Electrochemistry in Organic

J. Volke, F.
Liska
Electrochemistry
in Organic Synthesis
With 18 Figures and 12 Tables
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York
London Paris Tokyo
Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest
Dr. JiH Volke
The J. Heyrovsky Institute of Physical Chemistry
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
Dolejskova 3, 18223 Prague 8, Czech Republic
Dr. Frantisek Liska

Institute of Chemical Technology
Technicka 5, 16000 Prague 6, Czech Republic
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-78701-0 e-TSBN-13: 978-3-642-78699-0

DOT: 10.1007/978-3-642-78699-0
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Volke, J. ~Jm), 1926- Electrochemistry in organic synthesis I J. Volke, F. Liska.
Includes bibliographical references.
I. Organic compounds - Synthesis. 2. Organic electrochemistry.

I. Liska, F. (Frantisek), 1940-. II. Title
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© Springer- Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1994

Sotlcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1994
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Preface
This book has been written as an introduction to the electro-

synthesis of organic compounds, in particular for organic
chemists. Both authors assume that the knowledge of electro-
chemistry of these specialists is rather poor and is usually
based only on the remnants of the teaching in the courses on
physical and analytical chemistry during their university stud-
ies. Even with Czech chemists one cannot expect - as it was in
the past - the experience obtained in the courses on polaro-
graphy.
This is the reason why it was deemed necessary to write an
introductory text to the electro synthesis of organics both as
regards the theoretical and the methodological point of view,
i.e. the fundamentals, the experimental setup, the application of
various working and reference electrodes, the shape and con-
struction of electrolysis cells, the use of suitable pro tic and
aprotic solvents, the experience obtained with various sup-
porting electrolytes, the separation and isolation of products,
as well as the use of inert gases which prevent the interaction of
intermediates and of final products with, for example, oxygen
or traces of water. - The second part of the book contains a
systematic description of preparative organic electrochemical
processes, the interpretation of their mechanisms and several
prescriptions for synthesizing characteristical groups of com-
pounds.
As a whole the book is not written in an exhaustive way. Its
final aim is to inform the organic chemist about the possibil-
ities and the limitations of these methods both in synthesis
of organic compounds and in the interpretation of mechanisms
of organic redox reactions as they appear in the early 1990s.
J. Volke
Prague, March 1994 F. Liska
Contents
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Experimental Factors and Methods of

Investigation of Electroorganic Reactions. 4
2.1 Fundamental Conceptions of Organic
Electrochemistry. . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Laboratory Electrolysis Cells .... " . 5
2.3 Electrodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Solvents and Supporting Electrolytes .. 14
2.5 Inert Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Information Obtained by Electroanalytical
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6.1 Possibilities of Electrochemical Methods. . 21
2.6.2 Possibilities of Physical Methods . . . . . . 33
2.7 Procedures in Laboratory Electroorganic
Synthesis ................... 36
2.8 Research into Mechanisms of Electrode
Processes of (chiefly Mercury) Electrodes 41
References to Chapters 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3 Reactions of Organic Compounds at Electrodes 45

3.1 Direct Anodic Oxidations . . . . . . . . 46
3.1.1 Oxidation of Saturated Hydrocarbons .. 46
3.1.2 Oxidation of Unsaturated Compounds ... 49
3.1.3 Oxidation of Alcohols and Ethers. . .... 56
3.1.4 Oxidation of Organic Compounds of Sulfur
and Selenium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.1.5 Oxidation of Halogen Derivatives and
Oxidative Halogenation of Organic
Compounds . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.6 Oxidation of Amines . . . . . . . 68
3.1.7 Electrooxidation of Ions . . . . . 73
3.1.8 Oxidation of Aromatic Systems. 78
3.2 Direct Cathodic Reductions . . . 90
VIII Contents
3.2.1 Reactions of Functional Groups . . . . . . . . 90

3.2.2 Reductions of Cathodically Generated Species 103
3.2.2.1 Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.2.2.2 Substitutions (acylation, alkylation) ... . 107
3.2.2.3 Pinacolizations and Hydrodimerizations. 109
3.2.2.4 Eliminations . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.2.2.5 Removal of Protective Groups 115
3.3 Indirect Anodic Oxidations . . 118
3.4 Indirect Cathodic Reductions . 134
4 Acids and Bases Generated at Electrodes. 140

4.1 Electrochemically Generated Acids (EGA). 140
4.2 Electrochemically Generated Bases (EGB). 144
References to Chapters 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

1 Introduction
The history of the application of electric current for preparing organic sub-
stances [1] had already begun 150 years ago. At that time Faraday in his
attempts to oxidize electrolytically the salts of aliphatic acids first discovered the
formation of the corresponding alkanes. The actual beginning, however, is
considered to be the year 1849 when Kolbe interpreted the above reaction and
used it purposefully in the synthesis of alkanes. In 1898 Haber prepared
phenylhydroxylamine and aniline s~lectively by electrolytic reduction of nitro-
benzene, he found that phenylhydroxylamine results at less negative potentials
and that 4 electrons per molecule of nitrobenzene are consumed in its formation.
When the reduction of nitrobenzene was performed at more negative potentials,
aniline was prepared with the consumption of 6 electrons. In this way a
discovery was made which had a decisive importance for the further develop-
ment of electrochemistry. It followed from his experiments that the electrode
potential is the fundamental factor which determines the value of the Gibbs
energy of the electrode process, i.e. of the heterogeneous electron transfer
between the electrode and the organic molecule. In this way, theoretical
foundations were laid for selective transformations of organic compounds on
electrodes. The practical performance of such reactions was made easier by the
potentiostat, constructed by Hickling in 1942. This device, when working with a
three-electrode system, automatically keeps the potential of the working elec-
trode at the required constant value with a reference electrode. In consequence
of this technical innovation a relatively rapid development of organic electro-
synthesis was initiated (use of the preceding knowledge of novel organic
electrochemistry and of organic polarography was also made) in the mid 1950s
and has lasted until now. The development of spectral and, more recently
electroanalytical procedures - as well as that of more advanced separation and
isolation methods - make it possible to obtain a deeper insight into the structure
and reactivity of intermediates which result during the electrode process and
react in follow-up chemical and electrochemical processes. Not only the use of
potentiostats but also the use of new electrode materials, new materials for
diaphragms, non-aqueous (mostly aprotic) organic solvents and novel support-
ing electrolytes contribute to increasing selectivity of electrochemical processes.
Recently, indirect electrochemical procedures have been introduced and are
frequently applied for reaching selective oxidations and reductions of organic
substrates: in such processes the so-called mediators are used, i.e. electrochemi-
2 1 Introduction
cally regenerable redox system. The importance of electro synthesis, of this "old-
new" discipline for the present industrial society may be confirmed by the
engineering solution of the construction of highly efficient working cells. How-
ever, the development in the 1980s proved that the most suitable field of
application is the preparation of relatively small quantities of valuable fine
chemicals. The famous method used in the nylon synthesis is more or less an
exception. The discipline resulting in this way - electroorganic synthesis which
forms an area between organic synthesis and electrochemistry - makes use of the
electrolysis in liquid media for preparing organic compounds or for preparing
reagents for further application in organic synthesis. It belongs both to labora-
tory and to industrial procedures.
In its simplest form, an organic preparative reaction can be compared with a
chemical reaction which is followed by the isolation of the required product. In
the practical performance of both a laboratory preparation or of an industrial
process, in particular the first step, i.e. the chemical reaction, is often not
completely satisfactory and convenient. The reaction need not necessarily follow
the required path and may lead to side reactions and to the formation of side
products, isomers and polymers. A particularly inconvenient factor - from the
point of view of energetics - is the frequent necessity to work at increased or high
temperatures, or sometimes, at high pressure. Practical experience, theoretical
considerations but also consulting the literature concerning preparative proced-
ures of organic chemistry published as early as in the first decades of this
century, point to the fact that, in oxidations and reductions, electro synthesis
could be more convenient than classical organic synthesis. The required process
is initiated by electrical potential applied to the working electrode.
What else attracts synthetic organic chemists to electrochemistry in addition
to the possibility of a selective transformation of substrates and to the fact that
as a universal reagent an anode is used in oxidations and a cathode in
reductions, none of them usually giving side products?
First it is the easy inversion of the polarity [2] of the molecule ("Umpol-
ung"). This always takes place if an electron transfer occurs between the
electrode and the substrate in which ions, radicals or ion radicals are formed as
the primary intermediates (see below). In classical organic synthesis such change
in polarity is achieved by suitable chemical reactions, such as e.g. (1-1) and (1-2)
~
R-CH2 -Br
Mg
- d-
R- CH2-MgBr (1-1)
d- J'..
..
CH3- C - CH3
Br2
.. CH3-C - CH2- Br
-HBr II
0 0
(1-2)
Further it is the frequently high stereoselectivity [3] of chemical reactions to

which the electrogenerated particles are liable both at the electrode surface or
1 Introduction 3
in its close vicinity. Thus, the proportion of Ct,p-stereoisomers of unsaturated

hydroxyketones resulting in the anodic acetoxylation of dienolacetates (equal to
13.9) is very close to the ratio of isomers resulting in microsomal oxidation (i.e.
14.1) which also occurs at the interface between the solid and the liquid phase;
both ratios differ considerably from the ratio between isomers resulting in the
chemical oxidation (3.0) by perbenzoic acid, taking place in the bulk of the
solution (1-3)
~ -2e
Aeo~ AeOH. AeOK
~ OAe
-----O~
C6 H5 - COOOH «,Il isomers
(1-3)
{OJ,micro"o... •
OH
Finally, it is also the exceptional reactivity of electro generated particles in the

vicinity of the electrode before their diffusion back into the bulk of the solution.
This case may be exemplified by the alkylation of the carbanion resulting by
cathodic reduction of the iminium ion which occurs with a high yield even in
strongly acidic media without an antecedent protonation (1-4).
+2e
.. R-Br
-
-
R
R1 I
"'c - NHR3 (1-4)
R2'
2 Experimental Factors and Methods of Investigation
of Electroorganic Reactions
2.1 Fundamental Conceptions of Organic Electrochemistry (4)
Electroorganic reactions are often a combination of two processes, the electrode

process (E) and the chemical process (C), cf. Fig. 2.1. This sequence may be
repeated or the processes E and C may be combined in different ways such as
e.g. EEC, ECE, CECE. The sequence may also be CE. The basis of inducing the
electrochemical process E is a heterogeneous electron transfer between the
electrode and the substrate which, primarily, without subsequent reactions,
leads to the formation of a reactive intermediate, i.e. to a radical ion, a cation, an
anion or to a radical, depending on the electron configuration of the starting
substance (the substrate, the educt) and on the type of the redox processes,
i.e. the oxidation or the reduction. Unless the chemical processes are considered,
the E type reactions take into account the following possibilities (2-1):
.. -e ..
+e
,.
-e
+e
.. A
+e
• -e .. .. +e-e • A2-
(2-1)
anode
electron chemical
transfer process
process E process C
-e
Fig. 2.1. Schematic depiction of

an electro organic oxidation as
combination of processes E and C
2.2 Laboratory Electrolysis Cells [5, 6] 5
Keeping all other experimental conditions constant, the fundamental factor

which affects an electrochemical process E, is the electrode potential.
The basis of a C type process in electro synthesis is an aimed orientation of
the further course of the reaction and of the reactivity of intermediates formed in
the process E in such a way that by corresponding follow-up reactions (addi-
tions, substitutions, eliminations, recombination, cleavage, rearrangement etc.)
a product of required structure is obtained. This is achieved by the choice of a
suitable solvent, supporting electrolyte, electrode material, current density or
electrode potential, temperature, pH etc. In this respect electro organic reactions
differ from electroinorganic processes in aqueous solutions which usually end in
the process E, although this does not hold true without exception, particularly in
coordination compounds.
2.2 Laboratory Electrolysis Cells [5, 6)
For studying electro organic synthetic reactions on a laboratory scale (1-10 g of

the substrate) electrolytic cells are used which possess a rather simple construc-
tion. In the simplest case, cf. Fig. 2.2, a glass vessel (a beaker) suffices, in which
the working (in case of oxidation the anode) and the auxiliary electrode (the
cathode) are placed. In a number of laboratory preparative operations, an
electrolytic cell without a diaphragm can be best applied (its construction is
depicted in Fig. 2.3). Both electrodes are immersed in the same solution to be
electrolyzed, formed by the substrate, the solvent and the supporting electrolyte.
source of
DC - current
anode cathode
supporting
ClOi'
electrolyte
Fig. 2.2. Scheme of electrolysis
6 2 Experimental Factors and Methods of Investigation
Fig. 2.3. Laboratory electrolytic cell with stirrer but

without diaphragm; 1,2 electrodes
The cell may be equipped with a thermometer, a magnetic stirrer, a tube serving
as an inlet for the inert gas and a cooling jacket. The electrodes are connected to
a DC-voltage source (0.5- 2.5 A; 0- 35 V), usually with a built-in voltmeter and
an ammeter. The distance between the electrodes varies from 1 to 5 mm in order
to make the resistance as small as possible and to achieve current densities at the
working electrode ranging from 10 to 100 rnA cm - 2 . Such "undivided" cells
without a diaphragm have a low resistance and also the overall voltage (U) is
low. In industrial practice this fact leads to a lower energy consumption which is
given by the following relationship (2-2),
U. i. t
(2-2)
1000
where Eg is the energy in kWh, i-the current in A, t - the time in hours, U - the
voltage in V.
For a number of electrochemical preparations, in particular reductions, the
so-called divided cells must be applied in which the anode and the cathode are
divided by a diaphragm which prevents mixing of the electrolytes and thus
decreases the cathodic reduction of the product formed by oxidation on the
anode and vice versa (cf. Fig. 2.4). The construction of a laboratory electrolysis
2.2 Laboratory Electrolysis Cells [5, 6] 7
anode
Fig.2.4. Schematic depiction of an electrochemical

Hg cathode cell with a diaphragm
Fig. 2.5. Laboratory electrolyzer with a diaphragm; 1 -

glass vessel of the electrolyzer with a water jacket; 2 -
ceramic diaphragm; 3 - working electrode; 4 - auxiliary
electrode; 5 - stirrer 6 - glass tube
cell with a diaphragm equipped with stirring and cooling is depicted in Fig. 2.5.
The electrodes are placed at maximum at a distance of 5 mm from a diaphragm
which divides the electrolyte into the anolyte and the catholyte. Ideally the
diaphragm should be chemically inert and totally impermeable to the solvent,
the educts and the products. However, it should be permeable to the ions. Such
an ideal diaphragm has not been produced yet. In practice physical non-
selective diaphragms are therefore applied (porous glass, ceramic or plastic
high ohmic
voltmeter
anode ~L._ _ _---';:::"""'..J

Fig. 2.6. Scheme of the electrolytic cell
with controlled voltage and a reference
electrode
asbestos, cellophane frits etc.) or semipermeable ionex membranes which are

ion-selective, i.e. enable the transfer of only one ion between the anolyte and the
catholyte. These are e.g. copolymers of sulfonated polystyrene and divinylben-
zene or polymeric perfluorinated membranes of the Nafion type (sulfonated
fluoropolymers).
In contrast to the preceding type of cell, the diaphragm cells have a higher
resistivity, a higher overall cell voltage and a higher energy consumption in
technological processes.
Both the preceding types of cell can be modified for working at controlled
potential of the working electrode. A scheme depicting such a circuit is to be
seen in Fig. 2.6. The potential of the working electrode (e.g. the cathode) is
automatically controlled at the required constant value by means of a potentio-
stat; this value is measured versus a suitable reference electrode the potential of
which vs a normal hydrogen electrode (NHE) is known and remains constant.
In practice the so-called saturated calomel electrode (SeE) is most frequently
applied as a reference electrode, i.e. Hg+ jHg (mercury(I) chloride paste in
contact with mercury and a saturated solution of potassium chloride).
2.3 Electrodes (7)
The choice of the working electrode must be carefully considered because its
material or the pretreatment or the modification of its surface can fully change
the mechanism of the electrode process, the properties of the resulting inter-
mediates, the follow-up reactions and, consequently, also the character of the
final product. On its surface the transfer of electrons between the substrate
(educt in preparative reactions) and the electrode occurs. The direction of this
transfer decides if the reaction is an oxidation or a reduction - i.e. the uptake or
loss of the electron by the electrode. This transfer takes place in the electric
double layer at the interface between the electrode and the electrolyte; the
thickness of the double layer amounts to about 10 nm and the voltage drop
therein can reach values as high as 107 V cm -1.
The electrode process can be therefore markedly specific and is chiefly
affected by the electrode potential, but also by the adsorptive and catalytic
2.3 Electrodes [7] 9
properties of its surface. The electropreparative work - in particular long-term

work or, perhaps, electrolysis on a technical scale - requires taking into account
further electrode properties such as: good electric conductivity as well as
mechanical durability, resistivity against chemical and electrochemical influ-
ences, in solid electrodes a relatively large surface per unit area and, finally, the
ability to catalyze the proceeding reaction. This last requirement is character-
istic particularly of organic anodic processes. The auxiliary working electrode is
chosen so that a suitable electrode process occurs on its surface whose products
interfere only to a very low extent or not at all even if the cathodic and the
anodic compartment are not separated; very often a platinum foil, or a platinum
wire, or a platinum grid is satisfactory.
Of a given electrode-electrolyte system only a certain, limited range of
potentials is characteristic in the region in which oxidation-reduction reaction
can occur. This range is sometimes called "the potential window", a term derived
in essence from spectroscopy. The limit on the anodic side depends on the
electrode material and on the oxidation region of the solvent or, perhaps, on the
oxidation of components of the supporting electrolyte. In an analogous way,
the attainable cathodic potentials are limited by the reduction potential of the
components of the supporting electrolyte or of that the solvent at the given
electrode.
In aqueous solutions and, in general, in protic solvents protons may be
reduced and hydrogen evolved. For this reason, the potential range of electrodes
in the cathodic regions is given by the potential of the H + IH2 electrode and its
hydrogen overpotential (2-3):
(2-3)
If one requires the applicability of the electrode up to distinctly negative

potentials, it must possess a low value of the exchange current (io) for the
reduction of the hydrogen ions. The value of - log io is highest (i.e. the
hydrogen evolution is at slowest) with mercury, lead, thallium, manganese and
cadmium, the intermediate group is formed by titanium, niobium, tungsten, gold
and nickel whereas a high rate of hydrogen ion reduction is characteristic of
iridium, rhodium, platinum and palladium. This sequence has been found for
aqueous 1 M-H 2 S04 solutions.
A useful guide for choosing the cathode material is the hydrogen overvoltage
of metals which can acquire values up to 1.2 V (vs SCE) with Pb, Hg and Cd
whereas in metals used as hydrogenation catalysts (Pt, Ag, Ni, Cu) its values
approach zero.
It follows from the preceding paragraphs that the first group is most suitable
for carrying out preparative electro reductions owing to its high overvoltage. In
essence, best results were obtained with mercury, cadmium and lead electrodes:
this follows from older electro preparative publications and - as regards mercury
electrodes - from the results of classical (DC-) polarography. A negative
property of mercury electrodes - in addition to their state of aggregation and
their toxicity - is their easy oxidizability at not very positive (or at negative)
potentials, in particular in presence of halogenides, cyanides and further com-
pounds which form poorly soluble or undissociated complexes with mercury
cations.
The potential range of electrodes in the anodic region for aqueous solutions
is determined by the potential of an 02/H20 electrode and by its oxygen
overvoltage (2-4)
of- of- 4 e (2-4)
The body of materials for the choice of anodes is substantially limited with
respect to the conditions of oxidation, in particular in preparative electrolysis.
The best known material is platinum where, however, the most serious hitch is
its high price. This is why in the industrial practice it is replaced by platinized
anodes on a well-conducting support from titanium and also by Pb0 2 elec-
trodes. Further materials are carbon or graphite. In spite of some of its
convenient properties (higher hydrogen overvoltage) gold is not very frequently
applied; this is probably due to complications with sealing it into glass.
Noble metal electrodes are not inert at sufficiently positive potentials
because in aqueous solutions they form oxide layers on the surface. The
stoichiometry of such compounds is relatively not well defined. It seems that in a
strongly positive regions the oxide film is composed of chemisorbed oxygen with
the nucleation and with the growth of the oxide phase. This holds for Pt, Pd, Rh
and Au. Platinum electrodes are especially suitable for one-electron oxidations,
i.e. for the primary formations of radicals and radical ions whereas on carbon
electrodes, two-electron oxidations occur under otherwise identical conditions;
these mechanisms lead to the formation of cations. In polar apr otic solvents, the
formation of the chemisorbed layer on a platinum anode is less pronounced and
on polished platinum, the highest positive limit can be reached among all
electrodes applied in electrochemistry. The condition is the absence of water and
for its removal a perfect technique is required which is usually hardly achievable
in preparative work. The noble metal electrode surface is polished and renewed
by the so-called cycling, i.e. gradually scanning the applied potential in a range
from the given value toward the positive side and back to a suitable negative
value, followed by a return to the starting potential. In this way a so-called
active surface is obtained. When describing this operation, it is not always
emphasized that in aqueous solutions a considerable quantity of the electrode
material is dissolved. Platinum and gold electrodes, however, are dissolved to a
lesser degree than palladium and rhodium. In experiments with a gold electrode
it is necessary to take care that potentials applied to it in solutions containing
halogenides or cyanides are not too positive; this prevents their oxidation to
e.g. tetrachloroaurate anions (2-5):
Au of- 4 CI AuCl.. of- 3 e (2-5)

