UNIT ONE

WATER SUPPLY
Table of Contents

UNIT 1 - WATER SUPPLY ....................................................................................................... 2

OBJECTIVES: ............................................................................................................................ 2
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................................. 3
SECTION 2: SOURCES OF WATER........................................................................................ 3
SECTION 3: PROCESSING AND DISTRIBUTION ................................................................ 3
SECTION 4: WATER PUMPS................................................................................................... 6
SECTION 5: MAINS WATER TO BUILDINGS ...................................................................... 7
SECTION 6: INTERNAL DISTRIBUTION, DIRECT AND INDIRECT SYSTEMS ............. 9
SECTION 7: STORAGE .......................................................................................................... 13
SECTION 8: HOT WATER SUPPLY...................................................................................... 14
SECTION 9: MATERIALS FOR PIPES .................................................................................. 16
SECTION 10: RECYCLED WATER ...................................................................................... 20

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UNIT 1 - WATER SUPPLY

The Unit is divided into 10 sections

Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Sources of Water
Section 3: Processing and Distribution
Section 4: Water Pumps
Section 5: Mains Water to Buildings
Section 6: Internal Distribution of Water
Section 7: Storage
Section 8: Hot Water Supply
Section 9: Materials for Pipes
Section 10: Recycled Water

OBJECTIVES:

After successfully completing this unit you should be able to:

• Know the various sources of water and how water is processed for distribution
• Know the various types of pumps and the functions they perform
• Discuss how water is brought to a building and how it is internally distributed and can be
stored
• Be able to list the materials used for pipes with their properties
• Discuss on recycled water

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SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION
Water can be obtained through the hydrological or water cycle. This process occurs when evaporation of
moisture from water sources occur. I.e. sea, rivers, lakes etc. These form clouds and then condensation
droplets combine and fall as rain to replenish the water levels.

Figure 1: Hydrological or rain cycle

SECTION 2: SOURCES OF WATER

The main sources of water are as follows;

• Underground water
o Wells: wells can be classified as shallow or deep. The former refers to any well that is sunk
to collect ground water. Water from shallow wells is normally unwholesome, therefore
requiring treatment to make it potable. The other type of wells – deep wells, collect water
from below the impermeable stratum. The inner surface of a well is lined with a suitable
material such as circular pre-cast concrete sections. Dug wells for domestic use are
commonly 1m to 1.5m in diameter.
o Bore holes: This can be mechanized or unmechanized. The latter types are those with
levers, paddles or cranks and operated with hands or legs. A borehole is formed by drilling
into the ground or driving a steel lined shaft to a water-bearing stratum. The diameter of
boreholes is usually between 150 to 200mm.
o Springs: Springs occur naturally at junctions of permeable and impermeable stratum. The
springs break where the level in a permeable stratum is above the level of the junction of a
permeable and an impermeable stratum.
o Waterfalls: These are similar to springs but percolate and jet along sharp cliffs or
mountains.
• Surface water: As the name implies, surface water is obtained directly from the surface. It is usually
obtained as a pool of water. Surface water sources include lakes, streams, rains collected from run
off from roofs and paved areas and rivers.

SECTION 3: PROCESSING AND DISTRIBUTION

Water acquired from various sources need to go through a purification process in order to make it drinkable
as they are polluted. A typical example is rainfall water which is contaminated by impurities (carbon

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dioxide, sulphur, and nitrous oxides originating from domestic flue gases and industrial manufacturing
process). A mixture of these impurities and rainfall produce ‘acid rain’.
Water for drinking purposes should be clear and free from small suspended matter, colourless, free from
harmful bacterial, pleasant taste and odourless. Most underground sources such as springs, deep wells and
boreholes can meet the above criteria. They are therefore considered as wholesome or potable.
However surface water sources cannot be considered wholesome until it undergoes some
treatment/purification. In Ghana, the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) is the statutory body that
responsible for treatment and supply of potable water to consumers.
The process of treating water starts by the collection and storage of surface water in man-made reservoirs
or impounding reservoirs, the latter created from damming valleys to create catchment areas and to provide
the potential for hydroelectricity generation. At this point, large materials such as pieces of stones and sticks
or even dead animals are removed by a mesh. This process is known as screening.
After screening, water screened undergoes other processes which are;

• Aeration: aeration is undertaken by exposing the water to the atmosphere. This exposure must be
done in the form of a fountain. This process removes unpleasant odour from the water, increases
the oxygen content and also gives that sparkle and palatable qualities to the water.

