NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF BREAD MADE FROM POTATO

AND WHEAT COMPOSITE FLOUR

Trishna Banik

Roll No: 0121/12

Registration No: 980
Session: January-June 2021

A thesis submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Food Chemistry and Quality Assurance

Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology

Faculty of Food Science & Technology

Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University,

Chattogram-4225, Bangladesh

June-2023

Page | i
 Authorization

I hereby declare that I am the sole author of the thesis. I authorize the Chattogram
Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU) to lend this thesis to other
institutions or individuals for the purpose of Scholarly research. I further authorize the
CVASU to reproduce the thesis by photocopying or by other means, in total or in part, at
the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research.

I, the undersigned, and author of this work, declare that the electronic copy of this Thesis
provided to the CVASU Library, is an accurate copy of the print thesis Submitted, within
the limits of the technology available.

Trishna Banik
June 2023

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NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF BREAD MADE FROM POTATO
AND WHEAT COMPOSITE FLOUR

Trishna Banik
Roll No: 0121/12
Registration No: 980
Session: January-June 2021

This is to certify that we have examined the above Master’s thesis and have found
that is complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that all revisions required by
the thesis examination committee have been made

-----------------------------------------------
Dr. Md. Kauser-Ul-Alam
Supervisor
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Food Processing and Engineering

-----------------------------------------------------
Chairman of the Examination Committee
Monsur Ahmad
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology

Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology

Faculty of Food Science & Technology

Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University

Khulshi, Chattogram-4225, Bangladesh

June, 2023
Page | iii
 PLAGIARISM VERIFICATION

Title of Thesis:
Nutritional Evaluation of bread made from potato and wheat composite flour

Name of the Student: Trishna Banik

Roll number: 0121/12
Reg. no: 980
Department: Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology
Faculty: Food Science and Technology

Supervisor:
Dr. Md. Kauser-Ul-Alam, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Food
Processing and Engineering

This is to report that as per the check 24% of the content of the above thesis is stated to
be plagiarized and is covered/not covered as per plagiarism policy and institutions which
has been issued from CASR, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University.
The report has been sent to the coordinator, CASR via email.

The thesis may/may not be considered for the evaluation.

_______________________
Dr. Md. Kauser-Ul-Alam
Supervisor
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Food Processing and Engineering
Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University

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 Dedicated

To my

Beloved

Friends, Family and

Honorable Teachers

Page | v
 Acknowledgements

All glory to the most merciful, all-powerful God who gave me the fortitude, talent, and
patience necessary to seek higher education and finish the thesis for the degree of
Masters of Science (MS) in Food Chemistry and Quality Assurance under the
Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Chattogram Veterinary
and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram, Bangladesh.

I also want to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Dr. A.S.M Lutful Ahasan,
Vice Chancellor, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU), for
his outstanding assistance and thanks to Professor Md. Ashraf Ali Biswas, Dean of the
Faculty of Food Science and Technology at CVASU, for providing the time and
resources needed to complete the task for the entire period.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude, admiration, and respect to my supervisor,

Dr. Md. Kauser-Ul-Alam, Associate professor and Head, Dept. of Food Processing
And Engineering, for his academic supervision with great delight.

I'd like to take this opportunity to thank the esteemed staff and authority of Poultry
Research and Training Center, Bangladesh Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
for their assistance and cooperation in conducting the research at their lab.

Finally, I would like to offer my sincere appreciation and respect to my friends and
family for their tremendous sacrifices, blessings, and support.

The Author
June, 2023

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 Table of Contents
Page No.
Authorization ................................................................................................................................ ii
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………vi
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………....….ix
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..…………x

List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………………………………….….iv

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………...…….v

Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…1-2

1.1 Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................................. 2

Chapter 02 : Review and Literature ........................................................................................ 3-8
2.1 Potato flour ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Proximate Composition of potato flour ................................................................................ 4
2.3 Functional properties of potato flour ................................................................................. 5-6
2.3.1 Potato flour pH ............................................................................................................... 5
2.3.2 Bulk Density ............................................................................................................... 5-6
2.3.3 Water Capacity............................................................................................................... 6
2.3.4 Emulsification Capacity ................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Benefits of Potato flour ......................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Use in bread as a partial substitute for wheat flour ............................................................... 7
2.6 Effect of potato flour on the caliber of bread ........................................................................ 8
Chapter 3: Materials and Methods ........................................................................................ 9-17
3.1 Study area ............................................................................................................................. 9
3.2 Duration of study .................................................................................................................. 9
3.3 Experimental Design ............................................................................................................. 9
3.4 Sample Collection ................................................................................................................. 9
3.5 Production of Potato flour ................................................................................................... 10
3.6 Composite flour blend formulation ..................................................................................... 11
3.7 Bread making…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11-12
3.8 Nutritional composition of bread ........................................................................................ 12
3.8.1 Moisture content ..................................................................................................... 12-16
3.8.2 Ash Content ................................................................................................................. 13
3.8.3 Estimation of Crude Fiber ............................................................................................ 13
3.8.4 Estimation of Crude Fat ............................................................................................... 14
3.8.5 Estimation of Crude Protein.................................................................................... 14-15
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 3.8.6 Determination of Total Carbohydrate ..................................................................... 15-16
3.9 Determination of mineral content .................................................................................. 16-18
3.9.1 Determination of Sodium (Na) .................................................................................... 16
3.9.2 Determination of potassium (K) .................................................................................. 17
3.9.3 Determination of Calcium (Ca).................................................................................... 17
3.9.4 Determination of magnesium (Mg).............................................................................. 17
3.10 Sensory Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 18
3.11 Statistical analysis ............................................................................................................. 19
Chapter 4: Result ................................................................................................................... 20-23
4.1 Proximate composition of bread samples ........................................................................... 20
4.2 Mineral Content of Bread ................................................................................................... 21
4.3 Sensory evaluation ......................................................................................................... 22-23
Chapter 5: Discussion ............................................................................................................ 24-25
Chapter 6 : Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 7 : Recommendations and Future Aspect .................................................................. 27
References ............................................................................................................................... 28-31
Brief biography ........................................................................................................................... 31

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 List of Tables

Table No. Name of the content Page No.

