The Relationship Between Extri

Page 1 of 13 Original Research
The relationship between extrinsic motivation, job

satisfaction and life satisfaction amongst employees in
a public organisation
Authors: Orientation: There is much research on extrinsic motivation, job satisfaction and life satisfaction
Chengedzai Mafini1 in organisations. However, empirical evidence on how such factors affect employees in public
Nobukhosi Dlodlo2
organisations in developing countries is lacking.
Affiliations: Research purpose: To examine the relationships between extrinsic motivation, job satisfaction
1
Logistics Department, Vaal
University of Technology, and life satisfaction amongst employees in a public organisation.
South Africa
Motivation for the study: Labour strife is an endemic phenomenon in South Africa’s public
2
Department of Marketing, sector as evidenced by the high incidences of industrial action and labour turnover. This study
Vaal University of contributes to this subject by identifying the extrinsic factors that could be optimised with a
Technology, South Africa view to enhancing job and life satisfaction amongst government employees.
Correspondence to: Research approach, design and method: The study used the quantitative research survey
Chengedzai Mafini approach: a questionnaire was administered to 246 employees in a South African public
organisation. Extrinsic motivation factors were identified using principal components analysis.
Email:
chengedzai@hotmail.com
Mean score ranking was used to compare the relative importance of all factors. The conceptual
framework was tested using Spearman’s rank correlation analysis and linear regression
Postal address: analysis.
Private Bag X021,
Vanderbijlpark 1900, Main findings: Statistically significant relationships were observed between job satisfaction
South Africa and four extrinsic motivation factors: remuneration, quality of work life, supervision and
teamwork. The relationship with promotion was insignificant, but a statistically significant
Dates: relationship was established with life satisfaction.
Received: 03 July 2013
Accepted: 01 Feb. 2014 Practical/managerial implications: The findings may be used to implement strategies for
Published: 09 Apr. 2014
enhancing employee performance and industrial relations within public organisations.
How to cite this article: Contribution/value-add: The study provides evidence of the interplay between extrinsic
Mafini, C., & Dlodlo, N.
motivation, job satisfaction and life satisfaction for public servants in developing countries.
(2014). The relationship
between extrinsic
motivation, job satisfaction
and life satisfaction amongst Introduction
employees in a public
organisation. SA Journal of The South African public sector has been characterised by inefficiency and ineffectiveness in
Industrial Psychology/SA terms of meeting its mandate of providing quality service delivery (Luddy, 2005). In contrast, the
Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, private sector in the same country is reputed for its world-class services. It has been suggested
40(1), Art. #1166, 13 pages. that such discrepancies may, in part, be attributed to the fact that public sector employees are
http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/
sajip.v40i1.1166 often faced with a number of adverse factors that impact on their overall well-being. These factors
include, inter alia, a lack of motivation as well as low levels of job and life satisfaction (Barbie,
Copyright: 2010). Dissatisfied and demoralised employees tend to have low levels of commitment at work,
© 2014. The Authors. which, in turn, impacts negatively on performance and the achievement of organisational goals
Licensee: AOSIS (Saari & Judge, 2004). To avert such results, it is important to study and understand the interaction
OpenJournals. This work
is licensed under the of motivation and job satisfaction factors amongst employees in public organisations.
Creative Commons
Attribution License. In the post-apartheid era, the South African government has been faced with frequent salvos
of labour unrest, with many civil servants expressing disgruntlement with their jobs (Van
der Heijden & Mlandi, 2005). It is logical for one to expect this, since government employees
experience pressure and anxiety as a result of the expectations of employers, the community
(local and international) and media, amongst other stakeholders (Hornbaek, 2006). This poses a
number of challenges, frustrations and tensions, the enormity of which is often underestimated
(Nilsson, 2010). Consequently, public sector employees tend to have low levels of job satisfaction
Read online: and life satisfaction; this has been found to be the leading determinant of poor-quality service
Scan this QR delivery amongst government departments (Burke, 2001).
code with your
smart phone or
mobile device It is notable that despite the availability of extensive literature on extrinsic motivation, job
to read online.
satisfaction and life satisfaction (e.g. Lam, 1995; Li-Ping Tang & Talpade, 1999; Oshagbemi, 2000),
http://www.sajip.co.za doi:10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1166
most studies have focused on private sector employees Job satisfaction: A comprehensive definition given by Locke
only. Other scholars have focused on single countries (1969) states that job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive
(e.g. Bernhard & O’Driscoll, 2011), cross-cultural contexts emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or
(e.g. Loscocco & Bose, 1998; Wang & Lee, 2009) as well as job experiences. Agho, Mueller and Price (1993) also define
different levels of jobs in different industry sectors (e.g. job satisfaction as a personal evaluation of conditions present
Lentz & Allen, 2009; Ting, 1997). This far-reaching attention in the job, or outcomes that arise as a result of having a job.
that management and research practitioners alike have Job satisfaction further relates to the extensive magnitude
devoted to this subject testifies that extrinsic motivation, job in which people enjoy being at their jobs, doing their work
satisfaction and life satisfaction are important constructs in as well as being rewarded for their efforts (Hirschfield,
organisational behaviour. This sheer prominence implies that 2000). This suggests that job satisfaction has to do with an
continued research centred on the interplay between these individual’s perception and evaluation of their job and this
factors is merited, so that more current information is found perception is influenced by unique circumstances such as
to update what is already known. In addition, the fact that needs, values and expectations (Buitendach & De Witte,
empirical evidence on the relationship between these factors 2005).
is based on contexts other than the South African public
sector is also worth mentioning. It would be remarkable then Overall job satisfaction focuses on the internal state of
to examine this structural relationship within this previously gratification or discontentment about one’s job (Thompson
disregarded geo-spatial context. & Phua, 2012). Positive experiences in terms of friendly
colleagues, good remuneration, compassionate supervisors
This article is structured as follows: in the next section, a and attractive jobs create high levels of job satisfaction
theoretical background is provided on job satisfaction, life (Giannikis & Mihail, 2011). Simply stated, the more a person’s
satisfaction and extrinsic motivation. The subsequent section work environment fulfils their needs, values or personal
presents the conceptual framework and hypotheses. This characteristics, the greater the degree of job satisfaction (Yee,
is then followed by a discussion on the methodology that
Yeung & Cheng, 2010). Satisfied employees tend to be more
was followed, the measurement scales that were used, data
committed to their work, participate more robustly, positively
analysis as well as the conclusions for the study. Finally,
and effectively in work-related activities and are less likely to
managerial implications, limitations and implications for
leave the organisation (Agarwal & Ferratt, 2001). As such, it
future research are discussed.
