all (1): introduction 33

3 the difference between ago andfor

Ago says how long before the present something happened; for (with a past
tense) says how long it lasted. Compare:
He died three years ago. (= three years before now)
(N 0 T He died for three years. 0 R ... for three years ago.)
He was illfor three years before he died. (= His illness lasted three years.)

4 the difference between ago and before

counting back
Ago is used with a past tense and a time expression to 'count back' from the
present; to say how long before the present something happened. Before is
used in the same way (with a past perfect tense) to count back from a past
moment (see also 95). Compare:
I met that woman in Scotland three years ago.
(NOT ... three years h~'Ore I heJ'Ore threeyears.)
When we got talking, I found out that I had been at school with her
husband ten years before. (NOT ... teHyearsago.)

'at anytime before now/then'

We can also use before, with a present or past perfect tense and no time
expression, to mean 'at any time before now/then' (see 95.2).
'Have you been here before?' 'Yes, I was here a year ago.'
As soon as I saw her I knew that I had met her before.

For other uses of before, see 96-97.

32 alike
Alike means 'like each other'. Compare:
The two boys are alike in looks, but not in personality.
He's like his brother. (N OT He's alike his brether.)
Alike is mainly used in predicative position (see 15). Compare:
His two daughters are very much alike.
He's got two very similar-looking daughters. (N 0 T ... alike daughters.)

For like, see 320.

33 all (1): introduction

1 three or more items
All refers to three or more items. Compare:
I'll take all three shirts, please.
I'll take both shirts. (NOT ... all two shirts.)

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 all (2): subject, object or complement 34

2 subject, object or complement

All can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence.
All that matters is to be happy. I gave her all she askedfor.
That's all.
For more detailed rules, see 34.

3 all with nouns and pronouns

All can modify a noun or pronoun. Two positions are possible:
with the noun or pronoun:
All (oj) the people were singing. I haven't read all ofit.
Give my love to them all.
with the verb:
The people were all singing.
For more detailed rules, see 35.

4 all with adjectives, adverbs etc

All can be used to emphasise some adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and
conjunctions.
You're all wet. I was all alone.
I looked all round, but I couldn't see anything.
Tell me all about your holiday. It's all because ofyou.
For more examples, see a good dictionary.

All, both and hal/follow similar grammar rules. For both, see 109-110; for half, see 235.
For all but, see 116 1.

34 all (2): subject, object or complement;

all, everybody and everything
1 all and everybody
We do not normally use all to mean 'everybody'. Compare:
All the people stood up. Everybody stood up. (N 0 T All stood up.)

2 all and everything

All can mean'everything', but usually only in the structure all + relative
clause (all that .. .). Compare:
- All (that) I have is yours.
Everything is yours. (NOT Allis)'ours.)
- She lost all she owned.
She lost everything. (N 0 T She lost all.)
This structure often has a rather negative meaning, expressing ideas like
'nothing more' or 'the only thing(s)'.
This is all I've got.
All I want is a place to sit down.
All that happened was that he went to sleep.
Note also That's all (= 'It's finished'; 'There's no more').

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 all (3): all (of) with nouns and pronouns 35

3 older English
In older English, all could be used alone to mean 'everybody' or 'everything'
(e.g. Tell me all; All is lost; All are dead). This only happens regularly in
modern English in dramatic contexts like newspaper headlines (e.g. SPY
TELLS ALL).

35 all (3): all (of) with nouns and pronouns

1 all and all of
All (of) can modify nouns and pronouns.
Before a noun with a determiner (for example the, my, this), all and all of are
both possible. American English usually has all of.
She's eaten all (of) the cake. All (of) myfriends like riding.
Before a noun with no determiner, we do not normally use of.
All children can be difficult. (N 0 T All ofehiUlren . . .)
For more about of in noun phrases, see 157.4.

2 all of+ personal pronoun

With personal pronouns, we use all of» object form.
All ofus/you/them can be the subject or object of a clause.
All ofus can come tomorrow. (NOT --All-we...)
She's invited all ofyou. Mary sent all ofthem her love.

