Randy
Randy
Randy
By
David G. Pugh
, DVM, MS, MAg, DACT, DACVN, DACVM, Auburn University
An adequate diet for optimal growth and production must include water, energy (carbohydrates
and fats), proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Under field conditions of particular stress, additional
nutrients may be needed. (For detailed nutrient requirements for sheep, refer to the most
current Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants, published by the National Research Council
[www.nap.edu].)
Water:
A clean, fresh, easily accessible source of water should be available at all times. As a minimum
requirement in temperate environments, the usual recommendations are ~1 gal. (3.8 L) of
water/day for ewes on dry feed in winter, 1½ gal./day for ewes nursing lambs, and ½ gal./day for
finishing lambs. In many range areas, water is the limiting nutrient; even when present, it may be
unpotable because of filth or high mineral content. For best production, all sheep should have their
water availability monitored daily during all weather conditions. However, the cost of supplying
water often makes it economical to water range sheep every other day. When soft snow is
available, range sheep do not need additional water except when dry feeds such as alfalfa hay
and pellets are fed. If the snow is crusted with ice, the crust should be broken to allow access.
Still, when possible, sheep should have unlimited access to fresh, clean water.
Energy:
Because so much of the diet can depend on grass and forage that is either sparse or of poor
quality, the provision of adequate energy is important. Poor-quality forage, even in abundance,
may not provide sufficient available energy for maintenance and production. The energy
requirement of ewes is greatest during the first 8–10 wk of lactation. Because milk production
declines after this period and the lambs have begun foraging, the requirement of the ewe is then
reduced to prelambing levels. The easiest way to assess energy adequacy in sheep is to perform
and record body condition using an objective 1–5 scoring system, with 1 being extremely thin and
5 being extremely obese. The body condition score is determined by palpating the amount of fat
covering on the spinous processes and transverse processes in the lumbar region. Most healthy
productive ewes will have a score of 2–3.5. Sheep with a score of 1–2 should be examined and
fed to attain a higher score, whereas those with a score >3.5 should be fed less. Dietary changes
should be done slowly, and abrupt reduction in total energy intake should always be avoided,
particularly in middle to late gestation.
Protein:
Good-quality forage and pasture generally provide adequate protein for mature sheep. However,
sheep do not digest poor-quality protein as efficiently as do cattle, and there are instances when a
protein supplement should be fed with mature grass and hay, or when on winter range. Therefore,
a minimum of 7% dietary crude protein is needed for maintenance in most sheep. Protein
requirements depend on the stage of production (growth, gestation, lactation, etc) and the
presence of certain diseases (internal nematode parasites, dental disease, etc). If available
forages are unable to supply adequate dietary crude protein, protein supplements, such as oilseed
meals (cottonseed meal, soybean meal) or commercially blended supplements should be fed to
meet nutrient requirements. Protein should be fed to meet, but not exceed, requirements. Excess
protein feeding can be beneficial in cases of excessive internal parasite burdens but result in
increased production costs and may result in higher incidences of diseases (eg, heat stress, pizzle
rot).
Sheep can convert nonprotein nitrogen (such as urea, ammonium phosphate, and biuret) into
protein in the rumen but possibly less efficiently than beef cattle. This source of nitrogen can
provide at least a part of the necessary supplemental nitrogen in high-energy diets with a
nitrogen:sulfur ratio of 10:1. In lamb-finishing diets, the inclusion of alfalfa, approved growth
stimulants, and a source of fermentable carbohydrates (eg, ground corn, ground milo) enhance
nitrogen utilization.
Minerals:
Sheep require the major minerals sodium, chlorine, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur,
potassium, and trace minerals, including cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum,
zinc, and selenium. Trace mineralized salt provides an economical way to prevent deficiencies of
sodium, chlorine, iodine, manganese, cobalt, copper, iron, and zinc. Selenium should be included
in rations, mineral mixtures, or other supplements in deficient areas. Sheep diets usually contain
sufficient potassium, iron, magnesium, sulfur, and manganese. Of the trace minerals, iodine,
cobalt, and copper status in ewes are best assessed via analysis of liver biopsy tissue. Zinc
adequacy can be assessed from the careful collection of nonhemolyzed blood placed in trace
element–free collection tubes. Selenium status is easily assessed by collection of whole,
preferably heparinized, blood.