is vital for organisations to strive to enhance the levels of job
satisfaction amongst their employees, as this has a positive
Review of related literature stimulus effect on the prosperity of the organisation (Price,
Life satisfaction: There is a general lack of consensus 2001).
regarding the definition of life satisfaction amongst
researchers. Some scholars (e.g. Judge, Locke, Durham & Extrinsic motivation: Work motivation may be defined as the
Kluger, 1998; Judge & Watanabe, 1993), in defining this individual’s willingness to exert high levels of effort toward
concept, tend to focus on the employee’s global assessment of organisational goals, conditioned by the individual’s ability
their life in positive terms. Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith (1999) to satisfy some need (Robbins, 2003. The two-factor theory
conceptualise this construct within the ambit of feelings and of motivation (Herzberg, 1966, cited in Kanungo, 1979)
attitudes about one’s life at a particular point in time ranging distinguishes between intrinsic motivation (e.g. recognition,
from the negative to the positive. In terms of its attributions, responsibility, autonomy, ability utilisation, etc.) and
Buetell (2006) links life satisfaction to a family of personality, extrinsic motivation (e.g. remuneration, working conditions,
genetic and social-cognitive factors such as goal-directed promotion, prestige, etc.) which may be linked to job
activity. However, Lucas-Carrasco and Salvador-Carulla satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The theory further postulates
(2012) attribute life satisfaction to self-efficacy, whilst Bastug that intrinsic factors are motivators whereas extrinsic
and Duman (2010) associate it with outcome expectations and (hygiene) factors are essential but do not necessarily motivate
environmental support and Koohsar and Bonab (2011) relate employees (Hennessey & Amabile, 2005). Consequently,
it to intellectual abilities. Life satisfaction may also be centred extrinsic motivation factors simply ensure that some external
on specific domains of life, such as physical health, wealth, goal or some externally imposed constraint is met (Ryan &
mental health, social relationships and a general sense of Deci, 2000).
accomplishment (Ye, Yu & Li, 2012). With reference to its
impact, it has been reported that life satisfaction is related Results from contemporary organisational behaviour
to a number of personal and organisational factors such as research have challenged and revolutionised the traditional
self esteem (Rode, 2004), personality traits (Zhang & Howell, proposition that extrinsic factors do not motivate employees.
2011), work and family roles (Zhao, Qu & Ghiselli, 2011), job For example, it has been found that extrinsic motivation
satisfaction (Nickerson & Nagle, 2005) as well as employee has an impact on a number of aspects such as employee
performance (Ghiselli, La Lopa & Bai, 2001). In this study, commitment (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2003), organisational
the conceptualisation by Ye et al. (2012) is adopted since it citizenship behaviour (Kavanaugh, Duffy & Lilly, 2006),
provides an employee’s perceptions of their subjective well- personal accomplishments (Crompton, 2003) and low
being using holistic contextual variables that are directly turnover intentions (Wegge, Van Dick, Fisher, Wecking
congruent to the social situations related to work-life. & Moltzen, 2006). A number of researchers (Hoole &
Vermeulen, 2003; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007; Thompson reveals that quality of work life has a positive impact on job
2003) also found positive connections between extrinsic satisfaction, organisational commitment and comradeship.
motivation and job satisfaction. It appears then, that extrinsic Estryn-Behar et al. (2004) also concludes that quality of
behavioural contingencies as well as extrinsic motivation work life is considerably correlated with job satisfaction
are both powerful determinants of motivated employee factors such as physical working environment, psychological
behaviour. support at work and time to devote to sport and lifestyle. It
is expected then that there would be a positive association
Proposed relationships and hypothesis formulation between quality of work life and job satisfaction. Therefore,
for the study: Research demonstrates that a plethora of the following hypothesis is formulated for the study:
extrinsic motivation determinants have an influence on job
Hypothesis 2 (H2): There is a positive and significant
satisfaction and life satisfaction. The first scholars to explore
relationship between quality of work life and job
this research area were Brayfield, Wells and Strate (1957), satisfaction.
who investigated the relationship between job satisfaction
and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation through a review of
Promotion and job satisfaction: It has been suggested that
various motivational theories. A notable suggestion by these
self-actualisation in the workplace can only be accomplished
scholars is that continued research was needed to explore the
through the creation of opportunities for employee
relationship between motivational factors and job satisfaction.
promotion (Ting, 1997). This view is supported by Ellickson
In this regard, a number of extrinsic motivational factors were
and Logsdon (2002) who conclude that satisfaction with
considered in the formulation of the research hypotheses that
promotional opportunities is positively and significantly
reinforce a theoretical foundation for this study.
related to the job satisfaction of municipal workers. A
number of scholars (McCausland, Pouliakas & Theodossiou,
Remuneration and job satisfaction: According to Ting
2000; Saari & Judge, 2004) suggest that there is a direct and
(1997), remuneration has a significant influence on job
positive association between promotional opportunities and
satisfaction amongst government employees. Similarly,
job satisfaction. When employees perceive that there are high
Robbins (2003) emphasises that equitable rewards, which
chances for promotion, they feel motivated to work harder
refer to compensation systems that are perceived as fair and
to achieve organisational goals with a view to attaining
in line with employee expectations, are a strong determinant
elevated job designations and higher ranks (Dessler, 2008). By
of job satisfaction. In another study conducted by Kebriael
contrast, employees who are dissatisfied with the available
and Moteghedi (2009), public employees attributed the
promotional opportunities in their organisation usually
dissatisfaction with their jobs to low benefits and salaries.