3 pronoun + all
We can put all after pronouns used as objects.
She's invited you all.
Mary sent her love to them all.
I've made us all something to eat.
This does not happen with complement pronouns or in short answers.
Is that all ofthem? (NOT Is that them all?)
'Who did you invite?' 'All ofthem.' (NOT 'Them all.')
All can follow a subject pronoun (e.g. They all went home), but in this case it
belongs grammatically with the verb (see 36) and may be separated from the
pronoun (e.g.They have all gone home).
For the American plural pronoun you all, see 424.2.

4 types of noun
All is used mostly before uncountable and plural nouns.
all the water all my friends
However, all can be used before some singular countable nouns referring to
things that can naturally be divided into parts.
all that week all my family all the way
With other singular countable nouns, it is more natural to use whole (e.g. the
whole story). For details, see 38.
For the difference between all and every, see 37.

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 all (4): with verbs 36

5 negative verbs
It is not very common to use all + noun as the subject of a negative verb
(e.g. All Americans don't like hamburgers). We more often use not all +
noun + affirmative verb.
Not all Americans like hamburgers.
Note the difference between not all and no. Compare:
Not all birds can fly. No birds can play chess.

6 leaving out the

It is sometimes possible to drop the after all (e.g. all day, all three brothers).
See 69.6 for details.

36 all (4): with verbs

When all refers to the subject of a clause, it can go with the verb, in 'mid-
position' (like some adverbs - see 15).
auxiliary verb + all
amlarelislwaslwere + all
We can all swim.
The guests have all arrived.
Those apples were all bad.
all + other verb
My family all work in education.
They all liked the soup.
Note that these meanings can also be expressed by using all (ofJ +
noun/pronoun as the subject (see 35).
All a/us can swim. All (ofJ the guests have arrived.

37 all and every

All and every can both be used to talk about people or things in general, or
about all the members of a group. There is little difference of meaning; every
often suggests 'without exception'. The two words are used in different
structures.

1 every with singular nouns; all with plurals

Every is used with a singular noun. To give the same meaning, all is used
with a plural noun. Compare:
every + singular
Every child needs love. (NOT All ehild needs /eve.)
Every light was out.
all + plural
All children need love.
All the lights were out.

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 all and whole 38

2 all with determiners

We can use all, but not normally every, with certain determiners (articles,
possessives or demonstratives). Compare:
all + determiner + plural
All the lights were out.
I've written to all myfriends.
every + singular
Every light was out. (N 0 T The every light . . .)
I've written to everyfriend I have.
(N 0 T every myfrierui / my everyfriena.)

3 all with uncountables

We can use all, but not every, with uncountable nouns.
I like all music. (NOT ... every music.)

4 all ='every part of'

We can use all with place names and some singular countable nouns to
mean 'every part of', 'the whole of'.
All London was talking about her affairs.
I've been round all the village lookingfor the cat.
Note the difference between all day/week etc and every day/week etc.
She was here all day. (= from morning to night)
She was here every day. (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, ...)

For the difference between all and whole, see 38.

For detailed rules for the use of all, see 33-36.
For the difference between every and each, see 174.

38 all and whole

1 pronunciation
all /:J:1I whole /houl/

2 wordorder
All (of) and whole can both be used with singular nouns to mean 'complete',
'every part of'. The word order is different.
determiner + whole + noun
all (of) + determiner + noun
- Julie spent the whole week at home.
Julie spent all (oj) the week at home.
- my whole life
all (oj) my life

3 indefinite reference
All is not generally used before indefinite articles.
She's eaten a whole loaf (NOT ... aUa loaf)
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 as if and as though 74

Climb when ready.

(= ... when you are ready.)
While in Germany, he got to know a family ofmusicians.
(= While he was ...)

Note that as IS usually pronounced! ;Jz! (see 588).

For the use of present tenses to refer to the future with as, when, uihile and other
conjunctions, see 556.

74 as if and as though
1 meaning
As if and as though mean the same. We use them to say what a situation
seems like.
It looks as if/though it's going to rain.
I felt as if/though I was dying.
She was acting as if/though she was in charge.

