verbs with -ing endings must be used with one of the to be helpers; an -ing word without a helper is
ineligible to act as the verb of a sentence. It can, however, be a noun (Hiking is fun) or an adjective (The
hiking trail is closed).
...do, does, did
The helping verbs do, does, and did may be used optionally to add emphasis: She certainly does like her
morning mocha.
While adding emphasis is optional, these helpers must be used when forming
questions: Does Andrea ski every weekend? They must also accompany the verb in sentences that combine
not with an action verb: Don't you want to take the train? Do not wait for me past 4:30.
When do and does are used, they change form to match the subject while the main verb remains in simple
form: instead of She likes coffee, we would say, She sure does like her coffee. Similarly, for questions, we
change the form of the helper and leave the main verb in simple form: Does Andrea ski? The negative
is Andrea does not ski, even though the statement would have been Andrea skis. (In the past tense,
with did, the verb never changes form.)
...will and shall
Future tense verbs require a helper, will or shall, and express intention, expectation, or action that will
happen later.
We shall drive to Santa Barbara in August.
Krista will not attend.
We will be holding student elections in September.
...would, could, should, can, may, might...
The verb helpers would, could, should, can, may, might, must, supposed to, ought to, used to,
and have to are examples of modal helpers. (Will and shall are technically modals as well.) Modal helpers
are little different from real verbs because they never change form. They are easy to use because they
always are used with the simple form of the verb:
I may want to change my flight.
You can cash your check at the grocery store.
Paul must notify his employer soon.
Instead of expressing time, modals help verbs express a variety of other things:

Expresses For example...

past habit I never used to eat breakfast; I would never eat breakfast.

He would like us to clean

requests
up; could you clean up? Can you do it?

Yes, you can go. You may change the channel.

permission
He could leave early.

necessity, You must see that movie! We ought to go soon;

advisability we will have to call later.

I might pay with cash; we may write a check.

possibility
That could be true.

For more information on the various possible meanings of some modals, see the TIP Sheet "Would, Should,
Could." For more on verbs, see the TIP Sheets "Consistent Verb Tense" and "Two-Word Verbs."
(Grammar geek note: Sometimes, when words like would and could express a statement of possibility or
desire, or when they state something contrary to fact, a special verb form, the subjunctive, is required. For
example, If he had known, he would have come sooner is an expression contrary to fact. So in this
example, the subjunctive form causes the helper to change to have instead of the expected has--for more
information, check a grammar and usage guide for "subjunctive mood.")

ADVERBS AND ITS KINDS:

ADVERBS
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb. An adverb usually modifies by
telling how, when, where, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. An adverb is often formed by
adding -ly to an adjective.
Conjunctive adverbs form a separate category because they serve as both conjunctions (they connect) and
adverbs (they modify). Groups of words can also function as adverb phrases or adverb clauses.
(In the examples below, the adverb is in bold and the modified word is underlined.)
1. An adverb can modify a verb.
The girls ran quickly but happily through the puddle. (The adverbs quickly and happily modify the verb ran
by telling how.)
Go to the administration office first, and then come to class. (The adverb first modifies the verb go, and
the adverb then modifies the verb come. Both modify the verbs by telling when.)
They are moving her office upstairs. (The adverb upstairs modifies the verb moving by telling where.)
2. An adverb can modify an adjective. The adverb usually clarifies the degree or intensity of the
adjective.
Maria was almost finished when they brought her an exceptionally delicious dessert. (The
adverb almost modifies the adjective finished and exceptionally modifies delicious by describing the degree
or intensity of the adjectives.)
He was very happy about being so good at such an extremely challenging sport. (The
adverb very modifies the adjective happy, so modifies good, and extremely modifies challenging by
describing the degree or intensity of the adjectives.)
Students are often entertained and sometimes confused, but never bored in that class. (The
adverb often modifies the adjective entertained, sometimes modifies confused,
and never modifies bored by describing the degree or intensity of the adjectives.)
3. An adverb can modify another adverb. The modifying adverb usually clarifies the degree or intensity
of the adverb.
Eating her lunch somewhat cautiously, Carolyn tried to ignore the commotion. (The
adverb somewhat modifies the adverb cautiously by telling to what degree.)
Stan can discuss the English language very thoroughly. (The adverb very modifies the adverb thoroughly by
telling to what degree.)
Even in the other room, Vickilee was never completely unaware of the crying kittens. (The adverb never
modifies the adverb completely by telling to what degree.)
Additional Notes on Adverbs
In addition to the rules that apply to the use of adverbs, the following points further discuss their
formation and function.
 Adverbs are often made by adding -ly to an adjective.
adjective: slow adverb: slowly
adjective: deep adverb: deeply
adjective: fair adverb: fairly
Ø However, not all words that end in -ly are adverbs!
nouns: family, homily, rally, lily
adjectives: friendly, worldly, lovely, sly
 Some common adverbs do not originate from adjectives.
very
quite
only
so
Some adverbs modify by negating a statement. These are referred to as negative adverbs.
hardly
never
no
not
scarcely
Ø When using negative adverbs, be careful to avoid a double negative.
(Incorrect double negative)
He can't hardly understand the words of the speaker.
(Correct)
He can hardly understand the words of the speaker.
(See TIP Sheet "Avoiding Modifier Problems" regarding "limiters" for further information on negative
adverbs.)
 In order to form the comparative or superlative forms of adverbs, add the ending of -er or -est to
certain adverbs of only one syllable (fast, faster, fastest). However, all adverbs which end in -
ly and most adverbs of more than one syllable form the comparative and superlative with the
addition of more or most.
Todd drives faster than I do, but I get there sooner and more efficiently by taking a shorter route. Amy
drives most slowly of all of us.
Conjunctive Adverbs
Words that function as adverbs (telling how, when, where, why, under what conditions, or to what degree)
and which also function as conjunctions (joining grammatical parts) are called conjunctive adverbs.
 Conjunctive adverbs
accordingly finally likewise similarly
also furthermore meanwhile specifically
anyway hence moreover still
besides however nevertheless subsequently
certainly incidentally next then
consequently indeed nonetheless therefore
conversely instead otherwise thus
Conjunctive adverbs join and create transitions between independent clauses. A conjunctive adverb may
begin a sentence and is often followed by a comma. When place between independent clauses, a
conjunctive adverb is preceded by a semicolon and is usually followed by a comma.
Her husband is a rice farmer; consequently, these days he is busy from sunrise until nightfall. Nevertheless,
he is still home every night to read his sons a story.
Adverb Phrases and Adverb Clauses
Sometimes groups of words function together to form an adverb phrase or adverb clause.
 Adverb prepositional phrase
The puppy is sleeping under my desk. (Under my desk is a prepositional phrase that functions as an adverb
because it modifies the verb sleeping by telling where.)
 Adverb infinitive phrase
To prevent the theft of your food, use a locked cabinet to store your camp supplies. (To prevent the theft
of your food is an infinitive phrase that functions as an adverb because it modifies the verb use by telling
why.)
 Adverb dependent clause
Marco departed before the storm arrived. (Before the storm arrived is a dependent clause that modifies
the verb departed by telling when.)
PREPOSITIONS, KINDS OF PREPOSITION:
A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the other words of a sentence.
They explain relationships of sequence, space, and logic between the object of the sentence and the rest of
the sentence. They help us understand order, time connections, and positions.
Example:
o I am going to Canada.
o Alex threw a stone into the pond.
o The present is inside the box.
o They have gone out of the town.
There are a few interesting linguistic facts about prepositions.
First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets added to the language. We use
a fixed set of prepositions.
Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural, possessive, inflection, or anything
else.
Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses. So, it is easy to be
confused about it.
Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions with two or more words are
called phrasal prepositions.
There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions:
because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf of, on account of, in care of, in spite of, on the side
of, etc.

Types of Preposition

Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some prepositions which are common in every type of
preposition as they function in a versatile way.

 Simple Preposition
 Double Preposition
 Compound Preposition
 Participle Preposition
 Disguised Preposition
 Detached Preposition
 Prepositions of Time
 Prepositions of Place and Direction
 Prepositions of Agents or Things
 Phrasal Prepositions
Simple Preposition
These are among the most common type of prepositions. The prepositions used to express the relationship
the Nouns and Pronouns of a sentence have with the rest of the words in it are called Simple Prepositions.
They are often used to join two clauses in terms of Complex Sentence and Compound Sentence.
Examples:
 Most Popular Prepositions

and but at to on in

for of up off from out

with during down below beside over

by near behind inside among along

Double Preposition

Two Simple Prepositions joining together to form one which connects the Noun(s) or Pronoun(s) to the rest
the words in a sentence.

Examples:
Are you out of your mind?
o
I was allowed the inside of the temple.
o
She’s sandwiched in between two of her cousins.
o
Compound Preposition

Compound Prepositions are composed of prepositions as well as other words. Compound Prepositions are
easily confused with Double Prepositions since they both require other prepositions or words to help with
acting like a preposition.

Examples:
o According to my calculations, this color should work just fine.
o I started for home, with a view to celebrating Eid with my family.
o On behalf of our family, my father attended the family reunion.
Participle Preposition
Present Participles (-ing) and Past Participles (-ed and -en) that are used as Prepositions instead of Verbs,
are called Participle Prepositions. These are participles as well as prepositions.
Examples:
Present Participle Prepositions Past Participles Prepositions

Assuming Respected

Barring Given

Considering Gone

During Barred

Notwithstanding Provided

Regarding Taken

Participle Prepositions Used in Sentences:

 o Barred from the entrance, he threw a fit.
o I was happy given the fact that I got great marks.
o Assuming the possibility of rain, she carried an umbrella.
Disguised Preposition

These prepositions are usually disguised as some other element in the English language. Often these
prepositions are disguised as "a" and "o" in sentences.