Salt:
In the USA, except on certain alkaline areas of the western range and along the seacoast, sheep
should be provided with ad lib salt (sodium chloride). Sheep need salt to remain thrifty, make
economical gains, lactate, and reproduce. Mature sheep will consume ~0.02 lb (9 g) of salt daily,
and lambs half this amount. Range operators commonly provide 0.5–0.75 lb (225–350 g) of
salt/ewe/mo. Salt as 0.2%–0.5% of the dietary dry matter is usually adequate.
Sheep subsisting on mature, brown, summer forage and winter range sometimes develop a
phosphorus deficiency. Sheep kept on such forages or fed low-quality hay with no grain should be
provided a phosphorus supplement (ie, defluorinated rock phosphate) added to a salt-trace
mineral mixture. Because most forages have a relatively high calcium content, particularly if there
is a mixture of legumes, diets usually meet maintenance requirements for this element. However,
when corn silage or other feeds from the cereal grains are fed exclusively, ground limestone
should be fed daily at the rate of 0.02–0.03 lb (9–14 g).
Sheep seem to be able to tolerate wide calcium:phosphorus ratios as long as their diets contain
more calcium than phosphorus. However, an excess of phosphorus may be conducive to
development of urinary calculi or osteodystrophy. A calcium:phosphorus ratio of 1.5:1 is
appropriate for feedlot lambs. For pregnant ewes, the diet should contain ≥0.18% and, for lactating
ewes, ≥0.27%. A content of 0.2%–0.4% calcium is considered adequate, as long as the ratio is
maintained between 1:1 and 2:1.
Iodine:
Occasionally, the iodine requirements of sheep are not met in the natural diet and thus iodine
supplements must be fed. Goitrogenic substances are found in many types of plants
(eg, Brassica spp) and interfere with the use of iodine by the thyroid. Regions naturally deficient
are found throughout the western USA, in the Great Lakes area, and in other parts of the world. A
deficiency of iodine (manifested as goiter in the adult and as lack of wool and/or goiter in lambs)
can be prevented by feeding stabilized iodized salt to pregnant ewes. The young of iodine-
deficient ewes may be aborted, stillborn, or born with goiters. Diets containing iodine at 0.2%–
0.8% ppm are usually sufficient, depending on the animals’ level of production
(maintenance/growth, lactation, etc).
Cobalt:
Sheep require ~0.1 ppm of cobalt in their diet. Cobalt-deficient soils are found in North America
but are relatively rare compared with other parts of the world. Normally, legumes have a higher
content than grasses. Because cobalt levels of the feedstuffs are seldom known, a good practice
is to feed trace mineralized salt that contains cobalt.
Copper:
Pregnant ewes require ~5 mg of copper (Cu) daily, which is the amount provided when the forage
contains ≥5 ppm. However, the amount of copper in the diet necessary to prevent copper
deficiency is influenced by the intake of other dietary constituents, notably molybdenum (Mo),
inorganic sulfate, and iron. High intake of molybdenum in the presence of adequate sulfate
increases copper requirements. Because sheep are more susceptible than cattle to copper
toxicity, care must be taken to avoid excessive copper intake (see Copper Poisoning). Toxicity
may be produced in lambs being fed diets with 10–20 ppm of copper, particularly if the Cu:Mo ratio
is >10:1. The Cu:Mo ratio should be maintained between 5:1 and 10:1.
Selenium:
Selenium is effective in at least partially controlling nutritional muscular dystrophy. Areas east of
the Mississippi River and in the northwestern USA appear to be low in selenium. The dietary
requirement is ~0.3 ppm. Providing selenium-containing mineral mixture may
prevent selenium deficiency if animals are allowed free access. Levels of 7–10 ppm or higher may
be toxic.
Zinc:
Growing lambs require ~30 ppm of zinc in the diet on a dry-matter basis. The requirement for
normal testicular development is somewhat higher. Classic zinc deficiency (parakeratosis) is more
common in other small ruminants (goats), but is occasionally encountered in sheep, particularly if
fed excessive quantities of dietary calcium (legumes).
Vitamins:
Sheep diets usually contain an ample supply of vitamins A (provitamin A), D, and E. Under certain
circumstances, however, supplements may be needed. The B vitamins and vitamin K are
synthesized by the rumen microorganisms and, under practical conditions, supplements are
unnecessary. However, polioencephalomalacia can be seen and is due to aberrations in ruminal
thiamine metabolism, secondary to altered ruminal pH and/or microflora content. Vitamin C is
synthesized in the tissues of sheep. On diets rich in carotene, such as high-quality pasture or
green hays, sheep can store large quantities of vitamin A in the liver, often sufficient to meet their
requirements for as long as 6 mo.
