The Reality Game

The Reality Game is an introduction to the skills used in individual and

group therapy. For those training, practising or lecturing in humanistic
and integrative psychotherapy and counselling it is an essential guide to
good practice.
Always keeping in mind the needs of students, this extensively revised
new edition responds to the questions most often asked by trainees in
these disciplines and includes a new chapter on the highly topical issues
of professional ethics. The book guides the reader through the theoretical
and practical aspects of establishing and developing the relation-
ship between counsellor and client, and covers assessment; the initial
interview; the opening sessions; aims; transference; resistance and super-
vision. In giving a humanistic account of each element it complements
texts on psychoanalytic and cognitive-behavioural therapy, and shows
that the humanistic approach is broader than generally imagined.
The author also looks at the social and political aspects of psycho-
therapy and on research and supervision in this field. He shows how
pressure from funding bodies for cheaper and quicker forms of therapy
should be resisted in the interests of a therapy which aims at liberation
rather than adjustment.

John Rowan is a counselling psychologist in private practice and

teaches and supervises at the Minster Centre in London. Other books by
John Rowan include Healing the Male Psyche and Ordinary Ecstasy.
This page intentionally left blank
The Reality Game

A Guide to Humanistic Counselling

and Psychotherapy

Second edition

John Rowan
First published 1983
by Routledge

Published 2013 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingoon, Oxon OX14 4RN
7 11 Third Avenue, New YOR;, NY 10017, USA

Row/edge is an imprinr 0/ Ihe Tay/or &- Francis Grol/p. an ln/on/la business

(Q 1983 lohn Rowan

This edition @ 1998 lohn Rowan
Typesct in Times by Keystmke, lacaranda Lodge, Wolvcrhampton
All righls rescrved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
repnxluccd or utilised in any form or by any cleclronic.
ml:chanical. or othl:r means. now known or hcreafter inventcd,
including photocopying and recording. or in any infonnation
storage or retrieval system. without permission in writing
from the publishers.
This publication lias been pnx1uccd with paper manufactured to strict
environmental standards and with pulp derived from sustainable foresls.
Hritish Vbm,-)' Cataloguing in Publieation Data
A catalogue rccord for this book is available from thc British Library
Jibm')' 0/ Congress Cataloglling in PllbIieation Dala
Rowan. 101m.
Thc reality game: a guide to hwnanistic counselling and psychoth ....rapy I
lohn Rowan. - 2nd cd.
Includcs bibliographical rcfercnccs and index.
I. Humanistic counsclling. 2. Humanistic psychotherapy.
1. Title.
BF637.C6R68 1998
158'.3-dc21 97-46440
ISBN 978-0-415- 16434-4 (pbk)
This book is dedicated to the memory of Bill Swartley,
from whom I learned so much and from whom
I would like to have learned more.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface x

1 Humanistic psychotherapy, counselling and personal

growth 1
Origins 4
The humanistic approach 10
The transpersonal approach 14
The field 17
2 Assessment 21
The problem 21
Labelling 24
Alternative models 29
3 The initial interview 33
First phone call 33
The initial interview 36
Rapport 39
Going wrong 40
Listening 43
Structure 47
The therapist is not a rescuer 49
Frequency and length of sessions 52
Fees 54
Boundaries 55
4 The opening sessions 57
Basic moves 57
Awareness 61
Empathy 63
viii Contents

Resonance 65
Genuineness 66
Warmth 66
Depth and surface 68
5 Aims 72
Background contrasts 72
The humanistic approach 73
Defences 75
The real self 76
Some questions answered 82
6 Ways and means 86
Sensing 86
Feeling 99
Thinking 107
Intuiting 112
Borderlines 115
7 Transference 118
Here and now 119
Interpretation 123
Responsibility 125
Countertransference 126
Projective identification 133
8 Resistance 135
Real self and Id 135
Types of resistance 138
Therapist response 140
9 The process of development 145
Primal integration 145
Mahrer’s humanistic psychodynamics 149
Wilber’s transpersonal theory 156
Conclusion 159
10 Listening with the fourth ear 161
Social awareness 161
Co-counselling 166
The patripsych 168
Implications 172
Some false trails 176
 Contents ix

11 Research 179
A piece of history 180
Existing research 180
A new approach 183
New paradigm research 184
12 Supervision 192
Supervisor styles 193
The media of supervision 197
Humanistic education 202
13 Ethics 206
Private practice 206
Accreditation 209
Inward and outward 210
Criticisms 211
Boundaries 213
Telling the client 216
Appendix A
List of criteria for doing good therapy 217
Appendix B
Useful adresses 220

Bibliography 221
Name index 236
Subject index 00
Preface

This is a handbook for people who are, or who want to be, counsellors or
psychotherapists. It tries to cover both theory and practice, and will be
particularly useful to those who are in training to be humanistic or
integrative psychotherapists or counsellors. What are the differences
between this and the first edition? Every chapter has been thoroughly
revised, and there is one new chapter, on ethics. In the first edition, page
numbers for references were usually not given, as was quite normal in
those days. I have tried to add page numbers where I still had the books,
but some of them were too hard to track down, so there is some
inconsistency there. I have not tried to seek out the latest editions of
books quoted earlier, because there seemed no point. So in general I have
tried to bring the book up to date, but it is still the same book, and I have
not had to change it in any radical way.
It takes a humanistic stance. There are plenty of books for psycho-
analysts and plenty of books for behaviourists and their cognitive friends
- and there are plenty of highly-specialised books on specific approaches
in the humanistic field – but there is hardly anything for the general
humanistic practitioner, working on a one-to-one basis. In fact, when
I started to write this book, I thought there was nothing at all; but I
discovered later the book by Brammer, Shostrom and Abrego (1989)
which is very big and very American and very thorough (except that it
says very little about regression and very little about the transpersonal)
and makes an excellent complement to this present work.
Another and very important complement is that excellent book on
group work by Ernst and Goodison (1981), which makes it unnecessary
to have a chapter on groups in this present volume as was the original
intention. It covers all the approaches which I mention, and although it
claims to be addressed specifically to women, it is in fact equally
applicable to mixed groups - which is not surprising, because a great deal
 Preface xi