Additionally, NaeemIlham, Hadi, Shishi & Piarala (2011) demonstrate a greater intention to leave the organisation
also found significant positive relationships between job (Shields & Ward, 2001). In light of the literature discussed in
satisfaction and remuneration amongst civil servants in this section, a positive association between promotion and
the Republic of Maldives. This demonstrates that when job satisfaction can be envisaged. It is against this background
employees perceive that their remuneration is fair, they are that the following hypothesis is formulated for the study:
most likely to experience a feeling of satisfaction. This is Hypothesis 3 (H3): There is a positive and significant
because income helps individuals to meet certain universal relationship between promotion and job satisfaction.
needs and, therefore, income, at least at lower levels, is an
antecedent to job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Supervision and job satisfaction: Research demonstrates
Based on the foregoing literature discourse the following that a positive relationship exists between job satisfaction
hypothesis is formulated for this study: and supervision (Peterson, Puia & Suess, 2003; Smucker,
Hypothesis 1 (H1): There is a positive and significant Whisenant & Pedersen, 2003). Supervision forms a pivotal
relationship between remuneration and job satisfaction. role relating to job satisfaction in terms of the supervisor’s
ability to provide emotional and technical support and
Quality of work life and job satisfaction: Quality of work guidance on work-related tasks (Robbins, 2003). This implies
life has been described as the strengths and weaknesses in the that supervisors contribute to high or low morale in the
total work environment (Koonmee, Singhapakdi, Virakul & workplace (Ramsey, 1997). Similarly, the supervisor’s attitude
Lee, 2010). This comprises specific characteristics such as the and behaviour towards employees may also be a contributing
adequacy and the quality of facilities within the organisation, factor to job-related complaints (Sherman & Bohlander, 1992).
organisational features such as policies and procedures, In a study conducted by Ladebo (2008), it was also found that
leadership style that is employed, operations and general supervision is a predictor of job satisfaction, which in turn
contextual factors within the organisation (Noor & Abdullar, determines job performance and organisational citizenship
2012). The determination of staff perceptions about quality behaviours. Based on the aforementioned conceptualisations,
of work life is an important consideration for employers one would expect a positive relationship between supervision
interested in improving employee job satisfaction because and job satisfaction. It is against this background that the
such perceptions play an important role in employee decisions following hypothesis is formulated for the study:
to enter, stay with or leave an organisation (Bagtasos, 2011). Hypothesis 4 (H4): There is a positive and significant
A study conducted by Lee, Singhapakdi and Sirgy (2007) relationship between supervision and job satisfaction.
Figures
Teamwork and job satisfaction: For many public service
employees, social interactions at work are a critical factor Remuneration
in job satisfaction. As such, synergy and departmental H1
members’ cohesion yields enhanced job satisfaction amongst Quality of
employees (Buitenbach & De Witte, 2005). Empirical results work life
H1
from a study conducted by Acuna, Gomez and Juristo (2009)
Promotion Job H1 Life
reveal that working in a team is closely associated with the H1
satisfaction satisfaction
possibility to learn new things as well as job enlargement H1
elements which have been found to be positively associated Supervision
with job satisfaction. Having friendly and helpful colleagues H1
also contributes towards increased satisfaction on the Teamwork
job (Kreitner, Kinicki & Cole, 2003). A study conducted
by Viswesvaran, Deshpande and Joseph (1998) further FIGURE 1: Proposed conceptual framework.
corroborates previous findings in suggesting that there is a
positive correlation between job satisfaction and teamwork. Conceptual framework
Based on the foregoing discussion, it appears that the
In line with the aforementioned hypotheses, this study
existence of a positive association between teamwork and
suggests that remuneration, quality of work life, promotion,
job satisfaction amongst public service employees may not
supervision and teamwork are the salient extrinsic motivation
be contestable. In this regard, the following hypothesis is
factors that positively influence job satisfaction. Additionally,
formulated for the study:
overall job satisfaction is a crucial mediating variable that
Hypothesis 5 (H5): There is a positive and significant positively enhances life satisfaction amongst public service
relationship between teamwork and job satisfaction. employees. Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework that
is proposed for the current study.
Job satisfaction and life satisfaction: As suggested by
Zhang and Howell (2011), job satisfaction is a key indicator Research design
of the overall life satisfaction amongst employees because it
In the present study, a quantitative research approach was
climaxes when jobs meet people’s expectations. This implies
adopted in which a survey questionnaire was distributed
that job satisfaction would be a subordinate (component) of
to employees within a designated South African public
life satisfaction, an observation made by Sirgy, Efraty, Siegel
organisation. The survey method was considered to be
and Lee (2001). Kinicki, McKee-Ryan, Schriesheim & Carson
appropriate for this study because it easily facilitates the
(2002) also concur that the two concepts are more strongly
collection of data from large populations, making it easier
and positively correlated than what is perceived by many
to develop and administer the research questionnaire whilst
researchers.
generalising the research findings (Malhotra, 2010).
One of the most widely acknowledged theories that attempt

to address the relationship between job satisfaction and life
Research method
satisfaction is Chacko’s (1983) spillover model. This model Participants and sampling
suggests that satisfaction in one domain of an individual’s A total of 246 respondents were recruited using the simple
life automatically extends into other areas of life such that random sampling technique. This sampling technique
a positive relationship between life and job satisfaction is ensures that all the population elements have an equal
implied (Ignat & Clipa, 2012). Invariably so, an individual chance of being selected (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2002).
may bring to the job a level of dissatisfaction with life that All respondents were based in a government department
in Gauteng province, South Africa, and were available to
can manifest itself as dissatisfaction with the job (Buetell,
voluntarily participate in the study. The size of the sample
2006). However, the direction of the association between
was determined using Green’s (1991) rule of thumb which
job satisfaction and life satisfaction is subject to extensive
prescribes that no less than 50 participants are suitable for a
debate. For example, Rode (2004) suggests that there is a
correlation or regression analysis procedure with the number
general spillover of affective life satisfaction to the work
increasing with larger numbers of independent variables
situation. Mount, Ilies and Johnson (2006) contend that
(IVs).