Examples:
o I wake up at 5 o'clock. (Of the clock)
o Keep striding ahead. (on the head)
o Pope went ashore. (onshore)
o Rimi visits the riverbank once a day. (in a day)
Detached Preposition
A preposition that has been detached and sent to the very end of the sentence is called Detached
Preposition. These prepositions are detached from the interrogative or relative pronouns and adverbs but
get detached for the sake of the integrity of sentences.
Examples:
o Where are you coming from?
o Is that the neighborhood you are headed to?
o I won't tolerate being screamed at.
Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common preposition of time.
Example:
o He started working at 10 AM.
o The company called meeting on 25 October .
o There is a holiday in December.
o He has been ill since Monday .
Read More: Prepositions of Time Usage
Prepositions of Place and Direction
Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in front of, behind, above,
over, under, below, etc. are the most common prepositions of place/direction.
Example:
o He is at home.
o He came from England.
o The police broke into the house .
o I live across the river.
Read More: Prepositions of Places & Direction Usage
Prepositions of Agents or Things
Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns and other parts of the
sentence.
Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents or things.
Example:
o This article is about smartphones .
o Most of the guests have already left.
o I will always be here for you.
o He is playing with his brothers .
Phrasal Prepositions
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of two or more words that
function as a preposition.
Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of, contrary to, in spite of, on
account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard to, etc.
are the most common phrasal prepositions.
Example:
o They along with their children went to Atlanta.
o According to the new rules, you are not right.
o In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
o I’m going out of the city.

CONJUNCTIONS TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATION:

Conjunctions are known as connective or linking words. They join thoughts, actions and ideas, as well as
clauses and phrases. Each of the three different types of conjunctions joins different parts of a sentence
together. Let’s take a look at some of the most commonly used forms.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions like "and," "nor," or "so" link equal parts of a sentence, be it words, phrases, or
independent clauses. For example:

 He was late for school, so he took a shortcut.

 Her favorite colors were purple and red.
 She doesn't like coffee, nor does she like tea.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions such as "because", "since" and "after" link a dependent clause to
an independent clause, helping to show the relationship between the two clauses and emphasize the main
idea of the freestanding/independent clause. For example:

 Because it was raining, we had to cancel the class picnic.

 The house was a mess after the crazy party we had last night.
 He doesn't go skiing any more, since he had the accident.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join together words or phrases that have equal importance within
a sentence, like "either/or", "such/that" and "not only/but also". For example:

 You can have either chocolate or vanilla ice cream.

 He not only plays the guitar but also the drums.
 Such was his strength that he was easily able to move the fallen tree.

INTERJECTION:

Interjections are words intended to express different levels of emotion or surprise, and are usually seen as
independent grammatically from the main sentence.
 Interjections usually stand alone and are often punctuated with an exclamation point.
Oh! Wow! My goodness!
 Sometimes mild interjections are included within a sentence and are then set off by commas.
Well, it's about time you showed up.
UNIT NO 3:
SENTENCE STRUCTURE , ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
3.1 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
3.2 TYPES OF SENTENCES
3.3 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
3.1 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE:
The subject of the sentence is what (or whom) the sentence is about. In the sentence “The cat is
sleeping in the sun,” the word cat is the subject.
A predicate is the part of a sentence, or a clause, that tells what the subject is doing or what the
subject is. Let’s take the same sentence from before: “The cat is sleeping in the sun.” The clause sleeping in
the sun is the predicate; it’s dictating what the cat is doing. Cute

i.2 TYPES OF SENTENCES:

SIMPLE COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCE:
SENTENCE TYPE AND PURPOSE
Sentences come in a variety of shapes and lengths. Yet whatever their shapes and lengths (or types), all
sentences serve one of only a few very basic purposes.
Sentence Type
Sentence variety is not about mere novelty; it is about meaning. You can avoid boredom (yours and your
readers') and choppiness by varying your sentence types. Longer, more complex sentences can increase
the impact of a shorter, simpler sentence.

Every sentence is one of the following types.