2 tenses
We can use a past tense with a present meaning after as if/though. This
shows that a comparison is 'unreal'. Compare:
- She looks as ifshe's rich.
(Perhaps she is rich.)
He talks as ifhe was rich.
(But he is not.)
- You look as though you know each other.
Why is she looking at me as though she knew me? I've never seen her before
in my life.
However, we do not use a past perfect for a past unreal comparison.
He talked as ifhe was rich, but he wasn't.
(NOT ... as ifhehadbeen rich ...)
In a formal style, were can be used instead of was in an 'unreal' comparison.
This is normal in American English.
He talks as ifhe were rich.

3 informal use of like

In an informal style, like is often used instead of as if/though, especially in
American English. This is not considered correct in a formal style.
It seems like it's going to rain.
He sat there smiling like it was his birthday.

For the difference between like and as, see 320.

75 as long as
1 tenses
After as long as, we use a present tense to express a future idea.
I'll remember that day as long as I live.
(NOT ... as lfJngasI will live.)
For other conjunctions which are used in this way, see 556.
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159 discourse markers

Discourse means 'pieces of language longer than a sentence'. Some words
and expressions are used to show how discourse is constructed. They can
show the connection between what a speaker is saying and what has already
been said or what is going to be said; they can help to make clear the
structure of what is being said; they can indicate what speakers think about
what they are saying or what others have said. There are a very large number
ofthese 'discourse markers', and it is impossible to give a complete list in a
few pages. Here are a few of the most common examples. Some of these
words and expressions have more than one use; for more information, look
in a good dictionary. Some discourse markers are used mostly in informal
speech or writing; others are more common in a formal style. Note that a
discourse marker usually comes at the beginning of a clause.

1 focusing and linking

~ with reference to; talking/speaking of/about; regarding; as regards;
as far as ... is concerned; as for
These expressions focus attention on what is going to be said, by
announcing the subject in advance. Some of them also make a link with
previous discourse, by referring back to what was said before.
With reference to is a very formal expression used mainly at the beginning of
business letters.
With reference to your letter of 17 March, I am pleased to inform you
that ...
Speaking/talking of/about .. . is used to make a link with what has just been
said. It can help a speaker to change the subject.
'I saw Max and Lucy today. You know, sl e .: 'Talking ofMax, did you know
he's going to Australia?'
Regarding can come at the beginning of a piece of discourse.
Hello, John. Now look, regarding those sales figures - I really don't think . . .
As regards and as far as ... is concerned usually announce a change of subject
by the speaker / writer.
... there are no problems about production. Now as regards marketing . . .
. . . about production. As far as marketing is concerned, I think the best
thing is ...
People sometimes leave out is concerned after as far as . . . This is usually
considered incorrect.
As far as the new development plan, I think we ought to be very careful.
As for often suggests lack of interest or dislike.
I've invited Andy, Bob and Mark. As for Stephen, I don't care ifI never see
him again in my life.

2 balancing contrasting points

o on the other hand; while; whereas
These expressions are used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast, but do
not contradict each other.
Arranged marriages are common in many Middle Eastern countries. In the
West, on the other hand, they are unusual. ~

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I like spending my holidays in the mountains, while/whereas my wife

prefers the seaside.
While and whereas can be put before the first of the contrasting points.
While/Whereas some languages have 30 or more different vowel sounds,
others have five or less.
For a cornpanson of on the other hand and on the contrary, see 145.

3 emphasising a contrast
D however; nevertheless; mind you; still; yet; in spite ofthis
However and nevertheless emphasise the fact that the second point contrasts
with the first. Nevertheless is very formal.
Britain came last in the World Children's Games again. However, we
did have one success, with Annie Smith's world record in the egg and
spoon race.
Mind you (less formal) and still introduce the contrasting point as an
afterthought.
I don't like the job much. Mind you / Still, the money's OK
Yet, still and in spite ofthis can be used to suggest that something is
surprising, in view of what was said before.
He says he's a socialist, and yet he owns three houses and drives a Rolls.
The train was an hour late. In spite ofthis, I managed to get to the meeting
in time. (OR ... I still managed to get ...)
For other meanmgs of yet, see 539.