Formulation of Wheat and potato flour blends for bread 10

Table 3.1
making

Table 4.1 Proximate composition of bread samples 17

Table 4.2 Mineral composition of bread samples (mg/100g). 18

Hedonic rating test for sensory evaluation 19

Table 4.3

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 List of figures

Figure No. Name of the figures Page No.

Figure 3.1 Experiment's step-by-step design 9

Figure 3.2 Processing steps of Potato flour 10

Figure 3.2 Manufacturing of bread 12

Figure 4.1 Sensory Evaluation of Bread samples

23

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 List of Abbreviation

Mg Milligram

g/L gram per liter

mg/dl. Mili gram per deciliter

mmol/L Millimole per liter

M Molar

Kg Kilogram

mL Milliliter

% Percentage

°C Degree Celsius

ANOVA One way analysis of variance

AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists

et al Et alii/ et aliae/ et alia

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

W.H.C Water Holding Capacity

CVASU Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University

N.A. Not Applicable

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 Abstract

Incorporating potato flour into wheat flour for baking not only improves the nutritional
profile but also introduces beneficial compounds for overall health. It can therefore be
used to make bread. The objective of this study was to evaluate the bread quality
achieved by utilizing composite flour blends of wheat and both matured and freshly
harvested potatoes sourced from a local market. The tubers underwent a comprehensive
process of washing, peeling, chipping, oven drying, milling, sieving, and packaging. The
research focused on assessing bread quality using different ratios of potato and wheat
composite flour (0:100, 100:0, 10:90, and 5:95), conducting analyses encompassing
proximate composition, mineral properties, and sensory attributes of the resulting
product. To establish their significance level at P < 0.05, the results were compared using
one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).The study's results indicated significant
variations (P < 0.05) among the prepared breads, encompassing moisture (ranging from
32.42% to 36.15%), carbohydrate (91.48% - 105.47%), protein (10.15% - 15.44%), fat
(1.06% - 3.93%), fiber (0.99% - 2.75%), and ash (1.18% - 2.40%) content, as well as
sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sensory characteristics,
highlighting the diverse nutritional and sensory attributes of the different bread
formulations. The sensory evaluation revealed notable distinctions among the bread
samples in terms of color, taste, texture, appearance, and overall acceptance,
underscoring the varying sensory attributes among the formulations. None of the
panelists expressed a strong dislike for any of the sample. The study's conclusion
suggests that substituting wheat flour with potato flour at a 10% level in bread making is
viable, as it maintains a substantial portion of the physicochemical and sensory
characteristics of the final product.

Keywords: Bread, Potato flour, Wheat flour, proximate composition, Sensory properties

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 Chapter 1: Introduction
Everyone acknowledges the importance of bread as a very practical food for all
populations. Its origins can be found in the Neolithic era, and it is still one of the most
well-liked and widely recognized staple meals in the entire world. It is a made mostly
through baking from a dough made of flour (typically wheat) and water. Across
recorded history around the globe, it has played a significant role in the diets of
numerous societies. Being a staple of both secular and religious culture, it is among
the earliest foods produced by humans, having been valued from the beginning of
agriculture. The basic diets of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe,
and cultures descended from the Europeans, including those in the Americas,
Australia, and Southern Africa, are bread and water. In contrast, rice or noodles are
the primary food in some regions of South and East Asia. Typically, to make bread, a
dough comprised of wheat and flour is cultivated with yeast, allowed to rise, and then
baked in an oven. The air pockets in bread are caused by ethanol and carbon dioxide
vapors created during yeast fermentation (Meitton et al., 2022). Common, or bread
wheat, is the most widely used grain for making bread because of its high gluten
content, which gives the dough its elasticity and sponginess. Bread contributes more
than any other food to the global food supply (Pena et al., 2016).Naturally occurring
microorganisms (like sourdough), chemicals (like baking soda), commercially
manufactured yeast, or high-pressure aeration—which produces the gas bubbles that
give bread fluff can all leaven bread.

Commercial bread is frequently enriched with ingredients to enhance its flavor,

texture, color, shelf life, nutritional value, and ease of production in numerous
nations. It is a good source of macronutrients (carbohydrates, protein, and fat),
vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients that are essential for preserving human health.
Wheat flour, water, yeast, and salt are mixed, kneaded, proved, shaped, and baked to
create this fermented baked treat. Wheat flour is one of the essential ingredients in
making bread because of its high gluten content. But it’s bad for health. For health
reasons, certain people like those with celiac disease or intolerances need to stay away
from it. Nonetheless, a lot of people in the wellness and health sectors advise that
everyone, whether or not they are gluten intolerant, should eat a gluten-free diet.

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Potato flour can be the best alternative because it is frequently used as a gluten-free
substitute for ordinary flour. In contrast to conventional flour, potato flour boasts
higher fiber content and enriches baked goods with additional vitamins and minerals.
Its unique water-attracting property results in moist yeast bread and extended shelf
life, making it a valuable addition, particularly in gluten-free baking, where it imparts
a moist crumb texture with just a teaspoon or two. It can be used to reduce the amount
of gluten that can lead to celiac disease. Wheat, a key component in making bread, is
mostly imported into Nigeria, requiring a significant outlay of foreign currency. As a
result, bread manufacture is expensive and may not be accessible to those with low
incomes. Those who are allergic to gluten in wheat bread may find potato flour to be
an acceptable substitute. By turning potatoes into flour and using it in baking, the
adoption of this new flour will aid in lowering post-harvest losses of potatoes.