The carbon electrodes comprise the carbon electrodes proper and the
graphite electrodes. The materials used include glass-like carbon which exhibits
a good conductivity and a sufficient resistivity versus chemical effects. Its
advantage is the low price and high overvoltage both for oxygen and for
hydrogen. A further form, spectroscopic graphite, is very porous and for this
reason it is impregnated with paraffin or ceresin wax. It can only seldom be
applied for electrochemical preparations. The third group is represented by
pyrolytic graphite in which the hexagonal rings are parallel to the electrode
surface. This form is chemically most resistant and thus protected against the
penetration of gases. In connection with the choice of carbon anodes one has to
point out that perchlorates - which are so useful with platinum anodes - cannot
be recommended here. The most suitable supporting electrolytes are p-toluene-
sulfonates. The working electrodes in preparative electrochemistry (since the
1980s the impact has been on the production of fine chemicals; for this reason
small-scale electrolysis plays the most important role) can be divided into two
limiting kinds: in the first case the electrode represents just a sink or a source of
electrons - in such a situation the mechanism and the products are independent
of the electrode material and the current is controlled by the electrode area. In
the other extreme case the material exerts the influence of a catalyst and strong
dependence on the electrode material can be observed.
In general, the decisive parameters which control the behaviour of both
types of electrode material are as follows: the electrode potential (or current
density), the concentration of the species to be electrolyzed, the solvent, the
electrolyte, the proton availability, the temperature, the mass transport and the
cell design - perhaps also the presence of additives.
The electrodes proper exhibit the following important properties which
considerably affect the working out of a new electropreparative method:
physical stability (no abrasion),
chemical stability (e.g. no chemical oxidation),
suitable shape,
rate and products selectivity (influence of electrocatalysis),
low cost and long lifetime,
low toxicity (danger when working with Hg, Cd or Pb).
The relationship between the electrode material and the mechanism of an
organic electrode process was investigated for the first time in the mid 1960s.
The electron transfer can only occur via the following three ways: a) the
reaction takes place via a bond with the electrode surface, b) the reaction occurs
without a bond formation and proceeds simply as an electron transfer or, c) in a
reduction via adsorbed hydrogen on Pt, Pd or Ni. This type of reduction is very
close to catalytic hydrogenation. The hydrogenations occur as follows:
Nickel
ketones ~ alcohols
aldehydes ~ alcohols
acetylenes ~ cis-alkenes
oIefins ~ alkanes
unsaturated ketones ~ ketones
nitriles ~ amines
Schiff bases ~ amines
oximes ~ amines
pyridine ~ piperidine
cyclohexadiene ~ cyclohexane
benzene ~ cyclohexane
sugars ~ sugar alcohols
Palladium
ketones ~ alcohols
nitriles ~ amines
unsaturated ketones ~ ketones
unsaturated steroids ~ steroids
cleavage of benzyloxycarbonyl from peptides
Platinum
ketones ~ alcohols
ketones ~ alkanes
butadienes ~ alkenes
nitrocompounds ~ amines
CF 3COOH ~ CF 3CH3
Rhodium
phenols ~ cyclohexanols
Cobalt, Iron
nitriles ~ amines
The applicability of an electro preparative method is best characterized by the

following definitions:
Current efficiency is the fraction of the total charge passed that is used in the
formation of the desired product (the hydrogen evolution is here a competitive
reaction).
Material yield is the fraction of the starting material that is converted into
the desired product (its value is less than one, the losses are due to by-products,
to isolation and to purification). The term space-time yield is less often
encountered: it means the weight of product per unit time or unit volume in a
given cell.
The reference electrodes do not in essence differ from the reference electrodes
known from voltammetric, polarographic (or potentiometric) measurements. In
general, they are used in potentiostatically controlled electrolyses with a three

electrode circuit.
Evidently, the most frequently used is a calomel electrode with various
concentrations of KCI, but also electrodes of the HgO/Hg- and Hg 2S0 4/
Hg-type, further the more recently introduced Ag/ AgCI electrode (in particular
in commercially produced devices), or electrodes of the type of metal electrodes
in a solution of their own cations (e.g. Ag in a solution of Ag+ ions). When
working with non-aqueous electrodes the solution in the electrode is e.g. 0.1 M
(C2Hs)4NCI04; the Ag+ concentration is equal to 0.01 M. The reference
electrode is usually separated from the solution to be investigated by a bridge
containing the electrolyte, either the same or at least with one ion in common
with the salt present in the reference electrode. The bridge is separated from the
electrode as well as from the electrolytic compartment by dense frits or frits
supported by agar plugs. This holds for aqueous solutions and the situation does
not substantially differ with polar aprotic solvents. In spite of the fact that - in
contrast to measuring methods with controlled potential (voltammetry and
polarography) - here it is not necessary to know the exact values of potentials,
the choice and preparation of a reference electrode for non-polar non-aqueous
solvents is a difficult problem. Non-polar solvents (e.g. dichloromethane) lead to
ion association (with respect to the low dielectric constant) and to an increase in
the resistance of the solution. In this case the reference electrodes are prepared in
a solvent miscible with dichloromethane (the condition is that such an electrode
is reliable and its potential is not time dependent) or a reference electrode is
made which is based on a half-cell in dichloromethane (2-6).
Ag/Ag 3I 4-
(2-6)
(C 4H9)4 N+
In preparative electrochemistry our ignorance of the answer is not important to

the question if for each non-polar solvent a special electrode is required or if a
universal electrode·can be constructed which is suitable for all aprotic non-polar
solvents.
The main requirement of the experiments in voltammetric or even more in
electropreparative experiments is that the potential of the reference electrode
remains constant during the whole measurement or during the electrosynthetic
procedure. It is not so important that its potential corresponds to theoretical
assumptions since this value can be measured directly or by means of a standard
with a known reduction or oxidation potential (El/2 or Ep); El/2 or Ep can be
determined voltammetrically or polarographically, compared then with the
value known from the literature and the result used for correcting the measured
value. Such a quasireference electrode may be e.g. a large area Hg/pool electrode
in a solution of halogenide ions (CI- , Br - or 1-) or a platinum wire or a foil. The
reproducibility is sufficient for electro preparative aims, b i.e. ± 10-20 mY. The
most frequently used quasireference electrode is Ag-wire.
Table 2.1. Standard potentials of reference electrodes EO' + Ej (Vat 0c)
Reference Molarity EO' + Ej (Vat DC)

electrodes 20 25
AgCI/Ag 3,5 M KCI 0.208 0.205

saturated 0,204 0.199
OJ MKCI 0.336 0,336
tOM 0.284 0.283
3,5M 0,252 0.250
saturated 0.248 0,244
saturated K 2 S0 4 0,658
(22°C)
Hg/HgO 0.3 MNaOH 0,926
2.4 Solvents and Supporting Electrolytes [8)
Electrolytic reactions and, consequently, also electropreparative processes occur

mostly by a heterogeneous electron transfer between the electrode and the
substrate in the solution and are followed by further processes in the liquid
phase containing the substrate, the solvent and the supporting electrolyte. The
most suitable solvent i,e. water, is only seldom used in organic electrochemistry.
When choosing a suitable solvent, not only the solubility of the starting material
(the substrate) has to be considered, but also the solubility of the primary and
of the final products and, last but not least, the solubility of the supporting
electrolyte. Whereas the starting material and the supporting electrolyte must be
easily soluble in the given system, it is in some cases advantageous if the product
is insoluble and deposits during the electrolysis. The relative permittivity of the
solvent has to be larger that 10 if possible: this ensures a suitable dissociation of
the supporting electrolyte and the conductivity of the solution, The chosen
system, i.e. the solvent and the supporting electrolyte should be inert toward the
starting material and the final product; further it must enable the separation of
the compound thus formed without difficulties and its oxidation and reduction
must be more difficult than that of the substrate.
In oxidations, acetic acid, pyridine, nitromethane, but in particular aceto-
nitrile (AN) and related compounds are used. AN exhibits a low viscosity,
adequate volatility, can be relatively easily purified and allows the separation of
products. An unfavorable property of AN is its toxicity. Owing to its dielectric
constant the solutions of salts even at 0.05 moll- 1 concentrations have a
satisfactory conductivity. AN is not such a strong base as dimethylformamide
(DMF) or dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO); this leads to the fact that in anhydrous
AN the radical cations are more stable than in DMF whereas the radical anions
have here a much lower lifetime. The applicable potential range is shown in
Table 2.2.
2.4 Solvents and Supporting Electrolytes [8] 15
Table 2.2. Potential range in acetonitrile under different conditions
Supporting Electrodes Potential

electrolyte working reference range (V)
(C2Hs)4NCI04 Hg SCE 0.6 to - 2.8

LiCI0 4 Pt Ag/O.01 MAgClO 4/ 2.4 to - 3.5
0.1 MLiClO 4
NaBF4 Pt Ag/O.l M AgN0 3 anodic to 4.0
Table 2.3. Potential ranges in dimethylformamide under different conditions

(C2Hs)4NCl04 Hg SCE + 0.5 to - 3.0

(C2Hs)4NCl04 Pt SCE + 1.6 - 2.1
(C4Hg)4NCl04 Hg SCE -0.4 - 3.0
(C4Hg)4NCl04 Pt SCE + 1.2 - 2.5
Although a perfect purification of AN is difficult, in the pure state it can be

stored very well. Nevertheless it is hygroscopic, light-sensitive and it ages rapidly
in experiments and manipulations. Commercial, spectroscopically pure AN
can usually be used in electrochemistry directly. Owing to their stability (non-
reactivity) other nitriles are. generally used in electrochemistry, e.g. propionitrile
or benzonitrile which have very similar chemical and electrochemical properties
but are more expensive and not so easily available.
Tetrahydrofuran, 1,2-dimethoxyethane, diglyme, pyridine, dimethylforma-
mide, dimethylacetamide and a whole series of aliphatic alcohols (in particular
methanol and ethanol) or acetone, appear to be suitable solvents for electro-
reductive processes.
The ami des are oi considerable importance because of their high dielectric
constant. They are usually very resistant toward electro reduction but not very
suitable for anodic processes. Most frequently used is dimethylformamide which
in addition has a low vapor pressure and a negligible toxicity. It is not suitable
for anodic reactions. As supporting electrolytes tetrafluoroborates and hexa-
fluorophosphates of tetraalkylammonium cations and alkali metal cations are
applied as well as perchlorates and halogenides (cf. Table 2.3).
The limiting process at a platinum anode at about + 1.5 V is the loss of
a single electron from the nitrogen atom of DMF. Traces of water cause
a decomposition of DMF (hydrolysis to formic acid and dimethylamine - the
same mechanism as in alkaline media). The solvent purified by relatively
complicated procedures based on distillation is stable for several weeks if kept in
the dark and in a refrigerator. A lower tendency to hydrolysis has been found in
N-Methylpyrrolidone. N-Methylformamide has a very high dielectric constant.
Among the amides of inorganic acids hexamethylphosphortriamide is used
which can form stable solutions of electrons. On the cathodic side with a lithium
salt as the supporting electrolyte potentials as high as - 3.6 V can be reached

whereas with a tetraalkylammonium salt only - 1.1 V is attainable at Pt.
A substantial hazard is the carcinogenity of this compound.
One often uses ethers which have a very wide potential range; their great
drawback is the low dielectric constant and, as a result of this, a rather high
resistance; moreover, under the influence of light and air they form peroxides.
They include the formerly often used toxic dioxane and 1,2-dimethoxyethane.
The most important of the ethers is tetrahydrofuran (THF), which is very stable
toward reductive agents. The widest applicable potential range has been found
with a platinum working electrode and LiCI0 4 as supporting electrolyte: it is
from + 1.8 to - 3.6 V vs Ag/Agl. For the purification of this solvent not only
distillation with LiAlH4 is used but the so-called ketyl drying by means of
benzophenone where the indicator of the absence of water is the intensively blue
radical anion of the ketone. In addition to the above solvents which have been
classified according to related chemical structures one must also take into
account some structurally different but still important solvents.
Dimethylsulfoxide is at present a very frequently applied polar solvent in
which, owing to electron donation, association of molecules occurs. This also
plays a positive role in the association with water: at the same rest humidity, in
a similar way as in DMF the radical anions are here more stable than in
acetonitrile. The experiments can be performed here with most common suppor-
ting electrolytes. Pure dimethylsulfoxide for spectral use can be directly applied
or it can be purified by vacuum distillation and drying on a molecular sieve. In
contrast to the other solvents it is not toxic but it easily and usually rapidly
penetrates through the skin and all tissues so that it can possibly transport into
the body dissolved toxic agents. The applicable potential range is shown in
Table 2.4.
Propylene carbonate is a cyclic ester with a high dielectric constant. It is
non-toxic and non-reactive and very easily dissolves organic and inorganic
substances. It stabilizes the resulting radical ions. Unfortunately it contains a
large quantity of impurities; for this reason it is purified by a multiple fraction-
ated vacuum distillation and the drying is accomplished on molecular sieves.
With (C4H9)4NCI04 as supporting electrolyte and at a platinum electrode the
potential range is believed to be from + 1.7 to - 1.9 V (vs SCE) and at a
mercury electrode from + 0.5 to - 2.5 V. However, recent studies demonstrate
that the anodic stability of propylene carbonate is much lower than considered
previously.
Table 2.4. Potential ranges in dimethylsulfoxide under different conditions

NaClO 4 Pt SCE + 0.7 to - 1.85

(C4H9)4NClO4 Hg SCE + 0.4 - 2.7
(C 4H 9)4NI Hg SCE - 0.4 - 2.85
2.4 Solvents and Supporting Electrolytes [8J 17
For anodic oxidations of aromatics, nitromethane (E = 36) is used as

solvent. It is relatively unstable and decomposes during storage. The use is
limited to special cases. Dichloromethane is a solvent suitable for working at
low temperatures (it is very volatile) when it stabilizes radical cations much more
than the other solvents. The solvents only rarely applied in organic electrosyn-
thesis are sulpholane, pyridine, nitrobenzene etc. Rich information concerning
solvents in electrochemistry is to be found in the monographs by Mann [1OJ and
in the book by Sawyer and Roberts [11].
The above-mentioned knowledge concerning the properties of non-aqueous
solvents and electrolytic reactions performed therein in absence of water are
made use of quite principally when studying and interpreting the mechanisms of
organic electrode processes. When working out new electropreparative meth-
ods, a considerable number of authors, particularly organic chemists lacking a
deeper electrochemical education, work chiefly empirically. These chemists
choose solvents in which the substrates are easily dissolved and - particularly in
the early days of preparative electrochemistry - they solved the problem by
passing on to a compromise and applying mixed solvents for electrolysis.
Usually they took mixtures of water with methanol or ethanol. The choice of the
solvent system was therefore at the beginning controlled by the solubility of all
substances which participate in the sequence of electrode and chemical reac-
tions, especially that of the educt. In some procedures successful results were
obtained in electrolyses with suspensions or still better with emulsions of educts.
The most recent step in the development which solves complications connected
with the electrolysis of poorly soluble educts is based on the principles of phase
transfer catalysis cf. Chapter 3.3
The supporting electrolytes [9J used in organic preparative electrolysis
usually differ from supporting electrolytes applied in fundamental electrochem-
ical research, i.e. in voltammetric or polarographic measurements. Even when
working with aqueous solutions, buffers are only seldom used and this holds
also for cases in which it is known that the required reduction or oxidation
mechanism occurs optimally at a given concentration of hydroxonium ions.
With respect to the fact that in contrast to voltammetry the electrochemical
reaction occurs practically with the whole amount of educt present in the
solution, the capacity (and the corresponding concentration) of the buffer should
be substantial. For this reason, when working with an aqueous solution one
prefers solutions of weak or strong acids, further, for obtaining alkaline media
solutions of alkali metal hydroxides, carbonates or acetates, very often, however,
salts of strong bases and strong acids. In general, one prefers tetraalkylammo-
nium and lithium cations (the latter group is not recommended for mercury
electrodes) as cations of the supporting electrolyte. The reduction potentials of
cations become more negative in the following sequence:
Na + > K + > N+(C 2 H s)4 > N+(C 4 H 9 )4 > Li +
The choice of suitable supporting electrolytes is especially important in the
work with nonaqueous solutions where the electrolytes have to decrease the
solution resistance. An example of this property is given in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5. The influence of the anion on the specific resistance of tetra-butylammonium
salts in different solvents
Supporting Specific resistance (0 cm - ')

electrolyte acetonitrile dimethoxyethane dimethylsulfoxide
(C4H9)4NCI04 37 (0.60)a 312 (1.0)' 77 (0.60)'