4 similarity
LI similarly; in the same way
These are most common in a formal style.
The roads are usually very crowded at the beginning ofthe holiday season.
Similarly, there are often serious traffic jams at the end ofthe holidays.
James Carter did everything he could to educate his children. In the same
way, they in turn put a high value on their own children's education.

5 concession and counter-argument

L concession: it is true; ofcourse; certainly; if; may; stressed do
D counter-argument: however; even so; but; nevertheless; nonetheless; all
the same; still
These expressions are used in a three-part structure: (1) the speaker I writer
mentions facts that point in a certain direction; (2) it is agreed (the
concession) that a particular contradictory fact points the other way; (3) but
the speaker I writer dismisses this and returns to the original direction of
argument.
... cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that the British may have done
some good in India. Even so, colonialism is basically evil.
... incapable oflasting relationships with women. Certainly, several
women loved him, and he was married twice. All the same, the women
closest to him were invariably deeply unhappy.

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 discourse markers 159

Veryfew people understood Einstein's theory. Ofcourse, everybody had

heard ofhim, and a fair number ofpeople knew the word 'relativity'.
But hardly anybody could tell you what he had actually said.
It was a successful party. The Scottish cousins, if a little surprised by the
family's behaviour, were nonetheless impressed by the friendly welcome
they received.
I'm glad to have a place of my own. It's true it's a bit small and it's a long
way from the centre and it does need a lot of repairs done. Still, it's
home.
For other uses of still, see 539.
For other uses of ofcourse, see 386.

6 contradicting
[l on the contrary
On the contrary can be used to contradict a suggestion made by another
speaker.
'Interesting lecture?' 'On the contrary, it was a complete waste oftime.'
The expression can also be used when a speaker I writer strengthens a
negative statement which he I she has just made.
She did not allow the accident to discourage her. On the contrary, she
began to work twice as hard.
For a comparison of on the contrary and on the other hand, see 145.

7 dismissal of previous discourse

anyway; anyhow; at any rate; at least
These expressions can be used to mean 'What was said before doesn't matter
- the main point is as follows'.
I'm not sure what time I'll arrive, maybe halfpast seven or a quarter
to eight. Anyway/Anyhow/At any rate, I'll certainly be there before
eight o'clock.
What a terrible experience! Anyway/Anyhow/At any rate, you're safe,
that's the main thing.
At least can suggest that one thing is certain or all right, even if everything
else is unsatisfactory.
The car's completely smashed up - I don't know what we're going to do.
At least nobody was hurt.
Note that anyway is not the same as in any way, which means 'by any method'.
Can I help you in any way?

8 change of subject
L by the way; incidentally; right; all right; now; OK
By the way and incidentally are used to introduce something one has just
thought of that is not directly connected with the conversation.
I was talking to Phil yesterday. Oh, by the way, he sends you his regards.
Well, he thinks . . .
Janet wants to talk to you about advertising. Incidentally, she's lost
a lot of weight. Anyway, it seems the budget. . . ~

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These two expressions can also be used to change the subject completely.
'Freddy's had another crash.' 'Oh, yes? Poor old chap. By the way, have you
heard from Joan recently?'
'Lovely sunset.' 'Yes, isn't it? Oh, incidentally, what happened to that bike
I lent you?'
(All) right, now and OK are often used by teachers, lecturers and people
giving instructions, to indicate that a new section of the discourse is starting.
Any questions? Right, let's have a word about tomorrow's arrangements.
Now, I'd like to say something about the exam . . .
Is that all clear?OK, now has anybody ever wondered why it's impossible to
tickle yourself? ...

9 return to previous subject

as I was saying
This is used to return to an earlier subject after an interruption or a brief
change of subject.
. . . on the roof-Jeremy, put the cat down, please. As I was saying, ifJack
gets up on the roofand looks at the tiles . . .

10 structuring
firsuly), first ofall, secondily), thirdily) etc; lastly; finally; to begin with; to
start with; in the first/second/third place; for one thing; for another thing
We use these to show the structure of what we are saying.
First(ly), we need somewhere to live. Secondily), we need to find work. And
third(ly), '"
There are three reasons why I don't want to dance with you. To start with,
my feet hurt. For another thing, you can't dance. And thirdly, ...
Note that firstly, secondly etc are more formal thanfirst, second etc, and are
more common in British than American English.
For at first, see 83.
For at last, see 210.