The method of combining a ratio of two or more flours (grains, tuberous plants, or
legumes) with or without wheat flour to create composite bread, which has the
appropriate quality characteristics, is referred to as composite flour technology. Since
the 1960s, composite flour has been utilized in developing nations where the poor
agronomic circumstances prevent wheat from growing. To increase the nutritional
value and economically available wheat flour can be combined in a variety of ratios
with potato flour. Potato bread has long been cherished by Southern bakers due to its
simplicity in preparation, excellent shelf life, and the delightful fact that it ranks
among the most flavorful "white breads" one can create. The study will promote the
use of locally accessible crops in bread production, lower the high cost of wheat flour
importation, and lessen the allergic reaction risk associated with gluten.

1.1Aims and Objectives

 To develop a suitable alternative to those who suffer from gluten allergy from
wheat flour
 To reduce post-harvest losses of potatoes by converting it to flour and using it
in baking.
 To improve nutritive values in bread
 To evaluate proximate composition of bread
 To assess the sensory evaluation.

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 Chapter 02: Review and Literature

2.1 Potato flour

Potato flour is a type of flour that is made from potatoes. The generic term "potato"
(Solanumtuberosum L.) refers to a wide range of recognized and undiscovered
variants. The most prevalent types in daily production and existence are the mealy,
waxy, and soggy potatoes. Potatoes have several benefits in China, including
tenacious life, remarkable environmental adaptation, and various nutritional value, in
addition to their high yield and large planting area. It is a good source of nutrients,
including micronutrients like vitamins and minerals and macronutrients like protein,
fat, and carbohydrates that are necessary for human health. China produces the
majority of the 374 million tons of potatoes produced year worldwide which are
cultivated all over the world. China has only been farming potatoes for 460 years;
Peru's potato cultivation history extends back to 8000–5000 BC.
In addition to being regarded as one of the top four global products, along with wheat,
rice, and corn, potatoes are also one of the world's five principal crops. Large amounts
of carbs found in potato whole flour can give people energy for daily tasks. Apart
from its energy-giving properties, potatoes are a multipurpose food with numerous
other benefits. Fresh potatoes are perishable while being transported and are not
suitable for long-term storage. Dehydrating fresh potatoes and turning them into flour
would efficiently alleviate the aforementioned issues. In cakes, puffed foods,
breakfast foods, baby food, sauces, and soups, potato flour is a great food additive and
raw material (Zhang et al., 2002). The production and use of potato flour have
received a lot of attention in industrialized nations lately, and poorer nations have also
committed a significant amount of financial and human resources (Gao j et al., 2010).

In addition to being a raw material for many items, potato flour can be used to make
composite flour, which is used to make pastries and pastry goods. By promoting the
use of regional produce, it improves the nutritional value, functional qualities, and
decreases the importation of wheat. The amount of fiber and carotenoids in wheat
flour can be increased by adding different amounts of potato flour. Additionally, it
lowers gluten levels and guards against celiac disease.

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2.2 Proximate Composition of potato flour
One important factor influencing the stability of food products is their moisture level.
The examined cultivars' moisture content did not differ statistically significantly at
(P>0.05). According to Vedaste and Peninah (2019), it varied from 9.71% for
Sangema and CIP393251.64 to 11.26% for Mabondo. This could have resulted from
drying, in which every product was dried to the point of equilibrium with the relative
humidity of the surroundings. According to Chandra and Samsher (2013), potato flour
has a moisture content of 9.60%. According to Adeleke and Odedeji (2010), the
moisture content of sweet potato flour was 3.68% while wheat flour was 3.06%.
According to Adeleke and Odedeji (2010), the potato flour under study had a moisture
level of less than 14%, which is the permitted limit for dry goods. As shown in this
study, flours with less than 10% moisture are better for long-term storage (Onimawo
and Akubor et al., 2012), with the exception of Mabondo which had a little higher
moisture content of 11.26%. Low moisture content slows the rate of chemical
reactions in the products and inhibits the growth of mold, extending the storage
stability of flour (Onimawo and Akubor et al., 2012). Reduced moisture content
prolongs product shelf life by preventing microbial degradation.

Compared to other roots and tubers like cassava and yams, potato roots are said to
typically have a higher protein content (Oloo et al., 2014). Its leaves are known to be
a good source of important amino acids like tryptophan and lysine, which are
infrequent in cereals.

In addition to providing natural color and flavor to processed foods, potato flour has
been shown to be a good source of energy, carbohydrates, minerals (calcium,
phosphorus, iron, manganese, and potassium), vitamin C, vitamin B6, and beta
carotene (pro-Vitamin A). On the other hand, industrial productions utilize its flour.

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2.3 Functional properties of potato flour
2.3.1 Potato flour pH
A product's ability to remain stable depends on how alkaline or acidic it is by nature.
The pH of potato flour is acidic. Food that has an acidic pH is more resistant to
microbiological degradation. Flour's low pH guarantees its microbiological stability
while it's being stored. The pH of the potato flours under study did not differ
significantly at (P > 0.05). Vedaste and Peninah (2019) report that it varied from 5.15
for Kirundo to 5.65 for CIP393251.64. According to Adeleke and Odedeji (2010), the
results are consistent with the pH of other flours, with potato flour having a pH of 5.4
and wheat flour having a pH of 6.01. Adding sweet potato flour to wheat flour
increased its acidity. The addition of citric acid to stop enzymatic browning may have
contributed to the low pH of the potato flour in this investigation. A low pH helps
preserve food by reducing the susceptibility of food to rotting microbes by inhibiting
their proliferation.

