AQA Biology

Year 12 A level
3.3.2 Gas Exchange in Plants
3.3.4.2 Mass Transport in Plants

Name: ______________________

Lesson Exam Question Homework Date

Marks Checked
1 - The Properties of Water
2 - Gas Exchange in Plants
3 - Water transport in plants
4 - Investigating Transpiration Practical
5 - Adaptations in xerophytes

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 6 - Mass Flow Hypothesis
7 – Evidence for Mass Flow Experiments

Specification Sections

3.3.2 Gas exchange

Content Opportunities for skills development

Adaptations of gas exchange surfaces, shown AT d

by gas exchange: Students could use an optical microscope to:

● by the leaves of dicotyledonous plants examine prepared mounts of gas exchange

(mesophyll and stomata). surfaces of a mammal, fish and insect, or
temporary mounts of gills
examine vertical sections through a
Structural and functional compromises between
dicotyledonous leaf.
the opposing needs for efficient gas exchange
and the limitation of water loss shown by
terrestrial insects and xerophytic plants.

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 Key word list
Adhesion Attraction of molecules of one kind for molecules of a different kind, and it can be quite
strong for water, especially with other molecules bearing positive or negative charges.
Cohesion Attraction between molecules of the same type - how water molecules form hydrogen bonds
between one another and hence tend to stick together.

Cohesion-tension The main factor that is responsible for the movement of water up the xylem, from the roots
theory to the leaves. Transpiration pull puts the xylem under tension (there is negative pressure
within the xylem) and because of the cohesive nature of water (due to hydrogen bonds
between water molecules) there is a continuous stream of water being pulled across the
mesophyll cells and up the xylem.

Companion cell Since the sieve tube element lacks organelles, the companion cell with its nucleus,
mitochondria, ribosomes, enzymes etc., controls the movement of solutes and provides ATP
for active transport in the sieve tube element. Strands of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata
connect the sieve tube element and companion cell.
Diffusion The movement of molecules or ions form a region where there are in high concentration to
one where their concentration is lower

Guard cell One of a pair of cells that surround a stoma in plant leaves and controls its opening and
closing
Hydrogen bond Chemical bond formed between the positive charge on a hydrogen atom and the negative
charge on another atom of an adjacent molecule
Hydrolysis The breaking down of large molecules into smaller ones by the addition of water molecules
Ion An atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained one or more electrons
Ion channel A passage across a cell-surface membrane made up of a protein that spans the membrane
and opens and closes to allow ions to pass in and out of the cell
Isotonic Solutions that possess the same concentration of solutes and therefore have the same water
potential
Mass-flow theory The bulk movement of a substance through a given channel or area in a specified time.
Sucrose is transferred into sieve elements from photosynthesising tissue and there can be
mass flow of sucrose solution down a hydrostatic gradient in sieve tubes (caused by active
transport of sucrose into sieve tubes at the source and out of sieve tubes at the sink, and
osmosis – movement of water into sieve tubes near source and out of sieve tubes near sink).
Mesophyll Tissue found between the two layers of epidermis in a plant leave comprising an upper layer
of palisade cells and a lower layer of spongey cells
Metabolism All the chemical processes that take place in living organisms
Microvilli Tiny finger-like projections from the cell-surface membrane of some animals
Middle lamella Layer made up of pectins and other substances found between the walls of adjacent plant
cells
Mitosis The type of nuclear division in which the daughter cells have the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell
Monomer One of many small molecules that combine to form a larger one known as a polymer
Osmosis The passage of water from a region of high water potential to a region where its water
potential is lower, through a partially permeable membrane
Palisade cells Long, narrow cells packed with chloroplasts that are found in the upper region of a leaf and
which carry out photosynthesis
Phloem Plant tissue that transports the products of photosynthesis from leaves to the rest of the
plant
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 Potometer A piece of apparatus which enables the rate of water loss in a plant to be measured.

Protoplast The living portion of a plant cell (i.e. the nucleus and cytoplasm along with the organelles it
contains)
Ringing An experiment when a section of outer layers (protective layer and phloem) is removed
around the complete circumference of a woody stem while it is still attached to the rest of
the plant. This results in the region of the stem immediately above the missing ring of tissue
swelling because the sugars of the phloem accumulate above the ring and it leads to tissues
dying below the ring because of the interruption of flow of sugars to this region. It shows
that the phloem is responsible for translocating sugars.

Sieve tube These are living, tubular cells that are connected end to end. The end cell walls have
element perforations in them to make sieve plates. The cytoplasm is present but in small amounts
and in a layer next to the cell wall. It lacks a nucleus and most organelles so there is more
space for solutes to move. The cell walls are made of cellulose so solutes can move laterally
as well as vertically. Next to each sieve tube element is a companion cell.
Stoma (plural Pore, mostly in the lower epidermis of a leaf through which gases diffuse in and out of the
stomata) leaf
Tracer Radioactive isotopes can be used to trace the movement of substances in plants. 14CO2 is
used so plants incorporate this isotope into the sugars produced during photosynthesis.
These radioactive sugars can then be traced as they move within the plant using
autoradiography. This shows that sugars are found where phloem tissue is in the stem.
Translocation The process by which organic molecules and some mineral ions are transported from one
part of a plant to another.
Transpiration The main force that pulls water through the xylem vessels in the stem of a plant is the
evaporation of water from leaves through stomata.

Transpiration pull How a column of water is pulled up the xylem as a result of transpiration.
Water potential The pressure created by water molecules. The measure of the extent to which a solution
gives out water
Xerophyte A plant adapted to living in dry conditions
Xylem vessels Dead, hollow, elongated tubes with lignified side walls and no end walls, that transport water
in most plants

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 Lesson 1 – The Properties of Water
Notes:

Water is vital and makes up around 80% of a cell’s contents. You need to be able to use the
structure of water to explain its 5 main properties and uses.

Structure:

Because the electrons in the hydrogen are pulled

towards the oxygen the opposite side of the
hydrogen atoms are left slightly positive.

The unshared electrons on the other side of the

oxygen atom cause that side to have a slight
negative charge.

This difference in charge across the molecule

makes it polar.

The polarity of the molecule allows hydrogen

bonds to form between the slightly negative
oxygen of one molecule and slightly positive
hydrogen of another. These hydrogen bonds give
water some of its most useful properties.

Properties:

1) It is an important metabolite in many metabolic reactions, including condensation and hydrolysis reactions.

Metabolic – processes that occur in living cells Metabolite – a substance involved in metabolic reaction.

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2) It is a good solvent.

The polar nature of water molecules mean they can be attracted to and
totally surround ionic compounds allowing them to dissolve and form a
solution. This allows useful substances to be dissolved and transported
around the organism. Other polar molecules (like glucose) can dissolve in
water because hydrogen bonds form between them and water molecules

3) It has a relatively large latent heat of vaporisation (high boiling

point),this is because it takes a lot of energy to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to allow them to
become a gas. Lots of heat energy is absorbed by the hydrogen bonds before they break which allows small amounts
of water to have a large cooling effect with little loss of water through evaporation e.g sweating.