11 adding
moreover (very formal); furthermore (formal); in addition; as well as that;
on top ofthat (informal); another thing is; what is more; besides; in any case
These expressions can be used to add information or arguments to what has
already been said.
The Prime Minister is unwilling to admit that he can ever be mistaken.
Moreover, he is totally incapable . . .
The peasants are desperately short offood. In addition, they urgently need
doctors and medical supplies.
She borrowed my bike and never gave it back. And as well as that / on top
ofthat, she broke the lawnmower and then pretended she hadn't.
Besides and in any case can add an extra, more conclusive fact or argument.
What are you trying to get ajob as a secretary for? You'd never manage to
work eight hours a day. Besides / In any case, you can't type.
For besides as a preposition, see 101.

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12 generalising
~ on the whole; in general; in all/most/many/some cases; broadly speaking;
by and large; to a great extent; to some extent; apartfrom ...; except for ...
These expressions say how far the speaker/writer thinks a generalisation
is true.
On the whole, I had a happy childhood.
In general, we are satisfied with the work.
Broadly speaking, teachers are overworked and underpaid.
To a great extent, a person's character isformed by the age ofeight.
In most cases, people will be nice to you ifyou are nice to them.
Apart from and exceptfor introduce exceptions to generalisations. (For more
information, see 101.)
Apartfrom the starter, I thought the meal was excellent.
Exceptfor Sally, they all seemed pretty sensible.

13 giving examples
o for instance; for example; e.g.; in particular
These expressions introduce particular examples to illustrate what has been
said.
People often behave strangely when they're abroad. Take Mrs Ellis, for
example / for instance, . . .
In writing, the abbreviation e.g. (Latin exempli gratia), pronounced Ii: 'dgir/,
is often used to mean 'for example'.
Some common minerals, e.g. silica or olivine, ...
In particular focuses on a special example.
We are not at all happy with the work you did on the new kitchen.
In particular, we consider that the quality ofwood used for the
cupboards ...

14 logical consequence
o therefore (formal); as a result (formal); consequently (formal); so; then
These expressions show that what is said follows logically from what was
said before.
She was therefore unable to avoid an unwelcome marriage.
So she had to get married to a man she didn't like.
'The last bus has gone.' 'Then we're going to have to walk.'
Therefore is used in logical, mathematical and scientific proofs.
Therefore 2x - 15 = 17y + 6.
So is often used as a general-purpose connector, rather like and, in spoken
narrative.
So anyway, this man came up to me and said 'Have you got a light?'
So I told him no, I hadn't. So he looked at me and . . .
For other uses of so, see 513-517.

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 discourse markers 159

15 making things clear; giving details

[, [mean; actually; that is to say; in other words
We use [mean when we are going to make things clearer, or give more
details.
It was a terrible evening. I mean, they all sat round and talked politics
for hours.
Actually can introduce details, especially when these are unexpected.
Tommy's really stupid. You know, he actually still believes in Father
Christmas.
That is to say and in other words are used when the speaker/writer says
something again in another way.
We cannot continue with the deal on this basis. That is to say / In other
words, unless you can bring down the price we shall have to cancel
the order.
For more information about I mean, see 339.
For more about actually, see below and 11.