job satisfaction is an antecedent to overall life satisfaction
amongst employees such that employees who are not happy
Data collection procedure and measuring instruments
in their non-work activities will not be happy in their work
Primary data were collected using a four-section
activities. In addition, Heller, Judge and Watson (2002) also
questionnaire. Section A of the questionnaire measured
acknowledge that job satisfaction has a positive influence on
different demographic attributes of the respondents.
life satisfaction. Based on the aforementioned insights, the
These included age, gender, race, education levels and job
following hypothesis is formulated for the study:
position. The demographic questions were structured on
Hypothesis 6 (H6): There is a positive and significant dichotomous, multiple choice, interval and range response
relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction. formats. Section B was composed of questions that elicited
information on extrinsic motivation factors. The teamwork TABLE 1: Reliability values for the extrinsic motivation, job satisfaction and life
satisfaction sub-scales.
sub-scale was adapted from a study by Buitendach and De
Dimension or Construct N Number of items Cronbach’s alpha
Witte (2005), whilst the quality of life sub-scale was adapted
Remuneration 246 4 0.816
from the scale used by Feldt, Kinnunen & Maunao (2000). Quality of work life 246 3 0.863
The remuneration, promotion and supervision sub-scales Teamwork 246 5 0.785
were adapted from the job description index scale that was Promotion 246 4 0.814
developed by Smith, Kendall and Hulin (1969). Supervision 246 5 0.703
Job satisfaction 246 7 0.874
Section C of the questionnaire elicited the respondents’ job Life satisfaction 246 5 0.726
satisfaction using the global job satisfaction sub-scale that Overall Cronbach’s alpha for the entire scale = 0.859
was adapted from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
long-form designed by Spector (1985). Section D of the study exploratory factor analysis. The results indicated that there
used the satisfaction with life scale developed by Diener, were no cross-loadings amongst constructs; hence, five
Emmons, Larsen and Griffin (1985) to elicit information on extrinsic motivational factors were identified as being salient
the life satisfaction of the respondents. A Likert scale from 1 towards the satisfaction of civil service employees on their
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used to structure jobs.
questions under sections B, C and D of the questionnaire. The
Likert scale was used because it is relatively easy to construct Additionally, convergent validity was assessed through
and makes data easy to collect and analyse, which makes it the computation of Spearman’s correlations between the
suitable for surveys (Kothari, 2008). five extrinsic motivation sub-scales, job satisfaction and life
satisfaction. The results of the correlation analysis (refer to
The research instrument was administered to the participants in Table 3) revealed that there were positive and significant
September 2012. In order to randomise the data collection relationships between all factors that were analysed,
procedure, data were collected from different units within which provides evidence of factor convergence. Moreover,
the public service department. In addition, data were convergent validity was indirectly assessed through an
analysis of the Cronbach’s alpha values. The high alpha values
also collected during different days and times. A trained
(≥ 0.70) reflect the degree of cohesiveness amongst the scale
employee of the department assisted in the collection of
items serving as an indicator of convergent validity (Maxwell
data. Furthermore, permission to collect data was granted
& Moores, 2007). Predictive validity was measured through
by management before the research project was launched.
regression analysis. Causality was explained by four of the
Ethical considerations such as the participants’ right to
five extrinsic motivation factors with job satisfaction (refer
anonymity, confidentiality, privacy or non-participation, to Table 4). Similarly, the findings of the study demonstrated
informed consent and protection from discomfort, harm and causality between job satisfaction and life satisfaction (refer
victimisation were adhered to during the administration of to Table 5), thereby confirming the existence of acceptable
the questionnaire. Out of the 400 questionnaires that were levels of predictive validity in the current study.
initially distributed, 246 were eventually used in the actual
data analysis, giving a 62% response rate. Data analysis
The aim of this study was to determine the relationships
Reliability and validity of the measurement scale between extrinsic motivation, job satisfaction and life
Assessing the validity and reliability of measuring satisfaction in a public organisation. Data analysis was
instruments is integral in validating an instrument’s conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
usefulness (Alumran, Hou & Hurst, 2012). Cronbach’s alpha (SPSS version 21.0).
values for the sub-scales ranged between 0.703 and 0.874,
indicating adequate reliability of the sub-scales (Nunnally Sample composition
& Bernstein, 1994). Additionally, the Cronbach’s alpha
Amongst the respondents, 65% (n = 160) were male and 35%
coefficient for the entire scale was 0.859. Therefore, these (n = 86) were female. In terms of age in years, 59% (n = 145)
results confirm the competence of the scale in capturing the of the respondents were aged under 35 years. Approximately
factors examined in the study. The reliabilities of the scales 41% (n = 101) of the respondents had been employed in the
used in the study are reported in Table 1. public organisation for less than five years. With regard to
racial group, 81% (n = 199) of the respondents were black,
Content and face validity of the instrument were 11% (n = 27) were white, 7% (n = 17) were Indian and 2%
ascertained through pre-testing the questionnaire with (n = 5) were mixed-race; this is representative of the racial
a conveniently selected sample of 50 respondents in the composition within the majority of the public service
public organisation. In addition, the questionnaire was also departments in South Africa. Approximately 47% (n = 116)
reviewed by three academics who are experts in the field of of the respondents held a first degree, 13% (n = 32) held a
organisational behaviour. Based on the feedback from the postgraduate degree and 23% (n = 57) were in possession
pre-test and the expert reviews, a number of minor revisions of a diploma. Furthermore, approximately 67% (n = 165) of
were made to the questionnaire with a view to enhancing its the respondents occupied professional positions within the
validity in addressing the research questions (Radhakrishna, public organisation whilst 29% (n = 71) occupied clerical and
2007). Construct validity of the scale was assessed through general positions and 4% (n = 10) held management positions.