4) It has a relatively high heat capacity – the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance
by 1°C. Lots of heat energy is absorbed by the hydrogen bonds before they break which means that there is less heat
energy available to increase the temperature of the water so it takes a lot of heat energy to actually increase water
temperature specifically. This is useful because it prevents water from having rapid temperature changes. Water
bodies such as ponds, lakes, rivers and the ocean have more stable temperatures than on land and water inside
organisms also remains fairly stable. This helps organisms to regulate their own body temperature.

5) It has strong cohesion between

molecules; they stick together
because they are polar. This allows
water to flow easily which
supports columns of water in the
tube-like transport cells of plants
and produces surface tension
where water meets air – allowing
some insects to ‘walk on water’.

Recall Questions:

1. Define the terms metabolic and metabolite.

2. Name two reactions water is involved in.
3. Why is water classed as a polar molecule?
4. Give two examples of how living organisms benefit from waters ability to resist changes in
temperature.
5. What is cohesion and what significance does it have to insects such as pond skaters.
6. Water has a high latent heat of vaporisation. What does this mean and why is it useful for living
organisms?

Exam Questions:

Q1.
(a) State and explain the property of water that can help to buffer changes in temperature.

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Q2. Water and inorganic ions have important biological functions within cells.
(a) Give two properties of water that are important in the cytoplasm of cells.
For each property of water, explain its importance in the cytoplasm.

Property 1__________________________________________________________

Biological importance within cells________________________________________

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Property 2__________________________________________________________

Biological importance within cells________________________________________

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(4)
Q3. The figure below represents a water molecule.

Water molecules are polar. As a result, they attract each other.

Draw a second water molecule on the figure above.
Your drawing should show:

▪ The bond(s) between the two molecules

▪ The name of the bond

▪ The charges on each atom.

[Total 3 marks]
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Q4. Ponds provide a very stable environment for aquatic organisms.
Three properties of water that contribute to this stability are as follows:

▪ The density of water decreases as the temperature falls below 4°C, so ice floats on the top of the
pond.

▪ It acts as a solvent for ions such as nitrates (NO3–).

▪ A large quantity of energy is required to raise the temperature of water by 1°C.

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 Lesson 2 – Gas Exchange in Plants
Notes:

Plants need CO2 for photosynthesis and also

oxygen for respiration both processes
produce the other as a waste product.
Depending on the time of day the balance of
photosynthesis to respiration will create
different concentration gradients which
cause gases to diffuse in or out. These gases
are exchanged with the atmosphere in the
mesophyll layer of the leaf – this adapted as
it has a large surface area due to large air
spaces in the spongy mesophyll. Leaves are
thin to reduce the distance gases have to
diffuse in and out of the leaf. Gases have to
move in and out of the leaf through the
stomata (sing. Stoma) which are pores in the lower epidermis of the leaf.

Leaf tissue Function

Waxy Cuticle Tiny pores on the underside of the leaf, where gasses diffuse in and out. Water
vapour is also lost from here.
Upper Epidermis Transports water and mineral ions
Palisade mesophyll Layer of cells with air-spaces between them. Gas exchange occurs here.
Spongy mesophyll Transparent layer on the top of the leaf.
Xylem Waxy layer at the top of the leaf
Phloem Layer of long cylindrical cells where most photosynthesis happens
Lower epidermis Transports dissolved sugars in the plant
Stomata

Transpiration is the loss of water from the plant,

stomata can control how much water leaves. Plants in
dry environments will have fewer stomata to help
reduce water loss.

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Plants have to minimise how much water they lose but they still have to exchange gases.

When plants have enough water guard cells are turgid which keep the pores open

When plants are dehydrated the guard cells become flaccid causing the hole to close.

Recall Questions:

1. What features do all gas exchange surfaces have in common?

2. What gases do plants need and why?
3. What is the main gas exchange surface in plants?
4. Where do gases move in and out of plants?
5. Give two adaptations of leaves to gas exchange?
6. Describe how stomata help to control water loss
7. Describe an adaptation of plants that live in dry environments.

Exam Questions:

Q1. Diagram 2 shows a section through a plant leaf.

Diagram 2

Describe the structure of the leaf and the functions of the tissues in the leaf.

You should use the names of the tissues in your answer.

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Q2. A student carried out an investigation using leaf epidermis.

This is the method used.

1. Peel the lower epidermis from the underside of a leaf.

2. Cut the epidermis into six equal sized pieces.
3. Place each piece of lower epidermis into a different Petri dish.
4. Add 5 cm3 of salt solution to the six Petri dishes. Each Petri dish should have a different
concentration of salt solution.
5. After 1 hour, view each piece of epidermis under a microscope at ×400 magnification.
6. Count and record the total number of stomata present and the number of open stomata
that can be seen in one field of view.

The student’s results are shown in the table.

Number of Percentage (%)

Concentration Number of
open of open
of salt solution stomata in
stomata in stomata in field
in mol / dm3 field of view
field of view of view

0.0 7 7 100

0.1 8 8 100

0.2 7 6 X

0.3 9 6 67

0.4 10 4 40

0.5 9 2 22

(a) Calculate value X in the table above.

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 X = ____________________ %
(1)

(b) Give one conclusion from the results in the table above.

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(1)

(c) How could the student find out what concentration of salt solution would result in half of
the stomata being open?

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(1)

(d) The diagram below shows two guard cells surrounding a closed stoma and two guard
cells surrounding an open stoma.

When light intensity is high potassium ions are moved into the guard cells.

Describe how the movement of potassium ions into the guard cells causes the stoma to
open.

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Q3. (b) (i) A leaf is an organ. What is an organ?

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(1)

(ii) Describe how carbon dioxide in the air outside a leaf reaches mesophyll cells inside
the leaf.

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Q5. Scientists studied the rate of carbon dioxide uptake by grape plant leaves. Grape leaves have
stomata on the lower surface but no stomata on the upper surface.

The scientists recorded the carbon dioxide uptake by grape leaves with three different
treatments:

Treatment 1 − No air-sealing grease was applied to either surface of the leaf.

Treatment 2 − The lower surface of the leaf was covered in air-sealing grease that prevents
gas exchange.

Treatment 3 − Both the lower surface and the upper surface of the leaf were covered in
air–sealing grease that prevents gas exchange.

The scientists measured the rate of carbon dioxide uptake by each leaf for 60 minutes in light
and then for 20 minutes in the dark.

The scientists’ results are shown in the diagram below.

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 (a) Suggest the purpose of each of the three leaf treatments.

Treatment 1
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Treatment 2
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Treatment 3
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(b) (i) Describe the results shown for Treatment 1.

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(ii) The stomata close when the light is turned off.

Explain the advantage of this to the plant.

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(c) (i) Treatment 2 shows that even when the lower surface of the leaf is sealed there is
still some uptake of carbon dioxide.

Suggest how this uptake of carbon dioxide continues.

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(1)

(ii) In both Treatment 1 and Treatment 2, the uptake of carbon dioxide falls to zero
when the light is turned off.

Explain why.