2.3.2 Bulk Density

Food's bulk density is influenced by a number of variables, including particle size,
shape, attractive interparticle forces, and preparation methods (Onimawo & Akubor et
al., 2012). According to reports, flour with a high bulk density comprises small
particles, which are in charge of the physicochemical characteristics of the flour, such
as its capacity to absorb water (Kulkarni et al., 1996). Furthermore, bulk density plays
a crucial role in determining the packing specifications for potato flour (Kulkarni et
al., 1996). According to reports, the structure of starch polymers affects bulk density;
loose starch polymer structure is associated with low bulk density (Iwe et al., 2016).
Vedaste and Peninah (2019) state that the bulk density of the potato flour under study
was high, making it suitable for foods that require vigorous mixing as well as for
usage as a thickening agent in a variety of food products.

2.3.3 Water Capacity

When estimating the amount of water necessary for products like dough, water
absorption capacity is a crucial factor to consider. The absorption of water is
correlated with particle size, protein, and starch. More water is often absorbed by fine
particles than by coarse ones. The ability of potato flour to take in and hold onto water
is known as its water absorption capacity. According to (Kulkarni et al., 1996) potato
flour has a water absorption capacity of 388 to 405.61 % for fine particles and 375 to
357.61% for coarse particles. High phosphorus content in the amylopectin group of

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potato starch may contribute to its high water absorption capacity. This property
represses neighboring phosphate groups, increasing hydration and weakening the
bonds that hold crystalline starch together (Hoover et al., 2001).

2.3.4 Emulsification Capacity

Flour's emulsification capacity refers to its power to bind molecules that are
hydrophilic and hydrophobic. Vedaste and Peninah (2019) shown that potato flour has
a high capacity for emulsification and stability, making it suitable for use in the
production of food products that need an emulsion to stabilize colloidal food systems.

2.4 Benefits of Potato flour

For those suffering from wheat allergies, intolerances, or celiac disease, gluten-free
diets are crucial to maintaining their quality of life (A Brown et al., 2005). Gluten
sensitivity enteropathy, another name for celiac disease, is a chronic small intestinal
disorder that develops in individuals with a hereditary vulnerability to gluten (Hamer
et al., 2002).
People with celiac disease have nutritional malabsorption and adverse effects on
multiple bodily systems when they consume gluten-containing foods or products
because their immune systems attack and destroy the intestinal villi (Feighery et al.,
1999). Gluten consumption can damage the intestines, which can result in
malnutrition from the loss of essential nutrients (Brown et al., 2005). These side
effects include lethargy, persistent diarrhoea, weight loss, and failure to thrive in
babies, along with bloating and pain in the abdomen.
Following a gluten-free diet can help patients with celiac disease be adequately
managed for the rest of their lives (Murray et al., 1999). A gluten-free diet has
benefits such as accelerating the healing of small intestinal villi and reducing the risk
of cancerous outcomes (Seraphin and Mobarhan et al., 2002).
Gluten is the main protein in flour that helps to build structures. Gluten contributes to
the elastic qualities of dough and influences the texture and appearance of many
baked items. In addition to various commercial applications, they are essential to the
production of food items. Flour is a common element in both culinary preparation and
pharmaceutical formulations. When it comes to our daily diet, rice is significantly less
used than flour. Root and tuber crops are essential sources of dietary fibre. The fiber
in potato flour can help food to move through your digestive system more quickly.

Page | 6
It has been linked to several health benefits, including enhanced bulk motility,
lowered blood glucose and cholesterol, decreased risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes,
and cardiovascular disease, constipation elimination, prebiotic activity, and protection
against some cancers (Akhtar et al., 2021)

2.5 Use in bread as a partial substitute for wheat flour

The high dry matter content of potato flour—which is good for human health—
contains protein, cellulose, vitamins, minerals, and trace amounts of fat and sugar
(Nielsen et al., 2016). It might be consumed on its own or combined with pasta
dishes. A greater variety of uses exist for potato flour, and the effects of flour
products have drawn significant attention. The nutritional content of bread could be
increased by adding some potato flour. Cake and bread flour can be made with potato
flour, which is a gluten-free flour.

Also, it slows down the rate at which bread deteriorates and lengthens its shelf life. A
suitable proportion of potato flour enhances bread variation and modifies flavor.
According to (Zhang et al., 2017) adding more potato flour raised the bread's water
content but had little effect on its acidity. Increasing or decreasing the proportion of
potato flour from 5% to 15% had no effect on bread volume. The specific volume of
bread was impacted when the percentage of potato flour exceeded 15%, and its value
declined as the percentage of potato flour increased. In comparison to wheat starches,
potato starches are more able to draw and hold water, which contributes to the
increased moisture content of baked foods. Adding potato flour to whole wheat,
bread, or all-purpose flour facilitates the handling and shaping of yeast dough. When
the right amount of potato flour is used, the bread can become soft, elastic, and
delicious. The bread and potato flavors come together beautifully and are really
appealing. To produce the highest-quality bread, Liu et al. continuously changed the
amount of potato flour used. The finest bread quality was found to occur when 20% of
the total flour used was potato flour. According to (Curti et al., 2012) 15% potato
flour was required for the highest-quality bread.

There isn't a consensus yet, therefore more study is required. Bread's shelf life may be
extended and its aging process slowed down by using a proper ratio of potato flour to
wheat flour (Zhang et al., 2017).

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2.6 Effect of potato flour on the caliber of bread

The possibility of using potato and wheat composite flour to produce bread was
shown by (I. B. Oluwalana et al., 2014) Potato flour may replace wheat flour up to a
15% replacement level without negatively affecting the bread's flavor, consistency,
hardness, crumb color, weight, or amount of texture. This suggests that replacing
wheat flour with potato flour may benefit humans by enhancing the physicochemical
and sensory aspects of the resulting products.