 Simple
 Compound
 Complex
 Compound/Complex
In order to vary your writing, you want to be able to construct sentences of each kind. To master these
four types, though, you really only need to master two things: independent and dependent clauses. This is
because the four types of sentences are really only four different ways to combine independent and
dependent clauses.
(Let's review: independent clauses are essentially simple, complete sentences. They can stand alone or be
combined with other independent clauses. Dependent clauses are unfinished thoughts that cannot stand
alone; they are a type of sentence fragment and must be joined to independent clauses. For more
information, see the TIP Sheet Independent & Dependent Clauses: Coordination and Subordination.)
The simple sentence
A simple sentence is simple because it contains only one independent clause:
Justin dropped his Agricultural Economics class.
A simple sentence is not necessarily short or simple. It can be long and involved, with many parts and
compound elements. But if there is only one independent clause, it is, nevertheless, a simple sentence. The
following example has a single independent clause with a single subject (Justin) and a compound verb
(gulped, swallowed, groaned, and decided):
Justin gulped down his fourth cup of coffee, swallowed a Tylenol for his pounding headache, groaned, and
decided he would have to drop his Agricultural Economics class.
The compound sentence
When you join two simple sentences properly, you get a compound sentence. Conversely, a compound
sentence can be broken into two complete sentences, each with its own subject and its own verb. You can
join simple sentences to create compound sentences either of two ways:
 With a semicolon
 With a comma and coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
For example, the following pairs of independent clauses can be joined either way:
Homer has Basic Plant Science on Mondays and Wednesdays; Environmental Horticulture conflicted with
his schedule.
Homer has Basic Plant Science on Mondays and Wednesdays, but Environmental Horticulture conflicted
with his schedule.
(Be aware that if you join two simple sentences improperly, you do not get a compound sentence; you get
a run-on, most likely either a comma splice or a fused sentence. For more information, see the TIP
Sheets Comma Splices and Run-on Sentences and Independent & Dependent Clauses: Coordination &
Subordination.)
The complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains both a dependent and an independent clause. In the
following example, both clauses contain a subject and a verb, but the dependent clause has, in addition,
the dependent-making words even though. If you start the sentence with the dependent-making words (or
subordinating conjunction), place a comma between the clauses. On the other hand, if you start with the
independent clause and place the dependent-making words in the middle of the sentence, do not use a
comma:
Even though Eva took Turf Management just to fill out her schedule, she found it unexpectedly interesting.
Eva found Turf Management unexpectedly interesting even though she took it just to fill out her schedule.
(For more on subordinating conjunctions, see the TIP Sheet Independent & Dependent Clauses:
Coordination & Subordination.)
The compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence combines at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause. The punctuation rules remain the same: the two simple sentences are joined by one of the two
methods described above, and the dependent clause is punctuated (or not) depending on whether it
precedes or follows an independent clause. In the following example, the dependent-making word
signaling the beginning of the dependent clause is while:
Homer was already in class, and Eva was in the lab while Justin was sleeping off his headache.
While Justin was sleeping off his headache, Homer was already in class, and Eva was in the lab.
Homer was already in class while Justin slept off his headache; Eva was in the lab.
Sentence Purpose
Sentences can do different things. The purpose of some sentences is to make statements. Declarative
sentences make statements and end with periods:
I am planning to drop Agricultural Economics.
The purpose of another sentence may be to pose a question. These interrogative sentences ask questions
and end with question marks:
Have you taken any Agricultural Engineering classes?
Imperative sentences give commands or make demands or requests. They usually end with a period. An
imperative sentence often has as its subject an unstated "you" (giving to beginners in English grammar the
appearance of lacking a subject altogether). The subject of each of the following four sentences is "you:"
3.3 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE:
Understanding Active and Passive Voice rules are imperative for candidates preparing for
various Government exams as well as other competitive exams.
In this article, we shall discuss in detail the Active and Passive Voice rules followed by examples, along with
the sample questions asked in the examinations, based on the same. Candidates will be explained the
concept and active -passive rules in English grammar both in the text and video format.

Active & Passive Voice

Let us first understand the meaning of voice, and what is active voice and passive voice.
What is Voice of a verb?
The voice of a verb expresses whether the subject in the sentence has performed or received the action.
Example:

 The watchman opens the door.

 The door is opened by the watchman.
Types of Voices of Verb
Verbs have two voices (i) Active Voice (ii) Passive Voice
Active Voice – When an action performed by the subject is expressed by the verb, it is an active voice.
Active voice is used when more straightforward relation and clarity is required between the subject and
the verb.
Active Voice example:

 Hens lay eggs.

 Birds build nests.
Passive Voice – When the action expressed by the verb is received by the subject, it is passive voice.
Passive voice is used when the doer of the action is not known and the focus of the sentence is on the
action and not the subject.
Passive Voice Examples:
  Eggs are laid by hens.
 Nests are built by birds.
Candidates preparing for any Government exam can check other important topics for the English language
section.

Active And Passive Voice Rules For Conversion of Sentence

Below are the active-passive voice rules to follow for changing an active sentence into a passive voice.
Before heading to the rules of active-passive voice, let’s check the examples of active and passive voice
sentences.
Conversion of Active and Passive voice examples

 Rita wrote a letter. (Subject + Verb + Object)

 A letter was written by Rita. (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject).
 She cooks food. (Subject + Verb + Object)
 The food is cooked by her. (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject)
Candidates can watch the video on Active-Passive voice rules and concept in English. This will help them
gain conceptual knowledge and understand the variety of questions asked in the exams even better.
Rules of Active – Passive Voice in English Grammar – Part 1

8,887
Rules for Active – Passive Voice Conversions
Rule 1. Identify the (S+V+O) Subject, Verb and object in the active sentence to convert to passive voice
Example:
He drives car. (Subject – He, verb – Drives, object – Car)
Rule 2. Interchange the object and subject with each other, i.e. object of the active sentence become the
subject of the passive sentence.
Example :
Active voice : She knits sweater. (Subject – She, Verb – Knits, Object – Sweater)
Passive Voice : The sweater is knitted by her. (Object sweater is interchanged with the subject She).
Rule 3. In passive voice sometimes the subject is not used, i.e. the subject in passive voice can be omitted if
the sentence without it gives enough meaning.
Example :
Milk is sold in litres
Rule 4. Change the base verb in the active sentence into the past participle ie. third form verb in a passive
sentence i.e. preceded by (By, With, to, etc). Base verbs are never used in passive voice sentences.
Example:

 Active voice: She prepares dinner.