Vitamin D2 is derived from sun-cured forage, and vitamin D 3 from exposure of the skin to ultraviolet
light. When exposure of the skin to sunshine is reduced by prolonged cloudy weather or
confinement rearing, and when the vitamin D 2 content of the diet is low, the amount supplied may
be inadequate. The requirement for vitamin D is increased when the amounts of either calcium or
phosphorus in the diet are low or when the ratio between them is wide. But such dietary
modification should be done cautiously, because vitamin D toxicity is a severe syndrome. Fast-
growing lambs kept in sheds away from direct sunlight or maintained on green feeds (high
carotene) during the winter months (low irradiation) may have impaired bone formation and show
other signs of vitamin D deficiency. Normally, sheep on pasture seldom need vitamin D
supplements.
The major sources of vitamin E in the natural diet of sheep are green feeds and the germ of seeds.
Because vitamin E is poorly stored in the body, a daily intake is needed. When ewes are being fed
poor-quality hay or forage, supplemental vitamin E may result in improved production, lamb
weaning weights, and colostrum quality. Vitamin E deficiency in young lambs may contribute to
nutritional muscular dystrophy if selenium intake is low.
In a pasture situation, goats tend to graze from the top to the bottom of plants and do not like
to graze near the soil surface. Therefore, goats will more uniformly grazea canopy than other
ruminants. This behavior results in even grazing and favors a first grazer-last grazer system.
Goats are very active foragers, able to cover a wide area in search of scarce plant materials. Their small
mouth, narrow muzzle and split upper lips enable them to pick small leaves, flowers, fruits and other
plant parts, thus choosing only the most nutritious available feed. As natural browsers and given the
opportunity, goats will select over 60% of their daily diet from brush and woody perennials (black locust
[Robinia pseudoacacia], brambles [Rubus spp.], honeysuckle [Lonicera japonica], multiflora rose [Rosa
multiflora], privet [Ligustrum vulgare], saplings, small deciduous trees, sumac [Rhus typhina], etc.), and
broadleaf plants (dock [Rumex spp.], dog fennel [Eupatorium capillifolium], horseweed [Conyza
Canadensis], lambsquarter [Chenopodium album], pigweed [Amaranthus spp.], plantain [Plantago spp.],
poison ivy [Toxicodendron radicans], sedge [Carex aurea], etc.) over herbaceous species such as
bluegrass [Poa pratensis], tall fescue [Festuca arundinacea], orchardgrass [Dactylis glomerata], annual
ryegrass [Lolium multiflorum], crabgrass [Digitaria sanguinalis], bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon],
cereal grains, and others. The ability to utilize browse species, which often have thorns and an upright
growth habit with small leaves tucked among woody stems, is a unique characteristic of the goat
compared to heavier, less agile ruminants. Goats have been observed to stand on their hind legs and
stre
browse leaves from trees such as several oak species (Quercus spp.), walnut (Juglans nigra), sweet gum
(Liquidambar styraciflua), etc. or throw their bodies against saplings to bring the tops within reach.
Goats even sometimes climb into trees or shrubs to consume the desired forage. Because of their
inquisitive nature and tolerance of "bitter" or high tannin material, goats may eat unpalatable weeds
and wild shrubs that may be contain poisonous compounds, such as pokeweed (Phitolacca Americana)
or milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). The absence or the severity of poisoning is related to the quantity of
material consumed, the portion and age of the plant eaten, the season of the year, the age and size of
the animal, whether the leaves are wilted or not as in the case of black cherry, and other factors. Goats
are often not affected by poisonous compounds or anti-nutritional factors if a sufficient number of other
plant species are available. Because goats prefer to consume a very varied diet, the detrimental effects
of poisonous compounds found in certain plants are diluted. In spite of their grazing preferences, goats
can be grazed on pasture alone. The feeding strategy of goats appears to be to select grasses when the
protein content and digestibility are high, but to switch to browse when the latter overall nutritive value
may be higher. This ability is best utilized under conditions where there is a broad range in the
digestibility of the available feeds, giving an advantage to an animal which is able to select highly
digestible parts and reject those materials which are low in quality. In a pasture situation, goats tend to
graze from the top to the bottom of plants and do not like to graze near the soil surface. Therefore,
goats will more uniformly graze a canopy than other ruminants. This behavior results in even grazing
and favors a first grazer-last grazer system. This might consist of using a goat herd as the first group and
cattle as the last group. This management is most appropriate with lactating does or growing kids whose
nutrient requirements are high. In summary, goats have been observed to: 1. Select young grass over
white clover (Trifolium repens). 2. Prefer browsing over grazing pastures, and eat more browse than do
other domestic ruminants. 3. Eat a wider range of plant species than do sheep or cattle. 4. Prefer
foraging on rough and steep land over flat, smooth land. 5. Graze along fence lines before grazing the
center of a pasture. 6. Graze the top of pasture canopy fairly uniformly before grazing close to the soil
level. 7. Will travel longer distances in search of preferred forage than will other domestic ruminants.
