CIBJO RRG (Gemstones)

Gemstones
Retailers’ Reference Guide

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Contents: Gemstones
3 Alexandrite and other chrysoberyls 37 Opal Text written by GIA (Gemological institute of America), 2020,
revised 2020.
6 Amethyst 41 Organic and biogenic gem materials
Images for this section are courtesy of GIA. The majority of
faceted gems shown are courtesy of the Dr. Eduard J. Gübelin
8 Aquamarine 46 Peridot
Gem Collection, now part of the GIA Gem Collection
10 Other beryls 48 Quartz
13 Chalcedony 51 Ruby
16 Citrine 54 Sapphire
18 Emerald 58 Spinel
21 Feldspar group 61 Tanzanite
25 Garnet group 63 Topaz
29 Jade and nephrite 66 Tourmaline
33 Kunzite 70 Turquoise
35 Lapis Lazuli 73 Zircon
All rights reserved. No part of this Guide may be reproduced, republished, amended, translated or changed, including all images in the Guide,
without the express written permission of CIBJO or its authorised agents. Permission to republish, reproduce and/or translate this Guide is limited
to CIBJO member organisations only, and is subject to written agreements between CIBJO and/or its agents and the CIBJO membership organisation.
2 CIBJO Retailers’ Reference Guide November 2021

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Alexandrite and chrysoberyl
History, lore and appreciation Among the most cherished gems Birthstones and anniversaries
that exhibit chatoyancy is cat’s eye
Of all of the mineral species, chrysoberyl Alexandrite is one of the birthstones used
chrysoberyl sometimes, though
has the most notable phenomenal for the month of June, along with pearl.
rarely, referred to as cymophane. This
varieties – in the sense that it possesses Alexandrite is also the gemstone for
phenomenon is caused by inclusions;
unique optical characteristics known as a 55th wedding anniversary.
minute fibres of the mineral rutile that
phenomena. Alexandrite, a rare variety
are oriented parallel to one another
of chrysoberyl, exhibits a chameleon-
throughout the chrysoberyl. In gems
like colour change. On rare occasions,
that are properly oriented and cut en
these colour-change gems exhibit a
cabochon, this silvery, floating line
second phenomenon, called cat’s eye
appears when a strong or pinpointed light
or chatoyancy, seen as a narrow bright
is directed perpendicular to the gem’s
line on the surface that appears to move
surface. Cat’s eye stones are best viewed
as the gem is turned. This phenomenon
in direct light such as sunlight.
is caused by reflections of light from
parallel needle-like inclusions. An indistinct cat’s eye effect, observed
as a broad sheen along the gem’s
Alexandrite shows a colour-change
surface, is caused by a multitude of
effect and exhibits reddish hues under
A twinned chrysoberyl crystal. randomly oriented included needles.
incandescent light and bluish-green
Yellow to greenish chrysoberyl is the
hues in daylight (or daylight equivalent).
standard bearer for the name of the
Alexandrite was discovered in Russia’s
species. Chrysos is a Greek word meaning
Ural Mountains in early 1830, and the
“golden,” and berilos (also Greek), form
deposit along the Takovaya River began
the root for the chrysoberyl name.
to be worked by 1833. At the time, the
It is worth noting that chrysoberyl is
colour-change gem was named after
not a form of beryl, which is an entirely
Tsarevich Alexander Nikolaevich, the
different mineral species.
future Czar Alexander II.
3 CIBJO Retailers’ Reference Guide November 2021 CONTENTS PAGE

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Alexandrite and chrysoberyl
Description and properties Alexandrite may be confused with colour- Refractive Index: 1.746 to 1.755 Treatments
change garnet and colour-change sapphire,
Chrysoberyl is a beryllium and aluminium Birefringence: 0.004 to 0.006 Chrysoberyl generally is not treated, to
which often exhibit overlapping colours
oxide, with the chemical formula: BeAl2O4, enhance colour or diminish the appearance
and colour-change phenomena. Cat’s eye Specific Gravity: 3.73 (±0.02)
and it forms in the orthorhombic crystal of inclusions. Although, treatments such as
chrysoberyl tends to be straightforward to
system. Non-phenomenal chrysoberyl Cause(s) of colour: Predominantly iron neutron irradiation have been used in the
identify based on its optical characteristics,
is transparent to semi-transparent, and chromium in chrysoberyl, chromium past to obtain brown-coloured cat’s eye.
however some very convincing look-
comprising a range of colours. Chrysoberyl in alexandrite and iron (and sometimes
alikes do exist: cat’s eye opal, scapolite,
can be yellow, greenish-yellow to yellow- chromium in rare, cat’s eye alexandrite).
kornerupine, tourmaline and quartz –
green, green and a rare vanadium-rich Vanadium is the cause of colour in bluish
may look similar. Here again, in the case
chrysoberyl that is a pale bluish green. The green chrysoberyl.
of alexandrite and cat’s eye, a trained
phenomenal varieties include alexandrite
gemmologist may easily separate them Mohs Hardness: 8.5.
and cat’s eye chrysoberyl. The alexandrite
from other visually similar gemstones.
variety contains gems that vary from Internal identifying characteristics:
transparent to semi-transparent, and Colours: Multi-phase inclusions, hollow tubes,
whose colour appears different depending mica platelets, calcite, and metal sulphide
• Chrysoberyl: Light to medium yellow
on the light it is viewed in. Cat’s eye inclusions in chrysoberyl and alexandrite.
to yellowish green, greyish green, bluish
chrysoberyl is opaque to semi-transparent, Silk-like bands of minute needles are
green, brown to yellow-brown to light
containing minute parallel inclusions that found in cat’s eyes, and are the cause of
blue.
cause chatoyancy when the gems are chatoyancy.
fashioned as cabochons. • Alexandrite (daylight): Yellowish,
brownish, greyish or bluish green
Among natural gems, non-phenomenal
chrysoberyl may be confused with yellow • Alexandrite (incandescent light): For more information about CIBJO standards
or greenish sapphire, grossular garnet and Orangey or brownish red to purplish and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
some spinel, due to their colour overlap. red. imitation products, or synthetic stones please
download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
Trained gemmologists may easily identify
Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org
and separate these gems based on their
optical and physical characteristics.

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Alexandrite and other chrysoberyls
Collector quality Finally, collectors have become much Cutting, care and cleaning
more discriminating about the quality
Alexandrite and cat’s eye chrysoberyl With a hardness of 81/2 and excellent
of cut – symmetry, orientation, crisp
are quite rare to begin with and as such toughness, chrysoberyl is extremely
facets and facet junctions and appealing
highly collectible due to their exotic, resilient for use in jewellery. It is never a
outlines – since such aspects tend
phenomenal qualities. A premium is good idea to wear gems during any type
to show phenomena at its very best
placed on gems with a strong colour of arduous work or exercise. However,
and because the overall effect is more
change, since with alexandrite a chrysoberyl may be worn daily under
pleasing to the eye.
predominantly “muddy” mix of greens, normal conditions. Most chrysoberyl
browns and reds tends to be the norm, jewellery may be cleaned in an ultrasonic
Localities
resulting in a vague colour change. cleaner unless there are preconditions,
Chrysoberyl, while rare as an occurrence, such as a fractured gem. Otherwise, a
With cat’s eyes, a strong, sharp and
is found on several continents – Africa, damp cloth and warm soapy water are This group of fashioned chrysoberyl
unwavering silvery line that is visible
South America and Asia. Sources for generally enough to clean chrysoberyl exhibits a range of colour. Included
from girdle-to-girdle is highly desirable,
chrysoberyl and alexandrite include Sri gems and jewellery. here are the phenomenal varieties:
accompanied by rich green, yellow or
Lanka, Myanmar, Brazil, Kenya, Tanzania, alexandrite, which exhibits colour change
brown colours. Cat’s eye alexandrite is
Madagascar, India, Australia and Russia. (in this case red to green) and cat’s eye
especially collectible since they exhibit
two phenomena. An additional and easy chrysoberyl (cut as cabochons)
confirmation of quality for cat’s-eyes is
to shine a direct light towards the gem at
an oblique angle. In fine, semi-translucent
gems, a “milk and honey” effect can be
observed. This shows strong brownish to
saturated yellow “honey” colours on one
side of the gem, and a milky translucence
on the other. In all collector varieties, size
matters since alexandrite as well as cat’s This inclusion in an alexandrite from
eyes tend to be found mostly in small Brazil is a metal sulphide. Field of
sizes, generally under a carat. view: 1.99 mm

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Amethyst
History, lore and appreciation Birthstones and anniversaries Cause(s) of colour: Iron-related colour
centres, natural irradiation of geological
Enthusiasts who appreciate quartz’s Amethyst is the birthstone for February.
origin.
diverse family of gems often single out It is also considered to be a 6th wedding
amethyst as the most significant variety anniversary gem. Mohs Hardness: 7
of the quartz mineral. Amethyst has been
Internal identifying characteristics:
used in personal adornment for millennia, Description and properties
Amethyst often contains areas of colour
often sought out by royalty or important
Amethyst is a variety of quartz that next to areas that have no colour – called
members of the clergy.
crystallises in the trigonal system and colour zoning. Amethyst, which has a
In Medieval Europe particularity, the colour is composed of silica, with the chemical hydrothermal geologic formation, often
purple was worn in rare dyed textiles composition: SiO2. has liquid inclusions containing solids and
that could only be afforded by the very gases, so-called two – and three-phase
Colour(s): Transparent to translucent
wealthy. Amethyst’s bold purple colour, inclusions. Inclusions of other minerals
lilac to purple through bluish purple,
and rare reddish flashes, coupled with the such as rutile and hematite sometimes can
with a reddish purple colour-shift that
fact that only a few mines for it existed in be found in amethyst as well. Amethyst
is sometimes visible in incandescent
ancient times, further contributed to its might show a bull’s eye effect viewed with
light. Ametrine is an unusual form of
selection as a “royal” or “bishop’s gem”. crossed polarizing filters.
quartz mined from southeastern Bolivia,
Important amethysts feature prominently
principally at the Anahí mine. The colours
in British regalia. The name amethyst has
are both yellow and purple in areas of
This amethyst crystal from Brazil a peculiar derivation. It comes from the
crystal growth-related zoning. Such gems
is doubly terminated Greek word amethystos, which translates
are sometimes cut or carved in a way that
to “not intoxicated.” A belief based in
mixes the colours, and at other times to
Classical mythology says that amethyst
show the division of colours. For more information about CIBJO standards
protected its wearer from inebriation
and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
(even following copious consumption Refractive Index: 1.544 to 1.553
imitation products, or synthetic stones please
of alcohol) consequently made the gem
Birefringence: 0.009 download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
highly desirable by those so inclined.
Specific Gravity: 2.66 (+0.03, -0.02)

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Amethyst
Treatments Amethyst localities This rough shows both the amethyst

and citrine colours mixing together
Amethyst is sometimes subject to The Ural Mountains in Russia is
heat treatment, which in a controlled considered the “classic” source for
environment may cause overly dark amethyst because that it is a known
amethyst to be lightened. Heating historical source. “Uralian” amethyst,
amethyst from some sources may turn often called “Siberian” in the trade
them yellow, known as citrine. Some (a curious trade name because there are no
amethyst can be heated to turn green, known deposits in Siberia) at their best,
Pictured here are a group of faceted
a colour referred to in the trade as exhibit deep reddish purple, to purple red
amethyst, exhibiting varied tonality
“oro verde”. colours. Other important sources include
and cutting shapes
Brazil and Uruguay, Bolivia, the United
Collector quality States (Arizona), Morocco, DR Congo,
Rwanda, Myanmar and Zambia.
Collectors of amethyst look for depth
of the purple colour with red flashes
Cutting, care and cleaning Ametrine can be cut to show
if the gem is cut conventionally. Many
famous lapidaries (cutters) work with Amethyst – once considered rare – today the division of colour (left),
amethyst to make unusual carvings or has thankfully become one of the world’s or faceted to mix the colours,
cuts, which are also highly prized. Because most plentiful gems. It is available in resulting in reds and russets
commercial quantities of ametrine come many sizes, different cutting styles and
from only one region in the world, it carvings. Amethyst is fairly resilient and Amethyst often shows 2-phase
is sometimes collected if the depth can be worn extensively. Care should be inclusions, such as these large
of colour and the division of colour taken not to knock the gem during use, ones. Field of view: 7.19 mm
is strong, or if it has been skilfully as small fissures or cracks may develop,
or cleverly carved. especially along facet junctions. It can
be cleaned with warm, sudsy water or
a dampened cloth. Some amethyst may
lighten in tone over time after prolonged
exposure to bright light.

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Aquamarine
History, lore and appreciation in emerald. For this reason, aquamarine Refractive Index: 1.577 to 1.583 (±0.017)
may be fashioned as exceptional clean
Aquamarine reminds us of the sea; Birefringence: 0.005 to 0.009
gems and carvings. That said, some
its watery greenish blue colours have
aquamarine is sufficiently included Specific Gravity: 2.72
elicited such comparisons for centuries.
to impart a slightly milky appearance.
In 1609, Flemish mineralogist and scholar Cause(s) of colour: iron
In other rare cases, the inclusions are
Anselmus Boetius de Boodt first drew
miniscule, hollow growth tubes that Mohs Hardness: 7.5 to 8.0
this association and his description
form parallel to one another, causing
became universal. The Latin root names, Internal identifying characteristics:
chatoyancy (cat’s eye effect) in the gem.
aqua and marina, literally translate to Inclusions in fine aquamarine are
“water of the sea.” Aquamarine is a gem sometimes hard to find. However, fluid
Birthstones and anniversaries
of subtlety with its light and clear pastel inclusions including two and three-phase
hue, tones they are best associated with. Aquamarine is the birthstone for March. inclusions (containing a liquid, a solid
However, some deposits have yielded It is also considered to be a 19th wedding and a gas), sometimes referred to as
deeply saturated blue colours, and they anniversary gemstone. “fingerprint” inclusions, are sometimes
are considered rare. It is often worn for seen. Parallel hollow growth tubes may
evening events when the gems can gleam Description and properties be present and if in sufficient quantity
enticingly, even in low lighting conditions. may cause a chatoyant effect in cat’s eye
Aquamarine is an important member of
Despite the understanding that subtlety aquamarine.
the beryl family of gems, and forms in
is part of an aquamarine’s character,
the hexagonal crystal system. It has the
depth of colour remains an important
Aquamarine crystals may form as following composition: Be3Al2Si6O18.
characteristic as well.
a cluster of crystals in a range of tones
Colour(s): Generally transparent
that are blue green to greenish blue Aquamarine differs greatly from emerald,
and greenish blue, to blue green and
despite being varieties of the same For more information about CIBJO standards
generally light in tone. Deeper blues
mineral. Unlike emerald, for instance, and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
are less common; some highly included
aquamarine frequently forms as large imitation products, or synthetic stones please
aquamarine has a milky, translucent
crystals – sometimes weighing hundreds download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
quality.
of carats. Additionally, it frequently Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org
possesses a vitreous clarity not found

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Aquamarine
Treatments its legendary depth-of-colour. Ukrainian has been found at deposits in the
green beryl and aquamarine also became Zambézia province of Mozambique
More often than not, slightly greenish
sought after as mineral specimens thanks (where deep-coloured “Santa Maria
blue aquamarine is heat-treated, causing
to their startling sizes, peculiar growth Africana” aquamarines are found), Kenya,
it to mitigate a secondary yellowish
etching and deep colours. Malawi, Tanzania, Namibia, Nigeria and
colour component (that causes some
Madagascar.
aquamarines to look very slightly
Localities
greenish blue). The treatment results
Cutting, care and cleaning
in a purer blue colour. Most aquamarine Aquamarine forms in pegmatites on
in today’s market is considered to be almost every continent. Brazil is perhaps Aquamarine’s hardness of 71/2 to 8,
heat-treated, although it is generally one of the best-known localities for combined with being relatively inclusion-
impossible to determine that fact aquamarine – as well as various other free, gives it good toughness as a
gemologically. beryls. gemstone if it is worn under normal use.
Some aquamarines form as single crystals
Large aquamarines should be worn with
The gem-rich state of Minas Gerais
Collector quality care, especially in settings such as rings
is Brazil’s strongest producer, though
that can be easily knocked. It is best
Aquamarine with a saturated blue colour important finds first occurred in Rio de
when prongs are placed in corners of
is especially desirable, though a few beryl Janeiro, and later as exploration into
square-shaped gems, because they can
collectors prefer a slight greenish tinge the interior continued, in Ceará, Espírito
protect the gems from chipping at sharp
since such gems follow the “classic” Santo and Bahia.
angles and facet junctions. Aquamarine
description of aquamarine. Unusually cut
Other strong producers include Pakistan’s may be cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner
gems are also popular, especially in gems
Skardu district and Ukraine. Other Asian if it does not have inclusions that might
that have been fashioned by an important
localities include Tajikistan, Afghanistan, expand or endanger the integrity of the
lapidary artist. Aquamarine and other
India and China. China, particularly, gem. Sudsy water followed by wiping
beryls often lend themselves to sculptures
is emerging as an important producer. with a damp cloth is a good and safe way
because of their size. Locality plays a role
Aquamarine is also mined at several to clean an aquamarine.
in collecting as well. Aquamarine from
localities in the United States, but
desirable localities, such as Santa Maria Thin, reflective oriented fluid inclusions
perhaps the most significant is Mt. Antero
in Itabira or Marambaia, in the state of are common features observed in
in Colorado. African aquamarine
Minas Gerais, Brazil, are collectible due to aquamarine. Field of view 2.88 mm

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Other beryls
History, lore and appreciation States during the late 1800s. In 1889, sometimes pose a challenge to determine.
his collection was shown at the World’s There is also a rare, red colour of beryl. This
Aficionados often praise the many pastel
Fair in Paris, France (at the time the Eiffel rare variety is sometimes called bixbite
colours available in the beryl mineral
Tower was built). Despite this prominent in the trade, after its discoverer, Maynard
species – notably the subtle blues
link, morganite is in shorter supply than Bixby. (That nomenclature is discouraged
observed in aquamarine. But a handful
aquamarine, and consequently is less well because the name may be confused with
of other colour varieties grace it as well.
known. However, morganite occasionally bixbyite, a completely different, opaque,
Pink to peach colours, yellow, colourless,
forms as large crystals, suitable for black mineral). Red beryl is not pastel
light green, deep blue and very rare – red
oversized gems or carvings. coloured like other varieties but a strong,
colours are also part of this family. It is
red colour, and generally very small –
worth pausing for a moment to remember This is also true for heliodor, the bright
under one carat. Red beryl was discovered
that emerald is also a beryl variety. yellow beryl whose name is derived from
in Utah, USA, as rare, non-commercial
Emerald’s importance as the deep green the Greek word helios, meaning sun.
crystals in the early 1900s, but it was only
gem par excellence is well established Occasionally, if the yellow colour of the
in the late 1950s that larger quantities
throughout history. Aquamarine is a gem is deep enough, or contains some
were found. Red beryl remains unique to
significant beryl too, and for that reason orange colour, the gem is also referred to
North America, and production is sporadic
individual chapters for these two gems as golden beryl. Goshenite, named after
As with all beryl, the very rare at best. It is a gem for collectors and
have been written. (See Emerald p. 18 or Goshen, Massachusetts where it was
red beryl forms hexagonally connoisseurs.
Aquamarine p. 7). found, describes a beryl crystal or cut
gemstone that is essentially colourless. Maxixe beryl, primarily found at the
Pink beryl was first discovered in Pala,
All of the varieties of beryl owe their Piauí valley in the State of Minas Gerais,
California (together with other gems
colour to trace impurities of another Brazil, are a medium to dark blue when
including kunzite and tourmaline) in the
element; goshenite is the purest form mined and extracted from the earth, but
early 20th century. The new gem was
of the species, and thus colourless. the colours fade quickly upon exposure
soon named morganite in honour of U.S.
to light or heat. It is worth noting that
financial mogul, John Pierpont Morgan, The colour of green beryl does not have
some beryl materials can be treated by
who was an avid collector, particularly sufficient tone or saturation to be called
irradiation to resemble their natural colour
of North American gems. Morgan was an emerald, which is why this gem
Maxixe beryls; these stones, referred
reputed to have had the largest collection classified separately. It is no surprise that
to as Maxixe-type also lose their rich
of gems and minerals in the United borderline emerald/green beryl gems