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(2)

Homework:

Watch to learn about the strange evolution of stomata! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M3i5TzwSUKc

Complete the sentences using the words in bold

adaptations air spaces chloroplasts close closely concentration diffuse dry exposed
gradients guard internal moist palisade photosynthesis photosynthesise respire
spongy stomata surface area thin water waxy xerophytes xylem

All plant cells _________ all the time and during the day many plant cells also ______________, so plants also need

to exchange gases.

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Leaves have a huge _________ ______ and so have a large external surface area:volume ratio. Gases enter the leaf

through ___________ (singular stoma), which are usually on the underside of the leaf. Stomata are enclosed by

_________ cells, which can close the stomata to reduce water loss. The large number of stomata mean that gases

can quickly __________ in and out of the leaf.

The cells in the leaf tissues are also highly adapted to their functions:

● The __________ mesophyll cells are loosely-packed with unusually large intercellular ____ __________

where gases can collect and mix. This means there is also an exceptionally large ___________ surface

area:volume ratio. This, coupled with the fact that leaves are so _______, means that gases can quickly

diffuse through the intercellular air spaces inside the leaf to the palisade mesophyll cells.

● The __________ mesophyll cells have a thin cytoplasm densely packed with _____________, which can

move around the cell to regions of greatest light intensity. The palisade cells are _________ packed together

to maximise light collection. This means they are very well adapted for ______________.

Plants do not need a ventilation mechanism because their leaves are highly ___________, so the air surrounding

them is constantly being replaced as a result of the wind. In addition, during the hours of daylight photosynthesis

increases the oxygen _____________ in the sub-stomatal air space, and decreases the carbon dioxide concentration.

These increase the concentration ___________ for these gases, speeding up the rate of diffusion.

Answer the questions

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 1. For each of the following factors explain which features of the leaf ‘s structure ensure rapid diffusion and
therefore efficient gas exchange:
a) Surface area. [2]

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b) Concentration (or diffusion) gradient. [2]

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c) Short diffusion pathway. [2]

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7. Explain why most plants close their stomata during the hours of darkness. [3]

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Answer the exam questions

Q1. The figure shows a section through a palisade cell in a leaf as seen with a light microscope. The palisade has

been magnified × 2000.

x 2000

(a) Calculate the actual width of the cell, measured from A to B, in μm. Show your working. [2]

Answer ........................................... μm

(b) Palisade cells are the main site of photosynthesis. Explain one way in which a palisade cell is adapted for

photosynthesis. [2]

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(Total 4 marks)

Lesson 3 – Water transport in plants

Notes:

Plants need water for; photosynthesis, to transport minerals, maintain structural rigidity (maintain turgidity of cells)
and to regulate temperature. Water is absorbed from the soil by osmosis and moves up the stem of the plant from
the roots to the leaves. Mineral ions absorbed by active transport from the soil (including nitrates and phosphates)
are dissolved in the water. Plants need nitrates to produce DNA, amino acids (proteins), and chlorophyll. Phosphates
are also required to make DNA and ATP. Without these essential minerals, plants would not be able to grow, produce
fruit or seeds.

Structure of Xylem Vessel:

• Elongated tubes formed from dead cells (called vessel elements)

joined together in bundles

• No end walls between cells

• Thick walls made of lignin

• Gaps in the cell wall

Function of the Xylem:

The xylem vessels transport water and mineral ions up the plant and provides support.

Their hollow lumen (no cytoplasm and no end walls) makes an uninterrupted tube allowing water and mineral ions to
pass through the middle easily. The lignin that forms the walls is strong and prevents the tube collapsing, gaps in the
lignin allow water to leave the vessels and pass between them. The lignin is also waterproof to prevent water from
adhering too much to the surface.

Movement of water can be explained by the Cohesion-Tension Theory

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Evidence to support cohesion-tension:

● If a trunk or stem is damaged and a xylem cell is broken water does not leak out (which it would if the
vessels were under pressure). Once air enters the tree can no longer draw up water because the
continuous column of water has been broken.
● The trunks of trees reduce in diameter during the daytime when transpiration is at its greatest
(increased photosynthesis and temperature). This is because adhesion of water molecules to walls of
xylem results in a tension which pulls the xylem walls in. At night when transpiration is at its lowest
there is less tension so the diameter increases.
Recall Questions:

1. Why do plants need water?

2. Why do plants need nitrate ions?
3. What cells transport water and mineral ions in plants and in what direction?
4. Describe the structure of the xylem vessels.
5. What is the purpose of lignin in xylem?
6. Describe three adaptations of xylem vessels that relate structure to function
7. Describe how water moves up the stem via the transpiration pull
8. What property of water causes cohesion?
9. What evidence is there for cohesion-tension theory?

Exam Questions:

Q1.
(a) Describe the cohesion-tension theory of water transport in the xylem.

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Q2.
(a) Explain how xylem tissue is adapted for its function.

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(b) The graph shows the flow rate in the xylem in the trunk of a tree.

(i) Explain the increase in the flow rate between 1000 and 1400 hours.

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(ii) The diameter of the trunk decreased during the same period, reaching its minimum
when the flow rate was highest. Use your knowledge of the cohesion-tension theory
to suggest an explanation for this decrease.

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Q3. (a) Explain how each of the following is related to the function of xylem tissue.

(i) Xylem tissue contains hollow tubes.

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(ii) Lignin is present in xylem cell walls.

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Q4. The graphs show the daily changes in environmental temperature and light intensity, and changes in
the diameter of the trunk of a pine tree.

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 Use information from the graphs, and your knowledge of the cohesion-tension theory of
water movement through a plant, to explain why the diameter of the trunk is smallest at
midday.

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Homework

Complete the sentences using the words in bold:

adhesion carbon dioxide cohesion cohesion dead dead diffuses diffusion
dissolved substances epidermis evaporates gravity high humidity impermeable
ions lignin lower lowers opposite potometer pressure ringing root hair
shallower sieve plates sieve tube elements sink source steeper sunlight
temperature tension tension tracer translocation transpiration water wind
speed

The xylem, transpiration and the cohesion-tension theory

The _____________ of the roots is the outer layer of cells made up of flattened and

_______ _______ cells to absorb water and ions. The xylem are long tubes made up of

_______ cells and their function is to transport _________ and _____ up the plant. The

phloem are long tubes made up of __________ cells and their function is to transport

____________ _____________ up and down a plant.

The xylem structure consists of:

● Narrow tubes made up of _______ cells so there is little resistance to the movement

of water through them.

● Strong walls made of _________ to stop the xylem collapsing. It also provides an _____________

wall around the xylem vessel

___________ is where the water molecules ‘stick’ to each other due to the formation of

hydrogen bonds. ___________ is where the water molecules ‘stick’ to the sides of the xylem

due to further hydrogen bonds with cellulose in the plant cell walls.

● Water ______________ from leaf cells and __________ out of the stomata in a process known as

______________. This creates a __________ (pulling) on the water in the xylem.

● The cohesion of water transmits the pulling force all the way down to the roots

● Adhesion of water to the xylem also aids in resisting ___________.

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 ● The mechanism of pulling water up a stem is called the ___________-__________ mechanism.