of the experience which went into it was obtained in a mixed group, in

which I also participated. It is also suitable for men’s groups or any other
groups I can think of.
In writing this book I have been very conscious of the needs of
students, and the kinds of questions which they raise. In this I have been
helped considerably by the students in my supervision groups at the
Institute of Psychotherapy and Social Studies, at the Serpent Institute
and at the Minster Centre, who have raised all the awkward issues and
tricky problems that I have tried to tackle here. I would very much value
any feedback from readers, too, indicating which chapters are lacking or
improvable in any way.
I hope this book will be found useful in the training of counsellors
and psychotherapists, because the issue of training is going to become
more and more important in the years to come. I have been involved
with three major efforts to look at standards of practice in this field:
the AHP Practitioners group, which is for people who want to defend
and raise standards of practice in the humanistic field; the BAC
Accreditation Subcommittee, which is for counsellors who want to
defend and raise standards in their area of work; and the UK Council
for Psychotherapy, which has sections covering all or most of the
therapeutic schools in its area. All three of these have made it abun-
dantly clear that good training is crucial to good practice. I hope
that this book will be a useful tool in helping the development of the
training which is so much needed. Working in this way, I have become
aware of the importance of the issue of the possible integration of
therapeutic approaches and methods, and this will be referred to many
times in the chapters that follow.
For those few readers who object to the words ‘counsellor’ or
‘psychotherapist’ as exemplifying the dubious professionalisation of
what should be a simple human function – listening in a helpful way to
other people’s troubles – let me say that for me the basic model is that of
personal growth. In other words, one person can help another person
to grow – and this doesn’t depend on the other person having a problem.
This task, of helping another person to grow and become more inte-
grated, more whole, is not an easy one; it is not just a matter of listening
to another person’s troubles. It is a kind of compassionate skill, a kind of
love work. And the main obstacle to doing it is one’s own reluctance to
work on oneself, to face one’s own pain, one’s own buried potentials
rising to the surface; it is our reluctance to give up parts of ourselves
which we are not yet ready to let go. Any humanistic practitioner must
go through their own process first, before taking anyone else through it.
xii Preface

That is a clear value for me and for all those I have worked with in the
organisations mentioned above.
One other thing: the word ‘humanistic’ is often misunderstood. Some
people misunderstand it by thinking it means that we are humanists, in
the sense of members of the British Humanist Association; this is far
from the truth, because we value spirituality and feeling and intuition in
a way which would offend the average humanist very much. Others
misunderstand it by thinking it means that we are soft and mushy and
want to spread peace and love all the time; but we are not in the peace
and love business, we are in the reality business. Or better still, since
there is always some element of play in good therapy, the reality game.
Chapter 1

Humanistic psychotherapy,
counselling and personal growth

This is a book intended for the practitioner in psychotherapy, counselling

or personal growth who wants to adopt a humanistic approach. It is also
intended for courses which train people in humanistic methods. While
mainly devoted to one-to-one work, nearly everything in this book also
applies to group work, because this is a central interest for the
humanistic practitioner.
Humanistic psychology was first named when Abraham Maslow,
Anthony Sutich and a few others were trying to find a name for a new
journal. The Journal of Humanistic Psychology started to come out in
1961. It defined itself as differing from psychoanalysis on the one
side and the cognitive-behavioural approach on the other. Humanistic
psychology is particularly concerned with self-actualisation and with
body–mind unity, and has a great deal to say about that, as we shall be
seeing later. People in this orientation are very concerned about human
diminution, and the way in which social roles can diminish people. It has
a good deal to say about liberation from the shackles of compulsion,
whether they be internal or external.
It is quite diverse within itself, and includes some people, like
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, who are very optimistic about
human nature, and other people, like Rollo May, Jim Bugental and Alvin
Mahrer, who are not particularly optimistic at all. One of the standard
misunderstandings about humanistic psychology is to think that it is all
about Maslow and Rogers, and even a good critic like Spinelli (1994)
makes this mistake.
In the process of change and development, a number of different
names and titles have been used for humanistic psychology. Sometimes
it has been called ‘third force psychology’ (the other two being psycho-
analysis and the orthodox academic behavioural-cognitive approach);
sometimes the ‘self-awareness movement’ (because awareness seemed
2 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

to be quite a key word); sometimes the ‘human potential movement’

(because of its insistence that the average and the normal are actually
less than the possible average and less than the possible normal);
and sometimes just ‘personal growth’, because of its belief that people
could continue to grow beyond their usual limits, if they were allowed.
However, this phrase ‘personal growth’ has been used now by many
people outside the humanistic camp, apparently not realising that it is a
humanistic concept. Today humanistic psychology is less of a movement
and more of a tendency or approach within the whole field of the human
sciences.
In today’s world, with its fierce challenges and fast changes and hard
lessons, we have to know ourselves much better, and how to relate to
others much better, if we are to survive at all. But we can do much more
than survive – we can realise our potential. We can be all that we have it
in us to be. The humanistic practitioner is particularly concerned with
this aspect of therapy, and because of this tends to use the word ‘therapy’
to mean psychotherapy and those deep forms of counselling which are
therapeutic in much the same way. In relation to the ongoing controversy
as to whether counselling and psychotherapy are the same thing or two
different things, Carl Rogers had this to say:
There has been a tendency to use the term counselling for more casual
and superficial interviews, and to reserve the term psychotherapy for
more intensive and long-continued contacts directed toward deeper
reorganization of the personality. While there may be some reason
for this distinction, it is also plain that the most intensive and success-
ful counselling is indistinguishable from intensive and successful
psychotherapy.
(Rogers 1942)
Fifty-five years later, it is hard to see any better statement being made
than this.
Because all the pioneers of humanistic psychology were very
individual people, there is no one single accepted theory which we can
lay out and say – this is it. But there are some very consistent themes
running through all the material put forward by these people.
The first is that, deep down underneath it all where it really counts,
you are OK. This goes against many other and much older theories
which say that people are fundamentally bad, selfish, narrow and nasty.
By saying that people are fundamentally OK, we do not at all mean that
people are not sometimes destructive, or that there is no evil in the world
(see for example Goldberg 1995). What we mean is that if someone will
 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth 3