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 Chapter 3: Materials and Methods

3.1 Study area

The study was conducted in the Department of Food Processing and Engineering,
Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology of Chattogram
Veterinary and Animal Sciences University.

3.2 Duration of study

The experiment was conducted for a period of six months from January – June2023.

3.3 Experimental Design

Sample Collection

Product development

Analysis

Proximate Analysis Mineral Analysis Sensory Analysis

Figure 3.1: Experiment's step-by-step design

3.4 Sample Collection

Mature, insect free and freshly harvested potato tubers were purchased from a local
market in Korbaniganj. Wheat flour and baking ingredients (sugar, salt, yeast and
butter) were obtained from super shop Shwapno in Chattogram. They will be taken to
Food Processing and Engineering lab for immediate use and processing. Water used
was obtained from Chemistry lab.

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3.5 Production of Potato flour

Raw Potatoes

Sorting

Washing

Slicing to 2 -3 cm

Blanching

Drying at 50°c in Cabinet Drier for 3days

Crushing or Milling

Potato flour

Store in air tight plastic jar

Figure 3.2: Processing steps of Potato flour

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3.6 Composite flour blend formulation
Four blends were prepared by homogenously mixing potato flour with wheat flour in
the Percentage proportions (0:100, 5:95, 10:90 and 100:0 (PF: WF))

Sample Wheat/Potato flour blends

A Wheat flour, WF (100%)

B Potato flour, PF (100%)

C Wheat/Potato flour, WF/PF1 (90:10%)

D Wheat/Potato flour, WF/PF2 (95:5%)

Table 3.1: Formulation of Wheat and potato flour blends for bread making

3.7 Bread making

 Ingredients:

➢Wheat Flour
➢ Potato Flour
➢Yeast
➢ Sunflower oil
➢ ACI salt
➢ Fresh Sugar
➢ Drinking Water

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 Mixing of all
Selection of Formulation of Kneading of
ingredients
Raw material The product to Dough
through straight
be prepared
dough method

Dough left for

Scaling into 500g Moulding Resting (5 min.)
Proofing (60 min)
sections

Baking at 180°C for 30 Storing

min baking oven Cooling

Figure 3.3 Manufacturing of bread

3.8 Nutritional composition of bread

In accordance with the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, the protein, fat,
carbohydrate, fiber and ash content of products were evaluated on a dry weight basis
in triplicate. (AOAC International 2016

3.8.1 Moisture content

One of the most significant and frequently used metrics in the production and
monitoring of meals is water analysis. The water content is directly important
economically to both the producer and the buyer since the quantity of dry mass in a
bit of food is inversely related to the amount of water it has. Yet, the impact of
moisture on food stability and quality is considerably more significant. The
Association of Official Analytical Chemists' standard technique was used to identify
the moisture level (AOAC, 2016).

Procedure:
• An empty crucible was weighed
• Powdered sample of 5 gm was placed in the crucible
Page | 12
• The weight of the crucible with the sample was noted.
• The crucible was then dried in a hot air oven at 105°C for 48–72 hours.
• After removing the crucible from the oven, it was placed in a desiccator to cool.
• The crucible's final weight was determined.

Calculation: The percent of moisture was calculated as follow

Moisture % = {(Initial weight – Final weight)/ Sample weight} × 100

3.8.2 Ash Content

AOAC procedures were used to determine the ash content (2016). The inorganic
residue left over after organic stuff is destroyed is known as ash content.

Procedure

• A pre-dried, weighted crucible containing 5 grams of sample was taken

• Afterwards it was turned into charcoal.
• The charcoal was then placed in a muffle furnace to be heated for 4 hours at a
temperature of about 650°C to remove all of the charcoal.
• It was properly cooled in a desiccators before being weighed. The crucible was
removed from the furnace. It was properly cooled in a desiccators before being
weighed.

Calculation: The below phrase was used to determine the ash content.
Ash % = (Amount of ash supplied by sample/ sample weight) × 100

3.8.3 Estimation of Crude Fiber

The liquid portion of carbohydrates known as "crude fiber" is mostly made up of
cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. The AOAC technique was used to determine the
crude fiber (2016).

Procedure:
• A measured quantity (5gm) of fat-free foodstuff in a mild acidic medium (1.25%
H2SO4) for 30 min was heated.
• Heating was also done in a low alkaline medium (1.25% NaOH) for 30 minutes at
fixed volume.

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• Afterwards subtracting ash from the residue generated, it was calculated by
digestion. The AOAC technique was used to determine the crude fiber (2016).
• The leftovers were then heated to 550–600 °C (or white ash) in a muffle furnace.

Calculation
Calculation of the crude fiber percentage as follows:
% crude fiber (w- w1) w2 100
Here,
W= Weight of crucible, crude fiber and ash
W1=Weight of crucible and ash
W2=Weight of Sample
3.8.4 Estimation of Crude Fat
Different foods are dissolved in polar compounds (such as methanol or chloroform) to
determine their fat content and the supernatant is then separated by filtering. The
filtrate is split into various funnel, the mix is left to dry to quantify the extracts, after
which the anticipated fat percent is calculated. The crude fat content of the samples
was ascertained using AOAC (2016) techniques and a Soxhlet equipment.
Procedure:
• Sample (5gm) was taken in a thimble
• Hydrolysis of sample was done with HCl
• Extraction of hydrolyzed lipid materials with ether
• Evaporation of ether
• The lipid residue was heated constantly at 100
• Residue was expressed as % crude fat
Calculation: The percentage of crude fat was expressed as follows expression.
Fat % = (weight of the extract / weight of the sample) × 100