There are various factors which affect the rate of transpiration such as _______ ________,

_____________, _____________, and _______________.

● Windy conditions cause air molecules to move away from the leaves resulting in a ___________

concentration gradient and a faster rate of ___________.

● An increase in temperature would cause particles to gain kinetic energy and move faster so

evaporation and diffusion of water is faster.

● At ________ humidity, there is a ___________ concentration gradient of water molecules between

the leaf and the atmosphere so there is a ________ rate of diffusion.

● In bright light, plants will open their stomata to gain _________ ________ to photosynthesise at the

maximum rate so more water is lost.

In order to measure the rate of transpiration, we use a _____________. This involves

observing the movement of an air bubble through a capillary tube against a scale.

Explain how water enters the xylem from the endodermis in the root and is then transported to the leaves.
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Recall Question Answers:

for photosynthesis, to transport minerals, maintain

Why do plants need water? structural rigidity and to regulate temperature
for production of DNA, proteins and chlorophyll. they are
required for plant growth, fruit production and seed
Why do plants need nitrate ions? production
What cells transport water and mineral ions in
plants and in what direction?
Xylem vessels, water only moves upwards
very long tube like structures formed from dead cells
joined end to end. tubes found together in bundles.
hollow lumen as no cytoplasm and no end walls makes an
uninterrupted tube allowing water and mineral ions to
Describe the structure of the xylem vessels. pass through the middle easily. walls thickened with lignin.
pits in walls where there is no lignin.
What is the purpose of lignin in xylem vessels? Strengthens vessel wall and prevents collapse
Describe three adaptations of xylem vessels that 1) Dead cells aligned end to end to form a continuous
relate structure to function column; (2) Tubes are narrow so water column doesn't
break easily and capillary action can be effective; (3)
Bordered pits allow sideways movement of water
between vessels; (4) Lignin allows stretching of xylem
(spiral, annular or reticulate patterns) as plant grows
Describe how water moves up the stem via the Loss of water by evaporation at the top of the plant must
transpiration pull be replaced by water from the xylem. This puts water at
the top of xylem under tension. Tension pulls the column
of water up the xylem as water molecules are cohesive.
What property of water causes cohesion? The polarity of the water molecule, which produces
hydrogen bonds between the molecules
What evidence is there for cohesion-tension Reduction in stem/trunk diameter during the day when
theory? transpiration rates are high – negative pressure/sucking
increasing tension in xylem. If continuous column of water
is broken (air enters) then no water comes out of xylem –
no positive pressure.

Page 26 of 63
 Lesson 4 – Investigating Transpiration Practical

Notes:

Water movement up a plant increases as the transpiration rate increases. Water evaporates from the spaces between
cells in the leaf through the stomata, it moves down the water potential gradient so for water to leave through
stomata there has to be less water in the atmosphere than in the leaf.

Factors that affect the transpiration rate:

1. Light intensity – Stomata open when it is light to let in CO2 for

photosynthesis, when it is dark no photosynthesis is happening so the
stomata close. Little transpiration happens at night/darkness.
2. Temperature (linked to light) – In warmer conditions (including more sun)
water particles have more kinetic energy so they are able to evaporate
from the surface of the leaf faster, this increases the water potential
gradient between the inside and outside of the leaf so the transpiration
rate is increased.
3. Humidity – If the air around plants is dry the water potential gradient is increased so transpiration occurs
faster. In humid environments the water potential gradient is reduced as there is a lot more water in the
atmosphere so the rate of transpiration decreases.
4. Air Movement – lots of wind blows water molecules away from the stomata increasing the water potential
gradient and therefore increasing the transpiration rate.

Estimating Transpiration Rate Using a Potometer

A potometer can measure water uptake by the

plant and can be used to estimate how different
factors affect the transpiration rate e.g using a
fan, creating a humid environment, using different
light intensities

Considerations:
Page 27 of 63
The shoot must be cut underwater to prevent air entering the xylem (so the water column remains unbroken). It
should also be cut on an angle to increase the surface area available to uptake water. The end of the capillary tube
must stay submerged in water, the diameter of the capillary tube should be known/measured.

The apparatus must be airtight and water-tight – Vaseline or grease can be placed around joints to help with this.

Leaves must be dry and the plant allowed to acclimatise (start transpiring) before the experiment is started. Only one
variable can be changed at a time all others must be kept constant so that they do not affect the results. If using
different plants the surface area should be measured as it will vary and can affect the rate e.g more stomata.

This is only an estimate as it assumes all water taken up is lost in transpiration but some water is used up in reactions
e.g photosynthesis, some is produced by respiration, and some is used to support the plant (stored in vacuoles).

To measure the rate of transpiration:

1. Removing the capillary tube from the beaker of water for a short time allows an air bubble to form
at the end.
2. The start point of the air bubble must be recorded – its position can be pushed back by emptying water from
the reservoir using the tap (this can be used to restart/repeat the experiment.
3. Using a stopwatch the time it takes for the bubble to move a certain distance can be recorded. The rate
(distance per unit time e.g mm3/min) is an estimate of the transpiration rate.
Recall Questions:

1. Describe how water is lost via stomata (refer to gradients)

2. Describe the effects of light intensity, humidity and wind speed on the rate of transpiration
3. State two precautions that should be taken to ensure no air bubbles are in the potometer setup
4. The distance moved by the meniscus in a potometer is 45mm in 5 minutes. The radius of the
capillary tube is 0.5 mm. Calculate the rate of transpiration.
Exam Questions:

Q1. A student used a potometer to measure the movement of water through the shoot of a plant. The
potometer is shown in Figure 1. As water is lost from the shoot, it is replaced by water from the capillary
tube.

(a) In one experiment, the air bubble moved 7.5 mm in 15 minutes. The diameter of the
capillary tube was 1.0 mm.

Calculate the rate of water uptake by the shoot in this experiment.

Give your answer in mm3 per hour. Show your working. (The area of a circle is found
using the formula, area = πr 2)

Page 28 of 63
 ____________________ mm3 hour−1
(2)

(b) The student wanted to determine the rate of water loss per mm2 of surface area of the
leaves of the shoot in Figure 1.

Outline a method she could have used to find this rate. You should assume that all water
loss from the shoot is from the leaves.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________(3)

Q2. A student investigated the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot. She used a potometer to measure
the rate of water uptake by the shoot. The diagram shows the potometer used by the student.

(a) Give one environmental factor that the student should have kept constant during this
investigation.

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) The student cut the shoot and put it into the potometer under water. Explain why.

___________________________________________________________________

Page 29 of 63
 ___________________________________________________________________ (1)

(c) The student wanted to calculate the rate of water uptake by the shoot in cm per minute.
3

What measurements did she need to make?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(d) The student assumed that water uptake was equivalent to the rate of transpiration.

Give two reasons why this might not be a valid assumption.

1. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(e) The student measured the rate of water uptake three times.

(i) Suggest how the reservoir allows repeat measurements to be made.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Suggest why she made repeat measurements.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

Q3. Students investigated the effect of removing leaves from a plant shoot on the rate of water uptake.
Each student set up a potometer with a shoot that had eight leaves. All the shoots came from the same
plant. The potometer they used is shown in the diagram.