agree to work with us on his or her destructive actions or evil wishes,

in an atmosphere of trust and acceptance, that person will discover
that the evil and destructiveness are just as phoney and just as forgettable
as the false niceness of other people, which apparently causes no
problems.
In other words, we believe that personal nastiness and personal
niceness are most often, in both cases, masks and illusions, put on for
reasons which seemed good at the time, but which have now become
stuck and rigid, and out of our control. In that sense, if you want to use
labels, we are all neurotic. By working on ourselves to unstick the
rigidities and loosen the mask, we can eventually learn how to live
without needing masks at all – though it may still be useful to put one on
occasionally, as we might do with a dress suit or an evening gown.
So when we talk about self-actualisation, about getting in touch with
what is the deepest truth within us, and allowing that to come out, we are
not talking about something fearful or dangerous. People often say ‘How
do I know I won’t hate my deepest self when I come across it?’ But this
is an unrealistic fear, and we may sometimes suspect that it is really
designed to enable the person to avoid the necessary effort. We shall be
examining this point in detail in Chapter 5.
The second thread which runs all through humanistic psychology is
an emphasis on the whole person. If we say that human beings exist on
at least five levels – body, feelings, intellect, soul and spirit – then we
have to do justice to all five of those levels in all our efforts at realising
human potential. If I want to be that self which I truly am, then I have to
be it on all five of those levels – I must not leave any of them out. Any
theory, any therapy that leaves out one or more of these must be
inadequate to deal with the full human being who has to be met and
responded to.
Now today there is much more interest in the body – diet, exercise and
so on – but much of that interest seems to us very external. It is as if we
were supposed to be somewhere outside our bodies, disciplining them
and making them do things, sometimes under protest. But the humanistic
approach is to say that I am my body. If you touch my hand, you are
touching me. So I am just as responsible for my body as I am for my
thoughts, feelings, mental pictures or whatever – it is me doing it. This
total responsibility for our own bodies, feelings, ideas and intuitions is
very characteristic of humanistic psychology, and theoreticians like
Mahrer (1989) and Schutz (1979) have made it clear exactly how this
works.
This means that we are interested in integration. By integration we
4 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

mean that the splits in the person can be healed, and that the holes in the
personality can be filled. The various parts of the person can get to know
each other better, accept each other more, and change in that process.
This is not a process of subordinating all the various tendencies in the
person to one overall control, like some kind of totalitarian ego – it is
more like a harmony of contrasts. We shall have more to say on this
later.
The third thread we can follow all through the humanistic approach is
the emphasis on change and development. Human beings are seen not as
static victims or villains, but as people in a natural process of growth.
This process can continue, if we let it, in adulthood too. We have all seen
people we recognise as being further ahead than us, more complete,
more evolved, more themselves. What humanistic psychology says is
that we could all continue to grow if we did not limit ourselves and sell
ourselves short.
Most of us normally think that if we have enough worldly goods, then
we can do what we want to do, and then we can be happy. The sequence
is HAVE–DO–BE. But what we say in humanistic psychology is that it
is exactly the other way round. If we can be who we really are, we will
find ourselves doing things which genuinely satisfy us and give us
enjoyment, and then we shall have all we really want. The sequence for
us is BE–DO–HAVE.

ORIGINS
This begins to sound almost religious, and it is one of the characteristics
of humanistic psychology which distinguishes it very sharply from
secular humanism that it has a place for the spiritual. This is because its
origins are complex. Let us now look at some of the history, some of the
sources, of the humanistic approach. There are nine different origins of
humanistic psychology as it exists today.

The phenomenological tradition

Coming from Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) originally, this approach
says that it is possible to cleanse our perceptions and see things as
they are. But we can only do this by a rigorous examination of our
assumptions, first of all becoming aware of them and then learning how
to set them aside or bracket them (Jennings 1992). This requires a degree
of self-knowledge which can only be obtained through psychotherapy,
because otherwise our unconscious assumptions (unaware beliefs, if you
 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth 5

do not like the word ‘unconscious’) can trip us up all the time. This lays
great stress on our responsibility for not taking for granted anything
about the ground on which we stand when we make any general
statement. We have to put everything in doubt, and assume that nothing
is absolutely true. This idea has been taken over by feminism and
constructivism and also by humanistic psychology.
Husserl took from Franz Brentano (1838–1917) the notion of inten-
tionality. This says that consciousness is always directed towards the real
world in order to interpret it in a meaningful manner. Consciousness is
always consciousness of some thing. So in humanistic psychology we
do not talk about behaviour, we talk about action. The difference is that
action is always intentional. Simon du Plock tells us that Husserl used
the word ‘intentionality’ to refer to the creativity in our acts, not a static
directedness (du Plock 1996: 42).
Gestalt therapy in particular, which is one of the central humanistic
disciplines, lays great stress on its phenomenological roots. ‘Phenom-
enology . . . is the philosophical approach which is at the very heart of
Gestalt’ (Clarkson 1989: 13).
The person-centred approach also leans heavily on phenomenology.
We only have to look at the use Carl Rogers makes of the phenomen-
ological notions of noema and noesis as ‘the primary means with
which to maintain unconditional positive regard’ (Spinelli 1990, p.19).
Du Plock again makes the point that Rogers found this set of concepts a
very useful one (du Plock 1996: 44).
Ronald Laing (1965) pointed to the close connection between phe-
nomenology and existentialism, and so did Merleau-Ponty (1908–61),
who said ‘The world is not what I think, but that which I live.’ This is
one of the most characteristic beliefs of humanistic psychology.
Phenomenology is one of the most important influences in the
new study of consciousness which is arousing so much interest in
philosophical circles. People like Shaun Gallagher (1997) and Francisco
Varela (1997) argue that we cannot understand the nature of con-
sciousness until we fully bring phenomenology into the argument.