(C4H9)4NBF 4 31 (1.0)a 228 (1.0)a 69 (1.0)'
(C4H9)4NBr 48 (0.60)' 106 (0.60)'
'in brackets: concentration in moll- 1
When applying quarternary ammonium salts as supporting electrolytes,

in aprotic media potentials up to about - 2.9 V can be reached. This group
comprises salts with methyl, ethyl, very often n-butyl, hexyl but also phenyl
groups; these groups may be also combined in the cation. In the electrosyn-
thetic preparation of adiponitrile according to the process of the Monsanto
Company [12] the application of N,N,N',N'-tetrabutyl-N,N'-diethyl-1,6-
hexanediammonium hydrogenphosphate (2-7)
(2-7)
makes possible to decrease the working voltage from 11.65 V to 3.84 V and,
consequently, to decrease the energy consumption.
For working in nonaqueous media hexafluorophosphates, hexafluoro-
borates, perchlorates and p-toluenesulfonates are chosen as anions in tetra-
alkylammonium salts since they are more resistant toward oxidation. The
resistance of anions of supporting electrolytes toward oxidation increases in the
following sequence:
1- < Br- < Cl- < CI0 4 < BF4 < PF 6
In Table 2.6 voltammetric potential ranges at a platinum electrode in 0.1 M
(C4H9)4NCI04 as supporting electrolyte are shown for different organic sol-
vents.
Information about the influence on the oxidation potential and on the
reduction potential of the anions and cations of the supporting electrolyte in the
same solvent is given in Table 2.7.
It is evident, as follows from the above table - unless a halogenide is
necessary for the electrode process proper or for the follow-up reactions - only
the last three anions play an important role in anodic processes. Particularly
convenient are the tetrafluoroborates and hexafluorophosphates which make
possible the achievement of the most positive potentials. Nevertheless, there are
2.4 Solvents and Supporting Electrolytes [8J 19
Table 2.6. Potential ranges in common organic solvents (Pt-electrode,

0.1 M (C4Hg)4NCI04, SCE)
Solvent Dielectric Potential

constant range (V)
tetrahydrofuran 7.6 + 1.10 to - 2.1

methylformiate 8.5 + 1.20 - 1.60
methylenechloride 9.08 + 1.35 - 1.70
pyridine 12.0 + 1.20 - 2.10
acetone 21.0 + 1.00 - l.60
ethanol 24.3 + 0.65 - 1.20
benzonitrile 25.5 + 1.70 - 1.96
methanol 32.6 + 0.70 - l.00
nitromethane 35.7 + 1.15 - 1.15
N,N-dimethylformamide 36.7 + 1.30 - 2.60
acetonitrile 37.5 + 2.10 - 2.30
N,N -dimethylacetamide 37.8 + 1.10 - 2.30
dimethylsulfoxide 46.6 + 1.20 - 2.70
propylenecarbonate 64.4 + 1.20 - 1.50
I-methyl-2-pyrrolidon + 1.10 - 1.10
Table 2.7. Oxidation and reduction potentials of anions and cations in anhydrous
acetonitrile
Anion Oxidation Electrode

potential (V) indicator reference
CNS- + 0.55 Pt SCE

Cl- +1.1 Pt SCE
Br- + 0.70 Pt SCE
1- + 0.30 Pt SCE
CIO';- + 0.60 Hg SCE
CIO';- + 2.10 Pt SCE
BF';- + 2.91 Pt Ag/10- 2 M Ag+
PF 6 + 3.02 Pt Ag/10- 2 M Ag+
Cation Reduction
Potential (V)
Li+ - 1.95 Hg SCE
Na+ - l.85 Hg SCE
K+ - 1.96 Hg SCE
Rb+ - l.98 Hg SCE
Cs+ - 1.97 Hg SCE
NH: - 1.83 Hg SCE
(C 4H g )4N + - 2.30 Hg SCE
two drawbacks: such salts can only be used in completely anhydrous media;
much more important is the fact that they are very expensive and this would
play an especially negative role in large scale electro preparations. From this
point of view, more convenient is the situation when using perchlorates which,
however, are somewhat dangerous in purification and in drying where ex-
plosions have occurred in several cases. A similar decision must be made
between lithium and tetraalkylammonium (mostly tetrabutylammonium)

cations. With the latter group distinctly more negative potentials can be attained
but a serious drawback is again a higher price and/or a more difficult prep-
aration of salts. It would seem therefore that if reaching only somewhat less
negative potential is not disadvantage, lithium salts would be more convenient
in preparative electro reductions but in this case their considerable effect on the
mechanism of the electrode process and on the composition of products would
playa negative role.
A special mention deserves sodium tetraphenylborate and the tetraphenyl-
aluminate which are used as supporting electrolytes when working with ethers
as solvents, e.g. with tetrahydrofuran.
2.5 Inert Gases
In most cases both research in laboratories and in small scale and large scale
procedures, one has to carry out preparative electrolyses in an inert atmosphere,
in particular in the absence of even traces of oxygen. Its presence may substan-
tially change or modify the reduction mechanisms. As an inert gas which is
mostly in contrast to polarographic or voltammetric measurements - passed
through the solution during the whole duration of electrolysis, nitrogen, argon
and helium may serve, exceptionally also hydrogen, propane, methane or a
mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen. Carbon dioxide is not necessarily inert and
may be used for electrolytically introducing a carboxylic group. Nitrogen is used
chiefly and most frequently and this is due to its low price and easy availability.
The oxygen content and its humidity vary and are often high. Moreover its
inertness cannot be guaranteed since e.g. even at room temperature it can react
with lithium or form coordination compounds with some transition metals and
its reactivity at higher temperatures is not negligible even though electrolyses of
organic compounds usually do not occur at very high temperatures. This is why
with sensitive systems one prefers helium and especially the cheaper argon. The
latter contains relatively little water and oxygen and is heavier than air. For this
reason, even without stirring or continuous passing through the solution it
forms a protective layer above the solution to be electrolyzed.
The last traces of oxygen may be removed from inert gases by passing it
through an aqueous solution of CrII or VII salts which are simultaneously
regenerated by amalgamated zinc. In this way even negligible traces of oxygen -
down to 1 ppm - can be removed, but the solution is saturated with water which
must be - in nonaqueous, aprotic solvents - removed again by means of a drying
device with a large capacity. A further method is based on leading the inert gas
through a quartz tube filled with copper shavings at a temperature of
450-800°C. The gas must be cooled down to a temperature necessary in the
electrolytic cell. A combination of the BTS catalysts with molecular sieves is
more modern. Such a system can be repeatedly regenerated.
2.6 Information Obtained by Electroanalytical Methods 21
For drying, a column filled with solid potassium hydroxide can be also used
and for the final drying a column with phosphorus pentoxide dispersed on glass
wool in order to prevent clogging of the column or to prevent the formation of
inactive channels in the P 20 5 layer. One can further desiccate with the help
of silica gel, anhydrous calcium sulfate, magnesium perchlorate or, perhaps, one
of the above-mentioned molecular sieves. The inert gas after removing oxygen
cannot be passed through rubber or polyethylene tubing: outer oxygen may
easily and rapidly diffuse through it.
All these exacting requirements, however, concerning the removal of water
and oxygen from the solutions to be electro lysed are taken into consideration
particularly iri mechanistic and molecular electrochemistry directed at the
interpretation of mechanisms of organic electrode processes.
2.6 Information Obtained by Electroanalytical Methods
2.6.1 Possibilities of Electrochemical Methods (12)
Most experimental data in organic chemistry have been obtained by methods

in which the transport of the electro active substance toward the electrode is
controlled only by diffusion, i.e. convection has been excluded. Owing to this
situation, the concentration of the starting material at the electrode during
electrolysis decreases and that of the products increases. Such methods in which
the factors i, E and t (time) play a role are called non-stationary, if the
electro active substrate at the electrode is depleted during electrolysis; its concen-
tration is supplemented by diffusion. According to the shape of the electrode it
may be linear, cylindrical or spherical diffusion. The methods in which the
electrolytic current is measured as a function of the linearly growing potential
(as a function of time) are called voltammetric. A special kind of voltammetry at
the dropping mercury electrode (DME) is the classical (Heyrovsky) DC-polaro-
graphy. This method has yielded most data and ideas for the interpretation of
the reduction processes. The simplest definition of this technique is as current
measurement at the dropping mercury electrode. The definition of IUPAC
based on the conceptions of the Prague school, is somewhat different and limits
polarography to methods which make use of liquid electrodes the surface of
which is periodically or continuously renewed. This holds primarily for the
dropping and streaming mercury electrodes. In essence, even with the rotated
disk electrode the solution which is in contact with the electrode, could be
constantly renewed and thus fulfills the conditions postulated for polarography
(in the latter case however, the electrode is not liquid). The transport here is not
diffusion controlled.
If the nonfaradaic components of the measured current are neglected i.e., in
particular, the so-called charging or capacitive current (corresponding to charg-
ing the electrode double layer which can be looked upon as a condenser), one
can explain the behaviour in the following way:
The currents caused by transition of the electrons between the two phases,
i.e. between the electrode and the solution (the electroactive species which is
present in the solution) result in a change of the total number of electrons in the
reacting component. Such currents are specified as faradaic currents and are
defined by the relationship (2-8):
dN
i = n.F.-- (2-8)
dt
where n is the number of electrons exchanged by a single particle, F is equal to

96500 coulombs, dN /dt is the number of electroactive particles which reach the
electrode surface per unit of time: in general, the transport of particles toward
the electrode is composed of three components: diffusion, migration and
convection. The migration component which predominates if no supporting
(indifferent) electrolyte is present in the solution and if charged particles undergo
the electrode reaction is mainly undesirable. The convectional contribution is
given e.g. by the growth of the dropping electrode versus the solution or by
rotation of the disk electrode. The diffusion currents are controlled by the rate of
diffusion of the electro active particles to the electrode from the bulk of the
solution. In a purely diffusion-controlled current Fick's First Law can be
therefore applied (2-9):
i = n.F.A.D. [~l
dt x=O
(2-9)
where D is the diffusion coefficient and A the electrode surface area.

By applying Fick's Second Law a relationship (2-10) is obtained which respects
also concentration Co at the electrode; Co is given by potential and the bulk
concentration c* as a function of time and of the distance from the electrode:
c-c ]
i n.F.A.D. [ 0 (2-10)
i 3l7nDt'
By substituting A = 0.85 (mtf l 3 for the electrode (drop) surface and Co = 0 for
the limiting diffusion-controlled current we obtain the so-called Il'kovic equa-
tion (2-11) for the instantaneous current:
. 112 213 1/6
1 = O.732.n.F.c.D .m .t 1 (2-11)
In this equation m is the flow velocity (flow rate) of mercury from the capillary.
With the mean surface area during the drop time the best known expression for
the mean current is (2-12):
. = 0.627.n.F.c.D
1
* 1/2 .m 2/3 .t 1/6 (2-12)
l
t1 is the drop-time in seconds. Further calculations introduced a correction

factor (1 ± 3.97.D1/2.t 1/6.m -1/3) by which the value of id has to be multiplied.
The positive or the negative sign in this expression depends on the situation if
the original species is present in the solution or in the amalgam (the latter case
probably need not be considered with organic compounds).
In contrast to the Il'kovic equation which as (2-12) holds for the limiting
current of the sigmoidal polarographic wave, the shape of the polarographic
wave in the reversible case (in which both thermodynamic reversibility and
a rapid establishment of equilibrium are necessary) is derived from the Nernst
equation. The final expression is:
RT
E (2-13)
n.F
where EO is standard redox potential, and and + are valid for a cathodic,
and an anodic wave, respectively. If both the oxidized and the reduced species
are present in solution the following relationship (2-14) holds:
E = EO RT
± ----- . In
[1-1
~1 'v'~
~ (2-14)
n.F Id~l Dred
The potential E1/2 at which i = tid is called the half-wave potential and
represents an important characteristic constant of the given substance which is
often tabulated. Figure 2.7 depicts how a change of the electro active group
affects the value of E1/2 in a situation where the rest of the molecule remains the
same. Under the assumption that Dox = D red one may write EO = E 1/ 2 • Reac-
tions of the type (2-15)
k
+e
Ox Red (2-15)
k-e
in which in contrast to the above considerations the heterogeneous rate

constants of the electrode transfer are not high enough give polarographic
currents which are controlled by the rate of the electron transfer. This reaction
type are the so-called irreversible reactions. For the shape of their polarographic
.2-
0>
g
O~--~-----~~--~----------I
-1
A
-2
Fig. 2.7. A-Shapes of DC polarographic curves for (1) two-electron reversible reduction (2) one-
electron reversible reduction, (3) one-electron irreversible reduction; B - logarithmic analysis of the
preceding curves, i.e. in coordinates log ilia - i = f(E). The plots for 1, 2, 3 are linear but they differ
in their slope. Curve 4 holds for the so-called quasireversible case (slight irreversibility): the
intersection of the two linear portions enables the determination of the reversible E 1 (2 for a given
reaction
wave in the case of a simple unidirectional reduction wave (Le ~ k+ e ) a

relationship has been derived (2-16)
i
i.lrrev
-1.
0.887 k
+e
Itl o
rev lrrev
= 0.887 k
o v'h-==--- [a.n.F
exp - - (E-E )
01
o R. T
(2-16)
and for the corresponding half-wave potential (2-17)
2.3 RT
+ (2-17)
a.n.F
In this expression k O is the standard heterogeneous rate constant which corres-

ponds to the rate at the standard potential EO and has a dimension cm.s -1; r:t. is
the dimensionless transfer coefficient.
When comparing a reversible and an irreversible sigmoidal DC polaro-
graphic wave of a reduction process the following agreements and differences
can be observed:
a) in an irreversible process El/2 differs from EO, is a function of the drop-time
tl and the anodic and the cathodic wave of the same redox process have
different values of E 1/2'
b) the polarographic wave is more protracted for an irreversible process than
for a reversible one.
c) The plot log ij(id - i) vs E does not yield the correct value of n (i.e. the
number of electrons transferred in the process) in an irreversible case since it
includes also the transfer coefficient CI.. (CI.. must be smaller than 1).
d) The lower limit of the heterogeneous rate constant kO is 0.02 cm s - 1 for
a reversible process which is controlled by diffusion (with lower values the
process becomes irreversible). This numerical value holds only for classical
DC polarography and different lower limits of kO can be found with the
various other electrochemical techniques. Consequently, the term "electro-
chemical reversibility" which has also a kinetic significance differs according
to the method applied.
e) Irreversible electrode processes of organic compounds in which protons take
part, cannot be analyzed making use of the equation for a reversible system
(2-18):
R.T
EO In KIK2
El/2
2F
R.T
+ In([H+j + Kl [H+j + K1K2) (2-18)
2F
This equation holds for the so-called "schema carre" according to Jacq (2-19):
A _ +e
-e
~
A-
- +e
-e A2-
H'! H'l H'll

AH+ +e
-e
- AH"
+e
-e
AH (2-19)
H'AH2+I +e
H'AH+I +e
H'I
2 -
o _
- AH2
-e -e
Equation (2-18) can be simplified according to which of the terms in the
bracket prevails (i.e. if [H+]2, Kl[H+] or K1K2). The plot El/2 = f(pH) is
thus composed of three linear portions with slopes 58, 29 and 0 mV pH - 1.
The points of intersection of these linear portions can be applied for an
approximate determination of the corresponding values of pK.
f) In contrast to reversible processes the values of El/2 in irreversible processes

may depend on the concentration of the supporting electrolyte.
The second significant method which can be used for obtaining data
concerning the mechanisms of electrode processes of organic compounds is
voltammetry with a rotated disk electrode (RDE). The rotated disk electrode is
usually a planar, circle-shaped area made of conductive material (metal, carbon
etc.) mounted into a tube of isolating material (teflon, glass etc.) and conduc-
tively connected with the measuring system. The rotation of the disk causes the
formation of a solution layer which under the influence of the centrifugal force
attains radial velocity. The thickness 00 of the layer which horizontally streams
along the electrode is equal to
= +:-]'12 (2-20)
here v is the kinematic viscosity (lcm 2 .s -11), and (0 is the angular velocity of the
disk. If laminar streaming occurs to the electrode the thickness of the diffusion
layer 0 (2-21) to be applied in the Nernst equation is
(2-21)
in which IDI is in cm - 2 S - 1. The thickness of the diffusion layer is about 10 - 3 cm

whereas 00 = 10- 2 cm. The current for a one-electron process controlled
simultaneously by mass transfer and charge transfer is (2-22)
F.A.D.c • F.A.D.c •
i = (2-22)
D
1/3 v1/6 w- 1/ 2 + o + D/k
1. 61 D
k
in this relationship A is the area of the electrode (in cm 2 ), c* is the concentration

of the electro active substrate (mol 1- 1) and k is the rate constant of the charge
transfer (2-23):
k ;;;;
o
k. exp
[-ex.F. (E-EO)] (2-23)
R.T
The potential possesses such a positive value that the counter-reaction can be
neglected. The relative values 0 and Djk represent two extreme cases in which
the rate-controlling process is either the transport of the electroactive substance
or the charge transfer. For high values of k the term Djk can be ignored. The
expression for the limiting current is then (2-24):
i 1.1m = (2-24)
If, on the other hand, k is very small, the relationship (2-25) is obtained:
o -a.F. (E-E )
= F.A.k.c = F.A.c.k exp [ 0 1 (2-25)
R.T
In this case the current is controlled by the rate of the charge transfer.
The variation of i with (01/2 is an important diagnostic criterion for the
elucidation of the electrode process. At low potentials (at the foot of the wave)
the current is independent of the angular velocity. At high potentials (e.g. at the
potential of the limiting current) only the mass transfer controls the current,
hence it is directly proportional to (01/2. At the intermediate potentials the
current is first controlled by the mass transfer (small values of (01/2) and then by
charge transfer.
In a fast system without coupled chemical reactions a linear plot i = j((01/2)
is satisfied regardless of the potential in the i - E curve, i.e. Levich's criterion
is fulfilled. In addition to the calculation of the diffusion coefficients or rate
constants of the electrode process, this electrode was used for detailed analysis of
mechanisms of electrode processes, especially in reactions of the ECE type,
where by changing the rate of rotation for example the second step in the
electron transfer can be excluded. Thus, the dependence id(01/2 = j((01/2) in the
shape of a horizontal direct line reveals that the system is either fast and
reversible, controlled by the mass transfer or that the chemical reactions are too
fast. If, however, the plot id(01/2 = j((01/2) increases with increasing (01/2, the
system is too slow or an ECE mechanism is operative.
A further refinement of this method is the so-called rotated ring-disk
electrode (RRDE). In essence it is composed oftwo concentric rotated electrodes
separated by a ring insulator: hence one of the electrodes has the shape of a ring,
the other that of a circular disk. By means of a bipotentiostat two different
potentials are applied to these electrodes. At the disk surface the species to be
investigated is electrochemically generated, in more complicated processes this
species undergoes follow-up reactions; sufficient time is available for these
reactions before the products reach the ring electrode at which the primary or
the secondary product is electrochemically detected, the latter after a chemical
follow-up reaction.
As in the preceding case the qualitative use of these procedures is probably
more useful since it enables the detection of products, originating in follow-up
processes.
The third important method in the study of electrode mechanisms is cyclic
voltammetry. In this technique the potential is continuously varied in the anodic
or in the cathodic direction; during this variation anodic or cathodic peaks
(corresponding to the oxidation or to the reduction of the studied educt) result
on the i = feE) - curve on a stationary electrode. Starting from the final