Extraction of extrinsic motivation factors was 71.9% indicating that the other 28.1% is accounted for by
In the study, exploratory factor analysis using the principal extraneous variables that do not constitute part of this study.
components analysis method and Varimax rotation was The results of the rotated component matrix, percentage of
applied in order to identify extrinsic motivation factors. Scale variance explained by each factor, cumulative percentage of
purification was conducted during which low factor loadings, variance and the eigenvalue criterion were assessed. Finally,
cross-loadings and low communalities were eliminated with a five-factor solution was developed, as the items were
a view to enhance ‘interpretability of the factor structure’ plausibly associated with the underlying factors. The rotated
(Malhotra, 2010, p. 643). A minimum cut-off of 0.50 was used factor loading matrix, psychometric properties as well as the
on the variable loadings. This is consistent with Hair et al. mean score values are reported in Table 2.
(2010) who suggested that factor loadings greater than 0.30
meet the minimum levels, loadings of 0.40 are considered Factor one, labelled remuneration, comprised four items and
important, and loading of 0.50 and greater are considered accounted for 23.16% of the variance. The items that loaded
more important. onto the factor relate mainly to the total compensation that
an employee receives in exchange for the services that were
The Bartlett’s test was significant at p < 0.000 inferring that the performed for the employer. Examples include monetary
data set is not an identity matrix with zero correlations (i.e. rewards (salary), vacation or leave and fringe benefits (Lewis
variables are correlated); this confirmed that a factor analysis & Frank, 2002). Furthermore, the remuneration dimension
procedure could be applied in the study. Furthermore, the was ranked third, with a mean score value of 4.314,
Bartlett’s test produced a chi square value (χ2) of 4228.079 providing some indication of the high level of agreeability
and a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value of 0.769 (> 0.50), further of employees’ attitudes towards remuneration as a salient
confirming the appropriateness of the data set for factor extrinsic motivational variable that may ultimately influence
analysis. The total variance explained by the extracted factors job and life satisfaction amongst government workers.
TABLE 2: Rotated factor-loading matrix: Extrinsic motivation factors, scale psychometric properties and mean score rankings.
Scale items Factor 1: Remuneration Factor 2: Quality of work life Factor 3: Teamwork Factor 4: Promotion Factor 5: Supervision
I am happy with my pay and the amount of 0.681 0.016 0.040 0.074 0.184
work I do
I am happy with the benefits package 0.933 0.099 0.013 0.235 0.241
accruing to me on my job
I am happy about my job’s vacation/leave policy 0.785 0.043 0.123 0.008 0.287
The pay policy on my job is fair 0.867 0.148 0.081 0.021 0.128
I am happy about the adequacy of facilities for 0.011 0.873 0.069 0.047 0.109
my job
I am happy about the employment conditions 0.339 0.601 0.223 0.239 0.102
in my organisation
I am happy with the quality of my work life 0.265 0.707 0.057 0.141 0.259
There is good teamwork in the organisation 0.114 0.028 0.737 0.245 0.377
I can always talk with workmates if I have a 0.198 -0.109 0.645 0.209 0.196
work-related problem
My relationships with members of my work 0.085 0.156 0.839 0.189 -0.077
group are friendly and professional
I have established the relationships that I need 0.116 -0.105 0.875 0.065 0.145
to do my work properly
Other work units are helpful to my work unit -0.147 0.231 0.753 0.197 0.099
whenever assistance is required
I am happy about the chances for advancement 0.268 0.137 0.300 0.615 0.037
on my job
There are regular opportunities for professional 0.112 0.161 0.122 0.774 0.225
development on my job
My organisation will promote me to a higher 0.034 0.433 0.292 0.535 0.267
job rank based on my working abilities
Chances for promotion on my job motivate 0.281 0.115 -0.170 0.708 0.184
me to perform better at my job
I am happy about the competence of my 0.109 0.475 0.257 0.158 0.581
superior in making decisions
I have faith in the quality of leadership of my 0.193 0.009 0.130 -0.127 0.691
superiors
My leaders give me positive feedback on my work -0.106 0.183 0.061 0.034 0.738
My leaders reward me when I do well 0.014 0.269 0.207 -0.069 0.889
My leaders give me personal attention when 0.028 0.359 0.092 0.246 0.840
I feel rejected
Eigenvalues 13.47 2.61 2.12 1.58 1.18
Percentage of variance 23.16 18.91 11.03 9.55 9.25
Cumulative percentage of variance 23.16 42.07 53.10 62.65 71.90
Mean scores of each sub-scale 4.314 4.642 4.134 3.592 4.649
Extraction method: Principal component analysis.
Rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser normalisation.
Loadings of 0.50 and more were considered significant.
Factor two, labelled quality of work life, comprised three items (0.341 ≤ r ≤ 0.624). This suggests that an increase in
and accounted for 18.91% of the variance. The items that remuneration, quality of life, teamwork, promotion and
loaded onto the factor relate mainly to the extent to which supervision can stimulate job satisfaction and, ultimately, life
employees can acquire well-being through the quality of satisfaction amongst public service employees. Furthermore,
their work lives as well as the availability of facilities for the an analysis of the relationship between the mediating
performance of work-related tasks (Noor & Abdullar, 2012). variable (job satisfaction) and the outcome variable (life
Furthermore, the quality of life dimension was ranked second, satisfaction) in the proposed conceptual framework for this
with a mean score value of 4.642. This indicates the moderate study revealed positive, strong and statistically significant
degree to which the respondents agreed that quality of work associations (r = 0.637; p < 0.01).
life was a very important variable in achieving high levels of
motivation amongst public service employees. Regression analysis: Extrinsic motivation and job
satisfaction: In this study, Malhotra’s (2010) conceptualisation
Factor three, labelled teamwork, comprised five items and of linear regression analysis was adopted: an inferential
accounted for 11.03% of the variance. The items that loaded statistical technique that is performed to identify the variables
onto the factor relate mainly to the extent to which the that predict or provide the best explanation for the portion of
respondents felt that the collaborative efforts, synergy and the total variance in the scores of the dependent variables.
team-building capacity of departmental units contributed Four principal assumptions were made that justify the use
immensely towards extrinsically motivating employees of linear regression analysis for purposes of predicting the
in the achievement of organisational goals. Furthermore, existence of relationships amongst the variables. These are
the teamwork dimension was ranked fourth, with a mean sufficient conditions for the least-squares estimator to possess
score value of 4.134. This demonstrates the moderate desirable properties; in particular, these assumptions imply
degree to which the respondents agreed that teamwork was that the parameter estimates will be unbiased, consistent and
instrumental in achieving high levels of extrinsic motivation efficient in the class of linear unbiased estimators.