The existential tradition

Coming from Sören Kierkegaard (1813–55), this tradition lays stress
on the inescapable dilemmas of the human condition – death, the inner
struggle over anxiety, the need for authentic living. Rollo May (1909–
94) is one of those within humanistic psychology who has written a
great deal about existentialism, and has claimed that William James
6 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

(1842–1910) was an existential thinker who in fact influenced Husserl.

May wrote one of the best books (1983) on the existentialist approach to
psychology and psychotherapy. Existentialism lays great stress on
choice, and Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–80) actually said that we are our
choices. He made autonomy and authenticity central, and regarded the
individual as ‘free and alone, without assistance and without excuse’
(Sartre 1964: 139). We are condemned to be free. This is a bare and
bleak doctrine, which gives little comfort or reassurance.
From Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) comes the central idea of
authenticity. He says that we are thrown into the world, and that our
existence in the world is simply a matter of being-there (Dasein). If we
deny this, and try to erect fantastic stories about our existence, we become
inauthentic and cannot take responsibility for our own lives. One of the
main things we have to accept about our existence is that it will end.
Our being-there is a being-toward-death. To accept this is to enter into
a relation of care with oneself and the world. And to do this is to be
authentic. So authenticity is a combination of self-respect (we are not
just part of an undifferentiated world) and self-enactment – we express
our care in the world in a visible way. Jim Bugental puts it well when he
says:
By authenticity I mean a central genuineness and awareness of being.
Authenticity is that presence of an individual in his living in which he
is fully aware in the present moment, in the present situation.
Authenticity is difficult to convey in words, but experientially it is
readily perceived in ourselves or in others.
(Bugental 1981: 102)
Again, it is Gestalt therapy which has stayed most strictly close to this
existentialist position. Fritz Perls claimed that Gestalt therapy was one of
three existential therapies, the other two being Frankl’s logotherapy and
Binswanger’s Dasein therapy (Perls 1969a).
But Moreno too (who we shall return to in a moment) thought
of himself as an existentialist, and David Brazier says ‘Psychodrama
evolved from the existential approach to psychotherapy of Jacob Levi
Moreno. Although it is possible to graft psychodramatic methods on to
other philosophical approaches, the method is primarily attuned to an
existential outlook’ (Brazier 1991: 1).
Martin Buber (1878–1965) is another representative of the existential
position who has had much influence upon humanistic psychology. He
says ‘There is genuine relation only between genuine persons . . . Men
need, and it is granted to them, to confirm one another in their individual
 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth 7

being by means of genuine meetings.’ The encounter group, one of the

innovations of humanistic psychology, is founded on this idea of genuine
meetings (Rowan 1992).
Another humanistic psychotherapist strongly influenced by existen-
tialism is James Bugental (first president of the Association for
Humanistic Psychology), who actually calls his approach ‘Existential-
Humanistic Psychotherapy’. He has written a number of books, including
The Search for Existential Identity (all about patient–therapist dialogue),
Psychotherapy and Process (his main theoretical book), The Search for
Authenticity and The Art of the Psychotherapist. In the latter book he
lists his own set of ‘givens’: Embodiedness (implying change), Finitude
(implying contingency), Ability to act or not act (implying respon-
sibility), Choicefulness (implying relinquishment) and Separate-
but-related-ness (implying being at once a part of and apart from another
person). Bugental says this:
For me, the truest existentialism is humanistic and the soundest
humanism is existential. The two are not the same, but their overlap is
rich in potential for greater understanding of human experience and
for greater effectiveness in the effort to enrich that experience.
(Bugental 1981: 10)
Bugental is one of the most important voices in the humanistic field, and
we shall refer to him often.
Much influenced by existentialism is Alvin Mahrer, another theorist
we shall be referring to many times in this book. He has reworked the
whole humanistic-existential connection in a very exciting way. He
continually quotes Binswanger, and to a lesser extent Boss, and also
Laing and May. But he is not a slavish follower: he disagrees with the
standard existential position, for example, that one person can never
really know another. He shows that it is indeed possible for one person
to get inside another person’s skin, to know from the inside what it is like
to be that other person (Mahrer 1996).

Self-actualisation
This refers to the theory of Abraham Maslow (1908–70) that there is a
hierarchy of needs, ranging from lower needs like food and security up
to higher needs like self-esteem and self-actualisation. Ernesto Spinelli
(1989) has said that ‘The notion of authenticity bears striking similarity
to Maslow’s ideas concerning self-actualization.’ Self-actualisation is
all about being that self which I truly am, and the notion of the real self
8 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

is central to humanistic psychology (DeCarvalho 1991). We shall return

to the question of what exactly this self is, which is to be actualised, in
Chapter 5.

Abundance motivation
Most orthodox psychology is based on a homeostatic model (coping
model), which is deficiency-oriented. Action is thought of as initiated by
a need or want. Most organisms, however, seek tension-creating and
tension-maintaining situations, as well as tension reduction (Fiske and
Maddi 1961). Achievement motivation, need for varied experience,
curiosity and so forth can be comprehended under the concept of
abundance motivation. We do not just cope: at our best we can actively
seek experience for its own sake. Maslow called this Being motivation,
and wrote about it a good deal, particularly in his book Toward a
Psychology of Being.