• Sedimentation: sedimentation is the process whereby suspended matter in water is allowed to settle
at the bottom of the tank. These settle due to their weight or under gravity. In some situations, a
chemical such as aluminium sulphate is added to water in the tank to facilitate the settlement
process. At the Barekese treatment plant, this process is undertaken in large tanks.

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• Filtration: Filtration is basically done to further remove any suspended matter left after
sedimentation. Filtration removes some bacteria from the water. Filtration could be that of slow
sand filter or pressure filters. In the slow sand filter, very thick layers of fine and coarse sand on
graded gravel is used in an open tank. The dirty water is then introduced by an inlet valve onto the
fine sand gradually sips through various layers and through the outlet as clean water. As can be
deduced, this method is very slow and it occurs a large space. A faster alternative is the pressure
filter. It can process water at about ten times faster than the slow sand filter. This takes place in a
closed steel cylinder with pressure introduced into the tank via a compressed air pipe. It uses the
same filtering materials as the slow sand filter. The rate of filtration of water using the pressure
filter is between 4 to 12m³ per hour.

• Sterilization: The filtration process removes the suspended matter and only some of the micro-
organisms. Any bacteria that survive the filtration must be killed by the use of chemicals. In this
process a minute quantity of chlorine is added to classify the water as drinkable. This is what is
commonly used in Ghana. Gamma rays can also be used to sterilize water.

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 • Softening: Two common terms, hard and soft are used to express the sense of feel of water when
used with soap. Water that readily lathers with soap is considered soft. On the other hand, hardness
of water means it is difficult to obtain lather with soap. Hardness can be removed by the addition
of sodium carbonate or washing soda

SECTION 4: WATER PUMPS

In order to move large volumes both vertically and horizontally between the various treatment processes,
pumps are used. The factors that will influence the choice of a pump are;
1. The volume of water to be moved
2. The rate at which water is pumped
3. The height of pumping, i.e. the vertical distance from the level of the water to the pump.
4. The height and distance to outfall or discharge point
5. The cleanliness of the water
6. The amount of noise generated by the pumping process.
7. The life span of the pump.

The main three types of pumps used are;

Centrifugal pump: A centrifugal pump consists of a rotary impeller, which revolves at high speed forcing
the water to the sides of the impeller. The mass of water thus spins around very fast and pulls the water into
its centre, forcing the water out. The pump can draw up water up to 6m.
Displacement pump: The displacement pump has one or more plungers that move up and down or
backward and forward, each stroke, drawing water past a valve. In other words, the action of the piston
draws water into the cylinder with one stroke and forces it out with the return stroke, resulting in a strong
regular delivery.
Rotary pump: The rotary pump has a rotor which pockets and forces the water out. A rotary pump may be
inexpensive but can wear quickly if it handles small pieces of sand. The pump can also be noisy in operation
and inefficient.
Submersible pump: Normally used in deep wells. It is suspended in the water to be pumped. It has a special
electric motor designed for working under water. To the electric motor can be attached one or more
centrifugal units. Alternatively, the displacement pump unit can be attached to the motor.
After processing, water is pumped to a high-level storage reservoir water tower for distribution which can
be by gravitional or pumped.

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Figure 2: Gravitational distribution

SECTION 5: MAINS WATER TO BUILDINGS

Water mains supply a town or village maybe in the form of a grid with isolating valves. These valve enables
sections to be isolated for repair and maintenance works with minimal local disruption and there is also an
opportunity for water to maintain a flow.

Figure 3: Ring main distribution

Water mains can be divided into three categories namely;

• Trunk mains; these carry water from a source of supply to a district/region without supply
consumers en route.
• Secondary mains; these are distribution mains fed from a trunk main and supply the consumers
connections in the district/region.
• Service pipes; these branch supplies from the secondary mains that serve the individual household.