 Passive voice: The dinner is prepared by her.
 Active voice: She knows him.
 Passive voice: He is known to her.
  Active voice: Juice fills the jar.
 Passive voice: The jar is filled with juice.
Rule 5. While conversion of Active voice sentence to Passive voice sentence, the pronoun used in the
sentence also changes in the following manner.

Active Voice Pronoun Passive Voice Pronoun

I Me

We Us

He Him

She Her

They Them

You You

It It

Rule 6. Use the suitable helping or auxiliary verb (is/am/are/was, etc.). The rules for using auxiliary verbs in
passive voice sentences are different for each tense.
Example:

 The letter is written by her

 A book was not bought by her

Forms of Active And Passive Voice For All Tenses

 Simple Present Tense

Active Sentences Passive Sentences

He writes an essay An essay is written by him

Sheena does the housework The housework is done by Sheena

She cares for the rabbit The rabbit is being cared for by her

Jacob always plays the guitar The guitar is always played by Jacob

 Present Continuous Tense

Active Sentences Passive Sentences

 They are eating bananas The bananas are being eaten by them

Bob is drawing a diagram A diagram is being drawn by Bob

Samta is playing the piano A piano is being played by Samta

She is waiting for Reema Reema is being waited for by her

 Present Perfect Tense

Active Sentences Passive Sentences

Has he done the work? Has the work been done by him?

Have they left the apartment? Has the apartment been left by them?

He created this masterpiece This masterpiece is created by him

He read the newspaper The newspaper is being read by him

Note- [except certain exemptions, no passive Voice formation for the following tenses can be formed,
Present Perfect Continuous Tense, Past Perfect Continuous Tense, Future Perfect Continuous Tense and
Future Continuous Tense]

 Simple Past Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Ria paid the bills The bills were paid by Ria

The teacher called the student The student was called by the teacher

She did not buy the fruits The fruits were not bought by her

 Past Progressive/Continuous Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

They were waiting for him He was being waited for by them

Astha was learning French French was being learnt by Astha

She was playing kabaddi Kabaddi was being played by her

  Past Perfect Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

She won the match The match had been won by her

I had finished her work Her work had been finished by me

He had missed the last metro The last metro had been missed by him

 Simple Future Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

He will write a letter A letter will be written by him

He will repair her cycle Her cycle will be repaired by him

He shall start the meeting The meeting will be started by him

 Future Perfect Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Meena will not have changed the bedsheet The bed sheet will not have been changed by Meena

They will have won the match The match will have been won by them

Reena will have washed the skirt The skirt will have been washed by Reena
UNIT NO # 4:
Practice In Unified Sentence
4.1 Unified Sentence
4.2 Unified Sentence Structure.
Unified Sentence:
“A sentence or paragraph having the quality of oneness/uniqueness that gives results when all the words
and sentences contribute to a single main idea. It must have a single focus and it must contain no
irrelevant facts. Every sentence must contribute to the paragraph by explaining, exemplifying, or
expanding the topic sentence.”
Topic Sentence:
A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is expressed in a sentence
called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important functions: It substantiates or supports an
essay’s topic or statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and
it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally
looked to the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the
paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph.
Unified Sentence Structure:
Most paragraph in an essay have a three-part structure:
i. Introduction
ii. Body
iii. Conclusion
The structure in paragraph whether they are narrating,describing,comparing,contrasting or
analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating your
meanings to your reader.
Introduction:
The first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other sentences at the
beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide a transition.
Body:
Body follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts , arguments , analysis ,
examples , and other information.
Conclusion:
The final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed in the body of
the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.
Rules For Writing Unified Paragraphs:
1. Paragraph should focus on one idea and state that idea in a topic sentence.
2. Topic sentence should be placed effectively within the paragraph.
3. The relationship should be explained between and idea so that it is clear to readers.
4. Be sure that paragraphs are related, that they fit together and clarify essay’s idea.
 Unit No 5:
Analysis Of Phrase , Clause And Sentence Structure
5.1 Phrase
5.2 Clause
5.3 Sentence structure
Phrase:

A phrase is a group of words that express a concept and is used as a unit within a sentence. Eight common
types of phrases are: noun, verb, gerund, infinitive, appositive, participial, prepositional, and absolute.
Take a look at our selection of phrase examples below.

Noun Phrases
A noun phrase consists of a noun and all its modifiers.

Here are examples:

 The bewildered tourist was lost.

 The lost puppy was a wet and stinky dog.
 The flu clinic had seen many cases of infectious disease.
 It was a story as old as time.
 The sports car drove the long and winding road.
 Saturday became a cool, wet afternoon.

Verb Phrases

A verb phrase consists of a verb and all its modifiers.

Here are examples:

 He was waiting for the rain to stop.