Explanation of Plant Terms Annual: A plant that germinates, grows, reproduces only by seed, and dies in
one year or growing season. Perennial: A plant that persists for several years with new growth from a
perennating part, and can live indefinitely. Often a combination of diseases and/or insects will cause a
perennial to be short lived. Cool Season Perennial: Perennial plant species that is usually seeded in late
summer or early fall (may be seeded in late winter or early spring, resulting in less growth the year of
establishment). The major proportion of its growth is during the cool season in the spring with a lesser
peak growth in the late summer and early fall. For example, in the piedmont of North Carolina a mixture
of tall fescue-ladino clover will produce about 55% of its total production in March, April and May, and
about 20% in August, September and October. Cool season grasses usually flower profusely in mid-
spring and, if permitted, seeds will mature by late spring. Cool season
Understanding Behaviour
Knowledge of animals’ natural behaviour is essential in ensuring we create an environment,
manage and care for individual animals and flocks in a manner that enables them to express
themselves naturally and to remain healthy with a high quality of life. The behaviour of sheep
is likely to be a complex interaction between their genetics and the fundamentally important
early life experiences with their dam, further complicated by their association with their peers,
particularly around weaning, and the quality and availability of grazing (Lawrence and Dwyer,
2000).
Maternal Behaviour
Maternal behaviour is key to ensuring survival of lambs, particularly when a ewe has two or
more offspring. Newborn lambs need milk and immunological protection shortly after birth,
and early interactions between the mother and the young are critical in this respect.
Bonding, and consequently survival, of twins can be considerably improved if the ewe
remains at the birth site for a minimum of 6 hours, and this can be encouraged in part
through feeding management. Two major factors contribute to the formation of this early
bonding: postnatal vocal communication and sucking (Nowak, 1996).
The ewe makes a low level bleating noise, standing so as to encourage the lamb to find the
udder and start suckling (Dwyer, 2013)
Research at the Scotland’s Rural College has shown that:
lambs that are quick to stand and suck after birth have better survival than lambs that
are slow to get up and suck.
lamb behaviours are influenced by lamb genetics – breed, selection line within breed
and sire of the lamb all affected early lamb behaviours. Lamb behaviour immediately
after birth is heritable, suggesting that selection for lamb behavioural traits could
improve lamb vigour at birth and increase lamb survival.
lamb rectal temperatures are correlated with lamb behaviour. Taking a lambs
temperature soon after birth could provide useful information on lamb vigour.
The ewe and lamb maintain a close spatial relationship over the first week of life. After this
period lambs gather into peer play groups and up to 4 weeks of age they go increasingly
longer distance from their dam (Morgan & Arnold, 1974). Nurturing and recognition are the
key components of early maternal care, and the ewe expresses these through immediate
licking and grooming behaviour, which enables her to learn the smell of her offspring
(Poindron et al., 2007).
What About Breed and Behaviour?
As well as recognising their mothers’ voice, lambs also visually recognise breeds (Lawrence
and Dwyer, 2000) and are attracted by the sight of the same breed in the absence of their
mother (Walser, 1980). There are significant breed differences in grazing, activity and social
interactions. Maternal influence plays an important role in shaping the behaviour of their
offspring as they develop, although this is not evident immediately after birth, where breed
differences are most evident with regard to sucking and early vigour and play behaviour.
Social grouping, associations and activity patterns in sheep are influenced by breed
although it is not clear whether these are entirely genetic differences or differences
associated with learning and adaptation resulting from different environmental and social
experiences, especially during early life (Lawrence and Dwyer, 2000).
Sheep can discriminate between breeds and there is evidence of strong preferential mixing
between sheep of the same breed (Winfield and Mullaney, 1973; Arnold and Pahl,
1974; Walser and Hague, 1980).