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Other beryls
colour upon exposure to light. Much like be greenish yellow through orangey yellow Treatments: Collector quality
red beryl has its followers, so too does (generally in lighter tones and saturations).
Heating – Morganite responds to some Large gems that exhibit a high degree
Maxixe. Collectors take great pride in Red beryl is far more saturated than
heat treatment, by removing a yellow of saturation are always in demand.
their collections of the deep blue beryl. morganite and Maxixe, and Maxixe-
colour component and thereby rendering Collectors often like to have all the
But they only take them out of their dark type, should be more saturated than
a deeper pink colour. The colour is varieties in a species. Other collectors
containers every once in a while, to remind aquamarine.
considered stable. prefer to specialize in rare gems, such as
themselves of the beautiful, if ephemeral,
Refractive Index: 1.577 to 1.583 (±0.017) red beryl. Borderline gems (Is it emerald
deep blue colour. Irradiation – Sometimes colourless beryl
or green beryl?) also have admirers.
Birefringence: 0.005 to 0.009 (goshenite) is irradiated to produce yellow
Cat’s eye beryl is rare and therefore
Birthstones and anniversaries beryl (heliodor). This colour is considered
Specific Gravity: 2.72 (+0.18, -0.05) collected.
stable. Maxixe and Maxixe-type beryl is
Only emerald and aquamarine are
Cause(s) of colour: pink and red are cause always irradiated, either naturally or in a
considered to be birthstones and Localities
by manganese; yellow is caused by iron; laboratory, and its fading colour may be
anniversary gems. Please consult the
green is caused by chromium, vanadium restored through irradiation. However, the Brazil produces much of the world’s
specific chapters for these gems for
and iron. Maxixe’s colour is caused by colour fades anew with re-exposure to pastel coloured beryl – and Maxixe.
additional details.
unstable colour centres. Note: In Maxixe light and heat. Some colourless and light Afghanistan, Pakistan, Russia, Ukraine,
as well as Maxixe-type beryls, colour and pink beryl from Minas Gerais is irradiated Madagascar, Nigeria, Namibia, Zimbabwe,
Description and properties
optical behaviour can be restored through to produce Maxixe-type beryl. United States also produce various
Beryl forms in the hexagonal crystal irradiation treatment, though the colour kinds of beryl. Only the United States
Oil impregnation – While oils and
system and has the following chemical is also not stable. commercially produces red beryl.
polymer resins are rarely used with pastel
composition: Be3Al2Si6O18.
Mohs Hardness: 7.5 to 8 colour beryl, colourless oil and resins are
Regarding colour ranges, green beryl sometimes used to hide fissures in red
(other than emerald) may be strongly beryl.
The pastel coloured gems tend to have For more information about CIBJO standards
bluish green to green to yellowish green
fewer inclusions than saturated varieties. and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
(generally in lighter tones and saturations).
Liquid fingerprints, two-phase inclusions imitation products, or synthetic stones please
Morganite may be reddish orange through
and hollow growth tubes are possible download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
slightly purplish red (generally in lighter
in all varieties, sometimes causing Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org
tones and saturations). Yellow beryl may
chatoyancy (cat’s eye effect).

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Other beryls
Cutting, care and cleaning Aside from emerald and red beryl, most
other beryls are a pleasing array of
Beryl may be cut several different ways,
pastel hues
though emerald cut and oval cut gems
tend to predominate. Beryl is generally
quite hardy unless heavily included. Red
beryl tends to be more like emerald in this
respect and may be fragile if the gem has
many surface reaching fissures. For safety’s
sake, ultrasonic cleaners and steamers
should be avoided. A dampened, non-
abrasive cloth is best used to clean beryl
jewellery.
This image displays the Rare, maxixe beryl fades to almost

natural etched surface of colourless upon exposure to light. Kept
beryl. Field of view: 0.72 mm in the dark, it remains deep blue

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Chalcedony
History, lore and appreciation • Amethystine – Semi-translucent to • Fire agate – Semi-translucent to

opaque purple colour. opaque botryoidal chalcedony with
Chalcedony is a significant form of
iridescent phenomena against a brown
microcrystalline (or cryptocrystalline) • Bloodstone – A dark green
body colour.
quartz, which has dozens of varieties and semi-translucent to opaque
colours. Chalcedony has been enjoyed cryptocrystalline quartz containing • Landscape agate – A chalcedony,
and used in jewellery for thousands of dark green body colour (coloured by often with a layered structure,
years. Some estimates gauge the use of actinolite) with deep red spots. It has containing trace elements that
chalcedony (in carvings such as seals) also been referred to as heliotrope. add colour and inclusions (such as
and other ornaments as far back as the dendrites). Properly oriented during
• Carnelian – Semi-transparent to
Bronze Age, circa 1800 BCE. Though the cutting process, these agates
translucent yellow orange to orangey
subject to interpretation, a more recent resemble landscapes.
red or brownish orange material.
record for chalcedony dates back to
• Iris agate – A rare, semi-transparent
the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt (ca. • Chrysocolla-in-chalcedony –
to translucent agate, exhibiting
5-6th century BCE) where at least three Translucent to semi-translucent
phenomenal iridescent colours when
varieties of chalcedony are described intense light blue or blue green, owing
light, especially pinpoint lighting, is
in the High Priest’s Breastplate jasper, its colour to chrysocolla, a copper
transmitted through a slice of this
chrysoprase and sardonyx. Other agates silicate.
material.
were possibly also used.
• Chrysoprase – Translucent to semi-
• Jasper – Translucent to opaque
Here is some of the principal chalcedony translucent, light to medium yellowish
microcrystalline material, that may be
trade names used in jewellery today: green caused by nickel-related
any colour or combination of colours –
impurities.
• Agate – The word “chalcedony” is except black.
sometimes used interchangeably • Dendritic Agate – Chalcedony
• Onyx – Generally opaque, banded
with the word agate, though agate containing dark, branch-like or tree-
chalcedony. The parallel layers of
generally describes curved or angular- like inclusions.
Cryptocrystalline quartzes, or chalcedony, chalcedony are black and white.
banded varieties of chalcedony.
can assume a wide range of appearances.
Sometimes chalcedony and drusy quartz
can be found in the same gemstone

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Chalcedony
• Prase – Semi-transparent to Description and properties Mohs Hardness: 6.5 to 7 Collector quality
translucent green colour caused by
Chalcedony has a chemical composition Internal identifying characteristics: Chalcedony exhibiting unusual banding
mineral inclusions (e.g. actinolite,
of SiO2 and forms as an aggregate Inclusions of other minerals. Thick bands or landscape scenes is particularly
chlorite).
material. Some chalcedony grows in of colour often characterize chalcedony. prized, as are agates containing dramatic
• Sard – Semi-transparent to a botryoidal formation. Dendritic inclusions are seen in chalcedony dendritic inclusions. Slabs of iris agates
translucent dark brownish red to as well. and cabochons or free form fashioning
Refractive Index: 1.535 to 1.539
brown or dark orange, but less of fire agate exhibiting strong iridescent
saturated in colour than carnelian. Birefringence: usually not detectable. Treatments: colours are also collected. Finally, carved
chalcedony, such as intaglios or cameos,
• Sardonyx – Semi-transparent to Specific Gravity: 2.60 (+0.10, -0.50) Dyeing – Chalcedony can be dyed in
may be collectible if they have provenance
translucent dark brownish red to practically all colours, due to its porous
Cause(s) of colour: that can be identified as typical of a
brown or dark orange, but less nature. Bleaching may be combined in
certain era. Signed gems from a known
saturated in colour than carnelian, Carnelian: Body colour due to iron the treatment process to remove colour.
lapidary artist are also collectible.
containing concentric white and impurities. Chromium may be present in Much of the black chalcedony sold on
reddish banded parallel layers. redder colours. the market is treated black. In banded
Localities
material, some more porous bands may
Chrysocolla chalcedony: Colouration
Birthstones and anniversaries be dyed while others retain their natural Germany (historical source), Brazil, India,
normally due to impurities of copper
colour. Russia, Australia, Austria, Scotland, Italy,
Bloodstone is an alternate birthstone for minerals.
Mexico, USA.
the month of March. Onyx is suggested Heating – Some yellow to brown material
Chrysoprase: Colouration normally due
as a 7th wedding anniversary gemstone. may be heat-treated to result in deeper
to nickel-related impurities.
red colours.
Fire agate: Body colour due to iron
impurities.
For more information about CIBJO standards
Sard: Body colour due to iron impurities. and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
Chromium may be present in redder imitation products, or synthetic stones please
colours. download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO

GE MS TONE S
Chalcedony
Cutting, care and cleaning Chalcedony may be porous, so care Etch tubes were visible in this
must be taken not to immerse the gem example of landscape agate
Chalcedony is a gem composed of
in substances that could change its (chalcedony). Field of view:
cryptocrystalline and microcrystalline
appearance. As with most gems, using a 19 mm
(microscopic) quartz crystals that form in
damp, soft cloth, or gently scrubbing with
tightly interlocking, fibrous masses. This
a soft-bristle toothbrush, is the best way
provides chalcedony with extraordinary
to clean chalcedony.
toughness, allowing it to be carved in
cabochons, intaglios, cameos, tablets
or even plates or bowls. ldar-Oberstein,
twin cities in Germany, have been
known for developing the cutting and
carving industry for this gem since the
15th century. Artists there carved local
Chalcedony often takes on
chalcedony but began to import agate
the colour of the minerals
from Brazil in the 19th century
contained in it and can
as supplies dwindled in Germany.
sometimes be identified by
Chalcedony is very durable in general, its inclusions
but special care should be taken not to
subject it to temperature extremes. It
may be cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner,
if it is clear and there are no fissures
that could endanger the durability
of the stone.

GE MS TONE S
Citrine
History, lore and appreciation While citrine is found in nature, the Cause(s) of colour: Traces of iron are the
majority of the gems used in jewellery principal cause of yellow. Heat treatment
The description for citrine is contained
began as amethyst, which was been of some amethyst under controlled
in its name. Citrine, from the French
heat-treated to change its colour. Citrine conditions also causes yellow to brownish
word citron literally means “lemon,” in
is greatly esteemed for its warm, earthy yellow colours.
deference to a multitude of rich yellow
colours and vivacious sparkle, especially
hues. There are several sources for the Mohs Hardness: 7
among lighter toned gems.
gem, and consequently the gem is readily
available.
Birthstones and anniversaries Citrine is often devoid of eye-visible
Citrine actually covers a much wider inclusions though some material may
Citrine is one of the birthstones for
range of yellows than do most lemons, show colour zoning. In some cases, fluid
November, along with topaz. It is also
including rich, orangey yellow colours inclusions and negative crystals may be
considered a 13th wedding anniversary
and deep orange. Some citrines may be seen. Inclusions of other minerals such
gem.
reminiscent of a gem from a different as goethite or rutile can also be found in
species called topaz. There is no relation citrine.
between topaz and citrine whatsoever,
despite misnomers such as “smoky Citrine is a variety of quartz that grows
topaz”, “quartz-topaz” or “Madeira topaz” in the trigonal crystal system and has the
Citrine crystal with faceted citrines which are sometimes incorrectly used to following chemical composition: SiO2.
describe a particular hue of citrine quartz.
Colour(s): Citrine is transparent to
In fact, citrine has significant attributes of
translucent pale yellow to deep orange For more information about CIBJO standards
its own to stand upon: aside from its rich
and/or brownish orange. and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
and optimistic colours, it is found in an
impressive range of sizes and quantities, Refractive Index: 1.544 to 1.553
making it a favourite for gem carvers.
Birefringence: 0.009 Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org

GE MS TONE S
Citrine
Treatments Localities
Most citrine starts out as amethyst that Brazil is one of the main sources of citrine;
has been heat treated to turn it yellow particularly from the gem rich states
to yellowish brown. Heat treatment of of Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul.
amethyst requires considerable experience, Bolivia’s Anahí mine has also become a
and not all amethyst responds in a manner leading producer of citrine. It is also found
that is expected. However, altered colour in Uruguay, as well as in African countries
is considered stable. such as Tanzania, Madagascar, Namibia
and Zambia.
Collector quality
Collectors of citrine look for a pure yellow
or orange colour to begin with. Lapidaries Citrine is one of the most plentiful gems in
(gem cutters) often work with citrine the market. It can be found in many sizes. Citrine is available in a multitude of yellow
to make unusual carvings or cuts, which Citrine is often cut as large gems or in tones from pale yellow to deep orange
are also highly prized. Because ametrine carvings. Citrine is also fairly resilient and
– a form of quartz that combines the may be worn extensively, though wearing
colours of amethyst and citrine – comes citrine during any type of manual labour
essentially from only one region in the or strenuous activity should be avoided.
world, it is collectible if the depth of colour Care should be taken not to knock the gem
and the division of colour is strong, or if it during use, as small fissures or cracks may
has been cleverly carved and fashioned. develop, especially along facet junctions.
It is best cleaned with warm, sudsy water
or a damp cleaning cloth.

GE MS TONE S
Emerald
History, lore and appreciation Pliny was one of the first to classify Birthstones and anniversaries
gemstones, including emerald. But
Emerald’s appearance and colour make Emerald is the birthstone for the month of
appreciation for emerald was evident long
this gemstone instantly and universally May. It is also considered a 20th wedding
before him. It is thought that emerald
recognized. The rich, green hue has anniversary gem.
was first used as a gemstone circa 3500
also been the primary reason for the
BCE, and later during the first dynastic
gemstone’s tremendous popularity Description and properties
reigns in Egypt and so, conceivably for
throughout history. In many instances,
thousands of years, Egypt was the world’s Emerald is a variety of the beryl species of
the word “emerald” is used to define
main emerald source. Actress Elizabeth minerals and has the following chemical
saturated variations of green, such as
Taylor, who played Queen Cleopatra formula: Be3Al2Si6018₈
the lush vegetation of the “emerald isle,”
on film, was equally enamoured with
or an “emerald green ocean.” Marbode, Beryl also includes the following gemstone
emerald as the Egyptian she portrayed.
the medieval poet and Bishop of Rennes, varieties: aquamarine, morganite, red beryl,
Aside from wearing magnificent emerald
France, loved emerald’s colour, causing him green beryl, heliodor and goshenite (Note:
A perfectly hexagonal emerald crystal jewellery throughout her life, Taylor used
in 1120 CE to have observed the following: more about the beryl gem varieties in the
in calcite with pyrite the colour and popularity of emerald to
chapters, Aquamarine and Other Beryls).
“Of all green things, which the bounteous once launch a perfume.
Emerald (and other beryls) typically grows
earth supplies, Nothing in greenness with
Emerald represents rebirth and eternal as hexagonal (six-sided) crystals.
the emerald vies.”
spring. Its colour denotes honesty, and
Colour: Vibrant, deep green colour that
Hundreds of years earlier, the naturalist integrity; finally, emerald has long been
is often described as very strongly bluish
Pliny the Elder (23 CE to 79 CE) declared thought to be capable of soothing one’s
green through green.
his sentiments as well: eyes. The Roman Emperor Nero is said to
have watched gladiator fights through Refractive Index: 1.577 to 1.583 (±0.017)
“We delight in feasting our eyes on the
emerald slices for that very reason!
pleasant green grasses and leaves, but Birefringence: 0.005 to 0.009
However, that reference from Pliny the
the enjoyment of beholding an emerald is
Elder’s observations remains the subject Specific Gravity: 2.72 (+0.18, -0.05)
incomparably greater, for its green is most
of some debate today.
soothing.” Cause of colour: Chromium generally,
Emeralds, such as this one, are formed sometimes vanadium and sometimes a
in a mica matrix combination of chromium and vanadium.