3.8.5 Estimation of Crude Protein

Both organic and inorganic samples can have their nitrogen concentration determined
using the Kjeldahl method. Again, for purpose of calculating the crude protein,
Kjeldahl nitrogen is measured in foods and beverages, flesh, feeds, grains, and forage
crops. The Kjeldahl method is also used to determine the nitrogen content of soil,
wastewater, and other substances. It is a recognized procedure that is defined in
various prescriptive sources, including (AOAC, 2016). Digestion of sample was done

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by using a digestion mixture of sodium sulphate (Na2SO4), mercuric oxide (HgO) and
concentrated sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄)

Procedure
• A clean and dry kjehldahl flask was used to collect 1 gm sample which was wrapped
in an ash free filter paper
• 10 ml concentrated sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) with a digestion mixture of sodium
sulphate (Na2SO4), mercuric oxide (HgO) and concentrated sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) in
(1:1) ratio was added.
• Digestion was done for 6 hours
• After that the beaker was let to cool and transferred to volumetric flask
• Then 10 ml of 50% NaOH and 2.5 ml of 15% of Na2S2O3 mixture was taken in that
flask.
• Distillation was done for 10 minutes
• Distillate was collected with 2% Boric acid with an indicator
• The solution was titrated with 0.02N HCl
• At the same time a blank digestion was carried out.

Calculation
The calculations for % nitrogen or % protein must take into account which type of
receiving solution was used and any dilution factors used during the distillation
process. In the equations below, “N” represents normality. “ml blank” refers to the
milliliters of base needed to back titrate a reagent blank if standard acid is the
receiving solution, or refers to milliliters of standard acid needed to titrate a reagent
blank if boric acid is the receiving solution. When boric acid is used as the receiving
solution the equation is
Nitrogen % (ml of standard acid – ml of blank) N of acid 1.400 sample
weight mal parts was presented as the answer.

3.8.6 Determination of Total Carbohydrate

For estimating the differences between both the Nitrogen Free Extractive and the
carbohydrate content (NFE). The gap between 100 and the sum of the other proximal
parts was presented as the answer.

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Calculation: Hence it was calculated using the formula below-
% CHO = 100% - % (Protein + Fat + Fiber + Ash + Moisture content)

3.9 Determination of mineral content

The minerals are extracted from the food source by digestion, according to AOAC
(2010). After being dissolved in a 2:1 HNO3/HCIO4 acid solution, bread was then
consumed. A conical flask was filled with one gram of sample, which had been
weighed. To promote full digestion, the conical flask was placed on a hot plate set to
200W for 3 minutes after adding 7 ml of HNO3 and 3 ml of HCIO4. The produced
solution was chilled, filtered into a 100 ml standard flask using filter paper, and then
diluted with distilled water to volume. This solution was examined using the AAS
method of mineral content analysis. (Humalyzer-3000, Germany's Origin)

3.9.1 Determination of Sodium (Na)

Magnesium and uranyl acetate help to dissolve the sodium into a triple salt. In an
acidic solution, ferrocyanide combines with extra uranyl ions to generate a reddish
tint. The amount of sodium contained in the sample affects the color development in
an inverse manner. During the precipitation procedure, pipettes were used to add 0.02
ml of sodium standard and 1 ml of the precipitating reagent to the cuvette. In the
cuvette, just 0.02 ml of sample and 1 ml of precipitating agent were used. After
allowing the components to rest for five minutes, they were thoroughly combined and
forcefully shaken. After that, the clear supernatant was separated using centrifugation
at 2500–3000 RPM. For the blank, 1 ml of acid reagent was used throughout the color
development phase. Using a pipette, 0.02 ml of the precipitating reagent and 0.1 ml of
the coloring reagent were then injected into the cuvette. A cuvette was filled with 1 ml
of acid reagent, 0.02 ml of supernatant, and 0.1 ml of color reagent to create standards
and samples. After the components were combined, they were incubated for 5 minutes
at room temperature. Within 15 minutes, the absorbance of the blank, the standard,
and the sample were all measured in comparison to distilled water. The sodium
concentration in mmol/L was obtained by multiplying the sample absorbance by the
standard absorbance at a certain concentration (mmol/L).

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3.9.2 Determination of potassium (K)
When potassium and sodium tetraphenylboron are combined, a fine turbidity of
potassium tetraphenylboron is produced. The amount of turbidity and the potassium
concentration in the sample are inversely associated. The blank solution was made by
pipetting 0.02 ml of deionized water and 1 ml of potassium reagent into a cuvette. To
make the sample solution, a cuvette was stocked with 1 ml of potassium reagent, 0.02
ml of potassium standard, and 1 g of sample extract. These were mixed, followed by a
retention time incubation for 5 minutes. Absorbance was assessed after 15 minutes
and compared to both the Standard and a blank. The millimoles per liter (mmol/L)
potassium concentration were determined by dividing the ratio of the sample
absorbance to the standard absorbance by the specified concentration standard
(mmol/L).
3.9.3 Determination of Calcium (Ca)
In an alkaline environment, o-cresolphthalein and calcium ions combine to generate a
violet chemical. A reagent blank solution was made by combining 1 mL of the
working reagent with 25 L of distilled water in a cuvette. The standard was adjusted
by adding 1 ml of the working reagent and 25 L of the (Ca++) standard. 1 ml of the
working reagent was combined with 25 L of the sample extract to form the sample
solution. The absorbance was determined for both the sample and the standard.
To calculate the concentration in milligrams per deciliter, the standard calcium
concentration (mg/dL) was multiplied by the ratio of sample absorbance to standard
absorbance.