Recording Birth Behaviour
Genetic solutions have the potential to improve birth assistance and lamb behaviour but
require large amounts of data. Simple, proxy methods (scoring systems) have been
developed to quantify the level of birth difficulties and lamb vigour on farm. Analysis of
simple birth assistance scores shows abnormal birth positions require more assistance than
normal births and long births need more assistance than short labours. Likewise, evaluating
a lamb vigour score showed more vigorous lambs reach key behavioural stages faster than
those with low vigour and a sucking assistance score was successful in demonstrating that
lambs that were slow to start sucking needed the most assistance. A 5-point behaviour
scoring system that records time from birth to start standing, seeking the udder and sucking
has provided a practical and reliable assessment of birth assistance and lamb behaviour
(Matheson et al., 2011).
Eating Habits
Sheep may be encouraged to graze areas that they have been exposed to early in life
Social learning influences dietary habits, with lambs generally acquiring a preference for
foods or grazing behaviours that they have learned about from their mothers or from young
companions (Stolba et al., 1990; Lawrence, 1990; Lawrence and Wood-Gush, 1988). They
also have a preference for feeds that are nutritious and avoid those that are toxic, again
following early positive or negative experiences (Scott et al., 1995).
The location of preferred foods will influence where sheep choose to forage. As they grow,
lambs will imitate the mother’s preferences for grazing location (Lawrence and Dwyer,
2000). It has been proposed that exposing social groups of sheep to underutilized habitat
types early in life may increase their usage of these areas at later stages and therefore
careful and strategic grazing management can offer the best opportunity to improve grazing
distribution (Scott et al., 1995).
There is more information on the grazing behaviour of sheep in the section on Extensive
Grazing.
Linking Behaviour to Management
“An improved understanding of the biological basis for the onset of maternal behaviour, and thus
an appreciation of which events and critical time windows are most important for the ewe, will aid
the development of appropriate management to facilitate the ability of the ewe to express these
behaviours“.
“Management practices that work with the biology of the ewe will be the most successful in
ensuring that maternal care is expressed, so improving the welfare of the ewe and lamb, and the
profitability of the farm” (Dwyer, 2013).
Understanding Behaviour
Knowledge of animals’ natural behaviour is essential in ensuring we create an environment,
manage and care for individual animals and flocks in a manner that enables them to express
themselves naturally and to remain healthy with a high quality of life. The behaviour of sheep
is likely to be a complex interaction between their genetics and the fundamentally important
early life experiences with their dam, further complicated by their association with their peers,
particularly around weaning, and the quality and availability of grazing (Lawrence and Dwyer,
2000).
Maternal Behaviour
Maternal behaviour is key to ensuring survival of lambs, particularly when a ewe has two or
more offspring. Newborn lambs need milk and immunological protection shortly after birth,
and early interactions between the mother and the young are critical in this respect.
Bonding, and consequently survival, of twins can be considerably improved if the ewe
remains at the birth site for a minimum of 6 hours, and this can be encouraged in part
through feeding management. Two major factors contribute to the formation of this early
bonding: postnatal vocal communication and sucking (Nowak, 1996).
The ewe makes a low level bleating noise, standing so as to encourage the lamb to find the
udder and start suckling (Dwyer, 2013)
Research at the Scotland’s Rural College has shown that:
lambs that are quick to stand and suck after birth have better survival than lambs that
are slow to get up and suck.
lamb behaviours are influenced by lamb genetics – breed, selection line within breed
and sire of the lamb all affected early lamb behaviours. Lamb behaviour immediately
after birth is heritable, suggesting that selection for lamb behavioural traits could
improve lamb vigour at birth and increase lamb survival.
lamb rectal temperatures are correlated with lamb behaviour. Taking a lambs
temperature soon after birth could provide useful information on lamb vigour.
The ewe and lamb maintain a close spatial relationship over the first week of life. After this
period lambs gather into peer play groups and up to 4 weeks of age they go increasingly
longer distance from their dam (Morgan & Arnold, 1974). Nurturing and recognition are the
key components of early maternal care, and the ewe expresses these through immediate
licking and grooming behaviour, which enables her to learn the smell of her offspring
(Poindron et al., 2007).
What About Breed and Behaviour?
As well as recognising their mothers’ voice, lambs also visually recognise breeds (Lawrence
and Dwyer, 2000) and are attracted by the sight of the same breed in the absence of their
mother (Walser, 1980). There are significant breed differences in grazing, activity and social
interactions. Maternal influence plays an important role in shaping the behaviour of their
offspring as they develop, although this is not evident immediately after birth, where breed
differences are most evident with regard to sucking and early vigour and play behaviour.