GE MS TONE S
Emerald
Mohs Hardness: 7.5 of the gemstone’s natural origin. Buyers perceived value) the presence of these Collector quality
should check for occasional larger fissures kinds of treatments must be disclosed
Internal identifying characteristics: Deeply coloured, large, relatively clean
(especially those located at corners where from the seller to the buyer along the
multi-phase inclusions, mica platelets, and non-treated emeralds are rare and
a prong might be placed). Because of supply chain. Special care considerations
calcite, actinolite, and pyrite inclusions. collectible. There are also two rare kinds
potential durability issues, such stones need to be explained as well because
In Colombian emeralds, jagged or blocky of unusual collector emeralds that are
should be avoided. oils and some resins may seep out of the
multi-phase inclusions are sometimes rarely seen commercially:
fissures, especially when subjected to heat
seen. A roiled appearance from columnar Emerald is durable enough to bring joy
or pressure. Others may oxidize over time Cat’s eye – Green beryl that is saturated
growth, called gota de aceite, which to successive generations if handled
so it becomes important for sellers to be enough to be classified as emerald, and
translates drop of oil, is a desirable with appropriate care. Conversely,
able to offer services to clean and re-treat has microscopic hollow growth tubes
trait some rare emeralds may exhibit. lighter beryls, such as aquamarine and
an emerald if so required. that formed in a parallel fashion to one
Inclusions in emerald are considered morganite, are very often eye-clean
another throughout the gem. When
customary and expected. While gems (viewed without magnification) even
cut en cabochon, the domed surface
with no eyevisible inclusions do exist, in sizes larger than 5 carats.
of these gems exhibits a rare cat’s eye
they are extraordinarily rare. Some
phenomenon in direct (non-diffused)
inclusions in emerald are informally Treatments
lighting.
referred to as jardin, (meaning garden
The minute fissures that are often found
in both French and Spanish) and may For more information about CIBJO standards Trapiche – These Colombian emeralds
in emerald lend themselves to a form
consist of networks of tiny liquid and rules regarding treatments, artificial and display a unique six-fold structure,
of treatment aimed at diminishing or
filled inclusions and minute fissures imitation products, or synthetic stones please (similar to spokes on a bicycle wheel)
masking their appearance. These fissures
that permeate the gem, lending it the download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO usually composed of a dark hexagonal
often reach the surface and may be filled
appearance of a lush garden – hence the Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org central prism surrounded by six
with substances including oils, resins
term. These inclusions also impart the crystalographically-controlled prims
and polymers. The manipulation of an
emerald with a distinctive, somewhat separated by a mixture of albite and beryl
emerald’s appearance (other than cutting
hazy appearance because they diffuse containing either black carbonaceous
or fashioning) was first described by Pliny
and spread light through the gemstone. shale (the host in which these emeralds
and as such has probably been practiced
Included crystals, such as pyrite, are form), or white albite (a form of feldspar)
to varying degrees for centuries. Because
fascinating to examine through a spokes. These gems are cut as slices or as
introducing substances into emeralds may
microscope, and provide positive proof cabochons to show the spokes radiating
substantially change their appearance (and

GE MS TONE S
Emerald
out from the centre. The name comes Carolina, is the U.S. historic emerald jewellery should not be cleaned in
from the spokes in wheel-like sugar source, and some emerald material ultrasonic cleaning machines because
cane crushers, called trapiches, found has also been discovered in the Yukon the heat and vibration may damage
in Colombia and other South American Territories, Canada. Neither location is or remove fillers. Emerald should not
countries. commercially active, though rare collector be immersed in detergents for similar
gems are found from time to time. reasons, and are best cleaned with
Localities a water-dampened, soft cloth. Common
Cutting, care and cleaning sense indicates it is not a good idea to
South America has been the world’s
wear an emerald ring during gardening
primary source for emerald since the Emerald is one of the few gemstones to
or other intense physical activity.
discovery of the New World. The Incas have a specific cut named after it. The While understood to be generally
traded emerald throughout their Andean “emerald cut” is a square or rectangular included, emeralds such as these can
empire until the arrival of Spanish outline step-cut with cut corners. Many be quite clean
Conquistadors. But the Spanish discovery emeralds are cut this way because it
of emerald in Colombia in the 1500s orients the gem to show its strongest
Trapiche emeralds are characterized by
dramatically changed appreciation for the colour and the tapered corners prevent
six spokes. Seen here are the front and
gem. Egypt’s and Austria’s emerald sources damage during setting. These cuts
back of the cabochon
were quickly forgotten as European and contain large table facets through which
Indian nobility demanded Colombia’s an admirer can best view the emerald’s
superb gems. This South American rich colour and its fascinating inclusion
source quickly became the world’s most panorama. Emerald is increasingly cut Typical of many emerald formations are
significant producer of fine emerald, and in other shapes, including round, oval, multiphase inclusions, such as this liquid,
remains significant today. However, many free form, pear and marquise. It is solid and gas inclusion in an Ethiopian
other sources are gaining importance, important to closely examine all pointed emerald. Field of view: 0.288 mm
including Brazil, Zambia, Zimbabwe, corners for durability issues. It might
Ethiopia, India, Nigeria, Madagascar, be recommended for such gems to be
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Russia and China. mounted in earrings, pins or pendants
Emerald has been found on the North (rather than rings) to minimize potential
American continent as well; Hidden, North damage to sharp points. Emerald

GE MS TONE S
Feldspar group
History, lore and appreciation be seen. In other moonstones, asterism recent years, andesine – a rare, albite-
(4 rayed star), or cat’s eye phenomena rich plagioclase feldspar has gained
Feldspar is an extremely diverse group
can sometimes be observed. Moonstone recognition. It began entering the market
of minerals that includes several species
may have orangey, brownish, greyish or in surprising quantities in 2002. The
and varieties. Some varieties of feldspar
greenish body colour. material has been found to come from
possess unique optical phenomena.
at least two known localities: Inner
Feldspar is a common rock-forming Not to be outdone in moonstone’s
Mongolia and Tibet.
mineral that is found on every continent. celestial designation, another feldspar
(It is estimated that feldspar makes variety is called plagioclase sunstone. Microcline feldspar has one gem variety
up well over half of the earth’s crust). This gem often exhibits warm red to called amazonite, which is bluish green
However, feldspar also has gem varieties brown and yellow body colours, an to green in colour, and may be semi-
that have been sought after and revered allusion to the name. Its phenomenal translucent to opaque. Though named
for centuries. In India, for example, nature, however, is equally captivating. after the Amazon, it has not been found
moonstone (a variety of adularescent When interacting with light, similarly there as a commercial source, but is
orthoclase feldspar, also referred to as oriented, miniscule inclusions of copper found in other states in Brazil as well
adularia) has long been thought to be or hematite platelets exhibit glittering, as in North America, Africa and Russia.
sacred. George Frederick Kunz, a famous spangled reflections, shimmering through The beauty and intrigue of amazonite
gemmologist and consultant to Tiffany different depths within the gem. This is revealed under direct lighting, when
& Co. in the late 1800s, notes in his book, phenomenon is known in the trade as a fibrous interlacing between green and
The Curious Lore of Precious Stones, that aventurescence. white streaks can clearly be seen along
“As a gift for lovers the moonstone takes the gem’s surface. On rare occasions, the
Labradorite, named after the first place it
high rank, for it is believed to arouse the gemstone may also have a directional
was discovered – the Labrador Peninsula
tender passion.” glittery effect, or sheen, under direct
in Canada, is another plagioclase feldspar
lighting, also caused by inclusions.
Under direct (and sometimes subdued) that has a phenomenal effect. In certain
lighting conditions, moonstone exhibits light conditions, a broad, multicoloured Gem feldspar occurs in non-phenomenal,
One of the most complex yet plentiful adularescence, which is described as a sheen appears to float along the gem’s transparent varieties as well, particularly
minerals on earth, feldspar produces “billowy” light effect observed along the surface, particularly visible as the gem, or in plagioclase, and orthoclase species.
some rare gems such as moonstone gems’ surface. In moonstone with a white the light source, is moved. This iridescent In this case, the body colour is generally
and labradorite body colour, “billowy blue” colour may effect is called labradorescence. In yellow – but greenish yellow and

GE MS TONE S
Feldspar group
colourless varieties occur as well. The Treatments Collector quality Cutting, care and cleaning
colour of feldspar has much to do with
Treatments in feldspar are not generally Feldspars that exhibit double phenomena, Feldspar, when properly cared for,
its chemical makeup, trace elements
common, though wax impregnation such as adularescence and cat’s eye, are is durable enough to wear in jewellery,
and inclusions.
of tiny fissures that reach the surface collector’s gems because of their rarity. despite being somewhat brittle at times.
of some amazonite has been reported Large gems and richness of colour also Cutters, who properly understand the
as well as some impregnation in make them collectible. Although feldspar hardness and toughness of feldspar,
Moonstone is the birthstone for June, moonstone. This gives the gem a more has perfect cleavage (can separate often cut them as cabochons, which
together with pearl and alexandrite. uniform look. However, such treatment along planes of atomic growth in the (unlike faceted gems) are less subject
is not permanent and can be affected crystal), and can be damaged during the to abrasion. Additionally, cabochons are
Description and properties by heat and pressure. It has also been fashioning process, they are sometimes more likely to exhibit the phenomenal
reported that some white microcline carved. aspects of these gems. Some lapidary
Microcline feldspar (amazonite)
varieties may be irradiated to achieve artists choose to carve these gems.
forms in the triclinic crystal system;
deep blue-greenish colours associated Feldspar is somewhat delicate and care
orthoclase feldspar (most moonstones
with amazonite. In some instances, must be taken in setting.
and transparent varieties) in the
moonstone and transparent labradorite
monoclinic crystal system; plagioclase Feldspar should never be placed in
may be backed with a black coating
feldspars (oligoclase, labradorite and an ultrasonic cleaner. A clean, water
to better exhibit their phenomenal
sunstones and transparent varieties) in dampened cloth, containing no soap
characteristics. In loose gems, this
the triclinic crystal system. For specific or other cleaning agent, is the best way
treatment is easily discernible. Some
properties of each species or variety, to clean this gem.
pale andesine is treated by a complex
see below.
diffusion process to achieve rich red
and yellow colours similar to those
found in sunstone.

GE MS TONE S
Feldspar group
Microcline Orthoclase
Chemical Formula: KAlSi3O8 Chemical Formula: KAlSi3O8
Colours: Amazonite is light green to Colours: (Moonstone) is colourless to
greenish blue, white and rarely light white, green, yellow brown or grey and
orange or pink. rarely black
Refractive Index: 1.522 to 1.530 (±0.004) Refractive Index: 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010)
Birefringence: 0.008 Birefringence: 0.05 to 0.008
Specific Gravity: 2.56 (±0.02) Specific Gravity: 2.58 (±0.03)
Cause(s) of colour: Amazonite – colour Cause(s) of colour: Yellow is due to iron;
centres involving lead and water. adularescent colours due to scattering of
light. Most sunstone contains inclusions, sometimes
Mohs Hardness: 6 to 6.5
resulting in phenomena. These inclusions
Localities: Amazonite is found in the add that adds to the gems’ appeal, whereas
Unites States, mainly in Colorado, but Internal identifying characteristics: others like orthoclase yellow feldspar, are
also in Madagascar, Myanmar (Burma), In moonstone, interesting inclusions with traditionally very clean
Brazil, Germany and Russia. a “centipede” appearance may sometimes
be seen. Such inclusions are considered
identifying features for the gem.
Localities: Sri Lanka, India and Myanmar
(Burma) are the major sources of
moonstones. Canada, Mexico, Madagascar
and the United States are major sources
of transparent orthoclase.
Orthoclase feldspar results in the very
popular gemstone called moonstone,
with soft “billowy” colours

GE MS TONE S
Feldspar group
Plagioclase Internal identifying characteristics:

The most important thing to remember
Chemical Formula: (Na,Ca)Al1-2Si2-3O8
is that the inclusions in feldspar are
Colours: (Labradorite) grey to black what provide some of them with their
bodycolour, colourless, green, yellow phenomenal characteristics. In sunstone
orange to brown or brownish red; from Oregon, colour is largely influenced
(oligoclase) yellow to green as well by the copper content of the gems, and
as transparent. the spangled inclusions are themselves
extremely small copper platelets.
Refractive Index: 1.559 to 1.568 (±0.005)
Sunstone from Africa contains different
(labradorite), 1.537 to 1.547 (+0.004,
inclusions composed mainly of hematite
-0.006) (oligoclase).
and mica platelets, which also cause the
Birefringence: 0.007 to 0.10 aventurescent effect.
Specific Gravity: 2.70 (±0.05)
(labradorite), 2.65 (+0.02, -0.03)
(oligoclase).
Cause(s) of colour: Sunstone: sheen
colours, sometimes referred to as
“aventurescence,” are due to metallic-
looking inclusions such as copper or
hematite. Labradorescent colours are
due to interference of light reflecting off Hematite platelets like these can occur in
finely layered structure. oligoclase sunstone. Field of view: 2.88 mm

GE MS TONE S
Garnet group
History, lore and appreciation composition. For example, a violetish red which it acquired its trade name. An orange
variation is known in the trade as rhodolite. grossular variety, hessonite, sometimes with
Several colourful gemstone species and
a characteristic roiled internal appearance,
varieties are members of the garnet group. Garnet occurs in deep yellow and fiery
was widely used in the past and often
The diversity of garnet – principally in orange colours as well. Spessartine garnet
known in the trade as cinnamon stone,
colour and appearance – places it among (sometimes called spessartite in the trade)
alluding to its colour. Africa is the principal
gemmology’s most alluring subjects. These is named after the region of Spessart,
source of many garnets that are challenging
gems are found in variations of almost Germany where it was first found. A
to classify. Malaya garnet, is the trade
every hue, and are linked to one another by spessartine garnet locality in Namibia
name for a pinkish yellow, vivid orangey red
their common crystal growth structure and produced a glowing orangey gem in the
variety of a mixture of pyrope-spessartine
basic chemical composition. However, the early 1990s that has come to be known as
also found in the 1960’s in Tanzania, and
optical, physical and chemical properties of a “mandarin” garnet in the trade.
later in Kenya and Madagascar.
some garnet species and varieties overlap,
Demantoid, a variety of andradite garnet,
making it difficult even for gemmologists to Garnet also has interesting phenomenal
is bright green, though andradite garnet
pinpoint the distinct member of the garnet varieties, namely four, six and twelve-
Spessartine garnet crystal cluster can also be yellowish or brown in colour.
group. rayed star garnets. In New Mexico (and
Demantoid derives its name from diamond,
in Mexico) a form of andradite garnet
Garnet has been appreciated for millennia. an allusion to the diamond-like lustre
displays incredible iridescent colours in
Historically, garnet was called “carbuncle,” a of this garnet. Rich red chrome-pyrope
bright light, known in the trade as rainbow
reference to hot, glowing coals, to describe garnets are often found in association
andradite. Some East African garnets display
its blazing red colour. Most people think with diamonds during the mining process.
remarkable alexandrite-like, colour-change
of garnet as red, and in fact the Latin Consequently, diamond miners think of
characteristics. Similarly, some pyrope-
derivation of the name reflects that. The garnets as “indicator minerals” in their
spessartines change from grey or violetish
phrase malum granatum refers to the search for diamonds.
blue in daylight, to deep, purplish red in
striking resemblance some red garnet has
Grossular garnet is principally known incandescent light.
to pomegranate seeds – especially rough
through the brilliant green tsavorite garnet.
garnet. Red garnet species include pyrope
Green grossular garnet was first found in
(from the Greek pyropos, meaning fiery)
the 1960’s in Tanzania, and later in Kenya
and almandine. Actually, most red garnet
not far from Tsavo National Park, after
falls between pyrope and almandine in

GE MS TONE S
Garnet group
Birthstones and anniversaries Collector quality Cutting, care and cleaning

Garnet is the birthstone for January. While Garnet has been used in jewellery Garnet is generally somewhat susceptible
consumers sometimes believe they are since antiquity, especially as engraved to heat (and to some acids) so it is
limited to only red garnet, it is clear they gemstones, which are highly collectible. recommended that it be cleaned with
can choose many different colours. Garnet In red garnet, the size and pureness of a soft, non-abrasive, damp cloth. Garnet
is the gem of choice for a 2nd wedding colour is highly desirable. Green garnet is may abrade along facet junctions if
anniversary. almost always small – gems over 3 carats scraped.
are considered rare and are therefore
Description and properties collectible. Demantoid often has
signature “horsetail” inclusions composed Spessartine garnets are well known
Garnet belongs to a group of related
of chrysotile fibres. Clever cutters will for their vibrant orange colour
silicate minerals that crystallize in
attempt to leave such inclusions in the
the cubic crystal system. For specific
centre of the gem to exhibit a classic,
properties of each species or variety, see
collectible gem.
garnet name below.
Treatments
Garnet is one of the few gems that is
rarely treated to enhance its colour
or clarity. In rare instances, Russian
demantoid (green andradite garnet)
may be heated to enhance its colour.
This treatment involves low heat so as
not to damage the collectible “horsetail”
inclusions.
download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO The garnet group produces a large variety of
Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org colours. It has some phenomenal gems also,
including star garnets and iridescent garnets

GE MS TONE S
Garnet group
Almandine Andradite Grossular Hydrogrossular

Chemical Formula: Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 Chemical Formula: Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3 Chemical Formula: Ca3Al2(SiO4)3 Chemical Formula: Ca3Al2(SiO4)3-x(OH)4x
Colour(s): Reddish orange to red, slightly Colour(s): Yellow, green, brown, black Colour(s): Light to dark green, light to Colour(s): green to bluish green, pink,
purplish red to reddish purple; typically dark yellow to reddish orange, colourless white, grey.
Refractive Index: 1.888 (+0.007, -0.033)
dark in tone (rare); occasionally translucent to opaque
Refractive Index: 1.720 (+0.010, 0.050)
Birefringence: None (singly refractive) pink (rosolite).
Refractive Index: 1.790 (±0.030)
Birefringence: None (singly refractive)
Specific Gravity: 3.84 Refractive Index: 1.740 (+0.020, -0.010)
Mohs Hardness: 6.5 to 7 Birefringence: None (singly refractive)
Specific Gravity: 4.05
Mohs Hardness: 7.00
Cause(s) of Colour: Iron and titanium Specific Gravity: 3.61 (+0.12, -0.04)
(black); chromium (green), and in the Cause(s) of Colour: Chromium and
Internal identifying characteristics: case of demantoids from Namibia and possibly iron, manganese.
In almandine, tiny, oriented rutile needles Madagascar, lower concentrations of Cause(s) of Colour: Iron or vanadium
Localities: South Africa, New Zealand,
may be seen in clusters. These sometimes chromium and vanadium. with a trace of chromium. In tsavorite, a
Canada, the United States, Myanmar
are prevalent enough throughout the gem mix of chromium, and vanadium (green).
Localities: Italy, Korea, Russia (the classic (Burma) and China.
to cause a star effect (asterism). Other
source for demantoid), Iran, Madagascar, Localities: Sri Lanka, Kenya, Tanzania,
types of included crystals are also found.
Pakistan, Namibia, Mexico and the United Ethiopia, Mali, Namibia, Myanmar, Brazil,
Cause(s) of Colour: Iron States (especially for the phenomenal Canada, India and the United States.
iridescent variety).
Localities: India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar,
Brazil, Greenland, Kenya, Pakistan,
Tanzania, and the United States.
Tsavorite garnet is known for its bright

green colour, such as in this rare crystal.
A relatively new stone, tsavorite was
discovered in East Africa in the mid 1960s

GE MS TONE S
Garnet group
Malaya Pyrope Rhodolite Spessartine

Chemical Formula: (Mg,Mn)3Al2(SiO4)3 Chemical Formula: MgAl2(SiO4)3 Chemical Formula: (Mg,Fe)3Al2(SiO4)3 Chemical Formula: (Mn3Al2(SiO4)3
Colour(s): Light to dark, slightly pinkish Colour(s): Medium to dark reddish Colour(s): Light to dark purplish red Colour(s): yellowish orange to reddish
orange, reddish orange, yellowish orange. orange, red through slightly purplish red, through reddish purple. orange.
colourless (rare).
Refractive Index: 1.760 (+0.020, -0.018) Refractive Index: 1.760 (+0.010, -0.020) Refractive Index: 1.810 (+.004, -0.020)
Refractive Index: 1.714 to over 1.742,
Birefringence: None (singly refractive) Birefringence: None (singly refractive) Birefringence: None (singly refractive)
1.74 is normal
Specific Gravity: 3.78 to 3.85 Specific Gravity: 3.84 (±0.10) Specific Gravity: 4.15 (+ 0.05, -0.03)
Mohs Hardness: 7 to 7.5 Mohs Hardness: 7 to 7.5 Mohs Hardness: 7 to 7.5
Localities: Tanzania, Kenya and Internal identifying characteristics: Cause(s) of Colour: Manganese and iron.
Madagascar. In rhodolite, tiny, oriented rutile needles
Localities: Brazil, Sri Lanka, Nigeria,
Internal identifying characteristics: may be seen in clusters. These sometimes
Kenya, Tanzania, Australia, India,
In pyrope, tiny, oriented rutile needles are prevalent enough throughout the gem
Madagascar, and the United States.
may be seen in clusters. These sometimes to cause a star effect (asterism). Other
are prevalent enough throughout the gem types of included crystals are also found.
to cause a star effect (asterism). Other
Cause(s) of Colour: Iron.
types of included crystals are also found.
Localities: Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Kenya,
Cause(s) of Colour: Iron, chromium.
Madagascar, Mozambique, Ethiopia,
Localities: Australia, Czech Republic (the India and the United States.
classic source in the 1700-1800s), South
Africa, Brazil, Mozambique, Madagascar,
and the United States.
In this demantoid garnet from Russia, Occasionally, colour change garnet is found,
a characteristic radiating fibrous chrysotile such as this rare pyrope/spessartine sample
inclusion is visible just under the table. from Tanzania (shown in incandescent and
Field of view: 14.52 mm daylight)