3.9.4 Determination of magnesium (Mg)

In order to specifically bind the metallochromic indicator calmagite to magnesium, an
alkaline pH is used. The approach is based on this change in absorption wavelength. It
has been discovered that the ratio of the sample's magnesium concentration to the
strength of the generated chromophores is linear. One milliliter of the reagent was
added to the cuvette to make the reagent blank solution. The 10 L sample solution was
prepared in a cuvette with 1 ml of the reagent. By mixing 1 ml of reagent with 10 ml
of magnesium standard in the cuvette, the standard solution was created. The cuvettes
were allowed to sit at room temperature for two minutes after mixing. The absorbance
at 520 nm of each sample and standard was contrasted with the reagent blank. By

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dividing the sample's absorbance value by the reference concentration, the
concentration of magnesium was calculated as milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl).

3.10 Sensory Evaluation

For the purpose of determining whether consumers would generally accept the
finished product, sensory evaluation was carried out. A group of taste testers assessed
if the developed product was acceptable to consumers. There were both teachers and
students on the panel for the test, which was conducted on the grounds of CVASU.
The item was delivered to the 15 panelists. The samples A, B, C, and D were used to
encode four different formulas. Four samples were tasted by each participant without
their being aware of their composition. According to the request, the panelists
assigned scores for the jelly's appearance, color, fragrance, taste, sweetness, thickness,
and overall acceptability. Four samples were given ratings by the panelists based on
their opinions after tasting. Using nine point Hedonic scales, the four samples' sensory
evaluation of their qualitative qualities (taste, appearance, smell, thickness, sweetness,
and overall acceptance) was conducted (Larmond et al., 1977).

Rank Scores
Like extremely 9
Like very much 8
Like moderately 7
Like slightly 6
Neither like nor dislike 5
Dislike slightly 4
Dislike moderately 3
Dislike very much 2
Dislike extremely 1

Table 3.2: Rating Scale for sensory evaluation

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3.11 Statistical analysis

A Microsoft Excel 2019 spreadsheet was used to gather and store the data for
statistical analysis. For samples, descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation)
were computed. MINITAB 19 was used to code, arrange, and record the data. The
outcomes of these experiments were then statistically examined. One-way ANOVA
was used to evaluate the data on sensory and proximal evaluation in order to calculate
the amount of significant variance at a 95% confidence level. A level of 5%
significance was used in the statistical study (p<0.05).

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 Chapter 4: Result
This section contains information on the proximate composition, mineral content, and
sensory evaluation of the samples, as well as the outcomes and findings of the studies.

4.1 Proximate composition of bread samples

The bread samples moisture contents varied from 32.42% to 36.15%, and there was
no discernible difference in the moisture content between samples B and C (p>0.05).
At 36.44±0.06%, Sample A had the greatest moisture content. There are significant
differences (P<0.05) in the carbohydrate and protein content of samples ranging from
91.48% - 105.47%. and15.44±0.06% -10.15±0.02%. With respect to fat content,
Sample A had the greatest fat content (3.93±0.06%), while Sample C had the lowest
(3.58±0.06%).There was no discernible difference in the crude fiber between samples
C and D (p>0.05).Sample B's ash content was found to be the highest at 2.40±0.17%

Parameter Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D

Moisture (%) 36.44±0.06a 34.15±0.02b 32.42±0.06d 33.67±0.06c

CHO (%) 95.44±0.02d 105.47±0.06c 112.47±0.06a 110.48±0.01b

Crude 14.44±0.06b 10.15±0.02d 15.44±0.06a 14.66±0.06b

Protein (%)

Crude fat (%) 3.93±0.06a 3.66±0.06c 3.58±0.06d 3.69±0.01b

Crude fiber (%) 1.70±0.01d 3.67±0.06c 4.75±0.06a 3.71±0.01b

Ash (%) 1.18±0.00c 2.36±0.17b 2.40±0.01a 2.38±0.06a

Table 4.1: Proximate analysis report showing nutritional composition

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A-100% wheat flour
B- 100% potato flour
C- 90% wheat flour and 10% potato flour
D- 95% wheat flour and 5% potato flour
Mean values with the same superscript within the same column are not significantly
different (p>0.05)

4.2 Mineral Content of Bread

Table 4.2 shows the mineral composition of the bread samples. Sample B had the
highest calcium (5.28 ±0.01%), magnesium (34.42 ±0.01%), sodium (305.95±24.8),
potassium 300.77±0.00% contents, all of which are significantly different (p<0.05).
Sample A had the lowest calcium (3.5 ±0.05 %), magnesium (22.33 ±0.02%), sodium
(265.86 ±0.02%), potassium 200.75 ±0.03% contents. The potassium contents of the
sample C and D did not differ significantly (p>0.05)

Formulation Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D

Ca 3.5 ±0.05c 4.63 ±0.01b 5.28 ±0.02a 4.42 ±0.01b

Mg 22.33 ±0.02d 34.42 ±0.01a 33.42 ±0.01b 32.12 ±0.01c

K 200.77±0.03d 320.77±0.00c 350.42 ±0.01a 345.22 ±0.01b

Na 265.86 ±0.02d 305.95±24.8a 251.5 ±0.01b 242.02±0.01c

Table 4.2: Result of Mineral content of bread samples (mg/100g).

A-100% wheat flour

B- 100% potato flour
C- 90% wheat flour and 10% potato flour
D- 95% wheat flour and 5% potato flour

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 Mean values with the same superscript within the same column are not significantly
different (p>0.05)

4.3 Sensory evaluation

The breads (Sample A, sample B, sample C, sample D) were evaluated for their mean
scores for color, smell, appearance, taste, internal texture, and overall acceptability
and the mean scores of their responses are shown in the table 4.3
Sample C differed significantly from the others in terms of taste, color, appearance,
taste, internal texture, and overall acceptability. Sample C had the highest overall
acceptance, whereas sample B scored lowest.