Social grouping, associations and activity patterns in sheep are influenced by breed
although it is not clear whether these are entirely genetic differences or differences
associated with learning and adaptation resulting from different environmental and social
experiences, especially during early life (Lawrence and Dwyer, 2000).
Sheep can discriminate between breeds and there is evidence of strong preferential mixing
between sheep of the same breed (Winfield and Mullaney, 1973; Arnold and Pahl,
1974; Walser and Hague, 1980).
Recording Birth Behaviour
Genetic solutions have the potential to improve birth assistance and lamb behaviour but
require large amounts of data. Simple, proxy methods (scoring systems) have been
developed to quantify the level of birth difficulties and lamb vigour on farm. Analysis of
simple birth assistance scores shows abnormal birth positions require more assistance than
normal births and long births need more assistance than short labours. Likewise, evaluating
a lamb vigour score showed more vigorous lambs reach key behavioural stages faster than
those with low vigour and a sucking assistance score was successful in demonstrating that
lambs that were slow to start sucking needed the most assistance. A 5-point behaviour
scoring system that records time from birth to start standing, seeking the udder and sucking
has provided a practical and reliable assessment of birth assistance and lamb behaviour
(Matheson et al., 2011).
Eating Habits
Sheep may be encouraged to graze areas that they have been exposed to early in life
Social learning influences dietary habits, with lambs generally acquiring a preference for
foods or grazing behaviours that they have learned about from their mothers or from young
companions (Stolba et al., 1990; Lawrence, 1990; Lawrence and Wood-Gush, 1988). They
also have a preference for feeds that are nutritious and avoid those that are toxic, again
following early positive or negative experiences (Scott et al., 1995).
The location of preferred foods will influence where sheep choose to forage. As they grow,
lambs will imitate the mother’s preferences for grazing location (Lawrence and Dwyer,
2000). It has been proposed that exposing social groups of sheep to underutilized habitat
types early in life may increase their usage of these areas at later stages and therefore
careful and strategic grazing management can offer the best opportunity to improve grazing
distribution (Scott et al., 1995).
There is more information on the grazing behaviour of sheep in the section on Extensive
Grazing.
Linking Behaviour to Management
“An improved understanding of the biological basis for the onset of maternal behaviour, and thus
an appreciation of which events and critical time windows are most important for the ewe, will aid
the development of appropriate management to facilitate the ability of the ewe to express these
behaviours“.
“Management practices that work with the biology of the ewe will be the most successful in
ensuring that maternal care is expressed, so improving the welfare of the ewe and lamb, and the
profitability of the farm” (Dwyer, 2013).
Understanding Behaviour
Knowledge of animals’ natural behaviour is essential in ensuring we create an environment,
manage and care for individual animals and flocks in a manner that enables them to express
themselves naturally and to remain healthy with a high quality of life. The behaviour of sheep
is likely to be a complex interaction between their genetics and the fundamentally important
early life experiences with their dam, further complicated by their association with their peers,
particularly around weaning, and the quality and availability of grazing (Lawrence and Dwyer,
2000).
Maternal Behaviour
Maternal behaviour is key to ensuring survival of lambs, particularly when a ewe has two or
more offspring. Newborn lambs need milk and immunological protection shortly after birth,
and early interactions between the mother and the young are critical in this respect.
Bonding, and consequently survival, of twins can be considerably improved if the ewe
remains at the birth site for a minimum of 6 hours, and this can be encouraged in part
through feeding management. Two major factors contribute to the formation of this early
bonding: postnatal vocal communication and sucking (Nowak, 1996).
The ewe makes a low level bleating noise, standing so as to encourage the lamb to find the
udder and start suckling (Dwyer, 2013)
Research at the Scotland’s Rural College has shown that:
lambs that are quick to stand and suck after birth have better survival than lambs that
are slow to get up and suck.
lamb behaviours are influenced by lamb genetics – breed, selection line within breed
and sire of the lamb all affected early lamb behaviours. Lamb behaviour immediately
after birth is heritable, suggesting that selection for lamb behavioural traits could
improve lamb vigour at birth and increase lamb survival.
lamb rectal temperatures are correlated with lamb behaviour. Taking a lambs
temperature soon after birth could provide useful information on lamb vigour.
The ewe and lamb maintain a close spatial relationship over the first week of life. After this
period lambs gather into peer play groups and up to 4 weeks of age they go increasingly
longer distance from their dam (Morgan & Arnold, 1974). Nurturing and recognition are the
key components of early maternal care, and the ewe expresses these through immediate
licking and grooming behaviour, which enables her to learn the smell of her offspring
(Poindron et al., 2007).