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MAINS CONNECTION
Connects to the trunk or secondary main is normally undertaken by the local water authority at the expense
of the developer or building owner. Connections to secondary mains maybe made under pressured to
connect pipes of 50mm diameter and below whereas for larger pipes, a shutdown of the main is required.
An isolation stop is typically provided at the crown of the water main.
Service pipes are fitted by the water supply company from the main up to the boundary of the premise after
which a stopvalve is provided to enable the premises water system to be isolated from the mains. The
service pipe remains the water authority’s but thereafter it is the responsibility of the building owner. A
meter is also installed, preferable underground just beyond the property boundary to enable the local
authority charge customers. However if this location is impractical, location within the building at the base
of the rising main may be agreed with the water authority. A typical installation is as seen.

Figure 4 : Typical water mains connection

CONNECTION OF MAINS WATER SYSTEM

The service pipe to the building should be kept at about 760 – 1350mm depth to avoid frost damage and
damage from heavy vehicles. The valve pit can be a purpose made plastic chamber with key operated lid.
This should be easily located for ease of access if emergency isolation is required.

MAINS WATER SERVICE TO HOUSE

Figure 5 shows the incoming mains water service to a building. The pipe is sleeved so that movement of
the pipe or settlement of the building can take place.

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Figure 5: Incoming mains water service to building

SECTION 6: INTERNAL DISTRIBUTION, DIRECT AND INDIRECT SYSTEMS

Cold water supply can be grouped into the direct, indirect system and combined
Direct systems
As the name implies, water is supplied directly to various appliances within the building. Drinking water is
available at every draw off point and maintenance valves should be fitted to isolate each section of pipe
work. There is no requirement for temporary storage of water in overhead tanks.

• This system requires a consistent supply of pressurized water which maybe difficult during peak
demand periods.
• Can be used where there is a reliable and constant flow of water from mains.
• Pipe work is minimal
• The occurrence of back siphonage (possible negative mains pressure drawing dirty water back into
the main, e.g. hosepipe attached to an outside tap with the open end submerged in a pond) is high.

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 Wash Basin
W.C. Kitchen Sink

Bath

Indirect systems
This system of cold water supply requires a storage cistern (normally in the roof space) after which water
is distributed to other parts of the building

• More expensive to install with a large cistern and almost twice as much pipework.
• Constant water pressure from the storage cistern which reduces the possibility of back siphonage.
Preferred choice when the water main is erratic or unreliable.
• The reduced pressure from storage cisterns as compared to the mains pressure will usually give
quieter operation.
• Constant supply of water
• Less chance of back siphonage.
• Tank must be cleaned regularly to avoid contamination.

Water Cistern

Wash
Basin
WC . Kitchen Sink
Bath

System of Water Distribution (Cistern on Roof)

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 Water Cistern

Wash
Basin
Bath
WC . Kitchen Sink

Indirect System of Water Distribution (Cistern on Tower)

Combined system
As the name implies, it combines both of the systems as mentioned above. Some houses use the
storage cistern as a strategic storage reserve. This means that water is supplied either directly under the
mains pressure or indirectly from the storage cistern. The use of a non-return valve (which allows water to
flow in only one direction) prevents the backflow of water from the storage tank. Backflow occurs when
the mains pressure is lower than that of the storage tank pressure.

Water Cistern

Wash Basin Kitchen Sink

W.C.
Bath

Non-Return

Valve

Combined System of Water Distribution

WATER SUPPLY TO HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

Instances where the head of water in the main is not sufficient to supply water to the top floors of high rise
buildings, there is a need to boost the water by using a pump to supply the higher levels of tall buildings.
Methods vary and consultation with the local water authority is necessary to establish the most acceptable.

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In boosted water supply, the lower tank is fed directly from the mains. The upper floors are supplied with
water from the second cistern located at the peak of the building. Water is pumped into this second tank.
This is then used to supply water to the building.

Supplies to various floors

Valve

Non-return valve

Pump

Cistern at peak of building

Incoming service mains

Cisterns fed by mains

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SECTION 7: STORAGE
Storage facilities are mainly provided to reserve water in the likely event of interruption. This facility
should be located at the highest possible location to maintain a reasonable pressure throughout the building.
This is normally in the roof space of the building, though care must be taken to ensure that water is not
affected by dust or debris. In large buildings however, a purposed made plant room can be created to
accommodate the cistern. This room should however be well insulated and ventilated.
Storage manufacturers and installers should comply with the following;

• Use of non-corrosive, shatter-proof materials

• Provide a close-fitting lid with a vent
• Adequate insulation
• Substantial support with level platform
• Fitting of a warning (overflow) pipe larger in diameter than the inlet
• Provide valves on every outlet (except warning pipe!)
• On large cisterns, the outlet to be opposite the inlet to encourage throughflow of water
• Fitting of a float valve to regulate and control the water level.