Parameter for Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D

Sensory
evaluation

Appearance 7.43±0.79a 5.71±0.49d 7.10±0.79b 7.03±0.79c

Color 7.00±0.69b 6.71±0.49c 7.30±0.43a 7.20±0.42a

Smell 7.60±0.483a 5.00±0.00c 7.75±0.316a 7.70±0.516a

Taste 7.05±0.422c 6.20±0.422d 7.30±0.422a 7.11±0.316b

Texture 7.70±0.483a 5.80±0.422d 7.65±0.516b 7.61±0.471c

Overall
acceptance 6.60±516c 5.55±0.422d 7.25±0.568a 7.00±0.516b

4.3 Hedonic rating test for sensory evaluation

A-100% wheat flour

B- 100% potato flour
C- 90% wheat flour and 10% potato flour
D- 95% wheat flour and 5% potato flour

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Mean values with the same superscript within the same column are not significantly
different (p>0.05)

Figure 4.1: Sensory Evaluation of Bread samples

A-100% wheat flour

B- 100% potato flour
C- 90% wheat flour and 10% potato flour
D- 95% wheat flour and 5% potato flour

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 Chapter 5: Discussion

Bread Made from a Blend of Wheat and Potato Flours Approximately. According to
the relative composition analysis, the composite bread's protein, ash, and crude fiber
contents all increased. On the other hand, as the amount of potato flour substitution
increased, the moisture and crude fat content dropped. Increases in substitution level
and a decrease in moisture content demonstrate the likelihood of extending shelf life.
Since it is well known that the moisture and water activity of a product impact the
shelf life of food goods, the range of moisture content implied that the potato bread
had good storage capacity.

The results of (Olagunju et al., 2020) who reported that the moisture content of the
composite bread grew with increasing non-wheat flour replacement found values that
were comparable to those lower than the values 28.94%–36.95%.The bread's protein
content increases (p> 0.05) as the amount of potato in the composite bread increases.
However, the protein content is sufficient to guard against protein-energy
malnutrition. Since potatoes are said to be high in protein and contain all the essential
amino acids, particularly lysine, the protein level rises (Korese et al., 2021). The
levels were higher than what earlier researchers had discovered (Ofori et al., 2020;
Malavi et al., 2022).

Ash contents provide information on the samples' inorganic content, which could be
used to extract the mineral contents. The results for the ash content indicated that the
composite bread may deliver necessary elements for bodily metabolism. The fiber
values exceeded the 0.29%–0.59% range reported by (Beghin et al., 2022) and
(Cappelli & Bettaccini et al., 2020). Crude fiber helps keep the human metabolic
system and gastrointestinal tract healthy (Sahin et al., 2019.)The amount of potato
bread substituted raised the amount of carbohydrates significantly. Comparing the
results of the sensory evaluation of bread samples made with various amounts of
potato bread to the control. For all of the bread samples, there was no consistent
pattern in the bread color or crust color data. The fragrant chemicals in potato—bread
texture may be the cause of this. The status of the bread ingredients, including fiber,
starch, protein (gluten), and the proportions of absorbed water during dough mixing,
as well as the baking circumstances (temperature and time variables), all affect the

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final texture of the bread (Korese et al., 2021; Torbica et al., 2019). In all of the
sensory qualities considered, it was found that bread swapped with 10% potato was
most favored. The minerals calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium are listed in
the content of the bread. With the growing substitution of wheat bread with potato, all
the minerals typically rose. The micronutrient concentration of zinc, copper, and iron
is increased by potatoes' high nutritional content (Bou-Orm & Jury et al., 2021).
Calcium is necessary for the health of the teeth and bones. Sodium regulates
extracellular fluid levels, while potassium facilitates muscle contractions and
contributes to maintaining healthy blood pressure. Magnesium promotes a healthy,
steady heart rhythm through the maintenance of these electrolytes.

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 Chapter 6: Conclusion

The proximate composition, mineral contents and sensory properties of the bread
samples were all impacted by the addition of potatoes to composites used in the
creation of bread. Regarding the proximate composition of the bread samples, the
addition of potatoes increased their nutritious value. The potato-containing bread
samples had high protein contents that were higher than the bread made entirely of
wheat, as well as high carbohydrate contents that were higher than the bread made
entirely of wheat. In order to increase the nutritional value of bread and snack items
generally, potatoes can be included with wheat when making bread. More potassium,
sodium, magnesium and sodium were present in the mineral makeup of the potato
bread samples than in bread made entirely of. Sensory evaluations indicated that the
bread samples were satisfactory.

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 Chapter 7: Recommendations and Future Aspect
 In order to improve the nutritional adequacy of snacks and help address the issue
of protein-energy malnutrition that is a problem in developing nations, the use of
composite potatoes, which are nutrient-dense plant products, in the production
of snacks like bread should be encouraged.
 To minimize post-harvest losses and enhance food diversification, potato should
be encouraged for use in the manufacturing of whole or composite flour for
snacking.
 To determine the bread's shelf stability, more research needs to be done.

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 Brief biography

Trishna Banik passed the Secondary School Certificate Examination in 2012 and then
Higher Secondary Certificate Examination in 2014. She obtained her B.Sc. (Hons.) in
Food Science & Technology in 2019(held in 2020) from Chattogram Veterinary and
Animal Sciences University (CVASU), Bangladesh. Now, she is a candidate for the
degree of MS in Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Food
Chemistry and Quality Assurance under Food Science & Technology Faculty,
CVASU. She has immense interest to work in food safety issues including food
chemistry, quality assurance, food quality control, environmental chemistry, product
development and processing, malnutrition, reduction of nutritional changes in food
processing etc.

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