 She was upset when it didn't boil.
 You have been sleeping for a long time.
 You might enjoy a massage.
 He was eager to eat dinner.

Gerund Phrases

A gerund phrase is simply a noun phrase that starts with a gerund.

Examples include:

 Taking my dog for a walk is fun.

 Walking in the rain can be difficult.
 Strolling along a beach at sunset is romantic.
 Getting a promotion is exciting.
 Signing autographs takes time.
 Going for ice cream is a real treat.
 Singing for his supper was how he earned his keep.
 Getting a sore back was the result of the golf game.
 Pulling an all-nighter did not improve his test scores.
 Sailing into the sunset was the perfect end to the book.

Infinitive Phrases

An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase that begins with an infinitive verb.

Here are some examples:

 To make lemonade, you have to start with lemons.

 I tried to see the stage, but I was too short.
 She organized a boycott to make a statement.
 To see Niagara Falls is mind-boggling.
 He really needs to get his priorities in order.
 The company decided to reduce hours for everyone.
 To donate time or money is an honorable thing.
 I went to Spain to study the language and culture.

Appositive Phrases

An appositive phrase restates and defines a noun. It consists of one or more words.

Examples are:

 My favorite pastime, needlepoint, surprises some people.

 Her horse, an Arabian, was her pride and joy.
 My wife, the love of my life, is also my best friend.
 A cheetah, the fastest land animal, can run 70 miles an hour.
 My idea, a recycling bin for the office, was accepted by the boss.
  The Florida panther, the state animal of Florida, is an endangered species.

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Participial Phrases

A participial phrase begins with a past or present participle.

Examples are:

 Washed with my clothes, my cell phone no longer worked.

 Knowing what I know now, I wish I had never come here.
 I am really excited, considering all the people that will be there.
 We are looking forward to the movie, having seen the trailer last week.
 Grinning from ear to ear, she accepted her award.
 The happy dog ran the entire length of the park, pausing only to sniff the dandelions.
 Painted a brilliant white, the small room appeared bigger.
 The lake, frozen over all winter, was finally thawing.

Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and can act as a noun, an adjective or an adverb.

Examples are:

 The book was on the table.

 We camped by the brook.
 He knew it was over the rainbow.
 She was lost in the dark of night.
 He was between a rock and a hard place.
 I waited for a while.
 She smelled of strawberries and cream.
 He won the challenge against all odds.

Absolute Phrases

An absolute phrase has a subject, but not an action verb, so it cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.
It modifies the whole sentence, not just a noun.

Examples are:

 His tail between his legs, the dog walked out the door.
 Picnic basket in hand, she set off for her date.
 The guys attacked the pile of nachos, their fingers getting the last bit of cheese off the plate.
 Their heads hanging down, the whole group apologized.
 The entire team, their uniforms muddy and stained, shouted for joy.

Clause:
A clause is comprised of a group of words that include a subject and a finite verb. It contains only one
subject and one verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent
and distinguishable.
A clause is “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a
complex or compound sentence.” – Merriam-Webster
Example:
o I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)

Types of Clauses
 Independent Clause
 Dependent Clause
o Adjective Clause
o Noun Clause
o Adverbial Clause
 Principal Clause
 Coordinate Clause
 Non-finite Clause
Independent Clause
It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*,
yet*.
Example:
o He is a wise man.
o I like him.
o Can you do it?
o Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)
o I read the whole story.
o I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money . (Two independent clauses)
o He went to London and visited the Lords . (Subject of the second clause is ‘he,' so “he
visited the Lords” is an independent clause.)
o Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)

Dependent Clause:

It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is also called a subordinate
clause. These help the independent clauses complete the sentence. Alone, it cannot form a complete
sentence.

The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another clause to complete the
sentence. In each of the dependent clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative
pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
o When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
o I know the man who stole the watch .
o He bought a car which was too expensive .
o I know that he cannot do it.
o He does not know where he was born .
o If you don’t eat , I won’t go.
o He is a very talented player though he is out of form.
Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are –
1. Adjective Clause
It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. Basically, Adjective Clauses have similar qualities
as Adjectives that are of modifying Nouns and hence the name, Adjective Clause. These are also called
Relative Clauses and they usually sit right after the Nouns they modify.
Examples:
o I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.
o Finn is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.
o You there, who is sitting quietly at the corner, come here and lead the class out.

2. Noun Clause

Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun Clauses or Nominal Clauses. These often
start with “how,” “that,” other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and Whom), if,
whether etc.

Examples:
o I like what I hear.
o You need to express that it’s crossing a line for you.
o He knows how things work around here.
3. Adverbial Clause
By definition, these are Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means that these clauses have the power
to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.
Examples:
o Alice did the dishes till her legs gave up.
o Tina ran to the point of panting vehemently.
o I went through the book at a lightning speed.
Principal Clause
These have a Subject (Noun/Pronoun), Finite Verb and an Object and make full sentences that can stand
alone or act as the main part of any Complex or Compound Sentence. Independent and Principal Clauses
are functionally the same but named from different perspectives.
Examples:
o I know that boy.
o He can jog every morning.
o Robin fishes like a pro.
Coordinate Clause
Two or more similarly important Independent Clauses joined by Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but
etc.) in terms of Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses.
Examples:
o I like taking photos and he loves posing for them.
o You prefer flying but she always wants to take a bus.
o We are going to visit Terry or he is coming over.
Non-finite Clause

They contain a Participle or an Infinitive Verb that makes the Subject and Verb evident even though
hidden. In terms of a Participle, the Participial Phrase takes place of the Subject or Object of the sentence.