potential attained in this way the polarization is repeated in the reverse
direction, usually back to the starting potential. During this process the peaks
corresponding to the electrode process of the primary products (electrochemi-
cally generated) or those of further chemical processes are followed. The
indicator electrodes can be planar (made of Pt, Au or C), but also disks, surface
areas of carbon paste electrode or stationary mercury drops. When working
with a planar electrode the regime is that of a semi-infinite planar diffusion; in
wire electrodes it is a case of cylindrical diffusion whereas with a mercury drop it
is spherical diffusion. With the short duration of electrolysis this complication
can be simplified to an almost linear diffusion. The dependence of the applied
potential on time (E = f(t)) has usually the shape of an isosceles triangle. The
rates of the changes of potential with time (scan rates) are in the range from
0.5 V min - 1 to 500 V S -1. The extreme values are only rarely applied, the middle
values between them are very useful. The method usually yields only qualitative
results but with respect to the very simple work with the indicator electrode it is
most popular in preliminary research of organic systems.
First the peak voltammogram according to Eq. (2-26) is recorded:
i (2-26)
p
ip is the current in amperes, v is the scan rate in V s - 1, k is the Randles-Sevcik

constant. It follows from this relationship that the expression i p/v l/2 /e = const.
holds for the case of a simple process without subsequent reactions (usually
ip /v 1/2 /c = f(v l/2 ) is plotted). In a reversible system (with a fast charge transfer)
the process exhibits an anodic peak in oxidations with a corresponding cathodic
peak in the reverse polarization (back reduction). Both peaks differ by (2-27):
O. 058/n volts (2-27)
The width of the peak is defined by the relation (2-28):
O.058/n volts (2-28)
Unless a chemical follow-up reaction occurs the ratio of peak heights of the
cathodic and the anodic current is approximately equal to one. The measure-
ment, however, is difficult. If the electron transfer is slow the anodic and the
cathodic peak are shifted apart along the potential axis; the lower the rate
constant of the electrode process the larger the separation.
A practical application of this method can be demonstrated by the case
where the educt is oxidized at the potential (E~X)1 and the resulting species is
reduced back at (E~ed)1. The process is followed by a chemical reduction in which
a secondary oxidized form results which is reduced at a more negative potential
(E~edh; after switching over the direction of polarization and polarizing to more
positive potentials the secondary product is reoxidized at the more negative

potential (E~x)z. When reaching more positive potentials the anodic peak at
(E~X)l appears again and in the next polarization cycle the whole course is
repeated. The decisive diagnostic factor in this method is the possibility of
changing the rate and the direction of polarization. The validity of the mech-
anism (2-29)
Red1. •
k
(2-29)
can be proved by changing the rate of polarization. At a very fast polarization

the peak Red 1 is substantially increased and the peaks Red 2 and OX 2 virtually
vanish; on the other hand at a very slow recording the peak OX 1 remains on the
voltammogram but the oxidation product is fully transformed to OX 2 so that
Red 1 vanishes and only Red 2 and OX 2 can be observed (cf. Fig. 2.8).
Further two methods which could be applied are chronopotentiometry
and chronoamperometry. As regards these two methods we refer to the liter-
ature [14].
The data which in connection with isolated and identified products of
electrolysis gives the most valuable information concerning the electrode mech-
anism, is the measured number n of electrons exchanged per molecule (or
particle) in the electrode process. The most valuable method for determining n in
a given reaction is coulometry, mostly at controlled potential. The determina-
tion of n must be carried out in such media where a sufficiently high electrolytic
current is ensured (duration of electrolysis from 10 to 100 minutes; further, over
the whole area of the working electrode (usually a large-area electrode) an
+ - E
Fig. 2.S. Cyclic voltammogram for a reversible pro-

cess R ..... 0 + ne followed by a chemical reaction
o ..... 0' in which an electroactive product results
accurate constant potential must be kept, the working, auxiliary and reference
electrode must be separated but the total resistance must be as low as possible.
The measurement is based on Faraday's Law, i.e. on the information that the
quantity of electricity required for the transformation of one mole in a one-
electron process is equal to F = 96500 coulombs. In simple cases the electric
current decreases during electrolysis according to the relationship (2-30):
i = (2-30)
where p is given by Eq. (2-31)
D.A
p (2-31)
o.v
i is the electrolytic current at time t, io electrolytic current at t = 0, A the area of
the working electrode, 0 the thickness of the diffusion layer and V the volume of
the solution. A larger efficiency of the electrolysis can be achieved by increasing
the value of p. An increase of the working area of the electrode and a decrease
of the volume lead to this aim; the thickness 0 decreases with a higher
concentration of the educt and with the efficiency of stirring the solution. The
least efficiency has been found with magnetic stirring, where p was calculated to
be equal to 1.10- 3 s-1; with paddle stirring it is 2.10- 3 , in screw type stirring
1.10- 2 and finally in the ultrasonic stirring it reaches 0.5-1.10- 1 S-l. The
duration of the electrolysis (up to 99.9%) decreases under these conditions from
120 minutes to 1-2.5 minutes.
The change in the value of p as a function of rpm of the stirrer is as about to
2.5 fold of the original value if the number of rotations increases to 1060 rpm
from 870 rpm.
The possibility of using coulometry for interpreting electrode processes is
closely connected with the choice of a suitable potential which on the one hand
corresponds to the potential found on the polarographic or on the voltammetric
curve, on the other hand to the potential at which the preparative electrolysis
was carried out. However, these potentials may be completely different and also
the products may be different. This is why it is necessary to know the
electrochemical behaviour of the educt at different potentials. If the potential of
the electrolysis is chosen basing on the voltammetric curve, there is a danger of
making a serious mistake since the processes may differ if carried out on a
micro- or on a macroscale. A simple comparison may be carried out only with
uncomplicated reversible processes without adsorption; otherwise the decisive
factor for determining the working potential is the result of the voltammetry at a
given large-area electrode directly in the coulometric cell or, still better, in the
electro preparative cell. Such an electrode has a much larger surface (in com-
parison to an electroanalytical indicator electrode) and this surface is only
imperfectly renewed by stirring, the process occurs therefore at a higher
200 400 600 800 -E mV/SCE
Fig.2.9. Comparison of i - E curves of monophenylhydrazone of dehydroascorbic acid recorded at

a dropping mercury electrode and at a stirred mercury pool electrode; 10- 3 moll-I mono-
phenylhydrazone, 0.2 M acetate buffer pH 4.5; 0.93 M KCI; 10% (vol.) dimethylacetamide, R = 35 n
concentration and over a substantially longer period of time. This enables

parallel chemical reactions to take place as well as adsorption (and its influence
on the course of reaction). The half-wave potentials on the i - E curves in
classical DC polarography and with a large-area (e.g. mercury pool) electrode
may differ by 200 mV or even more as follows from Fig. 2.9. Moreover, such
different conditions cause considerable differences in the wave-shapes, in their
steepness, number of waves and the mutual ratio of the wave-heights. It can
happen that no wave at all appears on the voltammogram with a large-area
electrode but nevertheless the electrolytic reaction proceeds (probably not a
direct one but a chemical reaction of the educt with the products of the electrode
process, e.g. hydrogen, oxygen etc.).
In coulometric measurements, in addition to recording i - E curves (usually
in more rapid processes) one continuously follows the concentration of the
educt, e.g. by recording polarograms as a function of time. These concentrations
are plotted versus charge consumption in coulombs. In simple cases without fast
follow-up or parallel reactions, it was found that the dependence log i = f(t) is
linear, the number of transferred electrons is an integer and the results do not
depend on the concentration of the educt, on the rate of stirring or on the
working potential. Otherwise, the processes are more complicated. Meites [15J
worked out a whole system which makes possible the interpretation of a
mechanism accompanied e.g. by catalytic processes, by reactions of the educt or
of the products with intermediates or products, accompanied by complicating
cases of parallel processes, various ECE mechanisms etc. The role of the change
in potential [16J in preparative electrolysis and, consequently, also in coulo-
me try can be exemplified (cf. Fig. 2.10) e.g. with a case of reduction of
p-fluorobutyrophenone proceeding at a mercury electrode at pH 8.5 (2-32).
-1,78V
-1,73 v l
J
"1,54e
1,44e
Fig.2.10. Number of electrons per molecule, napp , meas-

ured coulometrically at controlled potential at a stirred
mercury pool electrode. The polarographic curve re-
corded with a DME: 10- 3 moll- 1 4-fluoro-butyro-
phenone, 0.01 M phosphate buffer pH 8.5 (20% vol.
ethanol); the numbers on the left: reduction potential at
the mercury pool, the numbers on the right demonstrate
the value napp obtained in this way
OH
F
- +e
n2
~
FJlJ
j
reaction ",i th Hgi+ (2-32)
At a potential which corresponds to the foot of the reduction wave ( - 1.57 V vs

SeE) the value obtained is n = 1.01; with increasing negative potentials the
experimental value ofn also increases, until on the limiting current (at - 1.78 V)
n = 1.54. With the other 4-fluoroarylalkyl ketones this limiting value ap-
proaches n = 2. The interpretation is as follows: the ketones are primarily
reduced in a one-electron step to a radical which can be protonated according to
pH; this primary intermediate, however, dimerizes relatively rapidly and easily;
the resulting dimer is not reduced further; another possible follow-up reaction of
the radical (according to the isolated products) is the formation of a compound
with mercury. These reactions compete with the uptake of a second electron
under formation of a secondary alcohol. With increasing negative potentials

the uptake of the second electron is accelerated and the value of n also grows.
At a more negative potential on the limiting current the following relationship
(2-33) holds:
n
up
(2-33)
2.6.2 Possibilities of Physical Methods
For interpreting electrode processes, non-electrochemical, physical, mainly

spectral methods can be applied. These include the UV -VIS region and the IR
and NMR spectra and are used chiefly for identifying the products. Such an
application is in general not specially affected by the electrochemical procedures
preceding their use (in particular if the product has been isolated).
An exception is formed only by the use of especially adapted apparatuses
[17], e.g. flow-through cells where it is not necessary to take samples of the
electrolyzed solution and to transfer them into cuvettes for spectroscopic
measurements; usually such a transfer would be complicated by interference
from the presence of oxygen or of water. Even more convenient is a direct
combination of electrochemical and spectroscopic methods. In such an arrange-
ment one registers simultaneously both spectral and electrochemical data as a
function of the potential during the generation (the spectral absorption and the
electrochemical current as a function of applied potential E). Transparent
electrodes made from doped Sn0 2 and other materials are applied here in most
cases.
The most frequent combination of a spectral method with the chemical
generation can be encountered in a method particularly important in electro-
chemistry, i.e. in the proof of existence of radical intermediates or primary
products by means of ESR spectroscopy. Only in the formation of very stable
radicals they are generated in the electrolytic cell, sealed in the absence of
oxygen and transferred to the cavity of the ESR spectrometer. The stability is
often substantially increased when measuring at low temperatures (e.g. at
- 70 QC). This is not necessary e.g. with methylviologen blue radicals (their
coloration depends on the media, i.e. on the solvent and the electrolyte) which
result in a reversible one-electron reduction of methylviologen dications (2-34):
(2-34)
These radicals are so stable that the authors of this book still have blue samples
more than 25 years old kept only in a sealed glass tube at normal temperature in
the absence of O 2 and H 2 0.
Usually, however, the relatively stable radicals are generated in a special
three-electrode cell and from this the solution containing them is transported
into the cavity of the ESR spectrometer. Such a generation is called external. In
this case the situation for interpreting the spectra is relatively favorable. Better
known is the electrolytic generation of the radicals directly in the cavity of the
ESR spectrometer; this method was introduced by Maki and Geske [18] for
studying the reduction mechanism of nitro aromatics. Here, the complications
are caused by the presence of a metallic electrode in the cavity and the difficult
deaeration of the solution since the presence of oxygen distorts the ESR spectra
(broadening of the lines) and, moreover, oxygen may react chemically with the
radicals. For this reason a number of different cells have been developed for
generating the radicals directly in the cavity and studying their ESR spectra as a
function of time. The main aim is the proof of radical or of radical ion formation
as an intermediate of the process. As already mentioned, this intermediate need
not be necessarily stable and in the course of time a further particle of non-
radical character may result or the radical may generally vanish in a chemical
reaction with the media. This is why it is convenient to follow the time-
dependence of the ESR spectrum in a state when no voltage is applied to the
electrode and no generation of radicals proceeds; in this way the kinetics of their
decomposition is investigated (possibly with the corresponding rate constants)
but also the relatively frequent formation of a secondary radical whose ESR
spectrum may be analyzed and a statement concerning its structure can be
made.
The fact that in the electrochemical generation the proof or the existence of
the radical by means of ESR was not successful, does still not mean that the
radical is primarily not formed but only, if it exists, that it is unstable. In such
cases very often indirect methods have proved successful such as the method of
electron spin trapping [19]. In this method the primary radical is allowed to
react with a compound called the spin trap with formation of a secondary stable
radical which can be easily detected, usually by means of ESR. The condition of
its formation is the existence of a precursor which exhibits a radical character:
consequently, this is the radical to be detected. Convenient spin traps are some
nitroso derivates but (since the nitro so compounds are very easily reduced),
chiefly the so-called nitrones such as PBN (N-benzylidene-tert.-butylamine-
N-oxide).
PBN was used for proving the existence of a radical which results in the course
of the anodic oxidation of 4-phenyl-l,4-dihydro-l,2,6-trimethyl-3,5-pyridine-
dicarbonitrile by deprotonation of the primarily formed radical cation (2-35).
The resulting radical adduct is relatively stable and its ESR spectrum can be
recorded without difficulties:
-e
o·
Ni-
PBN I
(2-35)
The possibility of applying e.g. 2,6-dichloronitrosobenzene as spin trap was

attempted in the reduction of pyrylium cations; after the uptake of a single
electron neutral unstable radicals result which rapidly dimerize at position 4. A
bulky substituent in this position, e.g. a phenyl, lowers the rate of or prevents
such a reaction. When comparing different spin traps it was found for substi-
tuted pyrylium cations (but not those with a phenyl at 4) that the resulting
radical gives an approx. ten-times more intensive ESR signal with 2,6-dichloro-
nitrosobenzene than after a reaction with nitrosodurene or with nitroso-
mesitylene; on the other hand, the signal of the radical adduct with the
above-mentioned PBN is the weakest in the whole series. Substitution merely
by a methyl group at 4 of the l,4-dihydropyridines increases the stability of the
primary radical and decreases its reactivity with any spin trap. Even more
pronounced is this effect in substitution by a phenyl at 4.
A further indirect physical method for proving the formation of a radical
intermediate is based on the electrochemically generated luminescence (EeL)
[20]. Luminescence reagents such as e.g. 9,1O-diphenylanthracene (DPA) are
used here. For the formation of an intermediate radical in the oxidation of
substituted l,4-dihydropyridines a radical cation of 9,10-diphenylanthracene
(2-36) is generated at a rotated platinum electrode.
-e
DPA DPA.+ (2-36)
+e
In the same or in a very close potential region a radical cation appears by

oxidation of the studied 1,4-dihydropyridine derivative which, however, reacts
further and by deprotonation forms the radical RP' (2-37):
-&
+
RPH RPH.
(2-37)
+
RPH.
By interacting both radical intermediates gradually the excited states 3DPA

and 1 D PA result. By transition from the singlet state to the fundamental state
luminescence is emitted (hv) (2-38) and its appearance is the proof of the
existence of the secondary radical RP':
+
RP. + OPA. RP+ + 30PA
10PA* + OPA (2-38)
OPA + hv
The intensity of emitted luminescence fEeL is measured as a function of the

electrode potential: usually simultaneously and on the same potential scale two
dependencies fEeL = f(E) and ielectrochem = f(E) are obtained. The luminescence
starts not sooner than at the potential of the anodic oxidation of the lumino-
phore, in this particular case DPA. In addition to the above-mentioned mech-
anism an indirect mechanism is also possible (2-39) if the luminophore is
oxidized at less positive potentials than the oxidation potential of the 1,4-
dihydropyridine:
+ +
OPA. + RPH OPA + RPH.
OPA + RPH~ (DPA+RPH)~ (2-39)
(DPA+RPH)~ 30PA * + RP.
The subsequent sequence of reaction is the same as above. The ECL experiments
are not necessarily carried out in the above manner which is called the
controlled potential ECL. It is also possible to switch between the oxidation and
the reduction potential of the hydrocarbon used as reagent.
2.7 Procedures in Laboratory Electroorganic Synthesis
Every electroorganic synthesis should be preceded by a measurement of the

dependence of the electrolytic current on the potential of the working electrode
for the given educt (substrate) and for a given composition of the solution to be
2.7 Procedures in Laboratory Electroorganic Synthesis 37
electrolyzed (solvent, supporting electrolyte, pH, presence of water etc.). In

essence this means to carry out the polarographic or the voltammetric research
not only in the way characteristic of small indicator electrodes but also at large-
area electrodes under conditions very near to those corresponding to normal
preparative electrolysis. It was mainly found that the results obtained by
electrolysis at small electrodes and on large area electrodes may differ not only
in the shape of i-E (or E-i) curves but also in the structure and in the percentual
representation of the individual products. For this reason fundamental informa-
tion is obtained by measuring on these two types of electrodes. Moreover, one
must also carry out experiments with different types of electrode materials, at
least with platinum, graphite and mercury. Nevertheless it is usually not
necessary to perform this whole series of measurements. A lot of information can
be found in the literature when the electroactive group is known (in particular as
to the possible products). When knowing the fundamentals about the electro-
lysis of an organic compound one can start the preparative electrolysis proper.
One of the two following procedures can be chosen:
a) electrolysis at controlled current density,
b) electrolysis at controlled potential of the working electrode.
The advantage of electrolysis at controlled current density is evident in the
case of 1-(2-furyl)ethylacetate methoxylation (2-40) which is carried out with a
platinum electrode in methanolic media with (CzHs)4NCI04 as supporting
electrolyte and yields almost quantitatively the corresponding 2,5-dimethoxy-
2,5-dihydro derivative.
-2e I PI
(2-40)
Under galvanostatic conditions (i = const.), the potential of the working elec-

trode (anode) adjusts itself in the given system to E = 1.7 V (vs AgjAgCl) and
remains at this value during the whole time of electrolysis until the theoretical
amount of electricity (here 2 F mol- 1) has 'been consumed. The electrolysis is
interrupted after a consumption of 2.05 F mol- 1 when the potential of the anode
is slightly increased to about 1.8 V; this change, however, does not affect the
yield and the selectivity of the reaction.
As far as the same methoxylation is carried out at controlled potential of
the anode, so with increasing conversion, i.e. with decreasing concentration
of the substrate, the current gradually decreases until it approaches zero toward
the end of the electrolysis. In this way the duration of the electrolysis is
prolonged and the working electrode may be passivated, e.g. by its surface being
covered by polymers.
Nevertheless the electrolysis with controlled potential, the so-called poten-
tiostatic procedures, exhibits a number of advantages in many cases. The
mechanisms of electrode processes are studied chiefly at controlled potential. In