Page 30 of 63
 (a) Describe how the students would have returned the air bubble to the start of the capillary
tube in this investigation.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

Q4. The table shows the transpiration rate of a group of plants exposed to different humidities at a
temperature of 25°C.

Humidity / % Transpiration rate / arbitrary units

20 26.0

40 21.0

50 16.5

60 11.0

70 9.5

Describe and explain the relationship between humidity and transpiration rate.
Page 31 of 63
 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (3)

Q5. (a) Students measured the rate of transpiration of a plant growing in a pot under different
environmental conditions. Their results are shown in the table.

Conditions Transpiration rate / g h–1

A Still air 15° 1.2

B Moving air 15° 1.7

C Still air 25° 2.3

During transpiration, water diffuses from cells to the air surrounding a leaf.

(i) Suggest an explanation for the difference in transpiration rate between conditions A
and B.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (2)

(ii) Suggest an explanation for the difference in transpiration rate between conditions A
and C.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (2)

Q6. A student investigated the rate of transpiration from privet leaves.

• She obtained two sets of ten privet leaves.
• She left the ten leaves in set A untreated. She covered the upper surfaces of the ten
leaves in set B with grease.
• She weighed each set of leaves and then tied all the leaves in each set to a separate
Page 32 of 63
 length of thread. This is shown in the diagram.

• She then weighed each set of leaves every 20 minutes over a period of 2 hours and
plotted a graph of her results.

(a) Give two environmental conditions that the student should have kept constant during this
investigation.

1. _________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) The student measured the water loss in milligrams. Explain the advantage of using ten
leaves when taking measurements in milligrams.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) Explain the change in mass of untreated leaves in set A shown in the graph.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Page 33 of 63
 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(d) The results that the student obtained for the leaves in set B were different from those for
set A. Suggest an explanation for this difference.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (2)

Recall Question Answers

Describe how water is lost via stomata (refer to Water vapour in higher concentration in air spaces than in
gradients) space outside leaf; water diffuses down water vapour
potential gradient
Describe the effects of light intensity, humidity Light intensity (increased LI…increased rate as stomata
and wind speed on the rate of transpiration more open); humidity (incr. humidity in air…decr. Rate as
lower water vapour potential gradient); wind speed (incr.
wind…incr. rate as maintaining high water vapour potential
gradient)
State two precautions that should be taken to Set up u/w; cut stem u/w to prevent air entering xylem
ensure no air bubbles are in the potometer setup
The distance moved by the meniscus in a 7.1mm3/min
potometer is 45mm in 5 minutes. The radius of
the capillary tube is 0.5 mm. Calculate the rate of
transpiration.

Lesson 5 – Adaptations in Xerophytes

Notes:

Leaving stomata open to exchange gases during the day causes plants to also lose water. For plants in hot, dry or
windy climates (exposed places such as deserts, mountains or tundra) they have to have extra adaptations to prevent
too much water loss when their stomata are open. These plants are known as xerophytes. Most of their adaptations
reduce the factors that can increase transpiration

Examples of xerophytic adaptations:

Adaptation How it works Examples Picture

Page 34 of 63
 Small leaf Reduced surface area for Conifer
surface area evaporation/fewer stomata needles
Cactus spines

Sunken stomata Maintains humid air around the Marram Grass

stomata to reduce the water Cacti
potential gradient
Stomatal hairs Maintains humid air around the Marram Grass
(trichores) stomata to reduce the water Couch Grass
potential gradient and reduce
evaporation.
Rolled Leaves Reduces the effects of wind to Marram Grass
reduce the water potential gradient
and reduce evaporation.

Extensive Root Maximises water uptake, helps to Cacti

Systems increase chances of contact with Agave
water, often shallow but wide area Yucca
to absorb rainfall. They often have
swollen stems to store the
collected water (succulents)

A reduced Reduce the amount of places water

number of can evaporate from
stomata

Thicker, waxy Waterproof leaves and stems to Yucca

cuticle reduce evaporation Agave
Citrus Plants

Investigating Stomatal Density

By taking thin layers of epidermis or “imprints” of the leaf surface and examining under the microscope the number
of stomata in an area of leaf tissue (stomatal density per mm2) can be calculated. Multiple fields of few or leaf
sections should be examined, and a mean taken so the sample is representative. It can then be scaled up to the
whole leaf.

Recall Questions:
Page 35 of 63
 1. Describe 3 adaptations of marram grass (xerophyte) and explain their importance
2. Cacti are succulents. What does this mean?
3. Why is it advantageous for some xerophytes to have a low water potential inside their leaf cells?
4. Describe two adaptations of roots that could help a plant survive in arid conditions

Exam Questions:

Q1. The diagrams show a section through a typical leaf and a section through a leaf from a xerophytic
plant. The xerophytic leaf has a lower transpiration rate than the typical leaf.

Describe two features shown in the diagram of the xerophytic leaf which reduce
transpiration rate. Explain how each of these features contributes to a lower transpiration
rate.

Feature 1___________________________________________________________

Explanation _________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Feature 2___________________________________________________________

Explanation _________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

Page 36 of 63
 Q2. The drawing shows four common plants found in the Mojave Desert.

(a) Explain how three features of the plants shown in the drawing are adaptations to desert
conditions.

1. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

3. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(b) Resurrection plants can lose up to 95% of their water content without dying. They can
survive for many years in this desiccated state and will revive within hours of rainfall.
Suggest which of the plants W to Z is most likely to be a resurrection plant. Give a reason
for your choice.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Page 37 of 63
 Q3. Some xerophytic plants have sunken stomata. Explain the advantage of this adaptation.
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q4. Figure 1 shows a single stoma and surrounding cells from the leaf of a xerophytic plant.
Figure 1

(i) Explain how the cuticle reduces water loss.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Explain how one of the other labelled parts reduces water loss.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Page 38 of 63
 ___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q5. The drawing shows part of the lower leaf epidermis of sorghum.

(a) Calculate the number of stomata per mm2 of the leaf surface. Show your working.

Answer ____________________ stomata per mm2

(2)

(b) Sorghum has few stomata per mm2 of leaf surface area. Explain how this is an adaptation
to the conditions in which sorghum grows.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
Q6. A student found the number of stomata per cm2 on the lower surface of a daffodil leaf.
He removed a small, thin piece of lower epidermis and mounted it on a microscope slide.

He examined the slide using an optical microscope.

(b) Suggest how the student could have used his slide to find the number of stomata per cm2.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Page 39 of 63
 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (3)

Q7. A student investigated the distribution of stomata on leaves from two species of plant. She removed
small pieces from the lower surface of the leaves of each plant species. She mounted these pieces on
separate microscope slides. She then counted the number of stomata in several parts of the epidermis on
each piece of leaf tissue using an optical microscope.

(a) Suggest appropriate units the student should use to compare the distribution of stomata
on leaves.

___________________________________________________________________ (1)

(b) The pieces of leaf tissue examined were very thin.