and, ultimately, job and life satisfaction amongst public
service employees. Initially, normality was not violated in that the normal
probability curve, which plotted residuals against predicted
Factor four, labelled promotion, comprised four items and values, depicted limited outliers. This suggests that the
accounted for 9.55% of the variance. The items that loaded estimation of coefficients and the calculation of confidence
onto the factor relate mainly to the formal level of employee intervals were not compromised in the study, making it
advancement within specific hierarchical job rankings, job feasible to fit a linear model. Such an exercise was deemed
tasks or other designations. Surprisingly, the promotion fit during the initial stages of the procedure as non-normally
dimension was ranked lowest (fifth) amongst the extrinsic distributed data has the potential to distort relationships and
motivation constructs, with a mean score value of 3.592. significance tests.
This indicates that the respondents’ perceptions of the
contribution of promotion in enhancing extrinsic motivation Secondly, the sample was considered to be representative
are restricted. of the population for the inference predictions based on
the normal distribution curve. Thirdly, the Durbin-Watson
Factor five, labelled supervision, comprised five items and test statistic was used to test for variable independence
accounted for 9.25% of the variance. Additionally, the through an inspection of the autocorrelation in the regression
supervision dimension was ranked third, with a mean residuals (Durbin & Watson, 1950). As a rough rule of thumb,
score value of 4.649. This indicates the moderate degree to if Durbin-Watson is very small (d ≤ 1) there may be cause for
which the respondents agreed that the quality of managerial alarm whereas small values (1 < d < 2) indicate that successive
leadership, supervisor competence, feedback reports error terms are close in value to one another or positively
and supervisor support was a very important variable in correlated and large values (d > 2) suggest that successive
extrinsically directing them to achieve organisational goals. error terms are very different in value from one another
(i.e. negatively correlated). From the sample data, most of
Correlation analysis: Extrinsic motivation, job satisfaction the residual autocorrelations fell within the 95% confidence
and life satisfaction: Spearman non-parametric correlation bands around zero (0.287 < autocorr < 0.305). Similarly, a
analysis was used to establish the possible existence of a Durbin-Watson autocorrelation test statistic of 1.725 was
relationship amongst the sub-scales. This procedure is applied established, indicating positive autocorrelation or a perfect
with a view to assessing the degree to which quantitative estimation of the level of statistical significance in the model.
variables are linearly related in a sample (Maxwell & Moores,
2007). These results are reported in Table 3. Finally, the positive correlation coefficients shown in Table
3 pinpoint the existence of linearity between extrinsic
The correlation matrix shows that there were positive and motivation and job satisfaction (0.179 ≤ r ≤ 0.643). The
significant relationships between the five extrinsic motivation correlation matrix was examined for the existence of
variables and job satisfaction (0.179 ≤ r ≤ 0.643). Similarly, multicollinearity, to test whether the predictor variables
positive correlation coefficients were established between correlated too highly (r > 0.9) with each other (Field, 2005).
the five extrinsic motivation dimensions and life satisfaction None of the correlations in Table 3 reached a value of greater
TABLE 3: Correlation analysis: Extrinsic motivation factors, job satisfaction and life satisfaction.
Dimension Remuneration Quality of work life Teamwork Promotion Supervision Job satisfaction Life satisfaction
Remuneration 1.000 0.620** 0.511** 0.217* 0.302* 0.562** 0.523**
Quality of work life - 1.000 0.304* 0.612** 0.416** 0.643** 0.445*
Teamwork - - 1.000 0.296* 0.362* 0.513** 0.624**
Promotion - - - 1.000 0.379* 0.179** 0.341**
Supervision - - - - 1.000 0.461** 0.477*
Job satisfaction 0.562** 0.643** 0.513** 0.179* 0.461** 1.000 0.637**
Life satisfaction 0.523** 0.445* 0.624** 0.341** 0.477* 0.637** 1.000
Standard deviation 0.783 0.758 0.847 0.709 0.789 0.927 0.769
*, correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed); **, correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed)
TABLE 4: Regression model 1: Extrinsic motivation factors and job satisfaction.

Independent variables: Extrinsic motivation factors Dependent variable: Job satisfaction
Standardised t Sig. Collinearity statistics
coefficients (Beta)
Tolerance VIF
Remuneration 0.270 4.240 0.000 0.571 1.847
Quality of work life 0.268 5.825 0.021 0.682 1.828
Promotion -0.105 1.959 0.406 0.595 2.132
Supervision 0.216 2.137 0.001 0.709 1.936
Teamwork 0.184 3.445 0.009 0.639 1.615
t, obtained t-value; Sig., significance; VIF, variance inflation factor.
Model summary: multiple correlation (R) = 0.498; proportion variance explained (Adjusted R2) = 0.558; F-value = 12.727; Standard error of the estimate = 0.94386
TABLE 5: Regression model 2: Job satisfaction and life satisfaction.

Independent variables: Job satisfaction Dependent variable: Life satisfaction
Standardised t Sig. Collinearity statistics
coefficients (Beta)
Tolerance VIF
Job satisfaction .335 5.412 .000 .604 1.733
t, obtained t-value; Sig., significance; VIF, variance inflation factor.