16 softening and correcting

o [think; [feel; [reckon (informal); [guess (American); in my view/opinion
(formal); apparently; so to speak; more or less; sort of (informal); kind of
(informal); well; really; that is to say; at least; I'm afraid; [suppose;
or rather; actually; [mean
Lthinkifeellreckonlguess and in my view/opinion are used to make opinions
and statements sound less dogmatic - they suggest that the speaker is just
giving a personal opinion, with which other people may disagree.
I think you ought to try again. I reallyfeel she's making a mistake.
I reckon/guess she just doesn't respectyou, Bill.
In my view/opinion, it would be better to postpone the decision until
the autumn.
Apparently can be used to say that the speaker has got his / her information
from somebody else (and perhaps does not guarantee that it is true).
Have you heard? Apparently Susie's pregnant again.
So to speak, more or less and sort/kind of are used to show that one is not
speaking very exactly, or to soften something which might upset other
people. Well and really can also be used to soften.
I sort ofthink we ought to start going home, perhaps, really.
I kind ofthink it's more or less a crime.
'Doyou like it?' 'Well, yes, it's all right.'
That is to say and at least can be used to 'back down' from something too
strong or definite that one has said.
I'm not workingfor you again. Well, that's to say, not unless you put my
wages up.
Ghosts don't exist. At least, I've never seen one.
I'm afraid is apologetic: it can introduce a polite refusal, or bad news.
I'm afraid [can't help you. I'm afraid Iforgot to buy the stamps.
I suppose can be used to enquire politely about something (respectfully
inviting an affirmative answer).
I suppose you're very busy just at the moment?

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 discourse markers 159

It can also be used to suggest unwilling agreement.

'Can you help me for a minute?' '1suppose so.'
Or rather is used to correct oneself.
I'm seeing him in May - or rather early June. ,
I mean can be used to correct or soften. (,
Let's meet next Monday - 1 mean Tuesday.
She's not very nice. 1 mean, I know some people like her, but . . .
For more information about afraid, see 25.
For more information about sort of and kind of, see 526.
For actually in corrections, see paragraph 20 below and 11.
See also 161 for 'distancing' structures.

17 gaining time
I I let me see; let's see; well; you know; I don't know; I mean; kind of; sort of
Expressions ofthis kind (often called 'fillers') give the speaker time to think.
'How much are you selling it for?' 'Well, let me see . . .'
'Why did you do that?' 'Oh, well, you know, 1 don't know, really, I mean, it
just sort ofseemed a good idea.'

18 showing one's attitude to what one is saying

honestly;[rankly; no doubt
Honestly can be used to claim that one is speaking sincerely.
Honestly, I never said a word to him about the money.
Both honestly and [rankly can introduce critical remarks.
Honestly, John, why do you have to be so rude?
'What do you think of my hair?' 'Frankly, dear, it's a disaster.'
No doubt (see 370) suggests that the speaker /writer thinks something is
probable, but does not know for certain himself! herself.
No doubt the Romans enjoyed telling jokes, just like us.

19 persuading
after all; look; look here; no doubt
After all suggests 'this is a strong argument that you haven't taken into
consideration'. Look is more strongly persuasive.
I think we should let her go on holiday alone. After all, she isfifteen - she's
not a child any more.
You can't go there tomorrow. Look, the trains aren't running.
Look here is an angry exclamation meaning 'You can't say / do that!'
Look here! What are you doing with my suitcase?
No doubt can be used to persuade people politely to do things.
No doubt you'll be paying your rent soon?
For more information about after all, see 28.

20 referring to the other person's expectations

o actually (especially GB); in fact; as a matter offact; to tell the truth; well
These expressions are used when we show whether somebody's
expectations have been fulfilled or not. Actually can be used to say that ~

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 disinterested 160

somebody 'guessed right'.

'Did you enjoy your holiday?' 'Very much, actually.'
Actually, in fact and as a matter offact can introduce additional information.
The weather was awful. Actually, the campsite got flooded and we had to
come home.
'Was the concert nice?' 'Yes, as a matter offact it was terrific.'
'Did you meet the Minister?' 'Yes. In fact, he asked us to lunch.'
All four expressions are used when we say that the hearer's expectations
were not fulfilled.
'How was the holiday?' 'Well, actually, we didn't go.'
'How much were the carrots?' 'Well, in fact / to tell the truth, I forgot to buy
them.'
'I hope you passed the exam.' 'No, as a matter offact, I didn't.'
Actually is often used to introduce corrections.
'Hello,John.' 'Actually, my name's Philip.'
Well can soften corrections. suggesting 'That's nearly right'.
'You live in Oxford, don't you?' 'Well, near Oxford.'
After a new subject has been announced. well can suggest that something
new or surprising is going to be said about it.
'What did you think ofher new boyfriend?' 'Well, I was a bit surprised ... '
You know that house we were looking at? Well, you'll never guess who's
bought it.
For more information about actually. see 11.