GE MS TONE S
Jade and nephrite
History, lore and appreciation “The wise liken jade to virtue. Its polish and relative transparency are the yardsticks by
brilliancy represents purity. Its extreme which both types of jade are measured.
Jade is a blanket term essentially used
hardness is intelligence. Its angles, which Translucent jadeite with a deep uniform
to describe two types of gem-quality
do not cut, although they seem sharp, are green colour sometimes referred to as
metamorphic rocks: jadeite jade and
justice. The pure and prolonged sound, “Imperial jade,” is especially coveted and
nephrite jade. (Henceforth, simply
which it sings when one strikes it, are music. collectively known in China as “fei cui”.
described as jadeite and nephrite). The
Its colour is loyalty. Its iridescent brightness
name for jade (as it is known in the West)
represents heaven.” Birthstones and anniversaries
comes from the Spanish piedra de hijada,
referring to the stones’ shape as they When jadeite from Myanmar (Burma) Jade is considered a 12th wedding
were found, resembling kidneys. In China, became regularly traded with China in anniversary gemstone.
appreciation and knowledge about both the 18th Century, it was an immediate
forms of jade far surpasses that of the success. China maintains an unparalleled
West. Since approximately 5000 BCE, the affinity for jadeite, as well as for nephrite
word for jade-like materials, especially jades. Appreciation for jades in the Far East
nephrite jade, is yu. It is often said that is, in fact, widespread. In Japan, jadeite
in China, the value and appreciation for was already known since the Jomon era,
jade surpasses that of gold and other in 3500 BCE.
gemstones. What the Chinese valued in
Enthusiasts of jadeite appreciate its vivid
nephrite was its incredible toughness;
variety of colours including red, orange
as such the gem was often carved into
yellow, green, violet (lavender) and black.
statues, sculptures, hollowed beads, bowls
(Note: while blue jade is not found in
and weapons. The Chinese philosopher
Myanmar (Burma), very small quantities
Confucius, who was born in 551 BCE,
of blue Guatemalan jadeite have been
appreciated jade as well, and is widely
found.) In Central America, one of the
quoted in regards to the gem:
other historic sources of jadeite jade, the
Mayas and Aztecs appreciated the gem
for its hardness and colours as well since
A collection of jadeite jade before 400 BCE. Today, deep colour and

GE MS TONE S
Jade and nephrite
Jadeite Jade Treatments Dyeing: Some jadeite is dyed after Collector quality
bleaching, using various colours. Some
Surface Waxing: Jadeite is sometimes Deep natural colour and the homogeneity
Description and properties colours may fade over time, especially
cleaned in acids and neutralizing solutions, of the colour plays a large role in the
when exposed to strong light sources.
Chemical Composition: Polycrystalline followed by boiling in water to clean off appreciation of jadeite jade. Deep green,
As a final step, some jade is then polymer
aggregate composed mostly of jadeite any residue. Next, it is dipped in wax as translucent jadeite is revered and known
impregnated to make the surface appear
that is a sodium aluminium silicate and part of the polishing process. The wax in China as “fei cui”, but apple green jade
homogenous. Such treatments result in
member of the pyroxene mineral group. enters tiny fissures and pits on the surface is also highly appreciated. Lavender jade is
jadeite that is referred to as “C jade” in
NaAlSi2O6 of the jadeite, giving the gem a more also popular and rare, while yellow, orange
the trade.
uniform appearance. Purely natural jadeite and greyish jade may contain unique
Colour(s): Appearance is semi-transparent
(or slightly waxed during polishing) is Heating: Some jadeite is heated in an symbolic meaning that is linked to their
to opaque often with mottled colours in
referred to as “A jade” in the trade. effort to change their colour. Heating may colour. While solid colours in a gem are
white, green, yellow to reddish orange,
lighten some overly dark greens or cause always appreciated, mottled jadeite jade,
brown, grey, black, light purple. Acid Bleaching / polymer impregnation:
yellow staining to turn a deeper reddish where two or more colours can be seen,
Jadeite with surface stains is submerged
Refractive Index: 1.666 to 1.680 (±0.008) colour. might be perceived as symbolic and highly
in acid to bleach the stains. The treatment
coveted. Mottled jade is often used in
Birefringence: Usually not detectable causes jade to become more porous; a
Localities carvings and they are frequently Chinese
subsequent polymer resin impregnation
Specific Gravity: 3.34 (+0.06, -0.09) in origin because China has a long history
renders the jadeite more evenly coloured The classic and most important source
of appreciation for jade.
Cause(s) of colour: In green jadeite: and translucent. Treatment with acid of jadeite is Myanmar (Burma), and it
chromium (and /or iron). Iron is the main followed by polymer resin impregnation remains the principal producer of the gem
cause of colour in lavender, orange and is referred to as “B jade” in the trade. today. Guatemala is another commercial
brown jadeite. source, though production is not as
sustained as the Asian source. Japan,
Mohs Hardness: 6.5 to 7; toughness is
Russia and Uzbekistan are also sporadic
exceptional.
sources of jadeite. Significantly, Burmese
Internal identifying characteristics: jade remains the classic standard by which
mottled colours, a granular (sugary) other jadeite is compared.
appearance in cracked or unfinished
areas of a gemstone.

GE MS TONE S
Jade and nephrite
Cutting, care and cleaning Nephrite Jade Treatments Localities

Jadeite is extremely durable – even Dyeing: Some nephrite is impregnated China is the classic source for nephrite, but
though it doesn’t rank as high as some with dye to improve its colour, though the it is found on almost all continents. Other
other gems on the Mohs hardness scale. Chemical Composition: Nephrite treatment is considered rare. important sources include Canada, New
This is because of its extremely compact, jade (henceforth simply nephrite) is an Zealand, South Korea, the United States,
Surface waxing: Some nephrite may be
fibrous and granular structure. Jadeite amphibole aggregate rock essentially Russia and Australia.
treated with paraffin to conceal surface
is vulnerable to strong acids and heat. composed by actinolite-tremolite
irregularities (such as cracks or fissures)
However, assuming the colour is natural (nephrite) Ca2(Mg,Fe5Si8O22 OH)2
in the gem.
and untreated, it is safe for steaming and
Colour(s): Nephrite can be transparent
immersion in an ultrasonic cleaner. If it is Heating: Sometimes heating can lighten
to opaque, creamy, often with mottled
not known whether the gem was treated, overly dark colours of nephrite.
colours in light to dark green, yellow
a soft bristle toothbrush or damp, non-
to brown, white, grey, black.
abrasive cloth should be used for cleaning.
(+0.009, 0.006) For more information about CIBJO standards
Birefringence: Usually not detectable imitation products, or synthetic stones please
Specific Gravity: 2.95 (+0.15, -0.05) download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
Cause(s) of colour: iron is the cause
of many colours.
Mohs Hardness: 6 to 6.5 hardness;
toughness is exceptional, exceeding that
of jadeite jade.
Since colour is critical in judging the value of
jadeite, it is important to examine samples
carefully. Here, a green colour concentration
(dye) is seen inside the structure of treated
jadeite

GE MS TONE S
Jade and nephrite
Collector quality Cutting, care and cleaning

Nephrite with strong natural colours Nephrite is extremely durable – even
as well as materials that are carved into though it doesn’t rank as high as some
symbols are meaningful to collectors. other gems on the Mohs hardness scale.
So, too, are sophisticated carvings. This is because of its extremely compact,
Because of its durability, clever carvings fibrous and sometimes granular structure.
that exhibit a three-dimensional object Nephrite is vulnerable to strong acids
(such as a hollow bead in which jade and heat. However, assuming the colour
material had to be carved out) are is natural and untreated, it is safe for
also objects of desire. China has a steaming and immersion in an ultrasonic
long history of appreciation for jade. cleaner. If it is not known whether the
The pure white varieties, known in the gem was treated, a soft bristle toothbrush
trade as “mutton fat jade”, are highly or damp, non-abrasive cloth should be
appreciated, particularly in historically used for cleaning.
relevant artefacts.
Nephrite is extremely tough and durable.
Aside from fashioning it into gems for
A collection of nephrite jade
traditional use in jewellery, it can also
be fashioned into extremely intricate,
pierced carvings. Nephrite has a long
history of appreciation in Asia where it
was once considered more valuable than
precious metals.

GE MS TONE S
Kunzite
History, lore and appreciation named after him. It was also determined Description and properties
that the gem was a variety of the mineral
Delicacy and subtlety of colour are this Kunzite is a variety of the mineral
spodumene, a source for lithium which
gem’s most notable attributes, making spodumene that forms in the monoclinic
was often used for industrial purposes.
it an excellent choice for eveningwear, crystal system.
Certainly spodumene, as it had been
where its understated pink to lilac colour
found till then, hardly qualified for use Chemical composition: LiAlSi2O6
flashes can be divined and admired even
as a gemstone. But the delicate pinks,
at a distance. Rarity also lends this gem Colour(s): Light in tone, pink to bluish
lilacs, and deep purples, were greatly
an added sense of exclusivity. It is not purple.
appreciated for those hues, definitely
widespread enough to be known by all
classifying kunzite as a gem. Kunzite Refractive Index: 1.660 to 1.676
gem aficionados, but those who have
has since been found in several other (±0.005)
developed a passion for it are quick to
localities around the world. A very rare
extol its virtues. Kunzite, while rare, may Birefringence: 0.014 to 0.016
green spodumene comprises a different
still be found as large crystals that are
variety of the species. It is a chromium- Specific Gravity: 3.18 (±0.03)
excellent candidates for jewellery designs
bearing variety, called hiddenite, named
that feature large and impressive centre Cause(s) of colour: Manganese.
after its locality in Hidden, North
stones.
Carolina, USA. Brazil, and India produce Mohs Hardness: 6.5 to 7
This gemstone was first discovered near some of this green material also.
Pala, in California’s San Diego County, in
Kunzite rarely has inclusions, but being
1902. Crystals were sent for identification Birthstones and anniversaries
of pegmatitic origin, sometimes has a
to America’s top gem expert, George
Kunzite is not used as birthstone, though few fluid inclusions. However, kunzite
Kunzite typically has an etched Frederick Kunz, a notable jeweller, author
Kunz at one time suggested kunzite as has perfect cleavage, meaning it has
morphology along its crystal faces and gemmologist based at Tiffany & Co.
an alternate American birthstone for the a tendency to break or split in certain
at the time. In a report about the new
month of September, in his book The directions due to its crystal structure.
gem, Kunz wrote: “As this is an entirely
Curious Lore of Precious Stones (1913).
new gem of a peculiar beauty, a name
will be given to it as soon as its
characteristics are definitely determined.”
As it happened, the gem variety was soon

GE MS TONE S
Kunzite
Treatments Localities
Irradiation may produce pink or deeper The United States (the classic source),
pink colours from colourless to pink Afghanistan, Myanmar (Burma), Brazil
varieties of spodumene. Kunzite’s colour, and Madagascar.
including irradiated colour, is susceptible
to fading upon prolonged exposure Cutting, care and cleaning
to light.
Kunzite is often fashioned into large, step
cut gems and rarely carved because of its
directional cleavage. Care must be taken,
especially with gems set in rings, because
and rules regarding treatments, artificial and Occasionally needles of a different
they tend to absorb the most physical
imitation products, or synthetic stones please mineral, such as gypsum, are visible
impact. Kunzite should not be cleaned
download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO in kunzite
in an ultrasonic cleaner. It is best to use
a damp, non-abrasive cloth to clean
them. Because of its susceptibility to fade
upon prolonged exposure to bright light,
kunzite should be kept in a dark storage
Collector quality
container when not in use.
Because kunzite is often thought of as
a uniquely American gemstone (though
they are also mined elsewhere), gems
from the Pala district possess a unique
provenance, especially since they were
named after a famous American. Depth
of colour, especially in rich magenta
coloured gems, is appreciated.
This selection of kunzite shows
a variety of tones in the gems

GE MS TONE S
Lapis lazuli
History, lore and appreciation Silk Road, spread appreciation for the blue Description and properties
gem in the Far East as well. Interestingly,
Technically, lapis lazuli is a rock since A rock composed primarily of lazurite,
the material was long described as
several minerals combine to form it, with calcite and pyrite. It may also contain
sapphirus, meaning that what was known as
lazurite being its principal component, and haüynite, sodalite, and diopside.
such in ancient times was lapis lazuli – and
giving the material its deep blue colour. It
not sapphire. An example is Pliny the Elder Colour(s): Medium to dark, slightly
is, in fact lapis lazuli’s intense blue colour,
who used the word sapphirus in describing a greenish blue to purplish blue, often
at times flecked with white calcite and
blue gemstone with golden spots. Actually, containing metallic looking pyrite crystals
golden coloured pyrite crystals that has
lapis lazuli is thought to come from the and/or white to grey flecks of calcite.
captivated people’s attention for thousands
Latin lapis, stone, and Persian lajevard,
of years. The Assyrians and Babylonians Refractive Index: 1.50 or 1.67 (with lots
blue stone, literally meaning “stone blue
prized lapis lazuli for use as carved seals. of calcite); it can be challenging to obtain a
stone”. It was first used with this meaning
It was used throughout many of Egypt’s refractive index reading for lapis lazuli.
in the 17th century. It is important to bear
dynasties, and was referred to by them as
in mind that, as far as blue gems were Birefringence: None
“heaven’s stone.” Pharaoh Cleopatra VII had
concerned, lapis lazuli was the blue gem to
a particular affinity for it; aside from using Specific Gravity: 2.75 (±0.25) (This may
covet and cherish, long before blue sapphire
it in jewellery and as an inlay for artefacts, vary due to mineral content).
came to be appreciated in the West. Today,
Lapis lazuli exhibits its three principal she had it (or lazurite crystals from the
lapis lazuli is valued as a bold ornamental Cause(s) of colour: In lazurite, sulphur-
components that are eye-visible:, same source) ground into a powder, which
gem that can be beaded, fashioned into related colour centres.
lazurite, calcite and pyrite could then be emulsified for use as eye
cabochons, polished for inlays and carved.
shadow makeup. Further, it was used as a Mohs Hardness: 5 to 6 (variations due to
blue pigment (called ultramarine) for many composition).
centuries. It is thought that lapis lazuli was
one of twelve gems that comprised the While lapis lazuli is not mentioned as a
randomly scattered pyrite crystals (that
High Priest’s Breastplate – mentioned in the birthstone in modern lists, it was once
appear as yellow metallic flecks) and
Book of Exodus – an account of when the suggested as an alternate gem for the
mottled white calcite crystals.
Israelites left Egypt. Lapis Lazuli, which has month of December, together with
long been mined in Afghanistan in an area turquoise. It is considered a 9th wedding
travelled by merchants along the ancient anniversary gemstone.

GE MS TONE S
Lapis lazuli
Treatments Collector quality Cutting, care and cleaning

Dyeing: Lapis lazuli, which is naturally Lapis lazuli that is naturally deep and Lapis lazuli is generally cut in the form of
porous, is easily dyed to deepen the uniformly blue in colour, is the most cabochons or tablets, and these cuts wear
colour and give the stone a more collectible form of the gem material. Care well since they have no sharp edges to
uniform appearance. must be taken to determine it has been abrade. Beads also wear well for the same
dyed. If so, it is not considered collectible reason. Free form cuts and carvings of
Coating or impregnation: This
quality. Some collectors appreciate a lapis lazuli are also popular. A soft damp
treatment using colourless paraffin, wax
discreet spray of pyrite crystals, which cloth is ideal for cleaning the gem and
or resins sometimes follows dyeing in an
serve as further proof of the gem’s because it is naturally porous, lapis lazuli
attempt to seal the gem surface, continue
natural origin, though calcite’s mottled should be kept away from substances
to deepen the colour and help improve
white flecks are not as well appreciated. that could permeate the gem’s surface.
its polish.
Because of lapis lazuli’s ancient past, Nail polish remover (acetone) and other
Oiling: Some lapis lazuli may be treated jewels with known provenance are chemicals may damage dyed material. Lapis lazuli is sometimes used ornamentally
with oil in an attempt to deepen its considered collectible. Carvings, seals,
colour. inlays and intaglios that have been
fashioned by known artists are also
collectible.
and rules regarding treatments, artificial and Localities Lapis lazuli is often fashioned as cabochon
Afghanistan’s mountainous North- material for use in jewellery
Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org eastern area of Badakhshan, notably in
Sar-e-Sang, is the world’s most famous
locality. It still produces the standard
qualities by which other sources are
compared. Deposits in Iran, Chile and
Russia produce lighter, less saturated This photo-micrograph clearly shows the
varieties of lapis lazuli. lazurite, pyrite and calcite that make up
this gem material

GE MS TONE S
Opal
History, lore and appreciation In 1550, Italy’s brilliant mathematician Opal’s phenomenal nature has clearly
and naturalist, Girolamo Cardano, noted brought enjoyment to many, but it has
The name opal likely derives from the
in his monograph, De Subtilitate Rerum, also evoked unwarranted superstitions.
Latin word opalus, and was mentioned in
(The Subtlety of Things), a study of Because of a work of fiction by Sir Walter
Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, though
natural phenomena, that he had once Scott, “Anne of Geierstein” written in
some scholars point to ancient Sanskrit
bought [an opal] for fifteen gold crowns. 1829, attributing “enchanted powers”
descriptions, and the root word, upala.
His enthusiastic observation was that, to an opal, some readers mistakenly
Human fascination for the gemstone is
compared to a diamond costing him began to think of opal as an unlucky gem.
due to some of its principal features: its
thirty-three times as much, the opal had In the century elapsed since then, opal
phenomenal nature and extraordinary
brought him much greater pleasure. Part has regained its rightful reputation as an
range of hues. In the numerous varieties
of his enchantment may have been that adaptable gem of beauty. In Australia,
of opal, many spectral colours can be
one opal never looks like another because where the vast majority of the world’s
Opal seams are clearly visible in this enjoyed within a single gem. It is this
play-of-colour patterns change from gem opal is mined, the gem – especially
ironstone matrix from Australia colourful complexity about opal that
to gem. Like the people who wear them, black opal – is in fact perceived as lucky.
caused naturalist Pliny the Elder – in the
each opal is unique. Australian aborigines, for example,
first century CE, to write following:
attributed opal’s discovery with the
Other writers have invoked opal as well.
“There is in them a softer fire than the simultaneous, and fortuitous discovery
Shakespeare alludes to the changeable
ruby, there is the brilliant purple of the of how fire can be tamed and utilised.
nature of opal in his play, Twelfth
amethyst, and the sea green of the
Night, when he contrasts the versatile There are two broad classes of opal:
emerald, all shining together in incredible
personality of one of its characters to precious and common. While fiery colours
union. Some by their splendour rival the
the gem. He also described opal as “the – and play-of-colour has always been
colours of the painters, others the flame
queen of gems.” precious opal’s principal asset, common
of burning sulphur or of fire quickened
opals can be colourless, composed of
by oil.”
a single body colour, or be opaque,
translucent or transparent with no play-
of-colour.