Explain why this was important.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (2)

(c) Give two reasons why it was important that the student counted the number of stomata in
several parts of each piece of leaf tissue.

1. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (2)

(d) One of the two plant species used by the student in this investigation was a xerophyte.

Other than the distribution of stomata, suggest and explain two xerophytic features the
leaves of this plant might have.

1. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (2)

(e) The student then compared the rate of transpiration (evaporation of water) from the two
species of plant. She did this by measuring the rate of water uptake by each plant
species.

Suggest two reasons why the rate of water uptake by a plant might not be the same as
the rate of transpiration.

Page 40 of 63
 1. _________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________(2)

Homework

How is genetic engineering of stomata helping plants tackle climate change?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XbCxu4EsQsg

Complete the sentences using the words in bold

adaptations air spaces chloroplasts close closely concentration diffuse dry exposed
gradients guard internal moist palisade photosynthesis photosynthesise respire
spongy stomata surface area thin water waxy xerophytes xylem

Like terrestrial animals, plants have a problem of _________ loss. Water diffuses down its concentration gradient

from the _________ vessels and mesophyll cells into the air spaces in the leaves. Most plants have a number of

strategies for reducing this loss:

● The upper epidermal cells of the leaf are covered in a waterproof _______ cuticle

● The air spaces around the stomata remain ________ (like the alveolar air space in lungs) to reduce the water

concentration gradient so less water evaporates from the spongy cells.

● The guard cells can ________ the stomata to stop water loss when conditions are very ______. Unfortunately

this also prevents gas exchange, stopping photosynthesis and respiration, so plants can't close their stomata

for very long.

Plants that live in very dry conditions have additional ____________ that allow them to conserve water. Such plants

are called ____________. Examples include cacti that live in deserts and marram grass that lives on sand dunes.

Answer the Questions:

Some features that are common in xerophytic plants are listed below. For each one, describe why the loss of water
vapour is reduced ensuring that you relate your explanation to Fick’s law.

Adaptation How it works Examples

Page 41 of 63
 Thick cuticle

Small leaf surface area

Low stomatal density

Sunken stomata

Stomatal hairs

Rolled leaves

Extensive roots

Only having stomata

open during the night

The diagram shows a single stoma and surrounding cells from the leaf of a xerophytic plant.

(a) Explain how the cuticle reduces water loss. [1]

................................................................................

.......................................................................................

.............................................................................................

..................................................................................................

Page 42 of 63
(b) Explain how one of the other labelled parts reduces water loss. [2]

............................................................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................

(Total 3 marks)

Recall Question Answers:

Describe 3 adaptations of marram grass Leaf rolled longitudinally trapping air inside (air becomes
(xerophyte) and explain their importance humid and reduces water loss from the leaf); thick waxy
cuticle on upper epidermis (reduces evaporation); stomata
on lower epidermis inside rolled leaf (protected by
enclosed air space); stomata are in pits in lower epidermis
which is folded and covered by hairs (reduces air
movement and hence water loss); spongy mesophyll very
dense with few air spaces (less surface area for evaporation
of water)
Cacti are succulents. What does this mean? They store water in their stems which become fleshy and
swollen
Why is it advantageous for some xerophytes to Reduces evaporation of water from the cell surfaces as the
have a low water potential inside their leaf cells? water potential gradient between the cells and the leaf air
spaces is reduced
Describe two adaptations of roots that could help Roots could be very long to reach water deep in soil; roots
a plant survive in arid conditions could be very widespread to absorb water from a large
area when it does rain.

Page 43 of 63
 Lesson 6 – Mass Flow Hypothesis
Notes:

Translocation is the process by which products of photosynthesis are transported from a source (where they are
made – usually leaves) to a sink (a tissue that needs them). Translocation is carried out by the phloem tissue which is
made up of sieve-tube elements and their companion cells.

Structure of Phloem:

• A tube formed from elongated living cells called sieve tubes

• They have no nucleus or organelles just a thin layer of cytoplasm

around the edge of the cell this maximises space for mass flow

• Each sieve tube is supported by a companion cell which has the

organelles including a nucleus and many mitochondria to
produce ATP and help sieve tubes carry out living functions

• There are end walls between cells but these contain holes to let
solutes pass through – this is why they are known as sieve plates

Sources and Sinks

Sources are nearly always leaves as this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place. Sinks can be any part of
the plant that has a high energy demand. Good examples include:

● Roots carrying out active transport of mineral ions

● Any actively growing/dividing tissue – the meristems of roots and shoots
● Where storage of nutrients is occurring e.g seeds, fruits, or tubers
Some of these sinks will be above the sources and some will be below, this means that translocation has to be
bidirectional (unlike water movement in the xylem). This is why translocation must also be an active process which
requires energy as the solutes (sucrose and other organic molecules) are pushed around under high pressure.
Sucrose is used as it contains more energy and is less reactive and less likely to be oxidised and form products during
transport.

Mass Flow Hypothesis

This relies on two concepts: creating hydrostatic pressure and creating a concentration gradient

Page 44 of 63
Active Loading of sucrose into companion cells at source

● H+ ions are actively pumped out of the companion cell (using

ATP) into cells of the source tissue.
● This creates a hydrogen concentration gradient across the
companion cell membrane
● H+ ions can diffuse back down the gradient through special
transport proteins which require a sucrose molecule to be
co-transported.
● This increases the concentration of sucrose in the companion
cells which can then diffuse into the sieve tube.

Evidence to support the Mass Flow Hypothesis

● When sieve tubes are cut sap is released – this demonstrates that unlike xylem sap is under
positive pressure within the phloem.
o This can also be seen in aphids which tap into phloem to consume sap – the high
pressure forces it through their digestive system resulting in the excretion of
honeydew! Honeydew tends to flow faster out of aphids higher up the plant (near
leaves) than lower down the stem – evidence for a pressure gradient.
● Sucrose concentration higher in leaves than roots (this supports the presence of sources
and sinks)
● Increases in sucrose in leaf are followed by increases in sucrose in phloem
● Downward flow in phloem occurs in daylight when photosynthesis is occurring but not at night – greater
respiration at night and lack of photosynthesis would mean there is no longer a concentration/pressure gradient
● Preventing ATP production stops translocation but not water movement. Lack of ATP for active transport in
companion cells – companion cells would die which would prevent mass flow.
● If a ring of bark (containing phloem) is removed from a woody stem then a bulge forms above the ring – it is a
build up of fluid that cannot continue. There is more sugar in the fluid above the bulge than below which gives
evidence for downward flow of sugars.
Evidence against the Mass Flow Hypothesis:
● Sugar travels to many different sinks and does not travel first or faster to the one with the highest
water potential which it should according to the mass flow hypothesis.
Page 45 of 63
 ● The end plates of the sieve tubes would create a barrier to mass flow, or slow it down so why are
they present?
Recall Questions:

1. Define the term translocation

2. What two components of phloem tissue are concerned with transport?
3. Function of phloem tissue?
4. Structure of phloem tissue?
5. Structure of sieve tube elements and companion cells?
6. Why do sieve tube elements contain no nucleus and very little cytoplasm?
7. How are companion cells adapted for active loading?
8. State two sinks (for translocation) in a plant
9. Why is sucrose transported in phloem and not glucose?
10. How does sucrose move from the companion cells into the sieve tube elements?
11. Based on what principle does mass flow work in sieve tubes?
12. Based on what principles does phloem unloading work?
13. Describe the role of hydrogen ions in active loading
14. How does no ATP production affect transport of substances in plants?
Exam Questions:

Q1.
(a) (i) Give two ways in which the structure of starch is similar to cellulose.