contrast to the galvanostatic procedures the potentiostatic approach ensures a
sufficient selectivity of the reaction and is therefore more suitable in those cases
a) where the solution contains several substances which differ in their oxidation
and reduction potentials, respectively, and
b) where the substrate undergoes an electrochemical reaction in several steps
each of them taking place at a different potential.
The electrolysis with a controlled potential of the working electrode can be
performed both on a laboratory or on a large scale; one always works with a
single reagent - the electrode whose oxidative or reductive power can be varied
in a defined way and continuously over the whole potential range. Thus a
selectivity is achieved which mostly cannot be attained with a chemical reagent.
It follows from the experience that the difference in potentials between two
parallel or subsequent electrochemical processes - one of them should be
selectively excluded - should not be smaller than 200 m V.
u = E
a
+ E
c
+ iR (2-41)
The voltage (U) betweell the two electrodes in the electrolytic cell (cf. Fig. 2.11) is
given by the above relationship (2-41) and involves the potential of the anode
(Ea) and that of the cathode (EJ; the value of Ea + Ee reaches at maximum
several volts; U further involves the considerable value of the voltage drop i.R
which, according to the composition of the electrolyte (the kind of solvent, the
supporting electrolyte, the arrangement of the cell and of the electrodes) may
approach several tens of volts. A very simple way of carrying out the electrolysis
at controlled potential is based on measuring the voltage between the working
and the reference electrodes and manually, usually with the help of a rheostat,
changing the voltage U applied to the working and the auxiliary electrode in
• €I
cathode
solution to be
electrolyzed
Fig. 2.11. Distribution of voltage in the

electrolytic cell; Ea - potential of the
100 nm
anode, Ee - potential of the cathode,
\ double layer
! i-current in A, R - resistance of the cell
in n, U - applied voltage between the
region working and the auxiliary electrode
2.7 Procedures in Laboratory Electroorganic Synthesis 39
such a way that the potential of the working electrode is kept on a constant,
required value with respect to the reference electrode.
Electrolysis of 9-(2-iodophenyl)acridine on a mercury cathode in ethanolic
potassium hydroxide and acetate is an example of preparative electrolysis
carried out at constant potential kept manually (2-42).
2e,2H+
..
2e,2H+
(2-42)
The polarogram of9-(2-iodophenyl)acridine (cf. Fig. 2.12) demonstrates that the

reduction occurs in two steps; the first step is characterized by the half-wave
potential E1/2 = - 1.30 V (vs SeE) and corresponds to the reduction of the
heteroaromatic nucleus with the formation of 9-(2-iodophenyl)dihydroacridine;
the second step has E 1/2 = - 1.62 V (vs SeE) and corresponds to the splitting
off of iodine leading to the formation of 9-phenyldihydroacridine.
As far as in preparative electrochemical reduction the potential of the
cathode is kept at values between - 1.36 and - 1.39 V (vs SeE) by a periodic
lowering of the value of the voltage between the electrodes a selective reduction
of acridine nucleus occurs and the resulting 9-(2-iodophenyl)dihydroacridine
can be isolated by extraction with an almost quantitative yield. In this way the
28
24
20
16
:..-l/
12
[7 Fig. 2.12. 1 - Polarogram of the supporting elec-
~ -:;/
trolyte; the curves are simplified; the oscillations
1 8 due to the dropping of mercury have been left out.
....
c::
4 II j 2 - Polarogram of 2.22 mol.l- 1 9-(2-iodophenyl)-
acridine in 0.1 M KOH, 0.5 M CH 3 COOK in
1
"
~
~ 0 90% ethanol at 25 DC
B -1,1 -1.3 -1,5 -1.7 -1,9
cathode potential V (SeE)

120
100
I
80
60
.,
1 40
1, Fig. 2.13. Current-time plot in the case of electrochem-
LtL
.., ical reduction of 9-(2-idophenyl)acridine in 0.1 M KOH
with 90% C 2 H 2 0H carried out at - 1.36 to - 1.39 V
--- --- ~ (vs SCE)
40 80 120
"time. min
formation of the unwanted 9-phenyldihydroacridine is prevented; the reduc-

tion up to this degree only takes place at a cathode potential equal to - 1.70
(vs SeE).
The current-time dependence of this reduction is depicted in Fig. 2.13. By
a graphic integration the consumed charge was determined; in this case it
corresponds to the theoretical consumption.
In general, it does not hold, however, that in preparative electrolysis, the
same products result as in polarography or voltammetry. In polarography (or in
cyclic voltammetry) the transport of the substrate toward the electrode is
controlled by diffusion whilst in preparative electrochemical reactions the
reaction mixture is intensively stirred and owing to this situation the inter-
mediates in the bulk may undergo completely different chemical follow-up
reactions.
The instrument which automatically controls the overall voltage between
the working and the auxiliary electrode in such a way that the potential of the
working electrode remains constant during the whole duration of electrolysis
with respect to the reference electrode, is called a potentiostat. At present,
potentiostats are commercially constructed which make it possible to perform
potentiostatic electrolysis both on a laboratory scale and on a large scale.
When a coulometer has been introduced into the electric circuit the electric
charge (the amount of electricity) can be measured which has been consumed in
the electrochemical transformation; this enables the calculation of the current
yield (Pn) (the ratio between the charge Qt calculated from the stoichiometry of
the reaction and the charge actually passed Qexp) which is given by the following
relationship (2-43)
V.n.F
;::: . 100 (X) ; (2-43)
Qexp I.t
here n is the number of electrons transferred between the substrate (educt) and
the electrode, V is the mass quantity (mol) transformed at the electrode by
2.8 Research into Mechanisms of Electrode Processes 41
passing of Qo F is the Faraday constant (96484 C mol- 1 ; 26.8 A h mol- 1 ), 1 the

current passed during the electrolysis (A), t is the duration of electrolysis (h).
The high selectivity of potentiostatic electroorganic synthesis has to be paid
for by the prolongation of the electrolysis duration (the current decreases as a
result of decreasing concentration of the electro active substrate). This is why
the use of a potentiostat is often circumvented by electrolysis with controlled
current. The spontaneous shift of potentials to higher values in the subsequent
electrochemical processes is prevented in essence in two ways:
1. The electrolysis is performed with a lower current over the time correspond-
ing to the selective generation of the product resulting in the first electro-
chemical step.
2. The electrolysis is interrupted after about 90% conversion has been achieved;
it is then necessary that the 10% of the starting substrate can be easily
separated from the product.
In cases when the product is easily separated from the starting substrate,
the solvent and the supporting electrolyte, one can continuously supply the
substrate and thus keep "spontaneously" the potential at a value corresponding
to a selective transformation of the substrate to the product. This "modus
operandi" is often applied in continuous industrial electro syntheses.
2.8 Research into Mechanisms of Electrode Processes

at (chiefly Mercury) Electrodes
In the research of mechanisms of electrode processes of organic compounds at

mercury electrodes the first approximation usually consists of the electrolysis
at constant potential at the dropping mercury electrode (DME), i.e. with a
periodically renewed surface. One works with solutions whose volume is
0.5-5.0 ml and the concentration 10- 4 _10- 3 moll- 1 . The identification of the
obtained products requires microchemical techniques (or spectral measure-
ments). The next step in electrolysis research is already near to preparative
electrosynthesis. The measurement is carried out on a large area stirred elec-
trode - the so-called mercury pool - with the solution having 10- 3 _
10- 2 moll- 1 concentrations and the resulting products are isolated by the usual
preparative techniques.
In a large number of cases the information obtained in this way by the two
methods, agree with each other: the reaction occurs at equal or near potentials,
with the same electron consumption and gives rise to products having the same
structure. Formally, the same shape appears on polarographic and voltam-
metric i - E curves as well as on curves recorded with a mercury pool electrode.
In some cases there are considerable differences between the behaviour
found on both types of electrodes (i.e. drop vs pool) not only as regards
polarographic curves, but also the structure and composition of products. The
reasons why only this occurs have been already discussed.
Valuable information concerning the course of the electrode processes can
also be obtained from kinetic measurements during electrolysis with a mercury
drop. In the simple case of a reversible electron transfer, i.e. for a first-order
I
43 2
Fig. 2.14. Cell for laboratory preparative electrolysis, for coulometric measurements and recording
i - E curves with a large area electrode; 1 - mercury pool electrode, 2 - solution to be electrolyzed,
3 - reference electrode, 4 - platinized titanium auxiliary electrode, 5 - anolyte, 6 - stopper, 7 -
contact of the auxiliary electrode, 8 - the dropping mercury electrode, 9 - water seal, 10 - contact to
the mercury pool electrode, 11 - salt bridge, 12 - mercury reservoir, 13 - sintered glass disk, 14 - agar
bridge, 15 - stirrer, 16 - metallic part of the stirrer, 17 - teflon circles for adjusting the length of the
stirrer, 18 - metal part of the stirrer, 19 - teflon foil, 20 - metal shaft of the motor, 21 - simmer ring
(for fitting), 22 - motor, 23 - ring nut
2.8 Research into Mechanisms of Electrode Processes 43
reaction, it holds
k.t (2-44)
where io is the limiting current at time t = 0, it ... the limiting current at time t,
V . .. volume in liters, e ... concentrations of the substrate in moll- 1 , k = idle,
the other symbols are well known.
If this relationship is linear one can calculate from the slope d log itldt (the
plot is log i = J(t)) the number of electrons n, transferred in the electrolytic
process (2-45):
k 1 dt
n = -0.4343 (2-45)
F v d log it
The diagnostics basing on coulometry of more complicated processes in

which not only electron transfers but also competitive and follow-up reactions
are operative has been worked out by L. Meites [15].
The differences between i - E curves observed with a dropping mercury
electrode and those obtained with a stirred mercury pool can be expressed as a
difference in the half-wave potentials (2-46):
R.T 0
+ In k • (2-46)
(X.n.F e D
o is the thickness of the diffusion layer, the other symbols are known. For
conditions ke = 10- 3 cms-t, 0 = 10- 3 cm, D = 10- 5 cm 2 s- 1 , a. = 0.5 and a.n
= 1 it can be calculated that the half-wave potential on the stirred mercury pool
electrode should be 116 mV more negative. In reversible processes this value is
only given by the ratio oRloo, i.e. for the reduced and oxidized form and should
be very small. In practice the values of I'1El/2 vary up to 200 mV or even more.
The reason why the above equation does not hold quite exactly may be caused
by the rate of stirring but also by the adsorption phenomena at the electrode.
For laboratory preparative electrolysis, for coulometric measurements, for
recording i - E curves with a mercury pool electrode (or with a DME), or, if
necessary for laboratory electrolysis with a non-mercury working electrode, a
very practical cell has been developed by Manousek [21J Fig. 2.14.
References to Chapters 1 and 2
1. Eberson L (1973) In: Baizer MM (ed) Organic electrochemistry. M Dekker, New York, p 470
2. Schiifer HJ (1987) Kontakte (Darmstadt) 17; Schiifer HJ (1987) Kontakte (Darmstadt) 37
3. Shono T (1984) In: Electroorganic chemistry as a new tool in organic synthesis, Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York
4. Baizer MM, Lund H (1983) In: Organic electrochemistry (2nd edn) M Dekker, New York
5. Sawyer DT, Roberts JL, Jr (1974) In: Experimental electrochemistry for chemists. J Wiley,
New York
6. Bard AJ, Faulkner LR (1980) In: Electrochemical methods. Fundamentals and applications.
J Wiley, New York
Lund H, Iversen P (1973) In: Organic electrochemistry. In: Baizer MM (ed) M Dekker,
New York, p 165
7. Lund H, Iversen P (1973) In: Baizer MM (ed) Organic electrochemistry. M Dekker, New York,
p 165
Couper AM, Pletcher D, Walsh FC (1990) Chern Revs 90: 837
New York
Lund H, Iversen P (1973) In: Organic electrochemistry. M Dekker, New York, p 165
New York, p 187
10. Mann CK (1969) Nonaqueous solvents for electrochemical use. In: Bard AJ (ed) Electroanaly-
tical chemistry. M Dekker, New York, p 69
Mann CK, Barnes K (1970) In: Electrochemical reactions in nonaqueous systems. M Dekker,
New York
New York
12. Danly DE (1984) J Electrochem Soc 131: 435c
13. Vlcek AA, Volke J, Pospisil L, Kalvoda R (1986) In: Physical methods of chemistry. vol 2.
J Wiley, New York, p 797
14. Bard AJ, Faulkner LR (1980) In: Electrochemical methods. Fundamentals and applications.
J Wiley, New York
15. Meites L (1960) In: Weissberger A (ed) Techniques of organic chemistry, Part 4, vol 1. J Wiley,
New York
16. Volke J, Kejharova-Ryvolova A, Manousek 0, Wasilevska L (1971) J Electro anal Chern 32: 445
17. Krejcik M, Danek M, Hartl F (1992) J Electroanal Chern in press
18. Kastening B (1972) In: Zuman P, Meites L, Kolthoff 1M (ed) Progress in Polarography, vol 3,
J. Wiley, New York, p 195
19. Klima J, Ludvik J, Volke J, Kfikova M, Skala v, Kuthan J (1984) J Electroanal Chern 161: 205
Klima J, Volke J, Urban J (1991) Electrochim Acta 36: 73
20. Ludvik J, Volke J, Pragst F (1986) J Electroanal Chern 215: 179
Pragst F, Kaltofen B, Volke J, Kuthan J (1981) J Electro anal Chern 119: 301
21. Manousek 0, Volke J, Hlavaty J (1980) Electrochim Acta 25: 515
3 Reactions of Organic Compounds at Electrodes
Reactive intermediates (radicals, radical ions and ions) which result by an

electron transfer may be expected in the region of redox potentials of corres-
ponding electrophores (electroactive atoms or groups of atoms in organic
substrates). The precise values of these potentials in actual compounds are
always stated for a given electrode, a given supporting electrolyte, a given
solvent and are measured versus a suitable reference electrode, most frequently a
SeE. An informative, very approximate idea about the potential ranges in which
the electrochemical redox transformations of different types of substrates occur
is shown in Fig. 3.1. Electrochemical reactions of organic compounds whose
redox potentials lie in close vicinity to potentials attainable by electrochemical
methods are very difficult to perform in a direct way. In particular in oxidative
processes performed at high positive potentials a number of side reactions may
proceed (oxidation of the solvent or of the supporting electrolyte) which lower
the selectivity of the product formation and hence also the material and current
2.4 2.0 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 -0.4 -0.8 -1.2 -1.6 -2.0 -2.4
ethers
aliphatic amines
aromatic amines
aromatic halogenides
aliphatic iodides
halogenoalkanes
olefins
~
arylolefins arylolefins
~
aromatic hydrocarbons
aromatic hydrocarbons
aliphatic alcohols
esters
_--0_ anodic oxidation ~ cathodic reduction
Fig. 3.1. Potential range of oxidation and reduction of some electrophors (vs SeE)
46 3 Reactions of Organic Compounds at Electrodes
yield, or deactivate the working electrodes by forming polymeric films on the

electrode surface.
Much more specific and selective both as regards the educts and the
products or components present in the solution are the indirect electrochemical
reactions in which the so-called mediator - an electrochemically regenerable
redox reagent - undergoes mostly a homogeneous redox reaction with the
organic substrate and in a follow-up process is transformed by a heterogeneous
electron transfer at the working electrode back to its active form.
This is why the electrochemical transformations are also divided into direct
and indirect electrochemical procedures where particularly the latter group has
been extensively developed in recent years.
3.1 Direct Anodic Oxidations
3.1.1 Oxidation of Saturated Hydrocarbons
In alkane molecules both the C-Hand C-C bonds can be oxidized; in both
cases carbo cations are formed which undergo further reactions - rearrange-
ments, proton eliminations and reactions with nucleophiles (3-1):
rearrangements
I I
H-C-C-H deprotonations
I I
reaction with
nucleophiles
(3-1)
Direct anodic oxidations can only be performed with alkanes the oxidation
potentials of which are lower than about 3.0 V. For this reason the direct anodic
oxidations of alkanes are carried out in solvents resistant toward oxidation
(acetonitrile, trifluoro-acetic acid, methylenechloride, sulfolan, propylene car-
bonate etc.) and as supporting electrolytes tetraalkylammonium salts with
difficultly oxidizable anions are used (F<-l, ClO~->, PF~-l, BF~-l). The oxidation
of CH 3 and CH z groups, however, takes place at potentials above 3.4 V (E1/Z vs
SCE), that of CH groups in the potential range from 3.0 to 3.4 V.
An exceptional position among the alkanes is assumed by adamantane
which is oxidized at less positive potentials. In dependence on potential and on
composition of the electrolyte, monoacetamido-, diacetamido- and hydroxy-
adamantanes can be obtained [1, 2], (3-2):
3.1 Direct Anodic Oxidations 47
OH
lQ
NH-Ac
83'/.
1.8 V LiC104
2,35V lQ
90'/.
CF 3COOH (PI) MeCN

IAg/Ag'·) )
(CF3COJ 2 0 (PI J
HOiG
OH
2.3 V
70'/. 58 '/.
(3-2)
Strong mineral acids, such as e.g. fluorosulfonic acid, stabilize electrogener-
ated carbocations and thus lower the oxidative potentials of alkanes from the
values 3.00 V, 3.01 V and 3.40 V (E1/Z' NEt4BF 4, CH 3 CN) to the values 1.8 V,
1.68 V and 1.64 V (PdjH z) for 2-methylbutane, 2-methylpentane and octane,
respectively. Cyclohexane was in this way - in a mixture of acetic and
fluorosulfonic acids at an anode potential 1.85 V (vs SCE) - transformed to
1-acetyl-2-methylcyclopentene which results in a 35% yield [3J, (3-3).
(+) (-)
CH3COOH + FS03H ::;= CH3CO FS03 + H20
o
+
-H
- 2 e . - H+ I PI J
HS0 3 F. MeOH
,+,
--- 6 -H
+
The higher reactivity of tertiary C-H bonds in comparison with CH z bonds is

(3-3)
also demonstrated in the selectivity of oxidation e.g. of decaline to the corres-

ponding decalylacetates [4], (3-4):
co
11 : 1 : 1
+ +
CH2Cl2 • AcOH
. ~OAC (3-4)
The oxidation potentials are lowered with increasing inner strain in cycloalk-
anes. In their oxidation the electrons are transferred to the anode prevalently
from the most "strained" C-C bonds (in general from the places of lowest
ionization potentials). As an example, in the electrochemical oxidation of tetra-
methylcyclopropane a cleavage of the C(2)-C(3) bond takes place whilst in the
"chemical" solvolysis the proton attacks the sterically least substituted carbon
atom [5], (3-5):
Xr - -2e
Y'f.
+
MeOH
H'+} A MeOH.IC)
Et 4NOTs
.. +
OMe
~ OMe
.1,45V(SCE) # OMe OMe
(3-5)
In the anodic oxidation of tricyclo[4,1,0,0 2. 7] heptane (E1/2 = 1.50 V vs SCE) in

methanol a cleavage of the inner bond occurs; the final product of oxidation is
Table 3.1. Oxidation potentials of selected unsaturated compounds
Compound El/2 Reference Supporting Solvent Electrode