Examples:
o He saw the boy (who was) staring out of the window.
o She is the first person (who is) to enter the office.
o Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up.
 Unit No 6:
Transitive And Intransitive Verbs
6.1 Transitive Verb
6.2 Intransitive Verb
Transitive Verb:

A transitive verb, used with a direct object, transmits action to an object and may also have an indirect
object, which indicates to or for whom the action is done. In contrast, an intransitive verb never takes an
object.

Transitive verbs

A transitive verb takes a direct object; that is, the verb transmits action to an object.

He sent the letter. ( letter = direct object of sent)

She gave the lecture. ( lecture = direct object of gave)

In these sentences, something is being done to an object.

A transitive verb can also have an indirect object that precedes the direct object. The indirect object tells
to or for whom the action is done, although the words to and for are not used. In the following examples,
notice the difference between the direct and indirect objects.

The direct object ( letter) receives the action ( sent). The indirect object ( Robert) is the person to whom the
letter is sent.

He sent Robert the letter.

The direct object ( lecture) receives the action ( gave). The indirect object ( class) is the group to whom the
lecture is given.

She gave her class the lecture.

Learn to recognize words that are direct and indirect objects of verbs. When these words are pronouns,
they must be in the objective case.

Intransitive verb

An intransitive verb does not take an object.

She sleeps too much.

He complains frequently.

In these sentences, nothing receives the action of the verbs sleep and complain.

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.

She sings every day. (no object = intransitive)

She sings rock 'n' roll tunes. ( rock 'n' roll tunes receives the action of sings = transitive)

Unit No 7:
Punctuation And Spelling
6.1 Punctuation
6.2 Spelling
 Punctuation:

There are 14 punctuation marks that are commonly used in English grammar. They are the period,
question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen, parentheses, brackets, braces,
apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis. Following their correct usage will make your writing easier to
read and more appealingSentence Endings

Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence endings. They are the period,
question mark, and exclamation point.

The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to be complete and after
many abbreviations.

 As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market.

 After an abbreviation: Her son, John Jones Jr., was born on Dec. 6, 2008.

Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a sentence.

 When did Jane leave for the market?

The exclamation point (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or add emphasis.

 Within dialogue: "Holy cow!" screamed Jane.

 To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!

Comma, Semicolon, and Colon

The comma, semicolon, and colon are often misused because they all can indicate a pause in a series.
The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the structure of a sentence.
Additionally, it is used in numbers, dates, and letter writing after the salutation and closing.

 Direct address: Thanks for all your help, John.

 Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies, and then we went out to lunch.
 Separating lists or elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black, green, and blue dress.

Whether to add a final comma before the conjunction in a list is a matter of debate. This final comma,
known as an Oxford or serial comma, is useful in a complex series of elements or phrases but is often
considered unnecessary in a simple series such as in the example above. It usually comes down to a style
choice by the writer.

The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer relationship between the
clauses than a period would show.

 John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.

A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation, an
example, or a series.

 He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology, and economics.

The second is between independent clauses when the second explains the first, similar to a semicolon:
  I didn't have time to get changed: I was already late.

The third use of a colon is for emphasis:

 There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.

A colon also has non-grammatical uses in time, ratio, business correspondence and references.

Dash and the Hyphen

Two other common punctuation marks are the dash and hyphen. These marks are often confused with
each other due to their appearance but they are very different.

A dash is used to separate words into statements. There are two common types of dashes: en dash and em
dash.

 En dash: Twice as long as a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (–) that is used in writing or printing to
indicate a range, connections or differentiations, such as 1880-1945 or Princeton-New York trains.
 Em dash: Longer than the en dash, the em dash can be used in place of a comma, parenthesis, or
colon to enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a sentence. For example, She gave him
her answer — No!
Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is a style choice. Just be consistent.

A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a compound term and is not separated by
spaces. For example, part-time, back-to-back, well-known.
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Brackets, Braces, and Parentheses

Brackets, braces, and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further explanation or are
considered a group.
Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations or to clarify meaning. If you
remove the information in the brackets, the sentence will still make sense.

 He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house.

Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they are considered as
a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing but can be seen in computer programming to show what
should be contained within the same lines. They can also be used in mathematical expressions. For
example, 2{1+[23-3]}=x.
Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying remarks. However,
parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning in most cases.

 John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red hair.

Apostrophe, Quotation Marks and Ellipsis

The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis.
Unlike previously mentioned grammatical marks, they are not related to one another in any form.
An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or
the plurals of lowercase letters. Examples of the apostrophe in use include:
  Omission of letters from a word: I've seen that movie several times. She wasn't the only one who
knew the answer.
 Possessive case: Sara's dog bit the neighbor.
 Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's.