The person-centred approach

Carl Rogers (1902–87) believed that people were capable of growing
and developing into what he called ‘the fully-functioning person’, and
used counselling, psychotherapy and group work to achieve this. His
ideas are highly compatible with those of Maslow. In his work he laid
great stress on empathy, nonpossessive warmth and genuineness. This
emphasis on genuineness reminds us of Buber, and Rogers and Buber
had a famous dialogue which helps us to see the similarities and
differences between them rather clearly (Kirschenbaum and Henderson
1990). The person-centred approach is one of the central disciplines
within humanistic psychology, and is still being developed today (Merry
1995), even after the death of its founder.

Importance of the body

Humanistic psychology owes to Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957) a strong
emphasis on the importance of the body. Alexander Lowen was one of
Reich’s students, and introduced an approach to psychotherapy which he
called Bioenergetics (Lowen and Lowen 1977). Later on, David
Boadella (1988) in Britain developed a further extension of this which he
called Biosynthesis. Other important contributors to this strand are
Stanley Keleman (1985), Ron Kurtz (Kurtz and Prestera 1976) and Jack
Painter (1986).
In contrast to this approach is the body work developed by a few
 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth 9

German women, including Elsa Gindler, Magda Proskauer, Marion

Rosen, Ilse Middendorf, and Doris Breyer (Moss 1981). Their work
promotes mind–body awareness and integration using such techniques
as movement, touch, natural breathing, sensory awareness and voice
work. These are much more nonstressful and nonpainful practices. We
shall see more about this in Chapter 6.

Group dynamics
Coming from the early T-groups of Kurt Lewin (1890–1947), the idea
developed that authenticity could be cultivated by having a kind of group
where the leader forced the group to lead itself. This kind of paradoxical
approach was largely superseded by the encounter group, as developed
by Will Schutz (1989). But another huge input to this tradition was the
work of Jacob Moreno (1889–1974) who invented all the techniques of
psychodrama, and laid great stress on creativity and spontaneity. This
again is a discipline which is still being developed further (Holmes
et al. 1994). Moreno (1974) points out that his existential concept of
‘encounter’ (genuine I–Thou meeting) was later taken up by Carl Rogers
and Will Schutz and never lost its existentialist character. Schutz (1989a)
stole many ideas from Moreno, and others too, and created an integrative
type of group, which could do justice to the regressive, the existential
and the transpersonal – the open encounter group (Rowan 1992).

Peak experiences
Actual experience of mystical states of consciousness, usually spon-
taneous and unplanned, were labelled by Maslow (1970) ‘peak
experiences’. He advocated that they should be studied and cultivated. He
was a bit appalled, however, when in the 1960s people started having
such experiences as a result of taking hallucinogenic drugs, or by delib-
erately setting up group experiences for the purpose. Still, the evidence
does seem to be that it is possible to have a peak experience by using LSD,
and many thousands of people have done just that. Some scientific
evidence for the efficacy of psychedelic drugs in inducing genuinely
mystical experiences is given by Doblin (1991). Maslow said that self-
actualisation could be done without any transcendental experiences,
but that the higher type of self-actualisation always did include peak
experiences. In my view peak experiences represent the foothills of
mysticism proper, and make humanistic psychology inhabit a fascinating
borderline area, representing the end of the personal and the beginning of
the transpersonal. We shall be discussing this more later.
10 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

Eastern philosophy
The four Eastern philosophies (which always include some psychology
as well) which have had the most influence on humanistic psychology
have been: Zen Buddhism, with its emphasis on letting go; Taoism,
particularly in its ideas of centring and the yin-yang polar unity of
opposites; Sufism, particularly with its emphasis on regaining one’s
naturalness and acquiring creative vision; and Tantra, particularly in its
emphasis on the importance of the body as a spiritual energy system.
(See Fadiman and Frager (1994) for a full discussion of Yoga, Zen and
Sufism. The chapter on Yoga also has an excellent flow chart showing
how to do meditation.)

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH

Let us start by placing the humanistic approach in the context of the
older and better-known approaches of psychoanalysis and behaviourism.
Humanistic psychology originally started as a ‘third force’ in relation to
these two, and has remained distinct ever since, so this will be quite an
appropriate way of proceeding.
If we now look at Chart 1.1, the first thing we can see is that the
humanistic approach is similar to psychoanalysis in looking behind
behaviour to what is producing it. This may sound odd to people familiar
with Rogerian therapy, Gestalt therapy or personal construct therapy,
which explicitly dissociate themselves from this view. But in practice
all three of these do in fact have a psychodynamic approach, inviting
people to explore those deep inner areas where early conflicts and
early traumas are to be found. All they do is to name things rather differ-
ently: psychoanalytic ‘repressed material’ becomes Gestalt ‘unfinished
business’, and so on (see Chapter 5). The theory of Alvin Mahrer, which
we shall meet later, can be regarded as a fully-formed humanistic
psychodynamics. It is interesting to note that the word ‘psychodynamic’
was first used in the nineteenth century, and that there was a professor of
psychodynamics in 1899.
The second point on the chart is that we are similar to the behaviour-
ists in laying a lot of stress on action, both in the therapy session and out
of it. In the group situation in particular, we invite people to try out new
forms of behaviour right there in the group. We are often much more
interested in what people do than in what they say (Kepner and Brien
1972). We encourage people to practise what they have learned (see
Chapter 6). In this we are also similar to the cognitive therapists, though
we do not usually hand out homework as they do.
Chart 1.1 Comparisons of therapy characteristics

Characteristic Psychoanalytic Behaviourist Cognitive Humanistic

1 Psychodynamic approach – looking for Yes No Yes Yes

what is behind surface behaviour
2 Action approach – looking at actual conduct No Yes Yes Yes
of client, trying new things
3 Acknowledgement of the importance of Yes No Yes Yes
interpretation, transference, resistance, etc
4 Use of guided fantasy and imagery techniques No Yes Yes Yes
5 Emphasis on need of therapist for similar therapy Yes No No Yes
6 Emphasis on the body as source of problems, No Yes No Yes
and touching body by therapist
7 Emphasis on the body as expressing problems, No No No Yes
and variety of touching
8 Emphasis on liberation, joy and ecstasy No No No Yes
9 Adoption of medical model of mental illness Yes Yes Yes No
10 Encouragement of transference relation Yes No No No
11 Emphasis on theory guiding action Yes Yes Yes No
12 Interest in a spiritual aspect of psychotherapy No No No Yes
13 Favourable to old paradigm research methodology Yes Yes Yes No
12 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