(Ep) electrode electrolyte
C 6 H 13-CH=CH 2 2.8 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt

C S H 11 -CH=CH-CH 3 2.3 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
(C 2 H shC=CH 2 2.17 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
0 2.14 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
h 2.02 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
h 1.54 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
0 1.36 SCE LiClO 4 CH 3 CN Pt
h-x
X=H 1.54 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
X=COOC 2 H s 1.85 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
X=CN 1.99 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
CH 2 =CH-O-C 2 H s 1.72 AgjAg+ NaCI0 4 CH 3 0H Pt
(\'-"H'
1.28 AgjAg+ NaClO 4 CH 3 0H Pt
(1.63)
(\'-00",
1.93 SCE LiCI0 4 CH 3 CN Pt
dimethylacetal of 2-cyclohexenecarbaldehyde owing to a rearrangement of the

intermediary carbocation [6], (3-6):
....A~ (3-6)
H..+ oMe
3.1.2 Oxidation of Unsaturated Compounds
The oxidation potentials of alkenes and their derivatives are less positive than
those compared to alkanes and their values depend on the structure of such an
unsaturated compound. It is generally so that the electron-donating substituents
(phenyl, alkyl, amino, alkoxy) lower the values of oxidation potentials; on the
other hand, the electron-accepting substituents (COR, COOR, CN, N0 2 , CF 3'
F) increase these values and can change the range attainable in anodic oxidation
(potential window). The values of polarographic and voltammetric oxidation
potentials (E1/2 and E) of selected types of unsaturated compounds are demon-
strated in Table 3.1 [7]. In a direct anodic oxidation of a double bond, radical
cations result which, depending on the structure of the unsaturated compound
and on the supporting electrolyte, give rise to products by oxidative addition of
nucleophiles (Nu), by dimer formation, by rearrangement and allyl substitution
(3-7). The supporting electrolytes are salts whose anion is oxidized at more
positive potentials than the double bond (BFi, TsO -, PF 6 , CIOi).
H H
I I 1 -e. +2 Nu I I I
-C-C=C -C-C-C-
I \ I I I
Nu Nu
l-e H H
I (+) .1 2 Nu I I I I I I
-C-C-C -C ... C-C-C-C-C-
I I \ I I
Nu
I I I
Nu
I
I
-
Nu
+ I 1 Nu I I
-C-C=C -C-C=C
I \ I \
(3-7)
In the anodic oxidation of cydohexene performed in methanol or in acetic acid,

derivatives of allyl substitution result (3-methoxy- and 3-acetoxycydohexenes)
accompanied by products of oxidative addition of nucIeophiles and/or of
rearrangement [8], (3-8).
ROH
•
~OR
("'y0R
V<+)
ROH
(X 0R
-e OR
I"L}R ~ ~OR (3-8)

V'+) -H+ ~OR
The oxidation of cyclohexene carried out in acetonitrile and in presence of a

cation exchange polymer (polyvinyl benzene sulfonic acid) - which stabilizes the
carbocation resulting by addition of acetonitrile - gives 3-acetamidocyclohex-
ene [9] with a current yield of 63%; in absence of the cation exchange polymer
the yield is only 17% (3-9):
0 -2e,-H
tvieCN,{Pt)
BU4NBF4
+
lO tvieCN
<:::>- '"N=C-tvie
®-SO~-)
l
H2 O
<:::>- NHAc (3-9)
63"1.
It is interesting to compare the stereochemical course of the electrochemical and

chemical acetoxylation of 3-methylcyclohexene. Whereas in the anodic oxida-
tion the thermodynamically less stable cis derivative prevails (cis/trans = 2.83)
the chemical, so-called Kharasch-Sosnovsky reaction results in the thermo-
dynamically more stable trans isomer (cis/trans = 0.23), (3-10):
6 AcOH, - e
[6: 7 0l
AcOH
- H+
,.
¢ OAe
.. AcOOC{ CH3)3
AcOCu 6 (3-10)
The different stereoseIectivity of the anodic oxidation is explained by stereo-

selective adsorption of the cyclohexene carbocation on the anode surface (3-11).
A'-Q-~H3
(3-11)
7777777777777 7777777 77 7
The structure of tetrahydropyrane which results in the anodic oxidation of

3,7-dimethyl-6-octen-1-01 points to the intramolecular mechanism of the alkyl
substitution [1 OJ, (3-12).
;\OH MeCN
... (3-12)
As far as the oxidation potential of the supporting electrolyte or that of the

solvent is comparable with the oxidation potential of the alkene or is smaller, an
addition on the double bond occurs of radicals or of cations resulting in the
oxidation of anions of the supporting electrolyte or in the oxidation of the
solvent. The main product of cyclohexene oxidation carried out in acetic acid
and in presence of tetraethylammonium halogenides are acetates of vicinal
halogenhydrines accompanied by products of allyl substitution [11 J, (3-13):
0
- 2e. AcOH
Q-OAC + o-OAC (3-13)
Et4NX
X = Cl.Br X
82·1,( X = Br)
(2-Cyclohexenyl)-acetate [llJ
In a 100-ml cylindrical cell equipped with a reflux condenser, a thermometer, and
two carbon-rod electrodes (diameter, 0.8 cm) were placed in a solution of 0.10 mol
of cyclohexene, 60 g (1.0 mol) of acetic acid, and 5.15 g (0.017 mol) of tetra-
ethylammonium p-toluenesulfonate as a supporting electrolyte. This solution
magnetically stirred and kept at around room temperature by cooling externally
with water, was electrolysed under constant current between 0.1 and 0.2 A until
2 Fmor 1 of electricity was passed (current density 32 mA cm- 2 , anode potential
2.0-2.25 V vs SCE. After the electrolysis was complete, most of the acetic acid
was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was neutralized with sodium
bicarbonate solution and extracted with ether, after drying with anhydrous
magnesium sulfate, the ether was removed by distillation. (2-Cyclohexenyl)-
acetate was isolated by fractional distillation in 55% yield, bp 64-66°C
(2.1 kPa).
The above reaction was ingeniously made use of in the so-called "chlorolac-
tonization" which proceeds with unsaturated acids (3-14); by an oxidation
carried out at 1.14 V the chloronium ion is generated which is added onto the
double bond jointly with the "inner" carboxylate anion under formation of a
bicyclic halogenolactone. If perchlorate is used as supporting electrolyte the
double bond is primarily oxidized; in absence of the solvent anion only the inner
carboxylate anion participates in the addition and by deprotonation of the
resulting carbocation a mixture of bicyclic unsaturated lactones results [12J,
(3-14).
~
COOH
Xi- ..
CH 2 Cl 2 - BU4NCl ( Pt )
1,14 V, - 2e
1,65 V Cl 7S'/,
MeCN (Pt)
H2 O 20mAcm 2
LiClO4 -2 e
fh y
0 0
~
0
+ + (3-14)
44 '/, 38 '/, 12 'I.
The arylalkenes also undergo the oxidative addition of nucleophiles. Thus, in

the oxidation of 5-phenyl-4-pentenoic acid the double bond conjugated with the
aromatic nucleus is oxidized at a lower potential than the carboxylate anion; by
an intramolecular addition of the carboxylate anion jointly with the addition of
the "external" methoxyl anion 4-(phenylmethoxymethyl)-4-butanolide results
[13J, (3-15).
OMe
~
d'Q
COOH
I
~ MeOH - MeONa (Pt)
(3-15)
~ Q,2SAcm- 2
o
More important from the point of synthesis, however, is the oxidative dimer
formation of arylolefins which, depending on the composition of the electrolyte,
may lead to products of different structure [14, 15J, (3-16):
HZO, CHZCIZ
(3-16)
1,Z -1,6 V (Ag/Ag+)
MeOH, MeONa
+
~C6H5
HC
5 6 36'1,
The conjugated dienes are oxidized much more easily than simple alkenes. In
solutions of methanol or of acetic acid, products of 1,4- and to a lesser degree of
1,2-oxidative addition of nucleophiles are formed (3-17).
0 ..
-Ze, ROH (C)
+ (3-17)
Et4NOTs ROVOR O-:R
R = Me 50,6 'I, 5,1 'I,
Ac 45,0'1, 6,0'1,
In case of acyclic dienes dimerization may also take place (3-18).
OMe OMe
~ ~
- Ze
+ +
MeOH
OMe ONe
OMe OMe
+~
OMe
+
~
OMe
(3-18)
The oxidative l,4-addition of acetic acid to 3-allyl-2-methyl-1,3-cyclo-

pentadiene was made use of in the synthesis of allethrolone [16J, (3-19):
(3-19)
OAc o
The oxidative potentials of dienes with isolated double bonds understandably
do not much differ from alkenes. The structure of norbornadiene, however,
enables a transannular interaction between the double bonds which makes itself
evident by lowering the oxidation potential in comparison with norbornene
(cf. Table 3.1) on the one hand, and by increasing the oxidation potential if an
electron-acceptor group is introduced at position 2 (cf. Table 3.1) on the other
hand. The later situation also affects the composition of products obtained in
d:r
the anodic methoxylation (3-20).
oMe
-2e.MeOH +Meo~
.. OMe
Et 4NOTs
~oMe
8.8'/. 16.5%
Meo~ ~
+ ~OMe (3-20)
18,4 '/,
Vinyl ethers and vinyl acetates represent a group of compounds containing

electron-donating substituents which lower the oxidation potentials of the
double bonds to values easily accessible to anodic oxidation (cf. Table 3.1).
Depending on the anode material and on the conditions of electrolysis acetals or
1,4-diketones result which are products of anodic addition of nucleophiles or of
dimerization of radical cations (3-21 and 3-22).
MeOH/~
68'/.
___________ ( Pt I Ni )
~O .... C2H5
(3-21)
[.~O/C2H5]
MeOH/KOH
(C) OC 2 H5
J... ............... OMe
MeO' ....., "I
OC2 H5
51 '/.
(3-22)
MeCN,10'/,MeOH
From the point of view of synthesis, more meaningful is the oxidation of

enolacetates which are more easily accessible. By oxidation, Cl-acetoxycarbonyl
compounds and/or conjugated ketones are formed. Their qualitative ratio
depends on the structure of the substrate and on the CH 3 COO - concentration
in the electrolyte [19J, (3-23):
[C(A']
-e -e
-H+ +CH3COOH
(+) -H+
- CH3CO
(+l
1-' - CH3CO
a OAC
R a o
R ~OAC
R
(3-23)
(CzHs)4NOTs R=H 3% 37%

R=CH 3 90% 0%
CH 3 COOK R=H 0% 82%
R=CH 3 24% 59%
The anodic Cl-methoxylation or Cl-acetoxylation was ingeniously made use in

organic synthesis e.g. to l,2-shift [20J, (3-24)
o OAc 0
Ph
~~ ~~
Ph AcOH
AT/
Ph-
OAc
(3-24)
Ph~
o
or to a l,4-shift of the carbonyl group (3-25):

o OAc
Ii
AC20
~-
I ~ MeOH/AcOH I
'~OMe
?
-2e
OH
iTsCl
~OMe-~OMe
"OTs
I tI':l H20 - Me2CO
..
H
_~H (3-25)
o
In contrast to the oxidation of enolethers and enolacetates, mixtures of isomeric

methoxylated enamines result in the oxidation of enamines [22], (3-26).
('0
0" N.,/
-2e.
MeOH
OC ("0 N" /
+ (3-26)
OMe
From the same point of view the anodic oxidation of ~-enamino-ketones or

esters in which a dimerization of the resulting radical cations proceeds is
therefore more significant; the transiently resulting 1,4-dications undergo an
intramolecular aminolysis, deprotonation and splitting off benzylamine under
formation of a pyrrol nucleus [23], (3-27).
o o
Meo.,y H ____
e _ __
Meo~H _
(+)
) ( N ............. C H NaClO" MeOH NH
H 6 5
l.. CSHs
- (3-27)
3.1.3 Oxidation of Alcohols and Esters
Alcohols, 1,3- and higher 1,n-diols and ethers are not suitable substrates for
direct anodic oxidations: the reason are their relatively high oxidation poten-
tials (E1/2 vs ferrocene/ferrocenium; CH 3 0H, N(C4H9)4BF 4: methanol 2.73 V,
ethanol 2.61 V, 2-propanol 2.50 V) [24]. The direct oxidation of alcohols is
therefore carried out in absence of solvents or in acetonitrile and presence of

perchlorates or tetrafluoroborates as supporting electrolytes.
Depending on the structures of the alcohol and on the chosen electrolytic
system the electro oxidation of alcohols may lead to the formation of aldehydes,
acetals, acids and esters. The course of the direct anodic oxidation of alcohols is
interpreted by a mechanism which assumes an intermediary formation of
hydroxyalkyl and alkoxyl radicals [25], (3-28). In neutral media the primary
process is the electron transfer
RCH(OCH2Rl2
RCH20H I- H 20
- -e (+).
RCH2-Q-H -
-H+. -e ,-H+
R-CH-OH - -.........
RCH20H
-R-CH
,OH
'OCH 2R
-e, -H
+ ~
- - - - - - - - - - R-CH=O
(3-28)
from the free electron pair of the oxygen atom in the hydroxyl group to the
anode. The deprotonation of the resulting oxonium radical is the rate determin-
ing step of the reaction. The hydroxyalkyl radical formed in this way gives
a carbocation in the further oxidation which goes over to a semiacetal in
a reaction with alcohol; the semiacetal may yield an aldehyde or an acetal.
Alkaline media support the formation of aldehydes. The alkoxide anion is
relatively easily oxidized to an alkoxyl radical which is in a further one-electron
oxidation transformed to the aldehyde. Both mechanisms participate in the
overall oxidation and their ratio depends on the structure of the alcohol and on
the reaction conditions (solvent, basicity of the solution). Thus by electrooxi-
dation of I-butanol in presence of lithium tetrafluoroborate butanal can be
prepared in 77% yield. If the oxidation is performed in the presence of
hydrochloric acid the main reaction product is 2-chlorobutanal dibutylacetal
[26], (3-29).
0
MeCN - Li BF4
-2e,(Ptl ~H
77".
~OH (3-29)
OC4 H9
~oe4H9
Hel, Ie)
-4e
el
A preparative significance can be ascribed to the anodic oxidation of 2-butin-

1,4-diol to acetylene dicarboxylic acid which is carried out in an aqueous
solution of sulfuric acid [27], (3-30):
,=-1
OH
- 8e, H2s04 - H2 0
HOOC-=-COOH (3-30)
HO ( Pb0 2 )
69 -76 '/,
In general, one came to the conclusion, however, that a direct oxidation of

alcohols to the corresponding aldehydes, ketones, acids or esters is not a very
suitable and selective synthetic method and for this reason the indirect electro-
chemical oxidation is preferred (cf. Sect. 3.3).
On the other hand, the anodic oxidation of vic-glycols, vic-glycolethers, vic-
aminoalcohols vic-aminoethers and epoxides occurs very easily in methanolic
solutions containing (CzH5)4NTsO. The reaction products are the corres-
ponding carbonyl compounds [28], (3-31).
R2 R3
I I 4 -2e / MeOH
R1-C--C-R
« &
OR OR
(NR 2 I SR)
(3-31 )
R = H I Me
The ease of such an oxidation is explained by the participation of the vicinal
hydroxyl or alkoxyl group in the primary electron transfer from the free electron
pair of the atom 0 or N or S to the anode.
The reaction has been developed for the synthesis of symmetric ketones from
methyl methoxyacetate (3-32)
-2e
• R-CO-R (3-32)
89'/.
R = C3H7
C4H 9
cyklo - C6 H11
and to the synthesis of as symmetric ketones from rx-diethylaminoketones [29],

(3-33)
NEt2
R~R
R'MgX -2e R'
o
R""'Y
o
R = H, Et; R' = i - Pr, Bu
52-72 '/,
(3-33)
or from dialkylketones [30J, (3-34):
~
o
- OMe
-
OMe
~
-2e i PrMg Be
MeOH
0
~OM'HO
-2e
~ 0
(3-34)
65 'I.
The primary products of the anodic oxidation of enolethers and enolacetate

may also undergo a further oxidative cleavage at the anode under formation of
ketoesters [31J, (3-35)
~OR
R = Me. Ac
-2e
MeOH ~OM' OMe
OMe
-2e
MeOH
2 00M
74 - 94 '/,
'
(3-35)
The same types of compounds result in the anodic oxidation of acyloins

[32J, (3-36):
a OOH
MeOH - LiCl04,{Ptl,-2e
80 - 95 'I.
•
[ag~] OMe
-
(3-36)
M ethyl-2-methyl-6-oxoheptanoate [31J
Electrolysis was carried out in a H-type two compartment cell (100 ml). The
anode compartment, fitted with a drying tube (CaCI2 ), a thermometer, and a
magnetic stirrer was dividedfrom the cathode by 1.8 cm diameter glass-frits plate
(No. 56). Two platinum electrodes (3 cm 2 ) were placed parallel to each other
3 cm apart.
A solution of 85 mg (0.5 nmol) of 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-cyclohexanone and

500 mg LiClO 4 in dry methanol (19 ml) was charged into the anode compartment.
Into the cathode compartment a solution of 200 mg of LiCIO 4 in dry methanol
(16 ml) was charged. The mixture was electrolyzed under a constant applied
voltage of 20 V at a current density 5.6-17.5 mAcm- 2 at 30-34°C. After
7.5 F.mol- 1 of electricity was passed, the mixture was concentrated, and the
residue was taken up in benzene-ethylacetate (1: 1). The extract was washed with
brine, dried (Na 2 S0 4 ) and concentrated. The crude product was chromato-
graphed (Si0 2 , hexane-ethylacetate, 10: 1) to give methyl-2-methyl-6-
oxoheptanoate in 94% yield, bp llO-llrc (2.5 kPa).
Simple aliphatic ethers are assumed to be oxidized in the same way as the
alcohols. In their direct oxidation in methanolic solutions and in presence of
electrolytes (sodium methoxide, (C2Hs)4NTsO, ammonium nitrate) ex-meth-
oxylated ethers (3-37) are formed in a relatively low yield [32]:
-e (+10 - e (+)
R - CH 2 -O- R' Ii'
R - CH2 - Q- R' -- -H(+)
- R - CH - OR' ---
OMe
-
MeOH I
R - CH (3-37)
'OR'
In this way tetrahydrofuran was transformed to 2-methoxytetrahydrofuran; due

to changes in the electrolyte composition, however, it undergoes a 4 electron
oxidation with the formation of 4-butanolide [33], (3-38):
Q (3-38)
[)-OMe
16.3 '/,
3.1.4 Oxidation of Organic Compounds of Sulfur and Selenium
The anodic oxidation of thiols and dialkyl or diaryl sulfides makes it possible to
prepare sulfur compounds at different degrees of oxidation in dependence on
potential, electrode material (carbon, platinum, stainless steel) and composition
of the electrolyte (3-39).
(-II)
R - SH
-4e
.. !II)
R - S - OR
II
R - S020 - 0502 - R
~>e
R-S-S-R
(-I)
o
-4e
... R - S020
(IV) !<-l
!R+,-e (0) o
HI)
R-S-R
-2 e
... R- S - R
II
-2e .. !")
R- 5 - R
II
o o
(3-39)
In the following schemes the particular electrochemical conditions of

thiophenol oxidation to diphenyl disulfide are demonstrated and to esters of
benzenesulfonic acid [34, 35], (3-40):
AcOH - ROH
Ph-S -OR PhSH .. Ph-S -5 - Ph
"o AcONa,! Pt)
100".
95 .,.
(3-40)
Further the oxidation of diphenyl sulfide to diphenyl sulfoxide, to diphenyl-

sulfone and to diphenyl-4-(phenylmercaptophenyl)sulphonium is described
[36, 37], (3-41):
°
01
Ph - S - Ph .
AcOH - H2 0
Ph - S - Ph
AcOH-H20 (Pt)
sot • Ph- S-Ph
°"
01 1,3QV i (Pt) Cl~ Br: Q,94V
° 96'1.
MeCN - Li Cl04
(Pt)
Ph- s-o'S) Ph 2 ClO'Z) (3-41)