Multiple correlation (R) = 0.534; proportion variance explained (Adjusted R2) = 0.613; F-value = 46.216
than 0.9; hence, the data were considered suitable for linear small Durbin-Watson autocorrelation test statistic of 1.694
regression analysis using the enter method with a view to (i.e. 1 < d < 2) was established, suggesting a near perfect
establishing whether or not causality exists between these estimation of the level of statistical significance in the model.
predictors (extrinsic motivation factors) and their relative Table 5 reports on the results of the second regression model.
measurement response (job satisfaction). Table 4 reports on
these results. Regression model 2 showed an R2 value of 0.613, which
depicts that approximately 61.3% of the variation of the life
satisfaction amongst employees in the public organisation
The five extrinsic motivation factors accounted for
can be explained by job satisfaction. Further examination
approximately 56% (R2 = 0.558) of the variance explained
of the collinearity statistics established a tolerance value
in job satisfaction. Collinearity statistics for the five
of 0.64 (i.e. > 0.50) as well as a VIF value of 1.733 (i.e. 1.0
extrinsic motivation factors were within acceptable values,
≤ VIF ≤ 4.0), thus providing evidence of the absence of a
indicating that multicollinearity was not a problem in the multicollinearity problem within the regression model.
present study as the independent variables were not highly
correlated. In accordance with the recommendation by
O’Brien (2007), all tolerance values fell above the prescribed
Discussion
value of 0.5. Similarly, the rule of thumb observed by Pan A positive and strong association was established between
and Jackson (2008) was satisfied with all the five dimensions remuneration and job satisfaction (r = 0.562; p < 0.01).
The results of the regression analysis also revealed that
demonstrating variance inflation factor (VIF) values ranging
remuneration is a statistically significant predictor of job
between 1.0 and 4.0.
satisfaction (β = 0.270; t = 4.240; p < 0.01). These results suggest
that H1 is supported and is therefore accepted in this study. This
Regression analysis: Job satisfaction and life
demonstrates that the job satisfaction of public employees
satisfaction increases when their remuneration increases. Consistent with
The possible existence of a predictive relationship between this finding, a number of previous studies (Lewis & Frank,
job satisfaction (independent variable) and life satisfaction 2002; Omar & Ogenyi, 2006; Sargent & Hannum, 2003) concur
(outcome variable) was assessed through the computation that remuneration is strongly and positively related to job
of a second linear regression procedure. Upon checking satisfaction. A comparative study of both public and private
the possible violation of linear regression assumptions, a sector organisations conducted by Buelens and Broeck (2007)
positive correlation coefficient was established between job revealed that civil servants were less extrinsically motivated
satisfaction and life satisfaction (r = 0.637). Additionally, a and satisfied with their work because their remuneration
was significantly lower than that of their counterparts by either internal or external politics (MANforum, 2009).
in the private sector. An evaluation of job satisfaction in This is especially true in the case of South African civil
the extended public sector in Greece showed that public service designations. Most employees in public organisations
administrators administered extrinsic motivational understand these dynamics and inadvertently accept the
instruments, more specifically the provision of fair wages, status quo in terms of their positions (Re’em, 2011). In such
as an effective tool to improve productivity of employees cases, the employees remain gratified with their job ranks
(Manolopoulos, 2008). Similar conclusions were drawn by and promotion ceases to act as a motivational factor.
Luddy (2005) in a study that examined the job satisfaction
of public service employees in South Africa. It appears, then, A positive and moderate association was established
that remuneration remains an important extrinsic motivation between supervision and job satisfaction (r = 0.461;
factor that positively impacts job satisfaction amongst public p < 0.01). The supervision factor emerged as a statistically
service employees. significant predictor of job satisfaction (β = 0.216; t = 2.137;
p < 0.01). These results suggest that H4 is supported and is
A positive and strong association was established between therefore accepted in this study. These findings imply that job
quality of work life and job satisfaction (r = 0.643; p < 0.01). satisfaction amongst public service employees increases with
The quality of work life factor emerged as a statistically and is dependent upon the quality of supervision that is
significant predictor of job satisfaction (β = 0.268; t = 5.825; received. This is congruent with previous research. Abd-El-
p < 0.05). These results suggest that H2 is supported and is Fattah (2010) found that the majority of resignations in public
therefore, accepted in this study. These findings imply that institutions can be attributed to disappointment with the
job satisfaction increases with and is dependent on the immediate supervisor or the line manager, which suggests
quality of work life amongst public employees. Feldt et al. that there is an established positive association between
(2000) also observe that a high quality of work life leads to supervision and job satisfaction. Furthermore, supervisory
higher levels of both job and life satisfaction. Estryn-Behar behaviour was found to have a significant relationship with
et al. (2004) also conclude that quality of work life was job satisfaction and turnover intention amongst Nigerian
significantly associated with job satisfaction factors such as police officers (Adebayo & Ogunsina, 2011). Satisfaction with
physical working environment, psychological support at supervisors was also found to be amongst the top four factors
work and time to devote to sport and lifestyle. Additionally, that influence job satisfaction amongst public university
Koonmee et al. (2010) establish that quality of work life educators (Boreham, Gray & Blake, 2006). Roelen, Koopmans
has a positive impact on the three employee job-related and Groothoff (2008) also add that quality of supervision
outcomes: job satisfaction, organisational commitment and has emerged as the impeding challenge to the development
and success of organisations (both public and private) in any
team spirit. Moreover, Noor and Abdullar (2012) observed
country because it determines the extent to which employees
a positive interconnection between quality of work life and
are satisfied with and motivated to achieve organisational
job satisfaction. It is important then for managers in public
goals.
organisations to ensure that high levels of quality of work
life exist in order to increase the satisfaction of employees at
A positive and strong association was established between
work.
teamwork and job satisfaction (r = 0.513; p < 0.01). Teamwork
emerged as a statistically significant predictor of job
A positive but weak association was established between
satisfaction (β = 0.184; t = 3.445; p < 0.01). These results
promotion and job satisfaction (r = 0.179; p < 0.05). The
suggest that H5 is supported and is therefore accepted in this study.