Third, we are similar to the psychoanalysts in acknowledging the

importance of the actual moment-to-moment relationship between the
therapist and the client. For many years a great many humanistic
practitioners denied this whole area, particularly if they worked mainly
in groups, but the more they started to get into long-term one-to-one
relationships with their clients, the more they were forced to recognise it,
and today probably few humanistic practitioners would maintain the
old view (see Chapters 7 and 8). Similar things have happened with
the cognitive therapists, and we now see some combinations such as
Cognitive-Analytic Therapy (CAT) which has developed in recent years.
There is a good discussion of these matters in Petruska Clarkson’s
(1995) book on the therapeutic relationship.
Fourth, we are similar to the behaviourists and the cognitive therapists
in using guided imagery a great deal (Singer 1974). On the whole we
use a much less structured form of imagery, but the broad overlap is
still there (see Chapter 6). Jungians (Samuels 1985) of course also use
imagery a great deal, but they do not form a large enough group to
consider here; similarly with transpersonal therapists (Gordon-Brown
and Somers 1988) and process therapists (Mindell 1985).
Fifth, we are also like the psychoanalysts in saying that the therapist
should have been through the same kind of therapy that he or she is
trying to practise with other people. Otherwise there is going to be a lack
of awareness which is going to hold the client back (see Chapters 7 and
12). We do not really understand the reluctance of the behaviourists and
the cognitive people in resisting this truth. The argument is simply that
we can only help clients up to the limit of our own resistances and blocks
and hangups, most of which we are probably unaware of. Becoming
aware of our own limitations, our own compulsions, is one of the aims of
therapy for the therapist.
The sixth point opens up an area where again we are similar to the
behaviourists (as in points one and two). We believe in working very
directly with the body and with behaviour: in fact, one of the classic
papers in Gestalt therapy is entitled ‘Gestalt therapy: A behaviouristic
phenomenology’ (Kepner and Brien 1972). We often ask the question –
after a particular breakthrough or illumination – ‘how will that make
a difference on Monday morning?’ Mahrer says ‘It is almost a rule
that if the patient carries out the new way of being and behaving in
the real world, actual changes will continue to occur’ (Mahrer 1996:
341).
In point seven however, we differ from all three of the other schools.
We see the body as expressing a great deal about what the client has been
 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth 13

doing, and what the client is up to now, and we try to tune in to body
language a great deal (Dreyfuss and Feinstein 1977). Many humanistic
practitioners touch the bodies of their clients, whether out of ordinary
human sympathy, encouragement to regress, provocative massage
designed to bring out feelings, re-enactment of birth, etc. So humanistic
practitioners have to be much more aware of their own bodies, and must
have worked through a great deal of such material themselves before
working with other people in this way (see Chapter 6).
Eighth, we are also different both from the other three schools in our
emphasis on good feelings. Most clients are just as incapable of feeling
deep joy as they are of contacting their deep pain. And so we look for
ecstasy as evidence of real change in the personality. Such an experience
is evidence that the person has started to emerge from the constraints
of their previous personal and social position. If the client has a peak
experience this is welcomed as being just the sort of thing we are aiming
at in the long run. For most clients, such experiences do not last long, but
as Anthony and his associates (1987) point out, they are glimpses of
what lies ahead in the process of psychospiritual development. This is
nothing to do with support or reassurance – it has to do with radical
change of the whole personality structure (see Chapter 5).
Now we come to some of the things we don’t do. Our ninth point is
that, unlike the other three schools, we do not adopt a medical model.
This idea of a medical model is all-pervasive in our Western culture, and
hard to get away from. It is a mechanistic view, holding that the client is
a kind of machine, which only has to be treated in the right way to get
invariable results. We think the client has choices, and that the object of
therapy is to increase the range of choices, and encourage and enable the
client to handle successfully this increased range of choices. And we
think the medical approach tends to reduce choice, even though this is
not what the medical practitioner intends. Wheelis (1972) has the basic
argument on this – that if you treat a person like a machine they lose
freedom (see Chapter 5). But even in medicine itself, there is nowadays
much more interest in holistic medicine – forms of medical practice
where the patient is seen as a whole human being who is responsible for
their own process. Perhaps the best discussion of this whole question is
to be found in the book by Ken Wilber and his wife, entitled Grace and
Grit (1991). This is much more so in psychotherapy and counselling,
which have always taken the view that the responsibility for change lies
with the client. We do not believe that there is a disease or illness, which
with suitable treatment will be cured (see Chapter 2). We believe rather
that the client needs to own up to what they are doing: that awareness in
14 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

itself, together with its empathic reception by a therapist, is productive of

change.
Tenth, unlike psychoanalysis, we do not try to build up a transference
neurosis between therapist and client. There is a good discussion of this
from a humanistic point of view in Clarkson (1995). We do not use
transference very much in therapy, though we do recognise its existence
and its very real importance (see Chapter 7).
Eleventh, most psychotherapy and counselling argues, or tries to
assume in some way, that theory should guide action. The humanistic
view is that theory is important and worth pursuing, both in preparing for
work as a therapist, and in talking to a supervisor or other professionals.
But it should be left outside the consulting room. It should not intrude
into the relationship between therapist and client. Hence the humanistic
objection to manualisation – that is, the belief that therapy should be
conducted strictly in accordance with a manual, thus enabling scoring
and assessment to be carried out more easily. There are some indications
in recent writings that some body therapists and some Gestalt therapists
are departing from this view, so it is not something which should be
taken completely for granted. But the main humanistic tradition is clear
about this.
Twelfth, we differ from the other schools in having a place for
spirituality. We shall consider this more fully in the next section. All we
need to say here is that this is a most important aspect of the work, which
I have described in full detail elsewhere (Rowan 1993).
And finally, the other schools, because of their external orientation, go
in for styles of research which do not permit any of the important things
that happen in therapy to be expressed. This old paradigm research, as it
is now called, measures variables instead of finding out what is going on
inside people. Humanistic psychotherapy is more in favour of new
paradigm research (Reason and Rowan 1981) which sees people from
the inside – see Chapter 11 for much more detail and argument on this.