1. ____________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) Give two ways in which the structure of starch is different from cellulose.

1. ____________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) In plants, mass transport of sugars takes place through columns of sieve cells in the
phloem. Other cells, called companion cells, transport sugars into, and out of, the sieve
cells. The diagram shows the structure of phloem.

Page 46 of 63
 Structures I and J allow the transport of sugars between cells.

(i) Using the diagram, suggest and explain one other way in which sieve cells are
adapted for mass transport.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) Using the diagram, suggest and explain one other way in which companion cells are
adapted for the transport of sugars between cells.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

Q2. Describe the processes involved in the transport of sugars in plant stems.
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Page 47 of 63
 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(5)

Q3. Organic compounds synthesised in the leaves of a plant can be transported to the plant’s roots.
This transport is called translocation and occurs in the phloem tissue of the plant.

(a) One theory of translocation states that organic substances are pushed from a high
pressure in the leaves to a lower pressure in the roots.

Describe how a high pressure is produced in the leaves.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (3)

Q4.
(a) Describe the mass flow hypothesis for the mechanism of translocation in plants.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)
Page 48 of 63
 Q5. Organic compounds synthesised in the leaves of a plant can be transported to the plant’s roots.
This transport is called translocation and occurs in the phloem tissue of the plant.

(a) One theory of translocation states that organic substances are pushed from a high
pressure in the leaves to a lower pressure in the roots.

Describe how a high pressure is produced in the leaves.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

PCMBS is a substance that inhibits the uptake of sucrose by plant cells.

Scientists investigated the effect of PCMBS on the rate of translocation in sugar beet.
The figure below shows their results.

Page 49 of 63
 Time / minutes

(b) During their experiment, the scientists ensured that the rate of photosynthesis of their
plants remained constant.
Explain why this was important.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) The scientists concluded that some translocation must occur in the spaces in the cell
walls.
Explain how the information in the figure above supports this conclusion.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q6. Read the following passage.

Page 50 of 63
 Some insect species feed on the leaves of plants. These leaf-chewers
bite off pieces of leaves. Other insect species feed on sap from phloem
or xylem. These sap-feeders have sharp, piercing mouthparts that they
insert directly into either xylem or phloem. Leaf-chewers and insects
that feed on xylem sap are active feeders; this means they use their 5
jaw muscles to obtain their food. In contrast, insects that feed on phloem
sap are passive feeders; this means they do not use their jaw muscles
to take up sap from phloem.

Feeding on phloem sap presents two problems. Firstly, phloem sap has
sa high sugar concentration. This could lead to a high pressure of liquid 10
in the insect’s gut because of water entering the gut from the insect’s
body tissues. A phloem-sap-feeder polymerises some of these sugars
into polysaccharides which are passed out of its anus as ‘honey dew’.
The secondproblem is that phloem sap has a low concentration of
amino acids. Phloem-sap-feeding insects rely on bacteria in their guts to 15
produce amino acids. Each phloem-sap-feeding insect receives a few of
these bacteria from its parent. This has resulted in a reduction in the
genetic diversity of the bacteria found within these insects.

A scientist investigated the effect of three different insects on the growth

of a plant called the goldenrod. He found that leaf-chewing insects and 20
xylem-sap-feeding insects caused a much greater reduction in total
leaf area than did phloem-sap-feeding insects.

Use the information from the passage and your own knowledge to answer the following questions.

(a) Phloem-sap-feeders are passive feeders (lines 6–7).

Phloem-sap-feeders do not use their jaw muscles to take up sap from phloem.

Explain why they can take up sap without using their jaw muscles.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (3)

(b) A phloem-sap-feeder polymerises some of these sugars into polysaccharides (line 12-13).
Suggest the advantage of this.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (2)

Page 51 of 63
Homework:

Read and Watch about an interdependence where ants farm aphids for honeydew:
https://www.thoughtco.com/aphid-herding-ants-1968237

Complete the sentences using the words in bold:

adhesion carbon dioxide cohesion cohesion dead dead diffuses diffusion
dissolved substances epidermis evaporates gravity high humidity impermeable
ions lignin lower lowers opposite potometer pressure ringing root hair
shallower sieve plates sieve tube elements sink source steeper sunlight
temperature tension tension tracer translocation transpiration water wind
speed
Plant use sucrose as their transport carbohydrate. The cells that make up the phloem are known as

_________ _______ ____________. The ends of these cells form structures called ________ ________

through which cytoplasm can pass. Sieve tube elements cannot keep themselves alive and have to be aided

by the companion cells which respire and excrete etc. on the elements’ behalf. Phloem tissue transports

solutes made in ________ cells to parts of the plant that need them, called _______ cells. This transport is

called ___________. The phloem transports sucrose, amino acids, and hormones.

● Solutes are actively transported (by co-transport) from source cells across companion cells to the

sieve tubes.

● This ________ the water potential so water also moves by osmosis into the sieve tubes. This creates

a high pressure in the sieve tubes near source cells

● Since solutes are used up or stored in sink cells, the __________ happens near the sink cells.

● This results in a __________ gradient between the 2 sides, down which water and solutes move.

Q. Outline the process of translocation within phloem vessels. [6]

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Recall Question Answers:

Define the term translocation Transport of assimilates from source to sink (tissue that needs them)
What two components of phloem
tissue are concerned with transport? Sieve-tube elements and companion cells
transport organic solutes from where they are made in the plant to
Function of phloem tissue? where they are needed . this is translocation
Sieve tube elements (living cells) joined end to end to form sieve tubes.
Sieve parts are the end walls which have lots of holes to allow solutes to
Structure of phloem tissue? pass through. There is a companion cell for every sieve tube element
Sieve tube elements have no nucleus, a very thin layer of cytoplasm
and few organelles. Lack of nucleus and other organelles means they
Structure of sieve tube elements and cant survive on their own. companion cells carry out the living functions
companion cells? for both themselves and their sieve cells
Why do sieve tube elements contain
no nucleus and very little
cytoplasm? Allows space for mass flow of sap to occur
How are companion cells adapted
for active loading? Many mitochondria to produce ATP
Roots growing or active uptaking mineral ions; actively dividing
State two sinks (for translocation) in meristematic tissue; part plants that are laying down food stores (e.g.
a plant developing seeds, fruits,tubers etc)
Why is sucrose transported in
phloem and not glucose? More stable hence less likely to be metabolised in the transport process

Increasing sucrose conc causes water to also move into companion cells,
How does sucrose move from the which builds up turgor pressure (and water potential). The water
companion cells into the sieve tube carrying assimilates (sucrose) then enters sieve tubes down the
elements? pressure/WP gradient

Turgor pressure difference - sieve tubes at source has higher turgor

pressure due to "intake" of sucrose and water, whereas sieve tubes at
Based on what principle does mass sinks has lower turgor pressure due to the cells removing the sucrose
flow work in sieve tubes? from the sieve tubes

Diffusion of sucrose - by rapidly moving into surrounding cells or by

Based on what principles does converting into glucose, decreasing sucrose conc within cells hence
phloem unloading work? maintaining sucrose conc difference between cells in sink and sieve tube

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 The hydrogen ions are pumped out of the companion cells, creating a
hydrogen ion concentration gradient across the cell membrane. The
hydrogen ions can diffuse back into the companion cells through special
Describe the role of hydrogen ions in transport proteins – but they only move if sucrose is carried in with
active loading them (cotransport).