71 'I.
Finally the oxidation of diphenyl disulfide to esters of benzenesulfonic acids,

phenylbenzenethiosulfonate and to sodium benzenesulfonate are depicted [35,
38, 39], (3-42):
~ MeCN - H20 AcOH-ROH

Ph-S-SPh -~r------ Ph - S - S - Ph Ph - S - OR
0
!:ko
II
o AcONo (Pt)
80% 74 "!.
MeCN
NoCl04 (Pt)
Ph - S03Na (3-42)
60 "/.
One of the methods for the formation of an S- N bond is the preparation

of sulfenamides by the electrochemical "oxidative condensation" of thiols and
disulfides with primary or secondary amines [40J, (3-43):
DMF/ (C4H9)4 NCl0 4

R- SH ;0.
R-S-S-R ...
( Pt ) I 97"1. 90°'.
(3-43)
The fact that in the oxidation of sulfides a sulfenium radical results which
may undergo an attack by a nucleophilic reagent "in situ" was made use of
for an indirect oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones [41J, (3-44) (cf. also
p. 133):
OH
+
CH3-S"- C6 H5 + R1AR2 68 - 99",
. R1AR2
0
I-e. -H'
1- C6HsS CH:J
1-'
CH3 - 5" C6H5 ~>-
~
(.
O-S\
H
/6 5
CH3
base
-H+
II>
R1)p-
R2 0-5,
H - 3H2
C6H~5
(+)1
(3-44)
The sulfenium radical generated from diphenyl sulfide in an analogous way

is used to the "activation" of the hydroxyl in alcohols in SN2 substitutions (3-45).
-2e. PhSPh
- - - - - . . R - (-) - C6~3- CH - CH:3
CH2Cl2 Cll
-H+L
75 "I.
,
-e")0
Ph-~-Ph
Ph, ..... H Cl
IS-O (3-45)
Ph' C6~3 - PhSOPh
The anodic cleavage of the C-S bond is applied for removing the dithioacetal
protecting group from the molecules of 1,3-dithianes which is carried out in
neutral media [42J, (3-46). This electrochemical method is a successful com-
petitor of the chemical procedure based on the oxidation of dithianes by
Hgz+ salts.
Ph S )
HXS
MeCN - H20 - NaCL04
.. Ph - CH=O 77 'I.
I Pt J
!-2e
1
[:~l! "XOH J
H2O
,.. (3-46)
- H+
H [)
In recent years the derivatives of benzeneselenic acids (Ph-Se-X, X = Cl, Br,

OCOCH 3 , NR z) have played an important role in the functionalization of
alkenes. Chemically they are prepared by oxidation of diphenyldiselenide, but
they are unstable and require a special technique. The electrochemical selen-
ation method is based on the anodic oxidation of a catalytic amount of
diphenyldiselenide to the reactive intermediate of benzeneselenic acid which
"in situ" adds on to the double bond of the unsaturated compound. The selenide
formed in this way is further oxidized on the anode to a selenoxide which by a
syn-elimination goes over to a hydroxy- or to an alkoxyalkene and the reactive
intermediate of benzene selenic acid [43J, (3-47):
Ph -Se -Se -Ph

R = H, alkyl
Gl~ -2=-Mli~lJ
t1- 1
2e , ROH '_
R- CH:"'J""o=
["'-s·-"l ~ 0A0
Y R'
RO SePh R
, -
RO l~b
..-- H
H2 0
1_
/f'<P'R'
RO
(3-47)
On estimating this reaction from the point of view of the redox transforma-
tion of the organic substrate it can be considered as an indirect electrochem-
ical oxidation in which the benzeneselenic acid plays the role of a mediator
(cf. p. 122).
3.1.5 Oxidation of Halogen Derivatives and Oxidative Halogenation

of Organic Compounds
Within the range of electrochemically accessible potentials lie only the oxida-
tion potentials of iodo- (E1/2 = 1.9-2.1 V vs AgjAg+) and bromoalkanes (Ep
= 2.5-2.8 V vs AgjAg+). By direct anodic oxidation an electron transfer occurs
here from the non-bonding orbital of the halogen to the anode; by the following
cleavage of the C-Hal bond carbocations are formed which may undergo
a Wagner-Meerwein transformation. The original and the newly resulting
carbocations react with nucleophiles present in the solution, most frequently
with acetonitrile, under formation of N-alkylacetamides [44J, (3-48).
I'....,~
V"" CH3CN
rrI'.... '..- [>-'+l
-I·
CH2 --u--
0'1J
LiCl04
... [:>-vNHAC +
r--r
U
NHAC
(3-48)
2. H20, -H+
90·'.
The above electroacetamidation cannot be performed with flu oro- or chloro-

alkanes. An example of decreasing oxidizability in halogenoalkanes (RI >
RBr ~ RCI > RF) is the electroacetamidation of 1-halogenoadamantanes.
Whilst in the oxidation of I-bromo- and 1-iodoadamantane the carbon-halogen
bond is split, in the electrolysis of I-fluoro- and l-chloro-adamantane [1,45] the
adamantane nucleus is oxidized at position 3 (3-49):
X X
~eCN.LiCl04. ~ MeCN. LiCl04 r7-,
X = Br L:l::::7' -X-=-C-l.-F-..... L:l::::/""NHAC
(3-49)
89 0'0 X =Cl. 91"1.-

X = F. 65"1.
The C-I bond in the aryliodides is not split after the oxidation of the iodine
atom; the transient cation radical reacts in a SE type reaction with a further
iodobenzene and in a subsequent oxidation 4-iodophenyliodonium perchlorate
is obtained [46J, (3-50):
Li Cl04 • MeCN (Pt)

(3-50)
The formation of the iodonium radical was ingeniously made use of in the
regioselective electro chi oration of steroids [47]. The hydroxyl in position 3 is
"occupied" by the 3-iodobenzoyl group. The iodonium radical formed in the
electro oxidation oxidizes the chloride anion with the formation of the chloro-
iodophenyl radical which is located just in such a position that the chlorine rad-
ical CI· set free reaches the hydrogen in position 9 (3-51):
MeCN - BU4NX - (Pt. C)
37 - 71 "I.
X = Cl. ClO4 • BF4
ct'!
j -e ~
l~o
O'" ~
~I
'hI
I
Cl - HCl
J~Y
u (3-51)
The group of oxidative halogenations of organic compounds is based on the

electrooxidation of halogenides. The hal onium ions formed in this way react
with organic substrates in addition or substitution reactions.
In the first case an addition of the halonium ion onto the double bond of the
unsaturated compound takes place; in dependence on the kind of the nucleo-
philic solvent (CH 3 CN, CH 3 COOH, DMF, CH 3 0H) and on conditions

of electrooxidation the corresponding acetates, formiates or ethers of vicinal
halogen-hydrins, halogenamines or, perhaps vic-dibromoderivatives and
epoxides are obtained [48J, (3-52):
BryyCOot--1e
Br~COOMe CX~HAC
92 ./. 80 '/.
(r COOMe
COOMe
MeCN
H2 0
H2 S04
0
12
MeCN
H2 O
NoClO4
NoBr
(RI
Br
C X OAc
o AcOH
Et4N Br
~ -e ,( PI)
-'
I~
cr=
DMF - NH 4Cl
~Cl
Ih
OCHO
75 "I.
82 ./. Li ClO4
~ t:!o
MeCN
MeOH
H2O
NH 4 Cl
NoBr
~
Cl
o
OMe
0
(3-52)
88 ./.
100 '/.
This reaction was made use of on industrial scale for the synthesis of halogeno-
hydrins and oxirans. In the synthesis of oxirans the charge passed carries out
"double work": i.e. both the hypo halo acid generated at the anode, is made use
of and the alkali hydroxide generated at the electrode. The halogenide ion is
continously regenerated in the reaction mixture (3-53):
OH (-)
HOX I HO 0 _
~_~x - P+H20 + X (3-53)
Electrooxidative halogenation can be applied as a simple method for a regio-

selective synthesis of ot-halogenoketones and their acetals from the correspond-
ing enolethers and enolacetates [49], (3-54)
€}
{CH2)6
Br
OMe .
R=Me,-2e
MeOH, NH4Br
{c0,
~
OR
R = Ae, -2e
H20 - MeCN - NH4c7 9°

(CH2)6 C1
(3-54)
OMe (Pt)
95 'I,
94 'f,
2-Bromocyclododecanone [49]
A solution of 30 mg (0.134 mmol) of (1-cyclododecenyl)acetate and 19.7 mg
(0.201 mmol) of NH4Br in acetonitrile (6 ml) and water (2 ml) was electrolyzed
in an undivided cell equipped with two platinum electrodes (3 cm 2 ) under a
constant current of 6.7 mA.cm- 2 at 3.0-5.0 V (anode voltage 0.75 V vs Ag wire)
at 20-25 0c. After 2.3 Fmol- 1 of electricity was passed, the mixture was concen-
trated, and the residue was taken up in benzene-ethylacetate (1: 1). The usual
work-up gave 33.3 mg (95%) of 2-bromocyclododecanone, mp 50.5-51.5 °C
(pentane).
By the right choice of the halogenide ion, of its concentration in the two-phase
electrolytic system and by measuring the exchanged charge one can achieve a
situation in which the preceding reaction can be used in regio- and chemoselec-
tive "ene" chloration of isoprenoids [50], (3-55):
------_..
NaCl- CH2Cl2 - H20
-2e,(Pt)
~
~
OA-
- (3-55)
OAe Cl e
91 'f,
The anodically generated halonium ions are also used as electrophilic agents
in order to synthesize 0-, N-, C-halogenoderivatives from the corresponding
substrates [48], (3-56)
H5 C6 >-
Cl
0 HCli AeOH NaClfH 20
-t- 92'1.
0Cl
0-
NHAe ~ -2e
¢ Br
NH4Br
X
+ NaBrfH20
0
8;
99 'f,
&
Br
CF3 COOH
AeOHfH20 ~
(3-56)
::::,.. I 12 NH4Br ~N)
I
X ; CHO. Ae, CN, N02 Ae

96 'f,
3.1.6 Oxidation of Amines
Simple aliphatic amines have relatively low oxidation potentials and are
therefore easily oxidized at an anode (Ep: (C 3H 7hNH: 1.20 V; (C3H7)3N: 1.02 V
vs NHE). The course of oxidation depends on the structure of the amine, on the
anode material and on the composition of the electrolyte [51], (3-57)
(R-CH2)3N -
-e
(R-CH2)3N
(+0) -H
- - <..
-
+
•
(R-CH2)2N-CH-R
---
-e
(+1
::;;:::::::: (R - CH 2 )2 N = CH - R
H2 0
..
-- (R -CH2)2NH + R - CH=O (3-57)
The electrooxidation of tertiary aliphatic amines on a carbon or on a

platinum electrode and in the presence of an equivalent amount of water leads
therefore to a cleavage of the C-N bond the result of which is the formation of a
secondary amine and of an aldehyde (3-57). The rate at which the alkyl group is
split off and yields an aldehyde, decreases with a decreasing stability of its
carbanion in the sequence: CH 3 > C2HS > C3H7 ~ cyclohexyl > isopropyl.
The formation of benzylmethylamine as the main product in the oxidation of
benzyldimethylamine also corresponds to this sequence [52], (3-58).
Ph-CH2 - NMe 2 ...

(pt),1,05V(SCE)
-- Ph-CH=O + Ph-CH2NHMe + Ph-CH2-NH2

7 .,. 71 0'. 10°'. (3-58)
The mechanism is interpreted by an electron transfer from the electron pair of

nitrogen to the anode. By the following transformations of the resulting cation
radical involving deprotonation and a further one-electron oxidation one
arrives at an iminium ion which by adding water is transformed to an aldehyde
and a secondary amine (3-57). Depending on the amount of the passed charge
the final products could be ammonia and aldehyde. By choosing the reaction
conditions the oxidation of primary amines can be orientated to azo derivatives
[53] and to nitriles [54], (3-59):
H20-MeCN-KOH THF-LiCI04
C7 H15 -C5N .. R-CHZ-NH2 - - - - - l . - C4Hg -N=N-C4Hg
NilOH)2,-6e (Pt),-4e
33 °'0
R =C7 H15 R =C3 H7 (3-59)
The interpretation of the above formation of azo derivatives and nitriles is also
based on the primary oxidation of the free electron pairs on the nitrogen atom
(3-60):
RCHZ-N = N - CHZR
t
RCHZNH-NHCH2R
-e -H
(+»
+ 2x
•
t
R -CH2-NH2 - R-CHZ-NH2 - - - RCHZNH
+ I-e
• -e -H t(+)
R-CH=N.. R-CH=NH -.._ - RCHZNH
)-. ,., -H'

R - CH = N ... R - C :: N (3-60)
The electro oxidation of aromatic amines depends considerably on reaction

conditions. In strongly acidic media a mixture of l,4-benzoquinone with
benzidine results, in neutral media semidine is formed and in alcoholic solutions
azobenzene (3-61):
MeCN
O NH -o-NH2
Et4 NCI04
40 "I.
°
ONH2
H2 SO4
H2N~NH2 +
Q (3-61)
10 - 20"1.
°
80-90'1,
H20/KOH
ON:N-Q
30 'I.
More important from the point of view of synthesis is the oxidation of mixed
aliphatic-aromatic amines. The oxidation of N,N-dimethylaniline may be direc-
ted in order to prepare N-methoxymethyl-N-methylaniline or N,N-bis-
(methoxymethyl)aniline. Both products demethoxylate under the influence of
Lewis acids and the resulting iminium intermediate may react "in situ" with
electron rich olefins giving tetrahydroquinolines [55], (3-62)
CZH50~
'9" N
::;,...1 (3-62)
o CZH 5
A considerable importance has the electrochemical methoxylation of amides

and carbamates giving rise to stable cx-methoxy derivatives [56, 57], (3-63) in
relatively high yields, i.e. to products which are "chemically" prepared from
amides or carbamates, from the aldehyde (practically only formaldehyde) and
methanol (3-64). Electrochemically, however, they are prepared in higher yields
even from amides which do not react in chemical processes.
~ R= COOMe, MeOH
l..WA·OM: Et4NOTs,[Cl
I
COOMe 1,75 V [SCE 1
MeOH, - H+
(3-63)
2-Methoxy-I-methoxycarbonylpiperidine [57]
Into a 50 ml electrolysis celljitted with two carbon electrodes were placed 0.05 mol
of l-methoxycarbonylpiperidine and 0.005 mol of tetraethylammonium p-toluene-
sulfonate as electrolyte and 32 ml of methanol as a solvent. The constant current
(0.5 A) was passed through the cell which was externally cooled with water. After
2 F mor 1 of electricity was passed, 50 ml of water was added to the reaction
mixture and it was extracted with three portions of ether. The combined organic
layer was dried on magnesium sulfate overnight. After removing the magnesium
sulfate by filtration, the ether was distilled off and the residue was distilled.
2-Methoxy-I-methoxy-carbonylpiperidine, bp 60°C (0.5 kPa) , was obtained in
72% yield.
R1_C-NH-R2 + R3_CH=O + CH30H
II
o
-- MeOH
H+ o
R1 A N'= CH-R 3
~2
-
H-@ (3-64)
ex-Methoxyamides and -carbamates generate iminium ions under the influ-

ence of an acid which react then with sufficiently "nucleophilic" substrates
(aromates, alkenes, C-acids etc.) by an e1ectrophilic substitution [58J which is
called amidoalkylation (3-65):
[Q J
<+,
..
(-1
MeOH, Etl,NTsO H+
Q -2e OOMe
I
- MeOH
I
COOMe COOMe ~OOMe
78 - 83 '/.
~Si(CH3)3 oo ' TsOH

~ Ti Cl4 89'/.
I[JLO
o N
I I
COOMe COOMe
(3-65)
OAc
(CH3CO)2CH2, HCl
c-:;U
A,Ticll,
69 ./.
~COMe
84 '/.
I I COMe
COOMe COOMe
~p(a)(C6H5)2 89'/. 90 '/. OCN

I
COOMe CaOMe
By elimination of methanol from methoxylated carbamates stable and suffi-

ciently nucleophilic "encarbamates" can be prepared which react with electro-
philic reagents. By this procedure l-carbmethoxypiperidine was transformed to
o
3-pyridinecarbaldehyde [59], (3-66):
~
COOMe
-4e
-M-e-OH- MeO
D ~ OMe
COOMe
NH"Cl
-2 MeOH o- N
I
COOMe
80 '/,
POCl3/DMF... a N
CH : O 1. Et3N, MeOH
2. Pd - C
(3-66)
I
COOMe 41 '/,
75 'I,
In an analogous way as in methoxylation, anodic acetoxylation (generally

acyloxylation) of amides and carbamates can be also carried out. The course of
the anodic reaction between the carboxylic acids and dimethylformamide
depends on the kind of the supporting electrolyte [60]. In presence of lithium
and tetraalkylammonium ions the acyloxylation of the methyl group occurs
whereas in presence of triethylamine the so-called Kolbe dimers are formed
(3-67):
o CHO
R-R
-e, HCONMe2
ReOOH
-2e I HCONMe2
.. R~O""""'N'
\
Li N03 ' (Pt) Me
(3-67)
The following example is only an intramolecular version of the acyloxylation
reaction which takes place in the anodic oxidation of the (1-carbmethoxy-3-
ethyl-3-piperidyl)acetic acid [61], (3-68):
~COOH
N
I
COOMe
Et4NClO4
-2e, MeCN c&o

I
COOMe
(3-68)
83 '/,
ex-Methoxylated amides and carbamates are also used as equivalent aldehyde

reagents, e.g. in the Strecker synthesis of ex-aminoacids [62], (3-69)
NH2
1. NH3 ' HCN
2. H20
H2N~OH (3-69)
o
38 '/,
As far as the electro oxidation of carbamates is performed in presence of water,

ex-hydroxy derivatives are obtained which may be used directly as aldehyde
equivalents, e.g. in the Wittig synthesis (3-70)
Q I
•
Cl-OH
I
COOMe COOMe
80 '/.
(3-70)
79 'I.
3.1.7 Electrooxidation of Ions
By the anodic oxidation of carboxylate anions two types of reactive inter-

mediates can be obtained: radicals which dimerize (the so-called Kolbe reaction)
and carbo cations which can eliminate a proton, transform to isomeric carbo-
cations and react with nucleophiles (the so-called Hofer-Moest reaction
[63, 64], (3-71):
T--e A.-e
R- H + alkene rearrangement
~
R :=::;;:Rods - -e R-CO -2eO
-C R+ods~
- R+
-C02 - 2 (3-71)
~
R - COO·
MeCN YO-
R-H R-R
R-NHAc R-OY alkene
The formation of both intermediates is preceded by a single-electron oxidation

of the carboxylates. The acyloxyl radical formed in this way decarboxylates and
an alkyl radical is obtained which may be oxidized to the carbocation (3-72):
(-) -e • -C02. -e (+)