THE TRANSPERSONAL APPROACH

So far we have been distinguishing humanistic psychotherapy from
its predecessors, two of which (behaviourism and psychoanalysis) are
mainly concerned with adjustment to existing society and the over-
coming of hangups. But there is also a quite different frontier, as it were,
which we need to consider.
Transpersonal therapy is a successor rather than a predecessor of
humanistic therapy. Transpersonal psychology has been called the ‘fourth
 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth 15

force’, and it clearly comes after the ‘third force’: in fact, the same man
– Anthony Sutich – who edited the Journal of Humanistic Psychology
later became the first editor of the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology.
It is not easy to produce a definition of transpersonal psychology, but the
most succinct version I have seen is that of Stan Grof where he says it
is concerned essentially with ‘experiences involving an expansion or
extension of consciousness beyond the usual ego boundaries and beyond
the limitation of time and/or space’ (1975: 155). In more recent years
we have found in Ken Wilber (1979, 1980) an excellent guide to this
area, and we shall follow his general approach here. He says that there
are three broad areas of human development – the physical, the mental
and the spiritual. And if we put them on a developmental line, they sit
like this:

PHYSICAL MENTAL SPIRITUAL

HUMANISTIC
PSYCHOLOGY

It can be seen that, in his estimation, humanistic psychotherapy comes

just at the point where the mental turns into the spiritual. In other words,
it is neither concerned very much with the mental (psychoanalysis does
that quite well, though other cognitive therapies do it as well and
quicker) nor with the spiritual (Jungian analysis does that quite well,
though other transpersonal therapies do it as well and quicker), but with
the space in between the two. What is this space? Wilber expands the
relevant bit of the diagram as follows:

MENTAL CENTAUR SPIRITUAL

(HUMANISTIC)
DEVELOPMENT

BIOSOCIAL TRANSPERSONAL
BANDS BANDS

In order to get from the mental-ego level of development to the centaur

area we have to pass through the biosocial bands – a difficult, confusing
and often traumatic transition – involving the radical questioning of our
social roles and our self-image, as explained in Chapter 5.
In order to get from the centaur level of development into the spiritual
area, we have to pass through the transpersonal bands, again a difficult
16 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

Chart 1.2 A comparison of methods of personal change

Psychotherapy Personal growth Transformation

(Wilber level) (Mental ego) (Centaur) (Transpersonal)

(Rowan level) (Ego/persona) (Real self) (Higher self)

Self I am defined by I define who I am I am defined

others by the Other

Motivation Need Choice Surrender

Personal goal Adjustment Self-actualisation Union

Social goal Socialisation Liberation Salvation

Process Healing – Development – Enlightenment –

Ego-building Ego-enhancement Ego-reduction

Traditional role Physician Teacher Priest(ess)

of helper (Analyst) (Facilitator) (Guide)

Representative Hospitalisation T-group Zen

method Chemotherapy Gestalt therapy Yoga
Psychoanalysis Encounter Arica
Directive therapies Sensory awareness Altered states
Transactional (Body therapies) Mysticism
analysis (Psychodrama) Monasticism
(Cognitive therapy) (Co-counselling) (Psychosynthesis)
(Rational-emotive (Regression) (Jungian therapy)
therapy)

Focus Individual Group Supportive

(Group) (Individual) community

Source : A.G. Banet (ed.) Creative psychotherapy: A Sourcebook (1976)

and somewhat traumatic crossing in many cases, and this involves a

radical questioning of the centaur. The following chart (Chart 1.2) shows
the difference quite well.
It can be seen from this chart that humanistic psychotherapy, if it
focuses as I am suggesting on the centaur stage, is quite different from
transpersonal psychotherapy – just as different on that side as it is from
psychoanalysis and behaviourism on the other side. It should be said,
however, that psychosynthesis prefers to work back and forth between
the humanistic and the transpersonal (Ferrucci 1982) and would be
unhappy about making too big a division between the two. We shall
return to these concerns again in Chapters 5 and 9, but again it seems
important to locate and situate our position from the word go, so as not
 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth 17

to get confused about our aims and what we can actually do effectually
and consistently. If Wilber is right, as I believe he is, we can see exactly
how we fit in with the whole field of therapy, counselling and growth
which we are trying to look at in this book.

THE FIELD
This area is a very confusing one, and it seems worthwhile to spend a
little time on getting clear about it as a whole, before getting into detail
about any one part of it.
The first term which is often bandied about is psychiatry. This is a
medical specialism, where doctors of medicine (actually usually bachelors
of medicine, but let that pass) have taken further qualifications in the field
of mental illness. The vast majority of psychiatrists in Britain prescribe
drugs, shock treatments and (to a much lesser extent) psychotherapy,
but they have no training in psychotherapy of any kind. Confusion has
arisen over this term, because in America the psychoanalysts were almost
always doctors, and therefore called themselves psychiatrists. American
films, therefore, show characters saying ‘I’ve just been to see my psy-
chiatrist’, when they have been to see a psychoanalyst in private practice
(in Britain most psychiatrists work for the National Health Service).
Hence the many references to ‘the psychiatrist’s couch’, which should
really be ‘the psychoanalyst’s couch’. But in Britain and many other
countries, many psychoanalysts are psychologists, or have other forms of
basic training, and so do not call themselves psychiatrists at all.
So the second term we should look at is psychoanalysis. This is of
course the approach developed by Sigmund Freud. There are some dis-
agreements as to whether certain followers of Freud are orthodox
enough to be called psychoanalysts, so the borderline is not altogether
easy to draw. There is also a distinction made between psychoanalysis
proper (lying down on the couch, five days a week) and psychoanalytically-
oriented psychotherapy (sitting on a chair, three, two or even one day a
week). This is sometimes called psychodynamic psychotherapy. This is
a fair distinction, but at the same time all of these things are usually
included under the general heading of psychotherapy.
Psychotherapy is any approach to mental distress which involves
encouraging the distressed person to uncover and face their problems,
and work through them in constructive ways. Usually this involves
mainly talking, but it may involve body work as well. Psychotherapy
may be of just one school, in which case it makes sense to say that the
therapist is ‘a Gestaltist’ or ‘a bioenergeticist’, etc.; or it may be eclectic
18 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