It should be noted that, according to Purdue University, some teachers and editors enlarge the scope of
the use of apostrophes, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s), numbers (7's) and capitalized letters
(Q&A's), even though they are not necessary.

Quotations marks (" ") are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the beginning and end of a
passage attributed to another and repeated word for word. They are also used to indicate meanings and to
indicate the unusual or dubious status of a word.

 "Don't go outside," she said.

Single quotation marks (' ') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.

 Marie told the teacher, "I saw Marc at the playground, and he said to me 'Bill started the fight,' and
I believed him."

The ellipsis is most commonly represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is occasionally demonstrated
with three asterisks (***). The ellipsis is used in writing or printing to indicate an omission, especially of
letters or words. Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to jump from one phrase to another,
omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning. Students writing research papers or
newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ ellipsis to avoid copying lengthy text that is not
needed.

 Omission of words: She began to count, "One, two, three, four…" until she got to 10, then went to
find him.
 Within a quotation: When Newton stated, "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion
stays in motion..." he developed the law of motion.

British vs. American English

There are a few differences between punctuation in British and American English. The following charts
details some of those differences:

British English American English

The " . " symbol is called A full stop a period
The " ! " symbol is called an exclamation mark an exclamation point
The " ( ) " symbols are called brackets parentheses
The " [ ] " symbols are called square brackets brackets
Joy means
The position of quotation marks Joy means "happiness."
"happiness".
The punctuation for abbreviations Dr, Mr, Mrs, St, Rd, Ct Dr., Mr., Mrs., St., Rd., Ct.
Spelling:
“The process or activity of writing or naming the letters of a word.
The way a word is spelled. “OR” A person's ability to spell words.”
Basic Spelling Rules
 Short-Vowel Rule: When one-syllable words have a vowel in the middle, the vowel usually has
a short sound. Examples: cat, dog, man, hat, mom, dad, got. If the letter after the vowel is f, l,
or s, this letter is often doubled. Examples: staff, ball, pass.
 Two-Vowels Together: When two vowels are next to each other, the first vowel is usually long
(the sound is the same as the sound of the letter) and the second vowel is silent.
Examples: meat, seat, plain, rain, goat, road, lie, pie.
 Vowel-Consonant-e Pattern: When a short word, or the last syllable of a longer word, ends in
this pattern vowel-consonant-e, then the first vowel is usually long and the e is silent.
Examples: place, cake, mice, vote, mute.
 Y as a long I: The letter y makes the long sound of i when it comes at the end of a short word
that has no other vowel. Examples: cry, try, my, fly, by, hi.
 Y as a long E: When y or ey ends a word in an unaccented syllable, the y has the long sound
of e. Examples: money, honey, many, key, funny.
 I before E: Write i before e when the sound is long e except after the letter c.
Examples: relieve, relief, reprieve. When there is a c preceding, then it
is ei : receipt, receive, ceiling, deceive, conceive.
 E before I: Write e before i when the sound is long a. Examples: weight, freight, reign. Another
way to remember this is: “I before e except after c, or when sounding like a as
in neighbor and weigh.” When the ie/ei combination is not pronounced ee, it is usually
spelled ei.
 Oi or Oy: Use oi in the middle of a word and use oy at the end of a word.
Examples: boil, soil, toil, boy, toy.
 Ou or Ow: Use ou in the middle of a word and use ow at the end of words other than those
that end in n or d. Examples: mouse, house, found, mount, borrow, row, throw, crow.
 Double Consonants: When b, d, g, m, n, or p appear after a short vowel in a word with two
syllables, double the consonant. Examples: rabbit, manner, dagger, banner, drummer.
 The ch sound: At the beginning of a word, use ch. At the end of a word, use tch. When
the ch sound is followed by ure or ion, use t.
Examples: choose, champ, watch, catch, picture, rapture.
Suffix And Inflection Rules
 Words ending with a silent e: Drop the e before adding a suffix which begins with a
vowel: state, stating; like, liking.
 Keep the e when the suffix begins with a consonant: state, statement; use, useful.
 When y is the last letter in a word and the y is preceded by a consonant, change
the y to i before adding any suffix except those beginning
with y: beauty, beautiful; fry, fries; lady, ladies.
 When forming the plural of a word which ends with a y that is preceded by a
vowel, add s: toy, toys; monkey, monkeys.
 When a one-syllable word ends in a consonant preceded by one vowel, double the final
consonant before adding a suffix which begins with a vowel. This is also called the 1-1-1 rule,
i.e., one syllable, one consonant, one vowel! Example: bat, batted, batting, batter.
 When a multi-syllable word ends in a consonant preceded by one vowel, and the final
syllable is accented, the same rule holds true—double the final consonant.
Examples: control, controlled; begin, beginning.
 When the final syllable does not have the end-accent, it is preferred, and in some cases
required, that you NOT double the consonant. Examples: focus, focused; worship, worshiped.
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