GE MS TONE S
Opal
During opal formation, silica may It is not surprising that there are several Contra-luz opal: Transparent opal
substitute or replace an organic dozen types or varieties of opal, not all that shows play-of-colour when light
host, taking on some of its physical of which can be described here. The main is transmitted through it. Mexican
characteristics. As such, opal may form commercial varieties are: opal often shows this characteristic.
as fossils by replacing clam shells, snails, The Spanish words contra luz literally
White opal: Translucent to semi-
bones, trees or branches, and in the translate to “against light.”
translucent opal, with play-of-colour
hollow inside joints of bamboo stalks.
against a white or light body colour. Boulder opal: An opal seam in the
Here, the opal takes on the outward
matrix host rock where it formed, namely
appearance of the item it replaced. Black opal: Translucent to opaque opal,
ironstone. These can be very thin but still
However, most opal forms in seams with play-of-colour against black, grey,
exhibit extraordinary play-of-colour.
or cracks within harder rocks such as blue, green or brown body colour.
sandstone, basalt, ironstone, quartzite Moss opal: Translucent to opaque opal
Crystal opal: Transparent to semi-
or rhyolite. with no play-of-colour that contains
transparent gem opal that has an
dendrite inclusions of another mineral or
essentially colourless body colour, but
of oxides that cause a moss or fern-like This is a black opal cabochon from Australia
often shows play of colour.
appearance within the gem.
Fire opal: Transparent to semi-
Oolitic opal: Opal that contains very
transparent opal with a range of light
small dark black or brown spherical areas
yellow to deep orange body colour.
that looks like fish roe in appearance. This
These gems may have play-of-colour
material has play-of-colour.
or none at all.
Hydrophane: An absorbent variety
Jelly opal: Transparent to semi-
of opal that may have play-of-colour.
transparent light to orangey-coloured
Some material may appear as common
opal and exhibits no play-of-colour.
opal when dry, but which develops
play-of-colour phenomena when
A large, free-form carving of opal immersed in liquid. Some opal are devoid of phenomena
but are desirable for their strong body
color, such as in these opals from Peru

GE MS TONE S
Opal
Birthstones and anniversaries Colour(s): Many colours are seen in Mohs Hardness: 5 to 6.5 Black paint backing: darkens the
opal. Body colours can vary from white gem improving the appearance of
Opal is one of the birthstones for the Internal identifying characteristics:
to dark blue and to black, with brown, play-of-colour.
month of October, along with tourmaline. Occasionally, small amounts of matrix,
red orange in between. In recent years,
Opal is also considered an appropriate brown ironstone, can be seen through Opal doublet or triplet: While
translucent, vivid greenish blue, as well
gift to commemorate a 14th wedding thin seams in boulder opal. Consequently, not within the classic definition of
as pink common opal varieties have been
anniversary. opal often contains elements of the treatments, doublets constitute an
discovered in Peru, Mexico and France.
environment in which they formed. artificial product, a composite stone,
A milky, green opal found in Tanzania is
Description and properties Pyrite, hematite and other minerals may taken to make thin seams of opal usable
called prase opal due to its similarity to
occur as stain plumes or tiny, included in jewellery. A doublet is a thin, natural
Opal is an amorphous or poorly the chalcedony variety of prase. Because
crystals. Two and three phase inclusions opal slice that is glued to a strong black
crystallized material, essentially these gems have no play-of-colour, but are
are rare but may occur. Cristobalite substrate, such as dyed black chalcedony.
composed of hydrated silica with the attractive for the body colour they exhibit,
inclusions are common in Mexican opal. Some glued slices are then capped with
following composition: SiO2·nH20. Tightly they are often faceted or cut as cabochon
transparent quartz cabochons in an effort
packed and arranged, microscopic gems or beads. Opal may be transparent
Treatments to protect the thin seam of opal. Two
spheres of silica, of which opal is to opaque; most opal is translucent.
separate materials glued together are
composed, cause play-of-colour. Light There are several opal treatments. Most
Refractive Index: 1.450 (+0.020, -0.080) called doublets. If a third cap is also used,
reflecting off of, and passing through are designed to stabilize the gem, deepen
Mexican opal may have lower readings, it is considered a triplet. These assembled
these packed spheres, frequently the colour, or cause the play-of-colour to
(1.37 to 1.43). stones may also exhibit strong displays
causes interference and diffraction of stand out against a darker body colour.
of play-of-colour.
light, which we are able to perceive as Birefringence: None
Impregnation with oils, wax or polymers:
play-of-colour. This phenomenon may
Specific Gravity: 2.15 (+0.08, -0.90). may be used to improve play-of-colour
be compared to rainbows, which form
and mask the effects of crazing.
as light passes through water droplets Cause(s) of colour: Diffraction-grating
in air. While opal may be essentially related interference colours, as seen as Dyeing: Causes lighter opal to look like For more information about CIBJO standards
colourless to light orange, it can still play-of-colour, caused by the arrangement darker, more-valuable black opal. and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
have play-of-colour that is revealed of tiny spheres of silica. In green opal, it is imitation products, or synthetic stones please
Sugar impregnation and smoke
as the gem catches the light. caused by nickel impurities, in blue opal by download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
treatment: Creates the appearance
copper and chrysocolla and in pink opal by Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org
of black opal.
organic substances.

GE MS TONE S
Opal
Collector quality Localities Cutting, care and cleaning Most are cut en cabochon, which avoids
abrasion along sharp edges. Although
Collectors prize solid opal (without matrix Australia produces most of the world’s Because of its water content, opal
some Mexican, Peruvian and crystal
or backing of the host rock) that displays opal, and some of the finest come from is sensitive to heat and temperature
opal is faceted and tends to exhibit a
strong play-of-colour, especially in dark a locality called Lightning Ridge. In the changes. Opal may develop a network
sleepy, milky appearance on colourless
body colours. Collectors look for patterns 1950s L. Hudson, a postmaster for the of tiny fissures over time, or if subjected
or coloured body colour. Cabochons are
such as “harIequin”, which shows large region, wrote a poem describing the area, to heat or pressure. These fissures are
the main canvas upon which to best
areas of different colours with straight part of which follows: referred to as “crazing” in the trade.
exhibit opal’s playof-colour. Dampened
boundaries when the gem or light source Because opal is delicate, they require
There’s a sleepy little township, out soft fabrics with no abrasive or chemical
is moved; “pinfire,” which exhibits tiny gentle, loving care. Opal is rarely faceted
beyond the western plains, additives, or a soft bristle toothbrush
flashes of multi-colour patches. Many because the facet edges and junctions
doused with water are the best ways
other terms apply to different colour Lightning Ridge, the town of opal, where are prone to abrasion.
to clean opal jewellery. Gemmologists
patterns (e.g. block, Chinese writing, there’s heat and scanty rains. The location
advise against storing opal in a dry
flagstone, jigsaw, peacock tail, ribbon, is not scenic, just rough ridges all around
environment to avoid crazing.
straw and stripes, are but a few). White
Nature sired her scenes of beauty, in
precious opal can also show the above-
black opal, underground.
mentioned characteristics. Contraluz opals
are also collected because of their relative Several other Australian localities: Opal
rarity, and because of their dramatic is mined in Coober Pedy, Andamooka,
reactions to light. There are collectors of Mintabie and many occurrences in
ironstone-opal nodules from Yowah, an Queensland, especially for boulder opal,
Australian locality. “Yowah nuts” are highly notably in Yowah and Koroit. Opals
contrasting, large roundish opals, which have been found since early Roman
formed within dark ironstone matrix. times in today’s Slovakia. Today it is
In fact, there is a growing appreciation found also in the United States, Mexico,
for boulder opals, due to their strongly Brazil, Peru, Honduras, Tanzania, Kenya,
contrasting hues and play-of-colour. Pink, Ethiopia (especially hydrophane opal)
Opal comes from all over the world and
blue and green opal is rare and therefore and Indonesia.
manifests in a multitude of body colours
collectible as well.
with varying degrees of play-of-colour

GE MS TONE S
Organic and biogenic gem materials
History, lore and appreciation There is great appreciation for these gem Humans are equally linked to the oceans
materials, even today, because of this tie through pearls, shell, precious coral and
People have adorned themselves with
to life, and also because of their inherent tortoiseshell. As jewellery products of
gem materials long before recorded
beauty. As an example, amber’s heritage the early 20th century, cultured pearls
history began. Prehistoric people
as a fossilised tree resin, results in the come in many shapes, sizes, textures
probably did so with organic and biogenic
golden coloured gems we love today. and colours, and are easily put to use
materials to begin with – because they
It is also treasured because it typically in design concepts. In recent years, the
were likely a side product of hunting,
formed between 10 and 90 million years explosion of technology in freshwater
fishing and gathering during human
ago, depending on the geological deposit cultured pearl growth, mainly in China,
evolution. CIBJO recognizes a general
where it is found. Some amber can date has added greatly to the choices that
collective name for all gem materials of
back 345 and 146 million years. Ancient jewellers have. High quality natural
Pearl remains among the most biological origin: biogenic gem materials;
Greeks believed that amber gems were pearls, at one time valued over diamonds,
important biogenic gem products and there distinguishes one group of
tears shed by the gods, while others remain a very rare biogenic gem material.
in jewellery materials essentially composed by
believed amber to be fragments of the
organic matter or organic molecules: Since 1975, CITES (Convention on
setting sun. Entrapped insects and other
organic gem materials (e.g. ivory, International Trade in Endangered Species
animals occasionally found in amber
tortoiseshell, bone, copal). Pearls, cultured of Wild Fauna and Flora), also known as
dispelled those notions. Today, such fossil
pearls, mother-of-pearl and precious The Washington Convention, regulates
inclusions are sought after and prized
coral because are essentially composed the trade in materials of biological
because they offer a fascinating glimpse
of biomineralized calcium carbonate, are origin in the wild. There are three levels
into a vanished world. Another form
better described simply as biogenic gems. of protection, or Appendixes (I, II and
of hardened tree resin is called copal.
Others, like amber and jet, are better III). Some species that give rise to
Copal formed much more recently, and
described as fossils. gem materials are listed in CITES with
is sometimes referred to as immature,
different levels of protection, including
or pre-fossilized amber. Determinations
elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus,
between amber and copal are often made
narwhals, sperm whales, walrus, sea
based upon their geologic settings. Copal
turtles, blue coral and black coral. This
is more susceptible to certain solvents
information is updated every three years
than older ambers as it contains much
by CITES.
more volatiles in its composition.

GE MS TONE S
Finally, it should be noted that several Cutting, care and cleaning Description and properties
other – though rarely used – organic
Most organic and biogenic gem materials Straightforwardly defined, an organic or
materials are sometimes used in
are fashioned as cabochons, carvings, biogenic gem is a gem material produced
jewellery, though they will not be
cameos or rounded or free-form beads, by, or derived from, a living organism
discussed in this Guide. These include
and are rarely faceted. Ivory may be from either the plant or animal kingdoms.
rhinoceros horn, hippopotamus tooth,
carved into very delicate, intricate, For specific properties of each organic
hornbill ivory, wild boar ivory, narwhal
detailed carvings, and objects of art, and biogenic gem, see below.
tusk, bone and deer antlers. Ivory nut
particularly in Eastern Asia. While rings
palms (also called tagua nuts) are
using organic materials are used, the user
sometimes used as a substitute for
must take special care.
animal ivory.
Avoid rough handling, heat and chemicals
During the 17th and 18th centuries, and
for all organic and biogenic materials.
through the Victorian era, a black material
They are soft, occasionally brittle, and
called jet was used. It is a fossilized wood
porous enough to be damaged easily.
found principally in Whitby, England. It is
Cleaning may be performed using a
considered a fossil rather than an organic
dampened cloth or a moistened soft
gem material. Queen Victoria famously
bristle toothbrush. Beads strung on silk
used jet in mourning jewellery. Human
should not be soaked in water, as this will
hair, another organic substance, was also
cause the cord to stretch.
woven and used in jewellery during the
Victorian Era.
Due to protections for the species,

tortoiseshell is generally only found in
antique jewellery, combs or objects of art

GE MS TONE S
Amber Treatments Localities

Heating in low temperature is used Dominican Republic, Baltic Sea
to modify clarity, alter colour and may (bordering Germany, Poland and
Refractive Index: 1.540 (+0.005, -0.001) cause some inclusions to expand, creating Russia), Ukraine, Mexico, Myanmar,
spangled, disc-like inclusions, known in Italy and Ethiopia.
Birefringence: none
the trade as sun spangles or sun sparks.
Specific Gravity: 1.08 (+0.02, -0.08) Amber is sometimes dyed to add a darker
tone to lighter materials.
Cause(s) of colour: Impurities and
organic substances cause colours (yellow,
Collector quality
orange and brown). Green and blue
Small insects, such as this millipede and an
colours in amber are perceived due to Strong colours in amber are considered
ant were captured during the formation of
strong fluorescence in some amber from collector items, as is any amber
this Colombian copal. Field of view: 52 mm
the Dominican Republic. containing unusual insects. Entomologists
seeking to understand a bygone world
often collect these amber samples for
Identifying characteristics: Two-phase further study. Size is a factor in evaluating
inclusions containing gas and liquid, amber, especially in combination with
flow lines, inorganic inclusions, insects fine colours. Gems containing interesting
and other arthropods, and small animals inclusions are highly collectible.
such as lizards. Heating amber may alter
their appearance.

download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO Amber and copal sometimes contain
Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org insects or other small creatures that
are highly collectible

GE MS TONE S
Precious Coral CIBJO distinguishes with other coral Cause(s) of colour: (Red, pink, orange,
species not considered precious, such white, occasionally spotted or variegated).
Description and properties as the reef building species that live in Organic molecules are the main cause of
shallow waters and that face threats from the colour in coral.
CIBJO describes as precious corals
climate change and ocean acidification,
those that are used in jewellery and Mohs Hardness: 3 to 4
and the so-called common corals, that
decoration, specifically red, pink and
are mostly of calcareous type, usually Identifying characteristics: tubular
white varieties with porcelaneous lustre
found in the coral reef, and some of with or fibrous structure, colour variegation.
after polishing. They are limited to a
soft skeletons e.g., sponge coral, bamboo
few species belonging to the Corallidae
coral, black coral, golden cora and blue Treatments
family, consisting of the three following
coral. After treatment, some species may
groups: Corallium rubrum (Mediterranean, Precious coral is routinely surface waxed
be used in jewellery and ornaments.
Sardinian), Pleurocorallium secundum with a colourless substance, sometimes
(Midway, Rosato or White/Pink), Currently, four species of precious coral oiled, a practice that is considered a
Pleurocorallium elatius (salmon to red- are listed on CITES Appendix III for normal part of the lapidary process.
coloured: Cerasuolo, Momo, Satsuma; monitoring: Corallium elatius, Corallium Other treatments such as bleaching, Coral has been used in human adornment
flesh pink-coloured: Angel’s Skin, Boké, japonicum, Corallium konojoi and heating, dying, coating, fracture or cavity for millennia, mainly because of its vibrant
Magai, Pelle d’Angello), Hemicorallium Corallium secundum. filling are occasionally reported. color and because, once fashioned, takes on
regale (“garnet” coral), Hemicorallium an appealing polish
laauense (Deep Sea or Shinkai),
Hemicorallium sulcatum (Missu) and Birefringence: 0.172
Corallium japonicum (oxblood coral, Aka,
Moro). They live in deeper waters and are
harvested bellow 50 metres.

GE MS TONE S
Collector quality
Depending on the species, there are
different quality factors. Usually, size and
uniform colour are important, especially
in strands where matching is of primary
relevance. Large, fine art coral carvings of
rich pink to deep red colours are highly
prized and very rare.
Localities
The Mediterranean Sea, and the Eastern
Atlantic Ocean (harvested by countries
bordering the Mediterranean Sea); the
East China Sea, harvested by Taiwan; and
the Pacific Ocean, with Japan Philippines,
South China Sea, the United States
(Hawaii, Midway), among the major Coral may be carved into
producers. a variety of decorative uses
or for use in jewellery

GE MS TONE S
Peridot
History, lore and appreciation Peridot is a variety of olivine and it has Description and properties
been treasured as a gem for thousands
For anyone who loves hazy, yellowish Peridot is an olivine, a solid solution
of years. Egyptian slaves are said to
green colours, peridot is sure to be between the minerals forsterite
have discovered the first source for it at
appreciated. At its best, the gem exudes a and fayalite that crystallizes in the
Zabargad, a desolate island in the Red
soft, oily appearance; comparable to the orthorhombic system and has the
Sea (today’s St. John Island). Zabargad is
deep greens you might see in olive oil. following chemical composition:
considered the classic source for the gem,
In ancient times, peridot was described (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
though it no longer produces commercial
as a gem “containing rays of sunshine.”
quantities. Luckily, the mineral olivine Colours: yellowish green to greenish
It is easy to see why: in direct, brilliant
occurs on every continent. As a yellow to brownish green
sunshine, peridot often returns a warm,
transparent, bright green gem, peridot is
yellowish glow to the eyes. Additionally, Refractive Index: 1.65 to 1.69 (±.020)
much more elusive. Interestingly, Peridot
peridot has very high double refraction
has been found in a particular type of Birefringence: 0.035 to 0.038
causing an optical effect in which a
meteorites, a pallasite from Argentina,
doubling of pavilion facets often is Specific Gravity: 3.34 (+0.14, -0.07)
from which small (up to 1 carat) stones
observed when looking through the table
have been cut for collectors that prize Cause(s) of colour: traces of iron and
of the gem; this feature accentuates
them as an extra-terrestrial gem. magnesium, and in some gems chromium
Peridot, a variety of olivine, forms in peridot’s soft, velvety look.
may be present.
the orthorhombic crystal system The origin of the name is thought to be
Arabic, deriving from the word faridat, Mohs Hardness: 6.5 to 7
meaning gem. However, French and 13th
Century English root words have also
Inclusions of biotite mica, chromite and
been suggested as the name derivation
biotite in the gem often cause internal
for this gemstone.
stresses to occur. In turn, these stresses
cause liquid filled discoid fractures known
as lily pad inclusions.
Peridot is one of the birthstones for
August. It is also a 15th wedding
anniversary gemstone.