or synthetic, integrative or syncretic, combining more than one approach.

The tendency in recent years has been for therapists to become more
eclectic or integrative, because of the large number of effective methods
which have been developed during the years since 1960. Psychoanalysts
sometimes make a false distinction between supportive therapy and
uncovering therapy, maintaining that analysis is the only real uncovering
therapy. We deny that distinction, believing that there is no such thing
as supportive therapy (if it is supporting the neurosis, it is not therapy at
all) and that all therapy is uncovering therapy.
Clinical psychology is practised by people who have a degree in
psychology, and who have taken further qualifications in the field of
mental hospital work. They used to be mainly involved in doing routine
tests for psychiatrists, but nowadays many of them get involved in
treatment, particularly those kinds of treatment which are most accept-
able to the medical establishment, such as behaviour therapy, behaviour
modification and cognitive therapy. In recent years some new hybrids
have been found acceptable within the NHS, such as cognitive-analytic
therapy (Ryle 1990).
Behaviour therapy is based on the work of Pavlov and Watson and
was developed particularly by a South African doctor, Joseph Wolpe. Its
best-known exponents in Britain are Eysenck (1969) and Rachman and
Philips (1978). It has been particularly successful in the treatment of
phobias and obsessions, where there is a clear behaviour problem, and
a clear result when the problem is solved. Similar remarks could be
made about behaviour modification, which is based on the work of B.F.
Skinner in America. Again, this works best where it is possible to get
clear behavioural objectives. Much more popular today is cognitive-
behaviour therapy (Dryden and Golden 1986), which tries to rescue
behaviourism from its rather mechanistic image, but really replaces it
with a different form of mechanism. Again, it fits in with the medical
model, relying as it does on concepts of cure and correct treatment.
Counselling covers an enormously wide range of activities, including
testing and guidance, and so on, as well as the more therapeutic work.
Many of the actual techniques of counselling are exactly the same as
the techniques for psychotherapy, and indeed Rogerian counselling
is exactly the same as Rogerian psychotherapy. Carl Rogers (1951) is
the great pioneer in bringing these two fields together more. All the
schools of psychotherapy are also represented within counselling. But
really both the counsellor and the psychotherapist are limited by what
they are ready to handle, based on their experience, their training and
their talent.
 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth 19

Personal growth is what happens when a healthy person with no very

obvious problems decides on a process of self-exploration for self-
understanding, simply in order to be more able. Because such people
have generally what is called ‘a strong ego’, or ‘Sufficient Available
Functioning Adult Autonomy’ (Mowbray 1995), it is possible to use a
very wide range of techniques with them – hence the development of the
open encounter group and the growth centre. In personal growth all the
methods of psychotherapy and of counselling can be used, and they have
exactly the same effect. In other words, problems are uncovered and
dealt with, barriers are taken down, blocks are removed, insights are
obtained and so forth. This has the effect, just as it does in therapy and
counselling, of releasing energies which had been locked up in internal
conflicts and self-defeating patterns of action. Or in other words, there
are no (or very few) normal people, in the sense of being healthy and free
from mental hangups. And indeed, as we shall see later on, supposedly
normal people are often less well off than supposedly neurotic or
psychotic people, because they are blocking off awareness of their very
real problems. Hence it becomes evident that someone who goes in for a
personal growth experience may sometimes encounter deep problems or
disturbances for which they are unready. So a practitioner of personal
growth methods needs just as deep a training as a psychotherapist or
counsellor.
Having covered this much ground very briefly, we can now say that
the humanistic practitioner is concerned with psychotherapy, with
counselling and with personal growth; not, however, with psychiatry,
psychoanalysis, behaviour therapy or behaviour modification. The
humanistic practitioner does not use drugs or shock therapy, does not
make more than incidental use of transference (the main mechanism of
psychoanalytic therapy), and does not make more than incidental use of
the principles of reciprocal inhibition or systematic desensitisation
(behaviour therapy) or of the principle of reinforcement (behaviour
modification). The humanistic practitioner seldom uses tests, but can be
a clinical psychologist so long as a reasonably free hand is allowed.
Further, we can say that the humanistic practitioner sees psycho-
therapy, counselling and personal growth as all using the same methods
and the same approach. For the rest of this book, then, we will refer only
to therapy (mainly because it is the shortest, as well as the most general,
of the three words) on the understanding that everything we say will be
applicable to counselling and personal growth too. Of course there are
differences of practice, with psychotherapists generally having the most
reserved attitude to therapy. Counselling is much more likely to be a
20 Psychotherapy, counselling and growth

front-line activity, and personal growth is available to all, though a

preliminary interview may be required for new people embarking upon
certain particularly demanding types of work.
The reader who is familiar with the standard literature in this field
(most of it written by psychoanalysts) may be horrified at this seemingly
cavalier treatment. What about the important distinction between the
normal and the neurotic, between the neurotic and the borderline case,
between the borderline and the psychotic? What about the importance
of selecting the right patient for the right treatment? This brings us to
the whole question of diagnosis, or assessment as it is now more often
called, and it is to this that we must now turn.
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