21 summing up
I I in conclusion; to sum up; briefly; in short
These expressions are most common in a formal style .
... In conclusion, then, we can see that Britain's economic problems were
mainly due to lack ofindustrial investment.
To sum up: most ofthe committee members supported the idea but a few
were against it.
He's lazy, he's ignorant and he's stupid. In short, he's useless.

160 disinterested
Disinterested is used to say that a person has no reason to support one side
or another in a disagreement or negotiation, because he I she will not get any
advantage if one side wins.
I can't give you disinterested advice, because I'm a colleague ofyour
employer.
Disinterested is also commonly used to mean 'uninterested'. Some people
consider this incorrect.
I'm quite disinterested in politics.

161 distancing
Certain structures can be used to make a speaker's requests, questions
or statements seem less direct, more 'distant' from reality (and therefore
more polite).
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 distancing 161

1 requests and statements as yes/no questions

We usually make requests less direct by putting them in the form of yes/no
questions. This suggests that the hearer can choose whether to agree or not.
Could you tell me the time, please? (much more polite than Please tell me
the time.)
Expressions of opinion can also be made less direct by turning them into
questions. Compare:
It would be better to paint it green. (direct expression of opinion)
Wouldn't it be better to paint it green? (persuasive question -less direct)
Would it be better to paint it green? (open question - very indirect)

2 distancing verb forms

We can make requests (and also questions, suggestions and statements)
even less direct (and so more polite) by using verb forms that suggest
'distance' from the immediate present reality. Past tenses are often used to
do this.
How much did you want to spend, sir?
(meaning 'How much do you want to spend?')
How many days did you intend to stay?
(meaning'... do you intend .. .')
I wondered ifyou were free this evening.
Progressive forms can be used in the same way. They sound more casual and
less definite than simple forms, because they suggest something temporary
and incomplete.
I'm hopingyou can lend me £10. (less definite than I hope ...)
What time are you planning to arrive? (more casual-sounding than
Please let us know what time you plan to arrive.)
I'm lookingforward to seeingyou again.
(more casual than I look forward . . .)
I'm afraid we must be going.
Past progressives give two levels of distancing.
Good morning. I was wondering ifyou had two single rooms.
Were you lookingfor anything special? (in a shop)
I was thinking - what about borrowingJake's car?
Another way to distance something is to displace it into the future. Will
need/have to can be used to soften instructions and orders.
I'm afraid you'll need to fill in this form.
I'll have to ask you to wait a minute.
And will is sometimes used to say how much money is owed.
That will be £1.65, please.
Future progressive verbs are often used to enquire politely about people's
plans (see 225).
Will you be going away at the weekend?

3 would, could and might

The modal verbs would, could and might also make questions, requests and
suggestions less direct.
I thought it would be nice to have a picnic.
Hi! I thought I'd come over and introduce myself My name's Andy. ~

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 distancing 161

Could you give me a hand?

Could I ask you to translate this for me?
We could ask Peter to help us.
I was wondering ifyou might be interested in a game oftennis.
'I came in and ordered some shoes from you.' 'Oh yes, sir. When would that
have been, exactly?'
Would is very often used to form requests and offers with verbs like like and
prefer.
What would you like to drink?
Note the common use of would before verbs of saying and thinking, to make
a statement sound less definite.
I would say we'd do better to catch the earlier train.
This is what I would call annoying.
I would think we might stop for lunch soon.
I'm surprised you didn't like the film. I would have thought it was just
your kind ofthing.

4 conditional and negative expressions

Another way of distancing suggestions from reality is to make them
conditional or negative.
It would be better ifwe turned it the other way up.
What ifwe stayed at home for a change?
Suppose I gave Alice a call?
Ifyou would come this way ...
I wonder ifyou could lend me £5?
I don't suppose you want to buy a car, do you?
You wouldn't like to come out with us, by any chance?