GE MS TONE S
Peridot
Treatments Localities Cutting, care and cleaning

None known. Egypt (St John’s Island) is the classic Because peridot is not an extremely hard
source, though it is no longer a gem, ultrasonic cleaners are not an ideal
Collector quality commercial producer of the gem. way to clean peridot jewellery. Peridot
Myanmar (Burma) is considered a is also susceptible to extreme heat, so
With peridot, locality, colour and size
classic source too, if only because it steamers should not be used. Certain
are the significant aspects to consider.
has consistently produced large, clean acids used in jewellery manufacturing
Gems that can be proven to come from
peridots, which have become a global may etch peridot, so it is recommended
Zabargad are rare since that classic
gauge to measure this gemstone’s beauty. they not be used around this gem. Finally,
deposit has been largely depleted.
In recent years, Pakistan has also become a soft, damp cloth, or a soft bristle
Myanmar (Burma) and, more recently,
a producer of very fine material. The toothbrush is probably best to use when
Pakistan are sources that continue to
United States consistently mines for the cleaning peridot jewellery.
provide exceptional gems of significant
gem in Arizona, though they are generally
size, and exceptional colour, often over Peridot is available in a variety of shapes
smaller and sometimes slightly brownish
ten carats. and sizes and may range in tone
in colour. Australia, Brazil, China, Kenya,
Because peridot is plentiful, collectors Ethiopia, Norway, Sri Lanka, Finland,
often opt for size (ten carats or above) Tanzania, Vietnam, and the Antarctic have
with saturated, slightly yellowish also produced it, though not in significant
green colours. Cut has become an commercial quantities.
important factor: well-balanced gems
that efficiently return colour and light,
together with crisp facet junctions, are
always appreciated. On extremely rare
occasions, a star peridot (sporting 4 rays)
A common inclusion scene in peridot is
is reported.
called a “lily pad” due to its similarity
with the pond plant. In peridot the discoid
appearance is caused by a microscopic
stress fracture inside the stone

GE MS TONE S
Quartz
History, lore and appreciation Colourless quartz, or rock crystal, has long the green quartz available on the market
been cherished for its clarity – references today is irradiation-treated quartz also
Quartz can be colourless or richly
to the clarity of crystal emanate from along with some pale amethyst that is
coloured, transparent or opaque, highly
ancient writings, including the Bible. Some heat treated to turn it green.
included or not. It can exhibit chatoyancy,
people have long believed that gazing into
asterism, aventurescence or iridescence. Rose quartz is a semi-transparent to
a large round crystal ball gave clairvoyants
Quartz can be as common as particles translucent variety of quartz whose
an ability to “see” the future.
of sand on the beach, or deeply coveted devotees appreciate its soft, pink colour.
gems in private collections and insured at Colourless quartz with bold and colourful It tends to be very lightly saturated and
high values. The noted Swiss gemmologist, inclusions of another mineral (such as when cut as a cabochon, it occasionally
Dr. Eduard Gübelin, aptly referred to quartz tourmaline, hematite, goethite, mica or exhibits asterism with a 6-rayed,
as the “jack of all trades.” Yet it is found on rutile) is increasingly used in jewellery. sometimes 12-rayed star effect, in direct
every continent on Earth, standing in as Generally, more colourful quartz lighting. Asterism is caused by light
one of the world’s most plentiful minerals. varieties, such as amethyst and citrine, reflecting from tiny, oriented, included
are predominantly used in jewellery. (For rutile needles that align themselves
In ancient times, it was believed that
Rock crystal quartz more about amethyst see page 6; for more in trigonal symmetry during the
transparent colourless quartz was a form
about citrine, see page 13). crystal’s formation. Stars and cat’s eyes
of permanent ice, a suggestion first offered
occasionally form in smoky quartz and,
by the natural historian, Pliny the Elder. The transparent brown coloured variety
rarely, in colourless quartz as well.
This belief evolved from what was once of this mineral is called smoky quartz. It
a major source for quartz, the snow and was found in the Cairngorm Mountains of
ice-covered Alps. The word “crystal” in fact Scotland and extensively used in Scottish
derives from this mode of thinking. The jewellery in the late nineteenth century.
Ancient Greek word for ice is kristallos. Since then, the majority of brown quartz
In 1646, Sir Thomas Browne proved has been sourced in other localities around
crystal quartz to be a mineral, rather than the world. The very dark varieties are
permanent ice. His book, Pseudodoxia known in the trade as morion. There is also
Epidemica, described this as one of his a small amount of natural green quartz
corrections to “vulgar errors.” available, called prasiolite, located in the
Faroe Islands. However, the majority of

GE MS TONE S
Quartz
Aventurine quartzite exhibits phenomena Rutilated and tourmalinated quartz (also Description and properties Internal identifying characteristics:
as a result of its inclusions. (Note: called sagenitic quartz) contain large, ln transparent quartz varieties dendritic
Quartz has a chemical composition
Quartzite is a form of quartz; a granular, highly visible inclusions that become a inclusions, and inclusions of many minerals
of SiO2 and crystallises in the trigonal
interlocking mass of quartz crystals celebrated part of the gem itself. Rutile may be present, including rutile, goethite,
crystal system.
formed in different environments, rather needles may be random, large and golden schorl (tourmaline), cristobalite, hematite
than single crystal quartz). Curiously, the in colour, or may form in multi-rayed, Refractive Index: 1.544 to 1.553 and others. Fluid inclusions can be found
term “aventurescence” was so named after 6-fold star-like inclusions surrounding a in all varieties of transparent quartz.
Birefringence: 0.009
a 17th century Italian glassmaker who hematite crystal within the gem.
accidentally tipped copper filings into a Specific Gravity: 2.66 (+0.03, -0.02)
Drusy quartz is occasionally used in
batch of molten glass. The result of his
jewellery design. This is an overgrowth of Cause(s) of colour: (Rose Quartz) Debate
fortuitous accident was a glittering form
minute quartz crystals over other larger about the identity of the nano-inclusions
of man-made glass. It is recounted that
specimens, or on chalcedony. The result is in quartz, which causes both cloudiness
his colleagues remarked he had made it
a glittering, rugged texture that is kept in and apparent colour, remains. In any case,
“per avventura,” or by adventure, or simply,
its rough form and mounted in jewellery. the orientation of the mineral inclusions
chance. The name stuck. Aventurine glass,
often causes asterism in rose quartz from
which is still manufactured and faceted
Birthstones and anniversaries Madagascar.
in Italy, should not be confused with
aventurine quartz. Aventurine quartz is Rose quartz is sometimes regarded as (Smoky quartz) Colour centres involving
green in appearance and its aventurescent an alternate birthstone for the month aluminium impurities.
effect is generally less pronounced than in of January, along with garnet.
Aventurine quartz: Colour is caused by
glass. Aventurescence in quartzite is due to
inclusions of fuchsite mica platelets.
the granular interlocking of quartz crystals,
combined with flat, disc-like inclusions Mohs Hardness: 7
of green mica (fuchsite) that produce
glittering reflections in direct light. This Quartz may contain rutile inclusions. This
optical effect is similar to the one seen in sample from Brazil includes a rutile inclusion
sunstone feldspar due to reflections in the formed as a six ray star with another
metallic copper (Oregon, USA) or hematite inclusion of hematite as its core. Field of
(Tanzania, Africa) inclusions. view: 7.19 mm

GE MS TONE S
Quartz
Treatments Collector quality Cutting, care and cleaning

Quench crackling: Heating, followed by Rose quartz and other phenomenal Skilled lapidary artists often carve rock
immersion in water causes thermal shock varieties are often collected with emphasis crystal quartz into objects of art, or
and the gem develops cracks and fissures. placed on depth of colour and strength in unusual shapes. Gems exhibiting
This by itself is not attractive, but it is of phenomena. Smoky quartz is collected phenomena are often cut en cabochon
followed by dye impregnation to reach in antique jewellery – especially Scottish or tablet shapes.
deep inside the quartz through the newly jewellery, due to its historical significance.
While quartz is very durable in general,
developed, surface-reaching fissures. Artistically carved rock crystal both
special care should be taken to not subject
The result, for example, can make a gem modern and antique is quite desirable.
it to temperature extremes. Quartz may
look surprisingly like emerald or ruby Inclusions’ connoisseurs collect cut rock
be cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner if
(depending on the dye used). crystal with its many mineral inclusions.
there are no fissures that could endanger
Irradiation: Colourless quartz can the durability of the stone. As with most
Localities
be irradiated to look smoky, green gems, using a damp, soft cloth, or gently Quartz when used as a gemstone is extremely
(prasiolite) or yellow; rose quartz’s colour Quartz is found on all continents but scrubbing with a soft-bristle toothbrush, versatile, mainly due to the various kinds of
can sometimes be deepened through some stand-out producing countries is the best way to clean quartz. beautiful inclusions it contains
irradiation. include: Germany, Hungary, India, Iran,
Brazil, Bolivia, South Africa, Madagascar,
Heat treatment: Heating may lighten the
Mexico, Sri Lanka, Scotland, Spain,
colour of dark smoky quartz.
Switzerland, and the United States
Coating or foil backing: Deepens the
colour of some gems; may help with cat’s
eye or star phenomena.
Dyeing: (Generally after quench crackling)
may cause the material to appear a totally
different colour.

GE MS TONE S
Ruby
History, lore and appreciation The name ruby comes from the Latin, Portuguese travellers in the 1500s and
ruber, meaning red. While there are several the French traveller and merchant,
Throughout humanity, red has represented
red gemstones enjoyed by humankind, Jean Baptiste Tavernier who traded in
passion and romance. Ruby, the red gem
ruby is esteemed and regarded as the gemstones in the mid-1600s, identified
variety of the mineral corundum, has been
very definition of red. Descriptions of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Kingdom of
engaged for centuries to symbolize those
ruby’s colour have wandered into passions Pegu, Myanmar (Burma) as the main
sentiments. 17th Century English poet,
as well, with the relatively old phrase sources of ruby. In describing the perils
Robert Herrick, alluded to both passion
“pigeon’s blood”, sometimes used still inherent in hunting for gems, he notes
and the gems’ colour when he wrote:
to describe a fine ruby. Aside from their that a voyage to Kyatpyen, where ruby
“Some asked me where the rubies grew, red colour, ruby and spinel are often mined was traded, should not be attempted by
and nothing I did say; from the same sources, and interesting land:”…on account of the jungles which
but with my finger pointed to historical cases exist where large red abound with lions, tigers and elephants,”
the lips of Julia.” spinels were called “balas” rubies. The he wrote. In 1904, traveller V.C. Scott
famous Black Prince’s Ruby, a 170 carat O’Conner described Thabeit-Kyin as the
Ruby is mentioned in the Bible – and its
gem that graces the Imperial State Crown port of Mogok, Burma’s famous ruby
value is clearly understood. The remark in
of the United Kingdom, nestled next and sapphire source: “Through this little
Job, “The price of wisdom is above rubies,” is
to the famous Cullinan II diamond, is postern gate the wealth of Capelan has
but one of six references.
actually a spinel. Worn by successive Kings passed for centuries on its way to the
A series of ruby crystals have grown
and Queens since the 1367 (and even great world; to the treasuries of kings,
in matrix from Myanmar (Burma)
in helmets going into battle) the spinel to the fingers of princes, to the necks
hails from present-day Tajikistan. Almost of beautiful women; to the making of
all large “rubies” reported in historical one, the undoing of another.” And this is
documents are, in fact, red spinels. The exactly how locality fits into appreciation.
Persian scientist, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni did Because Myanmar (Burma) has produced
classify differences between spinel and a standard of quality by which ruby from
ruby gemstones in the 11th century. other localities is often measured, the
term “Burmese ruby” has also come to
be understood by many in the trade as
a quality designation. But designations

GE MS TONE S
Ruby
of that kind require additional qualification, Colours: orange red to strongly purplish Treatments
as Myanmar (Burma) produces both fine red; also brownish red. The dominant
Heating: This treatment dissolves or
and commercial quality ruby. colour must be red.
partially dissolves fine rutile needles thereby
Appreciation for red gems, especially ruby, Refractive Index: 1.762 to 1.770 increasing the clarity and transparency
has a historical genesis in India, especially (+0.009, -0.005) of the gem. In certain cases, controlled
during the rule of the Mughals in the heating helps redefine asterism in star rubies.
Birefringence: 0.008 to 0.010
1600s, whose leaders, particularly Shah It may also help remove purplish or brownish
Jahan, had an affinity for ruby, spinel and Specific Gravity: 4.00 (±0.05) colour components in some gemstones,
other gemstones. These were often carved resulting in stronger red colours. Star ruby results when intersecting rutile
Cause(s) of colour: Chromium with
with verses from the Qur’an and worn in needles it contains form the phenomenon
possible modifications of colour with iron Diffusion: The diffusion of colour-causing
turbans, articles of clothing and jewellery. called asterism. This is best seen when the
and titanium. elements through the crystal lattice at
The features of ruby, which have always gems are cut as cabochons, and when
high temperature is sometimes performed
been appreciated, are those that help Mohs Hardness: 9 a pinpointed light illuminates the gem
with the intent of intensifying or altering
define the meaning of gemstone: ruby is
Internal identifying characteristics: the colour of some rubies.
beautiful, durable and rare.
Clouds of fine particles and networks
Oil and dye: Some rubies with surface
of fine rutile needles (called silk), which
Birthstones and anniversaries reaching fissures may be treated with oil
may intersect at 60 degree angles, are
or dyes, resulting in stronger colours. The
Ruby is the birthstone for the month commonly seen in natural ruby. Mineral
treatments are not considered durable and
of July. The 15th and 40th wedding inclusions and included crystals of zircon,
require special care considerations.
anniversaries are celebrated with ruby. and related stress fractures (called
halos) are sometimes seen. Liquid-filled Glass filling in cavities and fissures: High
Description and properties “fingerprint” inclusions are also common. lead content glass is sometimes used to
Some of these identifying characteristics fill surface reaching fissures, pits or cracks For more information about CIBJO standards
A variety of the mineral species corundum,
may disappear, change or be diminished in certain rubies/corundum. The treatment and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
forming in the trigonal crystal system with
as a result of heat treatment. increases the transparency of low-grade imitation products, or synthetic stones please
the chemical composition of Al2O3.
ruby/ corundum. In some cases, the material download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
is so prevalent that it may require special Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org
care considerations.

GE MS TONE S
Ruby
Collector quality Localities

Location, or provenance, is particularly Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), Cambodia,
important with ruby. A fine ruby with a Sri Lanka, Kenya, Afghanistan, India,
“Burmese” designation may be perceived Pakistan, Tanzania, Greenland, Tajikistan,
by the trade to be more desirable than an Mozambique, Madagascar, Vietnam, Kenya,
equally fine ruby from a different locality, Malawi, and Nepal.
through the beauty of rubies from any locality
can compete with gems from Myanmar. Cutting, care and cleaning
Much depends on the choice of the wearer.
Ruby is mostly cut in traditional pear,
Colour is of extreme importance. The more
round, oval, cushion and emerald cut
purely red a ruby is, the more collectible it
outlines. Ruby is extremely durable due
becomes.
to its hardness and toughness – second
Clarity and size of the gem is also important, after diamond on the Mohs hardness
though the presence of silk or other inclusions scale. Ruby jewellery may be cleaned in an
is often valued since it not only points to a ultrasonic cleaner, or it may be steamed. Faceted gems accompany this ruby
gem’s natural origin; it also suggests the gem But this should follow close inspection to in matrix from Myanmar
has not been treated at temperatures high determine if there are any surface reaching
enough to dissolve the silk. Cut or carved ruby fissures that could expand, or if oils, dyes
with known provenance is also collectible. or glass filling are present; cleaning could
harm the filling material. As with most
Star ruby is rare and collectible especially
gemstones, a soft moistened cloth, or a
if the legs of the star reach from girdle to
soft bristle toothbrush may be used to
girdle of the cabochon, and are unwavering
clean the gem.
and sharp. Star ruby often has a milky
complexion due to inclusions of rutile,
so depth of colour and transparency are
This ruby from Mozambique contains
additional important factors in valuing and
a series of amphibole inclusions.
collecting these gems.
Field of view: 1.76 mm

GE MS TONE S
Sapphire
History, lore and appreciation And grief and vain suspicions drive away. has interesting colour descriptors that
The blue sort feels heaven’s changes are often comparisons to a flower, as in
If blue is the colour you think of when
as they play, ancient times. This includes the often-used
the word “sapphire” is said, you are very
Bright on the sunny, dull when dark the day, “cornflower blue.” Others may compare
close to its root. It derives from Hebrew
But best that gem which not too deep a hue, sapphire colours to other natural vibrant
and Arabic terms safir, meaning blue,
O’erloads, nor yet degrades too light colours, such as a peacock’s feathers.
and sapphiros, meaning blue in Greek. In
a blue.
ancient times, such words referred to a The allusion to flowers does not end there.
blue gem material that was likely lapis Even then, a classification of hyacinth’s Colour variations are what make this variety
lazuli. Conversely, the ancients called beauty was tacitly underway. The reference of corundum so interesting, as are the
the today’s sapphire “hyacinth,” due to to blue hyacinths, lovely flowers, remains “mixed colours.” One important gem with
its colour similarity to blue hyacinths. an apt association, but the term began to a blend of colours, which captivates the
Obviously, that term has changed with fade. In the 15th Century, the naturalist imagination, is the padparadscha sapphire.
the passage of time, though a lovely Camillo Leonardo spoke and wrote about The trade term, Padparadscha (which
poem about gems by Marbode, Bishop of “sapphirini.” derives through the German language from
Rennes, written approximately 1000 years the Sinhalese word padmaraga, meaning
Modern day usage of sapphire includes
ago speaks of the colours of hyacinth, as lotus colour) denotes an extraordinary and
A sapphire crystal and almost all colours of the spectrum
follows: rare variety. The term is only applicable to
cabochon cut gem other than just blue – as Marbode’s
sapphires with medium pinkish orange to
Three various kinds the skilled as poem suggests. Sapphire, in fact, can be
orange-pink colours.
Hyacinths name, any colour but red. That’s because red
Varying in colour, and unlike in fame: corundum (though essentially the same In recent years, there has been a growing
One, like pomegranate flowers mineral as sapphire) is classified as a ruby. appreciation for phenomenal gems – of
a fiery blaze In short, the difference between ruby and which sapphire enjoys two principal
And one, the yellow citron’s hue displays sapphire is that only ruby can be red. So in varieties: Star sapphire in blue and
One charms with paley blue the gazer’s eye, separate colours of sapphire, descriptions various other colours with a six-rayed
Like the mild tint that decks the are preceded by a colour designation, such star, (and rarely a twelve-rayed star) cut
northern sky, as “yellow sapphire.” Corundum, other as cabochons, as well as colour-change
A strengthening power the several than red or blue, may also be referred to as sapphires have both received increasing
kinds convey, “fancy sapphire.” Fine quality blue sapphire attention in recent years.

GE MS TONE S
Sapphire
Birthstones and anniversaries Specific Gravity: 4.00 (+0.10, -0.05) Treatments Coating: On rare occasions, some sapphire
is coated with a thin film to deepen or
Sapphire is the birthstone for the month Cause(s) of colour: Blue: iron and Heating: This treatment is undertaken
change its colour appearance.
of September. It is used to celebrate 5th titanium. Green: iron or iron and to increase transparency by reducing the
and 45th anniversaries. titanium. Yellow: iron and colour centres; opacity of clouds of rutile inclusions. It Irradiation: Some colourless to near
orange: iron (and possibly chromium in has also been performed on low quality colourless sapphire can be turned orange
Description and properties padparadscha variety). Purple: varying sapphire material from Sri Lanka, known or yellow though irradiation. Colour in
traces of iron, titanium and chromium. as geuda, since the 1970s. This is a high irradiated sapphire fades over time.
A variety of the mineral species corundum,
Pink: chromium; possibly titanium. Colour temperature treatment that results in
forming in the trigonal crystal system with Glass filling in cavities and fissures:
change: combined presence of chromium, strong blue and yellow colours. Heating
the chemical composition of Al2O3 While this treatment is less prevalent
vanadium, iron and titanium. may also cause some overly dark blue or
in sapphire than it is in ruby, it should be
Colours: Blue sapphire: very light to very green sapphire to be lightened in tone,
Mohs Hardness: 9 noted that any gem material with surface
dark violetish blue to greenish blue. Fancy or to turn purplish sapphire into pink
reaching fissures might be subjected to
colours: All colours of the corundum Internal identifying characteristics: colours. Heating at high temperature in a
infilling of glass or other substances, with
species excepting blue and red (blue Inclusions in sapphire may be composed moderate pressure environment has been
the goal of increasing the transparency
sapphire and ruby respectively). These of fine rutile needles (called silk), which recently reported to generate treated blue
of the gem.
colours include green, yellow, orange, pink, may intersect at 60-degree angles. In sapphire.
purple, violet, brown, black, and colourless. such cases, when the gem is cut as
Diffusion: Heating some sapphire at very
Sapphire may also contain two colours, a cabochon, a star effect may occur.
high temperatures with chemical additives
mixed colours or other variations. In recent Included zircon crystals or crystals
causes lattice diffusion of those additives.
years, pale coloured sapphire has come to of different minerals, fluid inclusions,
Elements, such as beryllium or titanium,
be known as “pastel sapphire” in the trade. fingerprints or partially healed fractures,
are diffused into the corundum crystal
and negative crystals with liquid-gas
Refractive Index: 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009, lattice, causing colours in the gem being
(CO2) may also occur and colour zoning,
-0.005) treated to deepen or change. For more information about CIBJO standards
particularly seen in angular patterns.