COLD WATER STORAGE CAPACITY

Water storage in dwellings is usually required to meet a 24 hour demand, that is, if the supply is cut off,
there will be a supply of cold water for 24 hours.
The consumption of cold water in any building depends upon;
▪ The use to which the water is put
▪ The number of consumers served.

Figure 6 : Cold water storage tank

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The following design guidance are provided.

Type of Building Storage per person (litres)

Hostels 90
Hotels 135
Offices with canteens 45
Offices without canteens 40
Restaurants, per meal 7
Boarding School 90
Day School – nursery/primary 15
Day School – secondary/technical 20
Children’s home/ Residential nursery 135
Nurse’s home 120
Nursing or convalescent home 135
Table 1 : Design guidance

SECTION 8: HOT WATER SUPPLY

The temperature required for hot water is about 45˚C. Water is usually generated at a higher temperature
(55˚C to 65˚C) in a vessel and mixed with cold water at mixing taps or mixing valves.
It is better to store water at a temperature much higher than body temperature (37˚C) to reduce risk of
bacteria growth and other water borne diseases.
Hot water service systems may be divided into two main types:
1. Local systems
2. Central systems
Local hot water systems is used when sanitary fittings are few and concentrated at a point. In this system
water heaters are located adjacent to the fittings to be supplied with hot water.

service
pipe to

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Centralized systems have a boiler, hot water storage cylinder and a cold water storage cistern linked by
supply and circulatory pipework.

secondary

hot water storage

boil
Solar heating of water
In order to build a sustainable environment, solar heating of water should be considered in designs. This
system occupies an amount of space usually on the roof top (which severely affects the appearance of the
house) with an initial high expenditure. This can however be recouped in the long run.
This system works by installing solar collectors on the roof ideally pitched at about 40˚ and facing south.
This is further connected to the solar cylinder and all other associated pipeworks which should be properly
insulated.

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SECTION 9: MATERIALS FOR PIPES
Qualities of material to be used for pipes should be;
1. Durable
2. Light weight
3. Easily jointed
4. Noncorrosive
5. Impervious
6. Cost effective

A good material used must last the span of the building and for easy workability, the material must not be
too heavy to handle or worked with on site. The water should not react with the material thereby causing
the pipe material to corrode or leak. The cost of materials used, as pipe must not be too excessive.
In Ghana, the most commonly used for both cold and hot water supply services is Polyvinyl Chloride
(P.V.C) and copper respectively. Aside this, galvanished mild steel pipes can also be used but are scarcely
used for domestic water supply. For domestic water supply services, pipe sizes range from 12mm to 32mm
in diameter.
P.V.C pipes.
P.V.C is strong, durable, lightweight, noncorrosive, relatively cheap and easily jointed. It also has a smooth
internal surfaces and obtainable in long lengths up to 10m. Two typical jointing techniques for P.V.C pipes
are solvent welded and compression joints.
Copper Pipes
Normally used for hot water supply. It has a smooth internal surface that readily facilitates the flow of
water. They are ductile and have high tensile strength therefore can be bent cold and made into thin-walled
high gauged pipes. Compression and capillary joints are two common jointing techniques for copper pipes.
Mild steel pipes
These are very strong and can resist damage better than other pipes. They can be used for both cold and hot
water supplies. The pipes have thicker walls than copper and P.V.C, therefore heavier to handle and work
with on sites. The internal surface of mild steel pipes are not as smooth as the other pipes. Screwed joints
are used for connecting steel pipes.
FIXING OF PIPES
Water pipes may be fixed;

• In trenches
• In pipe ducts
• In chases made in masonry or concrete
• With clips

The communication pipes are laid in trenches. The supply pipes which include the service and distribution
pipes laid outside the building are also buried in trenches, the recommended minimum depth of trenches
for water pipes is 750mm. Pipe ducts are used when water pipes are laid under floors and sometimes in
ceiling. The service pipe must enter the building through a duct. Large diameter pipes, for example, 75mm