5 softening expressions etc

A further form of distancing is the use of softening expressions like quite,
kind of etc. And yet another is to talk about planning or beginning things
instead of about actually doing them. The following sentence (which could
easily be heard at an English party) means 'I want to go', but distances the
message in six different ways.
I'd quite like to sort ofstart thinking about going, so to speak.

6 one
In middle- and upper-class British speech, one is sometimes used instead of
Ior we. This makes a statement sound less personally assertive.
'Hello, Charles. How's it going?' 'Oh, one can't complain.'

For more information about requests, see 483.

For more about the different structures discussed here, consult the various entries
elsewhere in the book (see Index for references).

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468 rather (1): adverb of degree

1 meaning
In British English, rather can be used as an adverb of degree. The meaning is
similar to 'quite' or 'fairly', but more emphatic. Rather is not often used in
this way in American English.

2 with adjectives and adverbs

With adjectives and adverbs, rather often suggests 'more than is usual',
'more than was expected', 'more than was wanted' and similar ideas.
'How was the film?' 'Rather good - I was surprised.'
She sings rather well- people often think she's a professional.
It's rather warm in here. Let's open a window.

3 with nouns
Rather can modify noun phrases, with or without adjectives. It generally
comes before articles, but can also come after a/an if there is an adjective.
He's rather a fool. That's rather the impression I wanted to give.
Jane's had rather a good idea. (OR Jane's had a rather good idea.)
Rather is not normally used before a plural noun with no adjective.
(N o r They're ratherfools.)

4 with verbs
Rather can modify verbs (especially verbs that refer to thoughts and feelings).
I rather think we're going to lose. She rather enjoys doing nothing.
Some people rather like being miserable.
We were rather hopingyou could stay to supper.

5 with comparatives and too

Rather can modify comparatives and too.
It's rather later than I thought. He talks rather too much.

For the difference between rather, fairly, quite and pretty, see 205
For other uses of rather, see 469
For other structures used to express degree, see 153-156.

469 rather (2): preference

1 rather than
This expression is normally used in 'parallel' structures: for example with
two adjectives, adverbials, nouns, infinitives or -ing forms.
I'd call her hair chestnut rather than brown.
I'd prefer to go in August rather than in July.
It ought to be you rather than me that signs the letter.
We ought to invest in machinery rather than buildings.
I always prefer starting early rather than leaving everything to the last
minute. ~

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 rather (2): preference 469

When the main clause has a to-infinitive, rather than is usually followed
by an infinitive without to. An -ing form is also possible, especially at the
beginning of a sentence.
I decided to write rather than phone/phoning.
It's important to invest in new machinery rather than increase wages.
(OR ... rather than increasing wages.)
Rather than using/use the last ofmy cash, I decided to write a cheque.

2 would rather
This expression means 'would prefer to', and is followed by the infinitive
without to. We often use the contraction 'd rather.
Would you rather stay here or go home?
'How about a drink?' 'I'd rather have something to eat.'
Note that would rather like does not mean 'would prefer'; in this expression,
rather means 'quite', and does not suggest preference. Compare:
'I'd rather like a cup ofcoffee.' (= 'I'd quite like .. .')
'Oh, would you? I'd rather have a glass ofbeer.' (= ... 'I'd prefer . . . ')

3 would rather: past tense with present or future meaning

We can use would rather to say that one person would prefer another or
others to do something. We use a special structure with a past tense.
would rather + subject + past tense
I'd rather you went home now.
Tomorrow's difficult. I'd rather you came next weekend.
My wife would rather we didn't see each other any more.
'Shall I open a window?' 'I'd rather you didn't.'
A present tense is sometimes used in this structure (e.g. I'd rather you go
home now), but this is unusual.
To talk about past actions, a past perfect tense is possible.
I'd rather you hadn't done that.
However, it is more common to express this kind of idea with I wish
(see 601).
I wish you hadn't done that.
In older English, had rather was used in the same way as would rather. This
structure is still found in grammars, but it is not normally used in modern
British English.
For other structures where a past tense has a present or future meanmg, see 422

4 or rather
People often use or rather to correct themselves.
He's a psychologist - or rather, a psychoanalyst.
(N 0 T ... or hetter, a psychmmalyst.)

For rather as an adverb of degree, see 468

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