What About Breed and Behaviour?
As well as recognising their mothers’ voice, lambs also visually recognise breeds (Lawrence
and Dwyer, 2000) and are attracted by the sight of the same breed in the absence of their
mother (Walser, 1980). There are significant breed differences in grazing, activity and social
interactions. Maternal influence plays an important role in shaping the behaviour of their
offspring as they develop, although this is not evident immediately after birth, where breed
differences are most evident with regard to sucking and early vigour and play behaviour.
Social grouping, associations and activity patterns in sheep are influenced by breed
although it is not clear whether these are entirely genetic differences or differences
associated with learning and adaptation resulting from different environmental and social
experiences, especially during early life (Lawrence and Dwyer, 2000).
Sheep can discriminate between breeds and there is evidence of strong preferential mixing
between sheep of the same breed (Winfield and Mullaney, 1973; Arnold and Pahl,
1974; Walser and Hague, 1980).
Recording Birth Behaviour
Genetic solutions have the potential to improve birth assistance and lamb behaviour but
require large amounts of data. Simple, proxy methods (scoring systems) have been
developed to quantify the level of birth difficulties and lamb vigour on farm. Analysis of
simple birth assistance scores shows abnormal birth positions require more assistance than
normal births and long births need more assistance than short labours. Likewise, evaluating
a lamb vigour score showed more vigorous lambs reach key behavioural stages faster than
those with low vigour and a sucking assistance score was successful in demonstrating that
lambs that were slow to start sucking needed the most assistance. A 5-point behaviour
scoring system that records time from birth to start standing, seeking the udder and sucking
has provided a practical and reliable assessment of birth assistance and lamb behaviour
(Matheson et al., 2011).
Eating Habits
Sheep may be encouraged to graze areas that they have been exposed to early in life
Social learning influences dietary habits, with lambs generally acquiring a preference for
foods or grazing behaviours that they have learned about from their mothers or from young
companions (Stolba et al., 1990; Lawrence, 1990; Lawrence and Wood-Gush, 1988). They
also have a preference for feeds that are nutritious and avoid those that are toxic, again
following early positive or negative experiences (Scott et al., 1995).
The location of preferred foods will influence where sheep choose to forage. As they grow,
lambs will imitate the mother’s preferences for grazing location (Lawrence and Dwyer,
2000). It has been proposed that exposing social groups of sheep to underutilized habitat
types early in life may increase their usage of these areas at later stages and therefore
careful and strategic grazing management can offer the best opportunity to improve grazing
distribution (Scott et al., 1995).
There is more information on the grazing behaviour of sheep in the section on Extensive
Grazing.
Linking Behaviour to Management
“An improved understanding of the biological basis for the onset of maternal behaviour, and thus
an appreciation of which events and critical time windows are most important for the ewe, will aid
the development of appropriate management to facilitate the ability of the ewe to express these
behaviours“.
“Management practices that work with the biology of the ewe will be the most successful in
ensuring that maternal care is expressed, so improving the welfare of the ewe and lamb, and the
profitability of the farm” (Dwyer, 2013).
Grazing Behavior
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Goats are very active foragers, able to cover a wide area in search of
scarce plant materials. Their small mouths and split upper lips enable
them to pick small leaves, flowers, fruits and other plant parts, thus
choosing only the most nutritious available feed.
The ability to utilize browse species, which often have thorns and an
upright growth habit with small leaves tucked among woody stems, is
a unique characteristic of the goat compared to heavier, less agile
ruminants. Goats have been observed to stand on their hind legs and
stretch up to browse tree leaves or throw their bodies against saplings
to bring the tops within reach.
The feeding strategy of goats appears to be to select grasses when
the protein content and digestibility are high, but to switch to browse
when the latter overall nutritive value may be higher. This ability is
best utilized under conditions where there is a broad range in the
digestibility of the available feeds, giving an advantage to an animal
which is able to select highly digestible parts and reject those
materials which are low in quality.
Grazing goats have been observed to:
Nutrient Requirements
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The goat is not able to digest the cell walls of plants as well as the
cow because feed stays in their gastrointestinal tract for a shorter
time period. A distinction as to what is meant by "poor quality
roughage" is necessary in order to make decisions concerning which
animal can best utilize a particular forage. Trees and shrubs, which
represent poor quality roughage sources for cattle, because of their
highly lignified stems and bitter taste, may be adequate in quality for
goats. Goats will avoid eating the stems, but don't mind the taste and
will benefit from the relatively high levels of protein and cell solubles
in the leaves of these plants. On the other hand, straw, which is of
poor quality due to high cell wall and low protein, can be used by
cattle but will not provide maintenance needs for goats because goats
utilize the cell wall even less than cattle.