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are used to form the duct. Repairs and maintenance of pipe-works are made easy when pipes are laid ducts.
Pipes in ducts are free from pressure from the soil and any imposed loads which may cause P.V.C pipes to
deform or even crack.
Masonry and concrete walls may be chased (i.e. to make a cut on the surface) for laying pipes. The walls
should be chased for only small diameter pipe such as 12mm. deep chases can adversely affect the stability
of load bearing walls.
Where chasing wall compromise the strength of the wall, the pipes should be fixed on the wall surface by
clips. Clips are also used to fix pipes on wooden and metal surfaces.
PIPE FITTINGS
Pipe fittings are used when pipes meet at bends, intersect at junctions or of different diameter are connected
together. The three common types of fitting used are the Tee, Elbow and reducer.

TAPS, VALVES AND COCKS

Taps, valves and cocks are pipe-work ancillaries that control the flow of water along or at the end of a
pipeline. Taps are fixed at the end of the pipeline while valves usually control the flow along the pipeline.
Cocks also control the flow of water along pipelines but act faster than valves.
VALVES USED FOR WATER
Valves are used on water supply installations;

• To isolate individual sanitary fittings such as water closets, sinks and basins for purposed of repairs
and maintenance.
• To isolate pipelines for repairs and maintenance
• For mixing cold and hot water
• On shower
• In storage tanks and flushing cisterns.

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Globe-type stop valve: this is used to control the flow of water at high pressure.
Operation:

• To stop the flow of water, the crutch head hand is rotated slowly in a clockwise direction to
gradually reduce the flow. This prevents sudden impact and the possibility of vibration and water
hammer.

Figure 7: Globe-type stop valve

Gate or Sluice valve: used to control the flow of water on low pressure installations
Operation

• The wheel head is rotated clockwise to control the flow of water.

This valve offers far less resistance to flow than a globe valve. It consist of a metallic gate or sluice which
slides vertically within a guide likely to vibrate and send tremors through the pipe work. This causes the
gate to wear and unlikely to retain the ability to isolate pressure supplies.

Figure 8 : Gate or Sluice valve

Drain value: Has several applications and is found at the lowest point in the pipe systems, boilers and
storage vessels.

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Figure 9 : Drain value

Float valve: This is an automatic flow control device fitted in cisterns to maintain an appropriate
volume/level of water
Types
Diaphragm: This type of float valve has a top outlet which is more preferable. Its usage is less noisy as
there is less friction between moving parts.
Tradition piston ball valve: are mostly found in old installations and has a bottom outlet and has a piston
moving within.
Legislation requires that a substantial air gap is left between the cistern’s water level and that of the float
valve outlet. This installation precaution is mainly to prevent the likelihood of back siphonage if the valve
mechanism and overflow fail.
TAPS USED FOR WATER
Taps permit draw-off of water at the end of pipes. They control the supply of water to the various sanitary
appliances. They are mostly of the screw down type i.e. designed to shut off the supply gradually.
BIB TAP
• The bib tap is used for wall fixing normally 150mm above a sanitary appliance. It is screwed
directly into a fitting. A typical location example would be above a butler sink or fitted outside for
use with a hose pipe connection.

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PILLAR TAP
• Used to suppy water to basins, bidets and sinks. It differs from the bib-tap in that a long vertical
male iron thread which passes through the appliance and is held in position with a back-nut, the
supply fed to this point below the appliance.

PLUG COCKS
A plug cock has a tapering plug which quickly shuts water along the pipelines. The cock can be fully closed
or opened by turning the plug through an angle of 45˚ (quarter turn).

SECTION 10: RECYCLED WATER

The use of recycled water should be harnessed in designing. Recycled water comes from two sources ;
rainwater and greywater.
Greywater is the wastewater from;
• Sinks
• Baths
• Showers and domestic appliances.
A greywater use system captures this water before it reaches the sewer (or septic tank system). Kitchen
sink or dishwasher wastewater is not generally collected for use as it has high levels of contamination from
detergents, fats and food waste, making filtering and treatment difficult and costly.

Rainwater can be diverted from the roof drainage system to be used in other appliances.
Greywater systems can be more costly than rainwater recycled systems since the water needs to be well
filtered and treated to make it usable. The cheaper option in areas of moderate to high rainfall throughout
the year is to recycle rainwater.

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