GE MS TONE S
Sapphire
Collector quality geographical origin. This is because

there are well-documented situations
Several factors may be used to judge
of overlapping gemmological data.
fineness in sapphire, though ultimately,
the beauty of a gemstone remains in the In recent years, gemstones coming from
eye of the beholder. Fine quality blue various localities around the world, such
sapphire should possess the ability to be as Madagascar, or the Umba River Valley
spotted from across the room because in East Africa, have supplied a unique
of its depth of colour and saturation. palette of colours that are desirable for
The transparency of sapphire also comes collections, especially in suites showing
into play. Because inclusions can cause an array of hues. East Africa and
some gems to have milky colouration, Madagascar have joined other sources
this becomes a detriment if it also causes such as Sri Lanka, in bringing to market
a perceived loss of blue. In one notable rare colour change sapphire, many
exception, haziness is not only expected changing from a blue grey colour in
– it is desired, and that is in the finest daylight, to a violet or purple colour in
sapphire from Kashmir. The haziness incandescent light. Star sapphire with
(often referred to as sleepiness) acts strong colour in which the “legs” of the Sapphire forms in a variety of
to diffuse light and colour, resulting in star are girdle-to-girdle, straight and different colours that are then cut
magnificently even blue colouration. unwavering is desirable. Fine padparadscha as fancy colour sapphires
is also considered collectible.
The specific colour of blue sapphires, often
described in the trade with descriptors
such as “Royal Blue,” “Cornflower Blue”
or “Peacock Blue,” also affects their
desirability. Geographical provenance
has been regarded as a value factor
(e.g. Kashmir, Burma, Sri Lanka) in spite
of the scientific recognition that it is more
reliable to determine geological origin than

GE MS TONE S
Sapphire
Localities Cutting, care and cleaning

Sri Lanka and Myanmar (Burma) are Sapphire is mostly cut in traditional
historic sources for sapphire and produce pear, round, oval, cushion and emerald
some of the world’s finest gems. In cut outlines. Sapphire is extremely
extremely high qualities, Kashmir has durable due to its hardness and
emerged as the preeminent source for exceptional toughness, second after
blue sapphire, especially in the late 19th diamond on the Mohs hardness scale. In this Sri Lankan sapphire, a reflective
century. Sri Lanka is the classic source Sapphire jewellery may be cleaned in an film and growth blockage tube resembles
for padparadscha sapphire, though other ultrasonic cleaner, or it may be steamed. a flower. Field of view: 1.42 mm
sources also now produce mixes of pink But this should follow close inspection
and orange colours as well. Australia, to determine if there is any surface-
Thailand, Cambodia, Kenya, India, reaching fissure that could expand,
Tanzania, Madagascar, Malawi, Greenland, possibly causing damage. As with most
Vietnam, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and the gemstones, a soft moistened cloth, or a
United States all produce blue sapphire, soft bristle toothbrush may be used to
as well as many fancy coloured hues. clean the gem.
Fancy colour sapphires can be any

colour – except red and blue

GE MS TONE S
Spinel
History, lore and appreciation Appreciation for spinel inevitably spectral hues – what we call “fire.” It may
brings us to one of the world’s greatest be this fire that first gave spinel its name:
Spinel has long been one of the most
collectors of gemstones. Among the one derivation of the word comes from
underestimated gems on Earth, but that
Iranian crown jewels is one named the the Greek spinter – meaning “spark.”
is rapidly changing. With education,
Samarian Spinel. Weighing approximately Another theory suggests that the word
there is a greater understanding and
500 carats, it is thought to be the world’s comes from the Latin spina, alluding to the
appreciation for the gemstone’s unique
largest fashioned spinel. Its provenance sharp points in the octahedral crystals.
optical characteristics, its broad colour
dates back to the 18th Century Persian
palette, its rarity, and versatility.
conquest of India. An inscription on the Birthstones and anniversaries
Red spinel has been known since ancient back of the spinel confirms that the great
Spinel is one of the birthstones for August
times, and for years it was referred Indian Mughal gem collector, Jahangir,
and it is used to commemorate a 22nd
to as “balas ruby” because the main had once owned it. Interestingly, the
wedding anniversary.
historical source for the material was in Timur spinel in the British crown jewels
Red spinel octahedron with present-day Tajikistan in a region called bears an inscription indicating Jahangir
growth etching Badakhshan. In the chapter on ruby, it had also owned it.
was noted that the Black Prince’s Ruby,
Much of the appreciation for spinel is due
the centrepiece of the British Imperial
to its unique gemmology. There is a clarity
State Crown is actually a spinel. Another
and directness about spinel that many
famous gem spinel set in the crown of
enthusiasts appreciate. Optically, spinel
Queen Victoria is the so-called Timur
is singly refractive, meaning that light
Ruby, a 361 carat gemstone that is also
passing through it in any given direction
a spinel. Many other historical red gems
is not split into two rays. Spinel has a high
decorating the crowns of Europe and
refractive index, and many transparent
in Asia are, in fact, spinel. Spinels stand
gems are relatively inclusion-free. Finally,
on their own as magnificent and long-
spinel has moderate dispersion. This
celebrated gems.
combination of optical characteristics
Red spinel crystal from Myanmar
renders spinel bright and reflective, and
(Burma) often forms in calcite,
capable of breaking up white light into
alongside a cut red spinel

GE MS TONE S
Spinel
Description and properties octahedral crystals, if large enough, may

be accompanied by strain halos.
Spinel is a mineral species, member of the
spinel group, whose varieties are primarily
Treatments
distinguished by their colour. It forms in
the cubic crystal system, and its basic Spinel is rarely treated, though occasional
chemical composition is: MgAl204. heating of pink-to-red spinel has been
reported. Infrequently, surface reaching
Colours: red, pink, orange, blue, violet,
fissures are treated with oils or polymers.
purple and grey are the most common
colours. Other colours include brown
Collector quality
and black, and rarely, yellow, green and
near colourless. Colour-change spinel Colour, carat weight, clarity and origin
changes from greyish blue in daylight all play a role in how spinel is valued and
to purple in incandescent light. Vivid collected. Gems whose provenance can be
cobalt-blue spinel is coloured by cobalt. ascertained always have collectors. Spinel
A grouping of spinel shows how
that is deep red, large and relatively free of
Refractive Index: 1.718 (+0.017, -0.008) diverse its colour range can be
inclusions is also highly desired. So too is
Birefringence: None rare, vivid blue spinel, particularly when a
gemmological laboratory has determined
that cobalt is the colouring agent. Locality
Cause(s) of colour: Blue: iron, cobalt. plays an important role for collectors as
Red to pink: chromium well. Spinel from the Pamir Mountains
in Central Asia is rare and collectible, as
Mohs Hardness: 8
is spinel from Myanmar (Burma). New For more information about CIBJO standards
Internal identifying characteristics: localities that produce desirable colour and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
Minute fingerprint inclusions may – anywhere from pink to deep red are imitation products, or synthetic stones please
be seen in spinel. With sufficient collectible. download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
magnification, tiny octahedral crystals Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org
or negative crystals may be seen. These

GE MS TONE S
Spinel
Localities
Tajikistan – especially in the region of
Badakhshan, in the Pamir Mountains,
remains a classic source for the gem and
the main source for large sized gems.
Neighbouring Afghanistan is also a known
source. Myanmar (Burma) is also a classic
source and remains a strong producer
of the material. Sri Lanka, Cambodia,
Thailand, Vietnam, Kenya, Tanzania, and
Russia have all produced spinel. Recent
spinel finds in East Africa and Asia have
reinvigorated interest in the gem.

Spinels are resilient and tough – more
so than many gems (except corundum
or diamond.) They may be cleaned in an
ultrasonic cleaner or steam cleaned. It is
preferable to simply use a damp soft cloth
or a soft bristle toothbrush to clean the This scene exhibits a carbonate
gemstones and spinel jewellery. inclusion in spinel from Mogok.
Field of view: 34 mm

GE MS TONE S
Tanzanite
History, lore and appreciation man-eating beasts, De Sousa made a of the material coming out of the mines
startling discovery himself. Around noon, at Merelani was (and is) a somewhat drab
Tanzanite, a variety of the mineral zoisite,
he discovered a blue crystal lying on the purplish to yellowish brown, it was soon
is a relatively new gemstone on the
ground. The crystal was unknown to him, found that low grade heating turned the
market so it does not share the depth
though after consulting a few books, De gems into a deep purplish blue. While
of history presented by other gems. Its
Sousa soon discounted sapphire and the some blue zoisite is that colour naturally,
beauty, though, is no less appealing, and
mineral cordierite (iolite) as possibilities. it is understood that virtually all of the
the history it does have is intriguing. In
He finally decided it was a form of olivine, commercially mined zoisite today is
years to come, tanzanite’s find will clearly
or at least was the closest gemmological heated to induce the deep, velvety, blue
be looked back upon as one of the most
match, and on July 25 pegged a claim for to violet blue colours associated with
significant new gem discoveries of the
it. Soon other claims were made near his the gem.
20th Century.
– but the material was now being called
There is much to appreciate about
Several stories relate the discovery of something else: zoisite. Though it may
tanzanite: its deep blue to violet colours
tanzanite. The one most often told is have originally been confused with it,
is, of course, paramount. It can be found
that of Manuel De Souza, a tailor from zoisite is a different mineral than olivine.
Tanzanite crystal in sizable crystals suitable for centre
Goa, India, living in Arusha, Tanzania. On According to John Saul, a geologist and
stones in jewellery. It is also trichroic,
July 7, 1967, De Souza (who doubled as gem miner from Tanzania, confirmations
meaning that it shows three different
a gold and gemstone prospector) found of the mineral zoisite soon came from
colours in the three crystallographic
himself in the hilly region of Merelani in the Gemological Institute of America and
directions. As a result, tilting the gem
the company of four Masai tribesmen from other experts around the world.
in three different directions one is
he had hired to help him prospect.
Henry Platt, vice president of Tiffany & sometimes able to discern deep purple/
The region, at the foothills of majestic
Co., who had been shown the material red, blue, and yellow/brown. Viewed in
Mount Kilimanjaro, was dangerous:
and admired it, was the first to call it a polariscope, these colours become even
poisonous snakes, Cape buffalo, lions and
“tanzanite,” in honour of the country more evident.
other African animals roamed the area.
where it was found; the name was soon
Accounts say De Sousa was unarmed
duly inscribed in new gemmological texts.
but for a few prospecting tools, seeking
Indeed, tanzanite is not mined elsewhere
only what providence might offer.
on a commercial basis. While almost all
But rather than being discovered by

GE MS TONE S
Tanzanite
Birthstones and anniversaries Internal identifying characteristics: Collector quality

Tanzanite tends to be remarkably clean
Tanzanite has been added as a Tanzanite in large sizes with rich
and transparent. Fingerprint inclusions
birthstone for the month of December, colour is desirable for collections.
are sometimes present. On very rare
along with zircon and turquoise. Multi-colour transparent zoisite is also
occasions, tiny, parallel, hollow tubes in
sought, particularly green and pink.
some tanzanite causes chatoyancy (cat’s
Description and properties On extremely rare occasion, collectible
eye effect).
cat’s eye tanzanite is fashioned.
A variety of the mineral species zoisite
(in the epidote group) forming in the Treatments
orthorhombic crystal system with Zoisite can be almost any colour.
Heating at relatively low temperatures
the following approximate chemical Tanzanite is delicate and should be worn The name “tanzanite” is reserved for
(up to 600ºC) causes a change of colour
composition: Ca2Al3(SiO4)3(OH). with great care. Tanzanite should never be the blue to violet colours
from brown, purple or grey to bluish
cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner or steam
Colour(s): Transparent blue to violet to purple to purplish blue. Sometimes
cleaned. Warm soapy water or a damp
bluish purple zoisites are called tanzanite. tanzanite is coated to improve its colour,
soft cloth is considered a safe way to
However, other colours are also mined in although this is uncommon.
clean tanzanite jewellery.
Merelani, including pink, purple, yellow,
and green. These are sometimes referred Localities
to as “fancy tanzanites” in the trade. While
Merelani, Tanzania. At the time of writing,
they are all zoisite, only the deep purplish-
Merelani is the only known commercial
blue colours can be called tanzanite.
locality for tanzanite in the world. While
Refractive Index: 1.691 to 1.700 (±0.005) zoisite does occur in other places, no
material matches the colour intensity of
tanzanite.
Cause(s) of colour: Blue: vanadium.
A fluid inclusion in tanzanite also contains
Mohs Hardness: 6 to 7 a small gas bubble. (Field of view unavailable)

GE MS TONE S
Topaz
History, lore and appreciation the 11th Century that the name began to in the world at 1680 old-carats. It was
clearly point to a yellow or golden colour. thought at one time to have actually
There is an unmistakable characteristic
Scholars suggest that this definition could been a topaz but a recent inventory of
about the colour of imperial topaz: a
have encompassed several other yellow the crown jewels uncovered a rounded
deep pink orange verging on red. While
gems that weren’t necessarily the topaz we pebble of aquamarine. It was of a similar
some enthusiasts considered golden
identify as such since the 18th century. weight and description, leading to current
colour the classic colour, pink to reddish
hypothesis that this might have been the
orange hues are more highly desired Yellow and orange colours are iconic for
gem in question.
today. Pablo Neruda, the Chilean poet, today’s definition of topaz, as Neruda
likened topaz to honey: clearly identifies in his poem. Actually, While natural bluish topaz exists, it is
the species occurs in a broader range generally quite pale and it tends to fade
I invite you to a topaz.
of colours, as well as colourless. Topaz in daylight. But one of the most prolific
To the honeycomb of yellow stone,
sometimes includes a soft blending of treated gemstones on the market today
To its bees,
pinkish orange to reddish orange colours, is a range of light to deep blue coloured
To the frozen honey of a topaz,
which the gem trade has called “imperial topaz that is treated with a combination
A classic “imperial” topaz crystal To its golden day…
topaz.” These colours have been found or irradiation and heating to achieve
and faceted gem Origin of the word topaz is quite especially near Ouro Preto, Brazil, although a broad range of popular blue colours.
mysterious as it was once reserved for pink to red topaz has been reported
greenish gemstones – most likely peridots. at various sources around the world,
Topazos is Greek in origin, and refers to the particularly in Russia and Pakistan. But
gems from the island of “Topazios,” which curiously, the rich green colour with which
is known today as Zabargad. However, that topaz was first identified, does not exist
Red Sea island is identified as the classic today – except rarely in very pale stones.
source of peridot. Dating back to Pliny
Topaz, in its purest colourless state was
the Elder’s time, topazos was described
sometimes mistaken for diamond in
as a gem the colour of fresh green olive
ancient times. The so-called “Braganza
oil. Slowly, over time, other colours were
Diamond,” a rounded pebble centrepiece
included within the definition of topazos,
of the Portuguese Crown Jewels in the late Topaz is often colourless, such as
including yellowish gems. It was not until
1700s, was said to be the largest diamond this crystal from Myanmar (Burma)

GE MS TONE S
Topaz
Birthstones and anniversaries Mohs Hardness: 8 Coating: Some colourless topaz is

coated with metal oxides to create the
Topaz is a birthstone for the month of Internal identifying characteristics:
appearance of a variety of different
November. Blue topaz is given for a 4th Fluid inclusions that contain two and three
colours.
wedding anniversary and Imperial topaz is phase inclusions are the most common,
given for a 23rd anniversary. particularly in reddish or orange gems.
Collector quality
Insipient cleavage plans and etch channels
Description and properties are common. Occasionally trapped Colour is the principal feature of topaz
minerals such as biotite, chlorite, hematite with pink to orange to reddish orange
Topaz is a mineral species that crystallises
or phenakite, can be found in topaz. In combinations being among the most
in the orthorhombic crystal system. Its
very rare cases, tiny ribbon like hollow desirable. Size is also an important
chemical composition is Al2(F,OH)2SiO4
tubes, forming in parallel fashion, cause attribute, even in irradiated material
Colour(s): Colourless, yellow, orange, cat’s eye effect. where huge museum quality gems are
brown, pink to red to purple red, light blue occasionally available.
to dark blue and light green. Treatments
Topaz has perfect cleavage in one Topaz is considered rare in natural pink
Refractive Index: 1.619 to 1.627 (±0.010); Heating: In some cases, chromium- direction, so carvings are rare. When and orange colours; less so in blue colours
red, pink, and purple stones typically 1.629 bearing yellow or brown topaz may be they do occur, especially by known that are generally treated from colourless
to 1.637. changed to pink or red colours. artists, they are soon collected. to achieve saturated blue hues
Birefringence: 0.008 to 0.010 Irradiation (followed by heating): This

treatment begins with induced irradiation
causing colourless topaz to turn brown or
Cause(s) of colour: Pink and red topaz brownish green. Heat treatment follows,
is principally coloured by chromium. turning the material blue. In very rare
Blue, yellow and brown owes their cases, and depending on the irradiation
perceived colour to various colour centres, process, some material may retain residual
and possibly combined with traces of radioactivity and require a quarantine
chromium in orange hues. before it can be used safely.