regression model further revealed that promotion is not
These findings express that job satisfaction amongst public
a statistically significant predictor of job satisfaction (β =
employees is dependent on teamwork. In a corresponding
–0.105; t = 1.959; p > 0.05). These results suggest that H3 is not
manner, previous research suggests that working in a team
supported and is therefore rejected in this study. These findings
empowers people and helps them to develop autonomy,
illustrate that promotion of public employees does not solely which provides the basis for satisfaction on the job and
trigger any significant increases in their job satisfaction. reduced work stress (Sewell, 2005). Survey results from a
Synchronous with the findings of Naveed, Usman and study conducted by Dackert, Lööv and Mårtensson (2004)
Bushra (2011), weak correlations were found between also indicate a positive correlation between teamwork and
promotion and job satisfaction. Moen and Rosen (2005) also job satisfaction. Fröbel and Marchington (2005) confirm
confirm that there are instances where promotion is not a a correlation between autonomous task groups or self-
major factor in determining job satisfaction. But be that as managing teams and a better attitude towards one’s work
it may, the findings of the present study seem to contradict and company. The impact of teamwork on job satisfaction
the established relationship between promotion and job is so important for the attainment of overall organisational
satisfaction from previous studies (McCausland et al., 2005; goals that most recruiting employers advertise teamwork as
Saari & Judge, 2004; Shields & Ward, 2001). This discrepancy a prerequisite for job candidates even though very often the
is puzzling. However, these findings could be attributed to actual work displays no such features (White, Hill, McGovern,
the fact that generally, there are limited opportunities for Mills & Smeaton, 2003). Thus, it appears that organisations
promotion in the public sector (Gupta & Pannu, 2013). Public that make the use of teamwork are characterised by higher
sector organisations tend to be hierarchical in nature, with levels of employee satisfaction than companies that do not
most of the appointments to higher positions being driven make use of teamwork.
The results in regression model 2 depict a positive and strong adopting the conclusions drawn in this study. Additionally,
association between job satisfaction and life satisfaction it is necessary to recognise the influence of the general
(r = 0.637; p < 0.01). The job satisfaction variable emerged as limitations that are associated with quantitative data
a statistically significant predictor of life satisfaction amongst collection techniques.
public service employees (β = 0.335; t = 5.412; p < 0.01). These
results suggest that H6 is supported and is therefore accepted in The present study has implications for future academic
this study. These findings are contrary to the segmentation endeavours. Similar studies could be conducted using larger
theory, which posits that there is no linkage between job and sample sizes and different contexts, in order to refine the
life satisfaction as represented by a zero correlation between results. Furthermore, other selected factors (e.g. intrinsic
the two constructs (Loscocco & Roschelle, 1991). As such, factors, demographic, environmental) could be added with
based on findings from the current study, life satisfaction a view to either extending or revising the model used in
amongst public employees increases with and is dependent the current study. This could facilitate a comparison of the
upon their levels of job satisfaction. Most contemporary findings, which further creates room for future meta-analysis
research tends to consistently support the existence of on the proposed relationships. Finally, longitudinal research
a positive association between job satisfaction and life should also be considered to further understand trends in the
satisfaction (Ilies, Wilson & Wagner, 2009). In support, Mafini, relationships examined in the present study over an extended
Surujlal & Dhurup (2011) conclude that a strong correlation period of time, which will effectively refine the results.
exists between job satisfaction and life satisfaction amongst
municipal sports officers. Georgellis, Lange and Tabvuma Managerial implications
(2012) found a positive correlation between job satisfaction
and life satisfaction, with work–family conflict playing the The findings of the study are useful in empowering
role of a mediating variable. Additionally, job satisfaction managers in public organisations to motivate and satisfy
is observed to have a stronger effect on life satisfaction the needs of their employees. By optimising the extrinsic
than vice versa (Iverson & Maguire, 2000; Rode, 2004). It is motivation factors identified in this study, managers may
an important supposition, then, that the life satisfaction of be able to enhance the job satisfaction as well as the life
public employees may be enhanced by improving their job satisfaction of public service employees. This could lead to
satisfaction. a reduction in dysfunctional actions by public employees,
such as absenteeism, high turnover, industrial action and
unsatisfactory work performance. This has a ripple effect
Summary of findings on the attainment of organisational goals, since both job and
The study tested a conceptual framework through an life satisfaction are positively associated with organisational
examination of the relationships between extrinsic motivation, performance (Chandrasaker, 2011).
job satisfaction and life satisfaction amongst public employees
within a South African public service organisation. Five Conclusion
extrinsic motivation factors, namely remuneration, quality
of work life, promotion, supervision and teamwork, were The purpose of the current study was to examine the
identified. The findings confirm the existence of positive, underlying relationship between extrinsic motivation
statistically significant and predictive associations between factors, job satisfaction and life satisfaction of public service
four extrinsic motivation factors (remuneration, quality of employees in South Africa. Five factors, remuneration,
work life, supervision and teamwork) and job satisfaction. quality of work life, promotion, supervision and teamwork,
that influence the extrinsic motivation of public service
Therefore, H1, H2, H4 and H5 were accepted in this study.
employees were extracted using exploratory factor analysis.
However there was no statistically significant relationship
The application of Spearman’s rank correlation analysis
between promotion and job satisfaction; hence, H3 was
procedure revealed that with the exception of promotion,
rejected. In addition, the mediating role of the variables in the
there were moderate to strong correlations between the
conceptual model was further confirmed by a positive and
extrinsic motivation factors and job satisfaction. A positive
statistically significant relationship between job satisfaction
association between job satisfaction and life satisfaction
and life satisfaction; thus, H6 was accepted in this study.
was also observed, which implies that these two factors
either increase or decrease in parallel with each other. The
Limitations and suggestions for further research application of the regression analysis procedure showed
Despite efforts by the researchers to ensure that the present that remuneration, quality of work life, supervision and
study is without flaws, it has to be acknowledged that this teamwork are the extrinsic motivation factors that predict
study is not immune to limitations. Firstly, a small sample job satisfaction. Additionally, job satisfaction emerged as a
size of 246 public employees who were based in only one predictor of life satisfaction.
province (Gauteng) was used. It becomes necessary, then, to
exercise caution when generalising the findings of the present Acknowledgements
study to other populations and contexts. Secondly, there are
limitations associated with the modified instrument, which
Competing interests
was adapted from previous research and originally designed The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
with aims that could be different to those of this study. As relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced
such, the issue of context should not be disregarded when them in writing this article.
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Page 1 of 13 Original Research

The relationship between extrinsic motivation, job

One of the most widely acknowledged theories that attempt

TABLE 4: Regression model 1: Extrinsic motivation factors and job satisfaction.

TABLE 5: Regression model 2: Job satisfaction and life satisfaction.

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