Translocation inhibited by transpiration stream not inhibited. Phloem

How does no ATP production affect contains cytoplasm but xylem does not. Cytoplasm has mitochondria
transport of substances in plants? involved in metabolism.

Lesson 7 – Mass Flow Experiments

Notes:
Two types of experiment can provide extra evidence for the mass flow hypothesis.

Ringing Experiments

We have already mentioned these in the previous lesson: removal of a ring of bark
which includes the phloem but leaves the xylem intact inside. This then shows
swelling above the ring and samples of fluid above and below the ring can be
sampled to show the difference in concentration of sugars. High concentration of
sugars building up in cells above the ring cause water to move into the cells from the
xylem which contributes to the swelling. After a while non-photosynthetic tissues
below the ring will begin to be affected e.g lack of growth and eventually death while
everything above the ring will continue to grow perfectly fine.

Benefits of Ringing

Growers and farmers sometimes use ringing – or a gentler form of scoring to break the
flow of nutrients from the leaves to the roots for a short time. This could be done to
reduce length of new branches, but it also enhances fruit growth and increases flower
bud formation. This is because more nutrients are transported to the upper parts of
the tree (above the score) than to the roots.

Tracing Experiments

These rely on the plant taking up a substance that has a

radioactive label – this could be in the form of CO2 which
has C14 present. This would then be used by the plant in
photosynthesis to produce sugars which can then be tracked
around the plant as they are translocated. To compare
phloem and xylem radioactive mineral ions could be
dissolved in water and taken up from the roots into the
xylem.

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Tracing relies on autoradiography – the plant needs to be killed either freezing with liquid nitrogen or drying at 100 °C
so that all water is evaporated but the plant does not burn! Then the plant (or thin cross-sections) is placed onto a
photographic film. Like an X-ray areas of radioactivity will change the colour of the film and turn it black (this can be
reversed so the radioactivity appears white).

Interpreting Data

Correlation – where one variable being changed effects another. This can be positive (as one increases so does the
other) or negative (as one increases the other decreases).

Correlation does not always equal causation – be careful when interpreting results! Most data will support an idea or
hypothesis and you can try to explain it but be careful of saying something has proven something has happened,
especially when there is little data.

Exam Questions:

Q1.
Under the correct conditions, new roots grow from the cut end of a plant stem. A scientist
investigated the effect of substance X on the growth of new roots.

She used a ringing experiment to investigate the movement of substance X in stems taken from
lemon plants. She cut out a length of stem from each plant. She then put a small block of agar
on the top of each length of stem. Some agar blocks contained substance X.

The diagram below shows how she treated each length of stem.

She grew the lengths of stem in the same environmental conditions for 6 weeks, and then found
the number of roots per length of stem. Roots grew at the other end of the stem from where the
agar blocks were placed.

The table below shows the scientist’s results.

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 Mean number of roots
Treatment
per length of stem

D 5

E 11

F 4

G 3

(a) Treatment D is a control. Explain how the measurement obtained from this control is used
by the scientist.

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(b) Using the diagram and the table above, what can you conclude from treatments D and E
about root growth?

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(c) The mass flow hypothesis is used to explain the movement of substances through
phloem.

Evaluate whether the information from this investigation supports this hypothesis.
Do not consider statistical analysis in the answer.

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Q2. Scientists investigated the effect of a heat treatment on mass transport in barley plants.
• They applied steam to one short section of a leaf of the heat-treated plants. This area is
shown by the arrows in Figure 1.
• They did not apply steam to the leaves of control plants.
• They then supplied carbon dioxide containing radioactively-labelled carbon to each plant
in the area shown by the rectangular boxes in Figure 1.
• After 4 hours, they:
◦ found the position of the radioactively-labelled carbon in each plant. These results
are shown in Figure 1.
◦ recorded the water content of the parts of the leaf that were supplied with
radioactively-labelled carbon dioxide. These results are shown in the table.

Plant from which the Water content of leaf / % of maximum

leaf was taken (± 2 standard deviations)

Heat-treated Plant 84.6

A (±11.3)

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 Control Plant, not
92.8
heat treated
(±8.6)
B

(a) The scientists concluded that this heat treatment damaged the phloem.

Explain how the results in Figure 1 support this conclusion.

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(b) The scientists also concluded that this heat treatment did not affect the xylem.

Explain how the results in the table support this conclusion.

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(c) The scientists then investigated the movement of iron ions (Fe3+) from the soil to old and
young leaves of heat-treated barley plants and to leaves of plants that were not heat
treated. Heat treatment was applied half way up the leaves. The scientists determined the
concentration of Fe3+ in the top and lower halves of the leaves of each plant.

Their results are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

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 What can you conclude about the movement of Fe3+ in barley plants?
Use all the information provided.

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Q3. Boron is an element that is needed in very small amounts for normal plant growth.
One group of scientists tested a hypothesis that boron combines with sucrose to produce a
sucrose-borate complex that is translocated more effectively than sucrose molecules.

They grew tomato plants in nutrient-poor sand. Prior to starting their experiment, they left the
mature plants in a dark room for 48 hours.

For each plant, the scientists put one of its leaves into a solution of sucrose that was
radioactively labelled. These leaves were left attached to the plants. They used two
radioactively labelled sucrose solutions:

• solution A contained boron at a concentration of 10 parts per million.

• solution B contained no boron.

After a period of time, the scientists removed samples from parts of the plants, dried them in an
oven and ground each into a powder. They then measured the radioactivity in each powdered
sample. The scientists’ results are shown in the table.

Part of plant Mean radioactivity / counts minute−1 g−1

Plants with leaf Plants with leaf

immersed in immersed in
solution A (with solution B (no
boron) boron)

Stem tip 14.2 1.7

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 First leaf above treated leaf 3.3 0.0

Upper stem 31.2 8.3

Lower stem 28.3 13.3

First leaf below treated leaf 21.7 0.0

Roots 3.5 1.7

(a) Explain the following steps in the scientists’ method.

They grew tomato plants in nutrient-poor sand.

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They left the mature plants in the dark for 48 hours before starting their experiment.

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(b) Do the scientists’ results support their hypothesis?

Use evidence from the table to support your answer.

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(d) Suggest how the scientists could adapt their method to determine which tissue carried the
radioactively labelled sucrose.
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