GE MS TONE S
Topaz
Localities Cutting, care and cleaning

Brazil – particularly the area near the While topaz is quite hard, its toughness
town of Ouro Preto in Minas Gerais, and resistance to blows is considered
produces much of the world’s supply of poor because of its perfect directional
classic yellow to orangey pink colours. cleavage. Treated gems may be even more
Other states produce it as well, but mostly vulnerable to cleaving. Ultrasonic cleaners
in the colourless to pale blue range. and steamers should be avoided. A soft,
Schneckenstein, a village in Germany, was damp cloth remains the best way to clean
a major classic source of European topaz topaz and topaz jewellery.
in the 1700s. Pakistan produces some of
This topaz from Utah has a black
the strongest pink to reddish colours at
octahedron magnetite inclusion.
Katlang, near Peshawar. Sarnaka in the
Field of view: 0.288 mm
Urals, Russia, was an important historical
source of pink topaz in the mid-1800s.
Topaz is also found at sources all around
the world, such as Nigeria, Australia,
Myanmar (Burma), Madagascar, Mexico,
Namibia, Sri Lanka, Ukraine and the United
States and Russia.
A range of irradiated and heat-

treated topaz

GE MS TONE S
Tourmaline
History, lore and appreciation unique piezoelectric and pyroelectric In recent years, tourmaline has witnessed
properties. When tourmaline is heated, it a true renaissance, particularly after
Tourmaline is a group of closely related
develops positive and negative charges the discovery of a copper-rich elbaite
minerals composed of several species and
at opposite ends of the crystal. Those tourmaline from the State of Paraíba,
varieties. The celebrated gemmologist and
who smoked pipes appreciated the gem’s Brazil. While the locality produced a
author, Eduard Gübelin, referred to it as
apparent magnetic ability to draw ashes modest quantity of material for a short
a “crystallized kaleidoscope” because of
out of their pipes, which gave it the time, its vivid colours, (described in the
the diversity of colours that make up this
nickname aschentrecker, meaning “ash trade as “neon” or “electric”) caused
rich family. Tourmaline comprises colours
puller.” by copper impurities, were considered
of the spectrum from red to violet and
so unique that they revolutionized the
practically any degree of variations Curiously, tourmaline had already arrived
tourmaline business. Demand for all
in between. Tourmaline can also be on European shores at the time of Pliny
varieties of tourmaline has enjoyed an
bicoloured, colourless or black. the Elder. In his famous series of books
increase since the late 1980s, when
Tourmaline’s variety names are often on natural history, Pliny described similar
cuprian elbaite was first discovered.
designated by these hues. However, most electrical properties in a gemstone he
Since then, similar coloured copper and/
A rubellite tourmaline crystal of the gem tourmaline used in jewellery named “lychnis.” Because he also noted
or manganese rich tourmaline has been
with embedded mica platelets today belongs to the elbaite, rossmanite, that it was reddish or violet in colour, it is
found elsewhere in Brazil as well as in
fluor-liddicoatite and dravite mineral believed the gem was probably tourmaline.
Nigeria and Mozambique.
species, which exhibit the strongest and
Confusion was sown in the 1500s
brightest colours.
when Portuguese explorers looking for Birthstones and anniversaries
The name tourmaline derives from emeralds in Brazil chanced upon rich,
Tourmaline is one of the birthstones for
the Sinhalese word turamali, meaning green, emerald-looking gemstones. Swiss
the month of October, along with opal.
gemstone with mixed colours. In the naturalist, Conrad Gessner, saw this
early 1700s, traders from the Netherlands material in Europe. Though he classified
brought turamali back to Europe from it as “emerald,” he also included the word
Ceylon (Sri Lanka). They were fascinated “Brazilian” in front of it. Obviously, in this
with the material’s apparent electrical case, Brazilian “emerald” wasn’t quite the
characteristics – which later were same as the Colombian material. It was
scientifically determined as this gem’s tourmaline.

GE MS TONE S
Tourmaline
Description and properties Principal colour varieties: Liddicoatite: This is the fluor-liddicoatite Treatments
species of tourmaline, a calcium-rich,
Tourmaline is a vast and complex mineral Rubellite: Pink to red range, may also be Heating: This treatment aims to produce
lithium tourmaline that was named in
group that has many species, including brownish, orangey, or purplish. lighter green and blue green colours
1977 in honour of one of GIA’s founding
the following with relevant gem varieties: from overly dark gems. In cuprian elbaite,
Verdelite: Yellow green to bluish green. fathers, the noted gemmologist, Richard
dravite, uvite, rossmanite, schorl, tsilaisite, heating causes some dark manganese-
T. Liddicoat. This is a usually a parti-colour
elbaite and fluor-liddicoatite. Tourmaline Indicolite: Violetish to greenish blue. bearing purple material to become
tourmaline par excellence and often
crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system, strongly greenish blue or deep blue. There
Paraiba tourmaline: Vividly coloured exhibits many colours in strongly zoned,
mostly as trigonal, prismatic crystals. are some undesirable effects of heating:
blue to green gems in which the unusual geometric patterns.
Tourmalines are extremely complicated some pink and red tourmaline may fade to
hues result from traces of copper and/or
borosilicates, and the formula for many of Refractive Index: 1.624 to 1.644 (+0.011, nearly colourless upon heating.
manganese.
the mineral varieties varies considerably. -0.009)
Irradiation: This treatment can be used
By way of example, International Dravite: Yellow to brown; the bright yellow
Birefringence: 0.018 to 0.040 to reportedly produce darker manganese-
Mineralogical Association (IMA) approved colour has been called “canary tourmaline”
bearing red gems from light pink. However,
formulas for some tourmalines are as in the trade. Specific Gravity: 3.06 (+0.20, -0.06)
it is not possible to determine treatment
follows:
Achroite: Colourless Cause(s) of colour: Blue: iron. Red and gemmologically.
Dravite: pink: manganese and some titanium.
Parti–colour: Two or more colours (if Fracture filling: This treatment is used
NaMg3All6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)3(OH) Green: iron, chromium and vanadium.
only two colours are seen, these gems are to conceal surface reaching fractures
Paraíba colours: copper and/or
Fluor-Liddicoatite: CA(Li2Al) called bi-coloured). and fissures.
manganese.
Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)3F
Watermelon: Pink centres with green
Mohs hardness: 7 to 7.5
Elbaite: Na(Li1.5Al1.5) around the outer margins of the stone.
Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)3(OH) Internal identifying characteristics:
Chrome tourmaline: A deep, solidly green,
Tourmaline has abundant fluid inclusions, For more information about CIBJO standards
chromium-containing gem.
which look like thin, threadlike and and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
Cat’s eye tourmaline: Tiny hollow growth elongated fingerprints. Some tourmaline imitation products, or synthetic stones please
tubes in some cabochon-cut tourmaline also contains elongated hollow tubes that download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
cause a cat’s eye effect in direct lighting. form in parallel fashion during growth, and Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org
these exhibit cat’s-eye phenomena.

GE MS TONE S
Tourmaline
Collector quality Bi-colour or parti-colour tourmaline shows

strong colour zoning, parti-colour gems
The term “Paraíba”, derives from the
and cat’s eye tourmaline is also collected.
Brazilian state in which particular copper-
In rare instances when “chrome” green
bearing tourmalines were first found.
tourmaline is found, they are collectible,
However, it soon became a widespread
especially in larger sizes because of their
descriptor for the saturated colours caused
vivid green colour.
by copper and/or manganese, even those
found in different localities. Later, more
Localities
copper bearing tourmalines were found
in the neighbouring state of Rio Grande Brazil remains the world’s largest producer
do Norte, Nigeria and Mozambique. of tourmaline in all colours. The States of
Rubellite tourmaline
Ultimately, copper and manganese Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte have
bearing tourmaline may be called “paraiba produced Brazil’s most coveted cuprian
tourmaline” in the trade. Regardless of (copper bearing) tourmaline. Afghanistan is
their geographic origin, such gems highly known for a very bright blue green quality
sought after by many collectors. of tourmaline, though it also produces
some green and pink material. Myanmar
Rubellite with strong colour, especially
(Burma), India, Kenya, Mozambique,
from sources that produced high qualities
Pakistan, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Russia,
for short times, such as Nigeria, is
Tanzania all produce significant quantities
collectible. Indicolite, sometimes also
of material in various colours. The United
called indigolite, that exhibits strong blues
States – California and Maine, and
are also very popular.
particularly the Pala district in Southern
California, is known for producing rich
pink tourmaline and rubellite. Madagascar
primarily produces rubellite and
liddicoatite tourmaline. Namibia, Zambia,
A bi-coloured green blue
and Zimbabwe are also sources.
tourmaline crystal

GE MS TONE S
Tourmaline

Tourmaline’s elongated, prismatic crystals
dictate how the gemstones are cut, often
resulting in very long, rectangular shapes.
While tourmaline can be cut in all shapes
and sizes, rectangular shapes predominate.
Crystals often exhibit more than one
colour; in such cases bi-colour or parti-
colour gemstones result. On occasion,
tourmaline is also carved. Pyrochlore crystal inclusion in
While tourmaline has adequate hardness, tourmaline 1.44mm
there may be zones of weakness in some
gems, particularly those that have many
inclusions. Some bi-colour tourmaline is
weaker along the colour boundaries.
Tourmaline should not be steam cleaned
or placed in an ultrasonic cleaner for these
reasons. Instead, it should be cleaned
with a soft damp cloth or a soft bristle
toothbrush.
This group of tourmaline celebrates

the species’ vast diversity in colour

GE MS TONE S
Turquoise
History, lore and appreciation south, in Peru, the pre-Columbian Chimú Birthstones and anniversaries
culture traded turquoise beads throughout
Turquoise’s startling blue colours and soft, Turquoise is one of the birthstones for
the Southern hemisphere.
slightly porous texture may be the reasons December, along with zircon and tanzanite.
why it has been such an important opaque Given its colour, it comes as no surprise It is also used to celebrate an 11th
gem for thousands of years and across that many civilizations felt turquoise wedding anniversary.
so many civilisations. Excavations from embodied elements of both the sky and
Pharaoh mummies dating up to seven sea. However, that colour comparison Description and properties
millennia ago contain evidence (turquoise needs amplification: the colour of highly
Turquoise is a hydrous copper phosphate
bracelets) that the gem was highly prized desired turquoise is described as the blue
mineral that crystallises in the triclinic
in ancient Egypt – both as a gemstone of a robin’s egg, pale blue to blue-green
crystal system; however turquoise is
and as an ornamental material. Successive to dark blue. Further subtle variations
generally known in its cryptocrystalline
Egyptian dynasties since then used also of colours exist. Deposits in China, for
and aggregate form. Its chemical
the gem as a symbol of good fortune, with example, are known to produce a light to
composition is CuAl6(PO4)4(OH8 .5H2O
historical sources in the Sinai Peninsula dark green turquoise with little or no blue
and in today’s Iran. component. Colour(s): Light to medium blue, greenish
blue to green; colour is often mottled
China was a source for turquoise during The name, “turquoise,” comes from the
and may show dark splotches or veins of
Rough turquoise material as well the time of Marco Polo’s travels, and he 16th century French expression, pierre
matrix.
as fashioned beads and cabochons found that turquoise beads were traded de turquie, which translates to stone
and bartered all along the Silk Road. Along from Turkey. While turquoise did not Refractive Index: 1.610 to 1.650
the same trading routes, magnificent occur there, French merchants trading at
Birefringence: Usually not detectable.
Persian turquoise made its way to both Turkish bazaars likely believed that Persian
the East and West. In Asia, turquoise beads turquoise traded there was from Turkey. Specific Gravity: 2.76 (+0.14, -0.36)
were used for adornment, and also as a
Cause(s) of colour: Copper for the bluish
form of currency and protection, until the
colours, whereas greens are caused by
1800s. In the West, ancient Aztecs and
a combination of copper and iron.
Mayas traded turquoise from sources now
known as Southwestern U.S., and Mexico, Mohs hardness: 5 to 6
and throughout the Americas. Further

GE MS TONE S
Turquoise
Internal identifying characteristics: Treatments the powder is bonded together in Localities

Because turquoise is always opaque, a solid mass using polymer resins. Its use
Polymer impregnation: This treatment The United States (mainly Arizona, New
internal characteristics are not noticeable. in jewellery is widespread. Some imitation
introduces a polymer into the porous areas Mexico, California and Nevada) and
However, turquoise may contain areas of turquoise material is represented as
of turquoise. The result is a darker, more Mexico are sources for material that has
deeper colour or variations of colour in the pressed or “reconstructed” turquoise.
durable material. been traded through the Americas for
same gem. Matrix, a dark veining pattern
centuries. Most of the world’s supply
that permeates some types of turquoise, Surface Waxing: This treatment is Collector quality
of turquoise comes from the United
is natural evidence of the element or effective because of the porous nature
Natural, untreated turquoise with a bright States and China today. Iran, notably in
substance in which turquoise was formed. of turquoise. The waxy substance used
lustre and deep, blue homogenous colour Neyshabur, remains the classic source
Because matrix is softer than turquoise, gives the turquoise a more homogenous
– and no matrix veining is also highly for fine turquoise, though little material
it tends to weather (or erode) more appearance, but does not make the gem
collectible. The same holds true with is presently mined there. New deposits,
quickly. As a result, the darker matrix areas more durable. The treatment is sensitive
turquoise that has known provenance. namely in Kerman, have been recently
are often deeper than the surrounding to even low heat.
found. The historical Sinai Peninsula
turquoise. Likewise, if natural turquoise is “Spiderweb” matrix, containing fine dark
Dyeing: This treatment also works deposits in Egypt are exhausted. China,
polished, matrix tends to be undercut. This lines with an attractive, even pattern
because of turquoise’s porosity. The dyeing Australia and Chile are also sources for
means that the darker areas are generally surrounded by deep blue turquoise is
is sometimes used to deepen the colour turquoise.
deeper – not flush with the surface that is preferred by some collectors. While
of turquoise, or to simulate matrix.
being polished. turquoise from Iran (Persia) was
Surface coating: Some lacquers or historically a standard for the finest
polymers may be used to coat the surface turquoise, material from the United
of the gem, deepening the colour. States – specifically Arizona – has proven
to be a fine source as well. Collectors of
Pressed turquoise, while not a treatment
Native American turquoise jewellery prize
in the traditional sense (and thus not listed
material from assorted top artists who For more information about CIBJO standards
above) produces an artificial product from
use material from several mines across and rules regarding treatments, artificial and
low quality turquoise fragments. Here,
the Southwest. Large carvings of superb imitation products, or synthetic stones please
smaller sizes of turquoise are sometimes
turquoise, especially when these have been download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO
combined with chrysocolla and variscite
fashioned by known artists, are also highly Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org
and ground into a powder. Following this,
collectible.

GE MS TONE S
Turquoise

Turquoise can be fashioned into any
shape, including carvings, though in most
cases the material is cut in cabochon
form. They are often fashioned as
free-form beads (mostly with matrix)
or perfectly homogenous, round beads
with little or no matrix. Because of
turquoise’s soft and porous nature,
ultrasonic cleaners and steam cleaners
should never be used to clean turquoise
jewellery. The gem should be cleaned
with a soft, dampened cloth. Turquoise
beads may darken over time if they are
in direct contact with skin.
Turquoise, rough Turquoise is most often cut in
and cut the form of a cabochon

GE MS TONE S
Zircon
History, lore and appreciation metamict zircon lies in its unique, often Description and properties
phenomenal effects. The word zircon derives
Zircon is winning over fans because Zircon is a mineral species that crystallises
from the Arabic zargun, meaning gold
of its unique colours and brilliant optical in the tetragonal crystal system. Its
coloured, though, zircon is found in many
characteristics. The first thing to know chemical composition is ZrSiO4.
colours. A range of red to orange, yellow to
about zircon is that it has nothing to do
brown, and blue to green are found, though Colour(s): Colourless, blue, yellow, green,
with cubic zirconia (a man-made product
natural blue zircon is quite rare. brown, orange, red, and rarely purple
that has been used as a diamond simulant
since the 1970s). Zircon is a natural gem Another optical characteristic of zircon Refractive Index: The RI varies, as follows:
that might be confused with diamond in (except in metamict types) is its extreme High: 1.925 to 1.984 (±0.040) Medium:
its colourless varieties, but easily separated double refraction, which is often easily 1.875 to 1.905 (±0.030) Low: 1.810 to
upon closer examination. The appeal of visible when looking through a gem’s table 1.815 (±0.030) On rare occasions the RI
zircon’s many colour varieties lies in its with the naked eye. The result is a perceived reading is below 1.80.
extraordinary lustre, brilliance and fire, a doubling of the pavilion facets and facet
Birefringence: 0.000 to 0.059 (low type
product of high refractive indices and very junctions. Its very high dispersion is behind
A zircon crystal with etch marks along has low birefringence, high type has higher
high dispersion. the gem’s well known fire.
the surface of its crystal face birefringence).
Three types of zircon have been identified:
Birthstones and anniversaries Specific Gravity: 3.90 to 4.73 (Increases
high-type, or alpha; low-type, or gamma;
from low to high type).
and intermediate-type, or beta. The Zircon is a birthstone for the month of
classification is related to the degree of December, together with turquoise and Cause(s) of colour: Various colour
alteration of the crystal structure. High- tanzanite. centres.
type zircon has an un-altered crystal
Mohs Hardness: 6 for low type; 7.5 for
structure, like most other crystalline gems.
high type.
Low-type zircon is “metamict,” which
means the crystal structure has been
changed towards and amorphous state
by natural irradiation. Partially crystalline
gems, meanwhile, are in the intermediate-
type classification. The appeal of

GE MS TONE S
Zircon
Internal identifying characteristics: Collector quality Cutting, care and cleaning

In metamict zircon, angular colour zoning
Zircon is sometimes collected in colour Zircon, whose optical characteristics
or angular markings can be seen, as well
groups to exhibit an array of colours, are sometimes compared to diamond,
as an unusual milkiness in some stones.
and red zircon, especially in large sizes, differ greatly in terms of hardness and
In some metamict gems, discoid fractures
is particularly prized. Vivid blue colours toughness. Zircon is quite brittle and it
within the gem result in an unusual
from Ratanakiri (Sri Lanka) are also highly is recommended that zircon jewellery not
aventurescent effect. Apatite and garnet
desirable. Some collectors buy metamict be subjected to rough wear because facet
crystals are sometimes found in zircon.
gems that exhibit unique phenomenal junctions abrade over time with careless
characteristics such as aventurescence use. Warm soapy water or a damp cloth
Treatments
or cat’s eye. Cat’s eyes do occur in should be used to clean zircon. Ultrasonic
Heat treatment: Most brown zircon included material but the eye is generally or steam cleaners should not be used.
is heat treated to result in different indistinct. Zircon is available in a wide
colours, including blue, red, orange or variety of colours
yellow. Green zircon is occasionally Localities
heated to produce a lighter tone. Induced
Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma),
changes in zircon’s colour are not always
Australia, Madagascar, Tanzania, China,
stable; especially long-wave ultra violet
Brazil and Thailand are the principal
radiation, and colours may revert to their
sources of zircon. Reddish brown zircon
original colour upon exposure.
from East Africa has also entered the
market in recent years.

download a free pdf copy of the CIBJO A stress fracture in zircon exhibits
Coloured Gemstone Bluebook: www.cibjo.org iridescent colours. 45X (Field of view not
available)

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Gemstones

Retailers’ Reference Guide

10 Other beryls 48 Quartz

21 Feldspar group 61 Tanzanite

25 Garnet group 63 Topaz

29 Jade and nephrite 66 Tourmaline

35 Lapis Lazuli 73 Zircon

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Alexandrite and chrysoberyl

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Alexandrite and chrysoberyl

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Alexandrite and other chrysoberyls

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Treatments Amethyst localities This rough shows both the amethyst

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This image displays the Rare, maxixe beryl fades to almost

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History, lore and appreciation • Amethystine – Semi-translucent to • Fire agate – Semi-translucent to

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Specific Gravity: 2.66 (+0.03, -0.02)

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Plagioclase Internal identifying characteristics:

Mohs Hardness: 6 to 6.5

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Birthstones and anniversaries Collector quality Cutting, care and cleaning

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Almandine Andradite Grossular Hydrogrossular

Tsavorite garnet is known for its bright

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Malaya Pyrope Rhodolite Spessartine

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Jade and nephrite

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Jade and nephrite

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Jade and nephrite

Cutting, care and cleaning Nephrite Jade Treatments Localities

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Jade and nephrite

Collector quality Cutting, care and cleaning

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