Goats must consume a more concentrated diet than cattle because
their digestive tract size is smaller relative to their maintenance
energy needs. When the density of high quality forage is low and the
stocking rate is low, goats will still perform well because of their
grazing behavior, even though their nutrient requirements exceed
those of most domesticated ruminant species. Total digestible
nutrients (TDN) and protein requirements are given in Table 2.
Comparing the nutrient requirements to the chemical composition of
feeds shown in Table 1 should give producers an idea of how to
match needs with appropriate forages. For comparison, low quality
forages have 40 to 55% TDN, good quality forages have from 55 to 70%
TDN, and concentrates have from 70 to 90% TDN.
NUTRIENT Weanling (30lb) Yearling (60lb) Pregnant (early) Pregnant (late) Lactating (a
TDN, % 68 65 55 60 60
Protein, % 14 12 10 11 11
Calcium, % .6 .4 .4 .4 .4
Phosphorus, % .3 .2 .2 .2 .2
1
Nutrient Requirements of Goats in Temperate and Tropical Countries. 1981.National Research Council.
2
Pinkerton, F. 1989. Feeding Programs for Angora Goats. Bulletin 605. Langston.
3
Expected weight gain > .44 lb / day.
High quality forage and/or browse should be available to does during
the last month of gestation and to lactating does, to
developing/breeding bucks, and to weanlings and yearlings. Female
kids needed for reproduction should be grazed with their mothers
during as much of the milk feeding period as possible and not weaned
early. When the quantity of available forage and/or browse is limited or
is of low quality, a concentrate supplement may be considered to
maintain desired body condition, depending on cost:benefit. Whole
cottonseed makes an excellent supplement for goats when fed at no
more than 0.5 lb/head/day. Dry does and non-breeding mature bucks
will meet their nutritional requirements on low to medium quality
forage (10-12% protein and 50-60% TDN).
Providing free choice a complete goat mineral or a 50:50 mix of trace
mineralized salt and dicalcium phosphate is advisable under most
situations. Selenium is marginal to deficient in all areas of North
Carolina. Therefore, trace mineralized salt or a complete mineral mix
containing selenium should always be provided to the goat herd year
around. It is sometimes advisable to provide a mineral mix that
contains 20-25% magnesium oxide to reduce the risk of grass tetany
when heavy milking goats are grazing lush small grain or grass/legume
pastures in early lactation. Copper requirements for goats have not
been definitively established. Growing and adult goats are less
susceptible to copper toxicity than sheep, however, but their tolerance
level is not well known. Young, nursing kids are generally more
sensitive to copper toxicity than mature goats, and cattle milk
replacers should not be fed to nursing kids. Mineral mixes and sweet
feed should contain copper carbonate or copper sulfate because these
forms of copper are better utilized by the goat than copper oxide.
Suggested Supplemental Feeding Program for Goats
When goats are raised on browse, abundant forage should be made
available to allow goats to be very selective and to ingest a high
quality diet that will meet their nutritional requirements. When forage
or browse is limited or low in protein (< 10%), lactating does (and does
in the last 30 days of gestation) and developing/breeding bucks should
be fed 1.0 lb/day of a 16% protein mixture (77:20:2.5:0.5 ground
corn:soybean meal:goat mineral:limestone). Alternatively, ground corn
and soybean meal can be substituted by whole cottonseed for
lactating does. Low to medium concentration of protein (> 10%) will
meet requirements of dry does and non-breeding bucks. When forage
or browse is limited or low in protein (< 10%), weanlings and yearlings
should be fed 2 to 1.0 lb/day of the 16% protein mixture. Goats can be
forced to eat very low quality feed including twigs, tree bark, etc., but
producers should be aware that this practice will hurt the productivity
of superior meat and fiber goats.
Grazing Time
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Some livestock producers confine their animals at night for protection
from straying or predation. However, confinement means that grazing
time is reduced and that the animals spend more time in unsanitary
lots or pens. Reduced grazing time due to confinement at night is even
more critical during the hot and humid summer months, because
animals may not forage efficiently during the hottest periods of the
day. If animals must be confined at night, allowing the animals to
graze during the cooler parts of the day would increase production as
a consequence of improved feed intake resulting from increased
grazing time.