R-COO - - R-COO --- R - R (3-72)
The "single-electron" and the "two-electron" mechanism of the anodic

oxidation of carboxylates is affected by a number of factors: the anode material
and its potential, the current density, the solvent, the supporting electrolyte, the
temperature and, last but not least, by the structure of the carboxylic acid. A
number of publications have been devoted to the influence of these factors; these
papers represent a substantial contribution to literature in the field of organic
electrochemistry.
The single-electron oxidation and - thus also the formation of the Kolbe
dimer - is supported by a higher current density, higher concentration of
carboxylates and by lower temperature. Among solvents methanol and a
mixture of water with methanol are most frequently used. In combination with
anode
potential 2,4
[V I
2,2
2,0 Fig. 3.2. Dependence of the po-

tential of a platinum anode on
the logarithm of current density
in the oxidation of acetate ions
o 2 [ogl
[1] mAcm-2
the supporting electrolytes the following systems are used: methanol-sodium

salt of the acid; methanol-sodium methoxide; methanol-water-sodium hydrox-
ide; methanol-triethylamine-pyridine. When using an organic solvent and
water whose relative content is higher than 4% a sudden decrease occurs in the
formation of the Kolbe dimer. The most suitable anodic material is platinum,
anodes made from gold have been also used, as well as iridium, palladium, Pb0 2
and glassy carbon. A very important parameter for a successful performance of
the Kolbe synthesis is the current density on the anode. The dependence of the
potential of a platinum electrode on the logarithm of current density is
demonstrated in Fig. 3.2 for the oxidation of acetates in an aqueous solution. It
is evident from Fig. 3.2 that at current density equal to about 10 rnA cm - 2 the
reaction mechanism suddenly changes; this change appears in an abrupt
increase of the anode potential. Whilst at a lower current density the electrolysis
of water occurs and oxygen is evolved, at higher current densities ethane is the
main product; it is formed by dimerization of methyl radicals adsorbed on the
electrode surface (3-73):
(3-73)
The above example shows also how the kinetic effects enable the course of a
reaction occurring in a direction which is thermodynamically unrealistic.
Kolbe dimerization is widely applied [65J in the synthesis of alkanes from
alkanoic acids (3-74) and in the preparation of esters of alkanedioic acids from
the corresponding alkyl hydrogen esters.
-2e,- 2C02
MeOH
.. CH3 - (CH 212n- CH3
60 - 90 °1.
In = 5 - 15 )
(3-74)
An industrial application has been achieved in the case of production of sebacic

acid diethylester from hydrogenethyladipate (n = 4, R = CzH s), (3-75)
-2e,-2 C02
-------<!IP>_ R02C -(CH2)2n- C02R
45 - 95 0'.
In = 4 - 16 )
(3-75)
General Procedure for Electrolysis of Salts of Carboxylic Acids

The acid (0.2 mol) is electrolyzed in methanol (100 ml) containing enough
sodium methoxide to neutralize 2% of the acid in a cell equipped with smooth
platinum plates (4 x 2.5 cm) placed a few centimeters apart. The temperature is
maintained at 40-50°C by external cooling and a current of 1.5-2.0 A is
maintained until the electrolyte becomes alkaline. This point is reached when about
20-40% more current than that calculated is used. Removal of the solvent is
followed by extraction with ether and purification of the product.
If aqueous methanol is used, petroleum ether is added to form a layer which
dissolves the product formed. This product would otherwise coat the electrodes.
The "mixed" Kolbe dimerization was applied in the synthesis of a number of
pheromones, e.g. of (Z)-11-hexadecenylacetate [66J, (3-76):
-2e
...
2. LiAlH4
3. CH3COCI
--- H H
C4H~(CH2)10- OCOCH3 (3-76)
o
or of the aggregation pheromone of the nun-moth (Disparlure sp. [67J), (3-77)
(3-77)
If one of the carboxylic acids in the molecule contains a double bond in a

suitable position with respect to the carboxylic group an intramolecular addi-
tion of the primarily formed radical on to the double bond occurs; the newly
formed radical reacts further in the sense of the mixed Kolbe dimerization
[68], (3-78):
0 f
COO - Me02C _ _ coo~ MeOH
0 -2e, -2C02
C~OO~Me
MeOOC~. Un) (3-78)
Interesting synthetic possibilities are also offered by procedures in which

radicals are generated by anodic oxidation of carboxylate ions; first, these
radicals are intermolecularly added on to the double bond of the unsaturated
compound and only later the adduct radicals formed in this way mutually
dimerize, or recombine with radicals formed on the anode [69], (3-79):
Eto2-COO
MeOH ~ -e,-C02
Eto2C'
66 ",
Et02C~
Et02C~
+
Et02C~ (3-79)
The "two-electron" oxidation of carboxylate ions is preferred on carbon

anodes and is performed in a mixture of dipolar aprotic solvents with water in
neutral or in alkaline media. In particular, acids having electron donating
substituents on the (X-carbon undergo this mechanism; the substituents stabilize
the originating carbo cations. The latter react then with nucleophiles present in
the electrolyte and yield the products [70], (3-80) of methoxylation:
rl
l...O~
COOH
.. [~J--
.~
MeOH
.. OMe
l...O.J<.....=
87 'I.
(3-80)
of acetoxylation [71J, (3-81):
COOH OAe
~
~
AcOH - Et3N (Pt)
OR ~ OR (3-81)
RO OMe 10 mA.cm- 2 RO OMe
NHAc NHAe
and of amidation [72J, (3-82):

NHAc
~OH MeCN - H20
o ~ (3-82)
-2e,- C02
They may also undergo a rearrangement and the newly resulted carbocations
are transformed to a stable molecule by a proton elimination; this reaction was
made use of e.g. in the synthesis of ( ± )-muscone [73J, (3-83):
-2e
..
MeOH, KOH
30 'J,
H21 Pd - C
... (3-83)
100 'I.
The same rules as those derived for the electrooxidation of carboxylate ions hold
also for the oxidation alkaneborate ions (R3BOY)- which result from trialkyl-
boranes and alkali hydroxides or alkoxides [74J, (Y = H, CH 3 ) - (3-84):
(-) (-) -e
R3B + OY --- [R3BOY] ----
(-) C-) -e •
R2BOY + OY - - - [R2BfOYI2] - " -..
- R + RB(OY}2
RB(OY}2 + 0/-1 -- (RB(OY}3t) _-_e-t..._ R8 + B(OY)3

R-R
(-) (3-84)
R(+) ~ R-OY
In this way dodecane was prepared from trihexylborane (3-85):
-2e
C6H13 - C6H13 (3-85)
KOH, MeOH
76 ./.
The relatively low values of oxidation potentials of carbanions (PhCHzLi:

Ep = - 1.45 V (SCE), THF, (CH 3 CO)zCH z : E 1 / Z = 0.49 V, Fe/Fe+, DMSO;
CzHsOOC-CHz-COOCzHs: 0.39 V, Fe/Fe+, DMSO) facilitate their anodic
oxidation. The radicals resulting in oxidation may dimerize or react in an
aldolization reaction with unsaturated compounds.
The yields of dimers resulting by oxidation of carbanions of malonic acid
[75J range between 20-55% (3-86):
EtOOC
-2e
2 ~COOEt
EtoNa / MeCN
EtOOC~COOEt (3-86)
COOEt
COOEt
55 ./.
More satisfactory yields of dimers are obtained in the anodic oxidation or

organometallic compounds [76J, (3-87):
-2e
2 R - MgBr .... R-R (3-87)
R = CSHll (55-60%); C6HS (55%); C 1s H 37 (54%)

In presence of unsaturated compounds an addition of primarily resulting
radicals occurs on the double bond; by the following oxidation of the radical
ad ducts the carbocations are formed which, in case of addition of l,4-dicarbonyl
compounds on to the ethylvinyl ether, are stabilized by cyclization and yield
after following deprotonation dihydrofuran derivatives [77J, (3-88):
-e,MeOH
R H l R
-~OE~ R~OE~ ~OEt (3-88)
R = Ac, COOMe
3.1.8 Oxidation of Aromatic Systems
Simple aromatic compounds (benzene, naphtalene, toluene, xylene) have rela-

tively very positive oxidation potentials and are therefore more suitable sub-
strates for indirect electrochemical oxidations. In the direct oxidation of an
aromatic compound an electron transfer occurs from the 1t-electron system to

the anode with the formation of a cation radical which, in general, either can
dimerize or, by a reaction with nucleophiles yields substitution products (3-89):
Ar-H
!-e
Ar-Ar ..
ArH
-2e,-2H+
,+0) Nu-
[ A r - H l - Ar
... HJ"
'Nu
~ -=--e [ Ar'Nu
.... H]<+)-H+
___ Ar Nu
(3-89)
Sufficiently "nucleophilic" aromatics represent the most suitable substrates

for anodic dimerization which is moreover preferred by absence of nucleophiles
in the electrolytic system. The electrochemically generated radical cation reacts
in the sense of a electrophilic substitution with a further substrate molecule
and the newly formed radical cation undergoes a further single-electron oxida-
tion combined with deprotonation giving rise to the corresponding dimer [78],
(3-90):
-q BU4N BF4
CH2Cl2
-e
.
~ P- .
-~ -2H+
-e
~ (3-90)
71 "I"
As far as the structural conditions are satisfied the anodic dimerization can also
take place as an intramolecular reaction [79], (3-91). This reaction was made use
of in the following synthesis:
-2e
-2H+
"'0-0-0"'
90 "I.
(3-91)
A more complicated synthetic reaction of this type is the transformation of the

tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids to alkaloids with a morphinane framework
[80], (3-92):
:::~~
MeO
I
r
N'Me -2e,NaHC03
- - - _ . MeO
H20, MeCN
AA~:'"
(+l
-
"
H -
(. O-Me
MeO ~I Me4NBF4 MeO OMe
Me
I
- M'O~O
(')
-H
,,(+)
-lYle
(3-92)
MeO OMe
The course of anodic nucleophilic substitution on the aromatic nucleus

(acetoxylation, acetamidation, methoxylation etc,) is usually interpreted by the
ECEC mechanism. A chemoselective substitution on the nucleus takes place
only with aromatics and those derivatives of them whose substituents do not
contain hydrogen atoms in the benzylic position.
The anodic acetoxylation of aromatics only exceptionally leads to the
corresponding acetoxy derivatives [81] in yields exceeding 50% (3-93 and 3-94).
OAc
-2e, AcONa
AeOH
• ~
~
(3-93)
22 '/,
Higher yields of the oxidation products are achieved in trifluoroacetoxylations

[82], (3-94).
6
X OMe
.
X= N02,-2e
CF3COOH - 6 X=MeO,-2e
AcOH - AcONa
0) OAe
(3-94)
CF3COO CF3COONa
27 'I,
60'/,
o-/m-/p- = 22/59/19 o-/p- = 911
This is why the trifluoroacetoxylation was also applied for an indirect

synthesis of phenol from benzene the relatively high oxidation potential of
which complicates a selective anodic oxidation of benzene to phenol or to
hydro quinone. The phenyltrifluoroacetate resulting in the oxidation is suffi-
ciently stable under conditions of electrooxidation and is not subjected to a
follow-up oxidation. The required phenol is liberated from it by alkaline
hydrolysis [83], (3-95):
OCOCF3 OH
___-_e____ ~ ~ ~ (3-95)
CF3COOH - CF3COONa V V
65 'I,
The anodic oxidation of aromatic compounds in presence of acetonitrile

yields products of acetamidation [84], (3-96).
NHCOMe
~
~
(3-96)
85 'I,
In the presence of ammonium nitrate or N 2 0 4 nitro aromatics are formed

[85], (3-97):
-2e,MeCN
(3-97)
In the anodic oxidation of alkylaromatics containing hydrogen atoms in the

benzylic position, two competitive reactions proceed: a nucleophilic substitution
on the aromatic nucleus or in the benzyl position of the alkyl group (3-98).
(3-98)
¢
_R
Nu
The preferential formation of the respective product can be effected by

choosing suitable reaction conditions or by specially arranging the experiment.
Thus, in order to prepare 2,4,6-trimethylphenylacetate, anodic acetoxylation of
1,3,5-trimethylbenzene is carried out in presence of hydrogenation catalyst by
which the undesirable acetoxymethyl derivative is retransformed to the starting
substrate. In this way a uniform oxidation product is obtained in a good
chemical but a poor electrochemical yield [86], (3-99).
AcOH, AcOK
-2e, PdlC
~
I
OAC
~
+
(£) I
(3-99)
The anodic oxidation of the methyl group in aromatics can be directed,

depending on the potential of the working electrode, on the composition of the
electrolyte and on the amount of the passed charge toward the oxidation state of
a benzyl alcohol, of an aldehyde or of an acid (3-100):
Ar-CHIOAc)2 -2e
or
Ar - CH:::O
--- Ar - COOH (3-100)
The selective oxidation of methyl aromatics to benzyl acetates is achieved at
lower potentials, carbon is recommended as anode material. A suitable electro-
lytic system for electrolytic acetoxylation is acetic acid or a solution of acetic acid
and tert-butyl alcohol in mixture with one of the following supporting electro-
lytes: sodium or ammonium acetate or tetra alkyl ammonium perchlorate,
tetrafluoroborate or tosylate. An addition of Cu 2 + or Co 2 + ions is also re-
commended. The metal ions facilitate the electron transfer from the aromatic
substrate to the anode (i.e. they lower its oxidation potential) and accelerate thus
the rate of formation of the intermediate benzylcarbocation [87J, (3-101):
¢
OAe
AeOH - t SuOH - Et4NOTs
po
(3-101)
le),IAcO)zeu
69 ", 8 ',. 3 ',.
By the subsequent anodic oxidation of the benzyl acetates aldehydes are

obtained. The oxidation degree of the functional group resulting by the oxida-
tion of the methyl group can be controlled by the potential of the working
electrode as follows from the example of the electrooxidation of 2-hydroxy-
3-methoxy-5-methylbenzaldehyde. In the same electrolyte at a lower potential
of the anode the corresponding benzylacetate results as the main product;
by a further electrolysis at a higher potential 4-hydroxy-5-methoxy-1,3-
benzenedicarbaldehyde is obtained [88J, (3-102):
OH -2e OH
Meo'¢'eHO
\--..::
MeeN -AeOH 13: 1) Meo~eHO
,--..::
h NaOAe - Nael04 - I C) h
eH3 a,65Y IseE)

OAe
75 ',.
-Ze OH
MeCN - AcOH 13: 1 )
NaOAe - NaCI04 - IC)

. ,--..::
Meo'¢'eHO
h
(3-102)
a,BOY ISCE) eHO

73 ',.
The anodic oxidation of benzyl alkyl ethers proceeds very easily, in particular
in those which contain a methoxy group or, in general, an electron-donating
group at position 2 or 4 of the benzene nucleus. These groups lower the
oxidation potential of benzylethers by 0.4-0.5 V [89], (3-103):
~ MeOH - CH2Cl2 - H2S04 ~
MeO V-CH20Me -2e ~ Meo-V- CH=O (3-103)
97 'I.
This fact is also made use of in synthesis for the electrochemical setting free
of the alcoholic group whose hydroxyl was protected in the form of correspond-
ing benzylether [90], (3-104)
WOH
89 'I.
+
MeOVCH=O (3-104)
The easy electrooxidation of the benzyl positions makes possible the modifi-
cation of the carbon framework in steroids, e.g. the introduction of a double
bond [91], (3-105):
MeO
~o
~I
::::,.,.
CH2CI2,NaCI04
----"':;-",
-2e, MeOH, MeO
~eo
~
0
2,6-1utidine 100 'I.
~ °
M'O~
(3-105)
The electrooxidation of p-substituted toluenes followed by acid-catalyzed

hydrolyses of the intermediate acetals affords the corresponding aromatic
aldehydes in good yields [92], (106):
MeOH,AcOH
1. NoBF4-
ACOVCH=O
72 '/,
(3-106)
+OVCH=O
80 - 85 'I.
4-Acetoxybenzaldehyde [92]
Into a 100 ml undivided electrolytic cell equipped with a thermometer and carbon
rod electrodes was placed 80 ml of acetic acid - methanol (1: 9) containing
0.05 mol of sodium tetrajluoroborate as a supporting electrolyte and 0.02 mol of
(4-methylfenyl)-acetate. Stirred with a magnetic bar and cooled with a water
bath, the solution was electrochemically oxidized at the constant current of
200 mA (current density: 1.6 A dm- 2). After 8.0 Fmol- 1 of electricity was
passed through the reaction system, the reaction mixture was poured into 100 ml
of an aqueous sodium chloride solution and extracted with three 50 ml portions of
ether. The combined ethereal solution was evaporated to remove the solvent and
then poured into 100 ml of 10% aqueous sulfuric acid. The mixture was stirredfor
3 hr at room temperature, and extracted with three 50 ml portions of ether. The
combined solution was washed with 10% aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution and
dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. After filtration of the solvent, the
residual oil was subjected to distillation to give the corresponding 4-acetoxybenzal-
dehyde, bp 1J5-1J6°C (0.66 kPa) , in 72% yield.
In the anodic oxidation of methylaromatics performed in acetonitrile and in
presence of perchlorates ((C2Hs)4N+, Li +, Na +) the corresponding acetamido
derivatives are obtained [93]. The oxidation is carried out on platinum and,
in particular, on carbon anodes, the relative content of water in the electrolyte
should not exceed 1% (3-107):
Q - CH 3
..
-2e, LiCl04 MeCN
H20
Q-CHrNHAC (3-107)
99 .,.
l,4-Disubstituted benzene derivatives with electron donating substituents

easily undergo anodic oxidation in which quinol structures are formed [94],
(3-108):
~o
-2e. MeCN. H20
(3-108)
93 0'0
Useful intermediates in organic synthesis are bisacetals of l,4-benzoquinone

and of its derivatives prepared by the oxidative addition of methoxyls to the
corresponding derivatives of 1,4-dimethoxybenzene [95,96], (3-109):
IX=Br 2'0 0"
MeO OMe
-2e, MeOH,,. ~X
MeONa Y. (3-109)
~
MeO OMe
OMe
IX=H 1. H2 0
2. Me2S0CH2
o
The facile oxidizability of hydro quinone ethers and esters is made use of in
the electrochemical generation of acyl cations and in the preparation of esters.
The reaction is based on the anodic oxidation of 4-hydroxyphenylalkanoates in
the solution of the corresponding alcohol. The transient oxidation product is
decomposed to p-benzoquinone and to the ester [97], (3-110):
C6H130H, - 2e
MeCN , CH2Cl2
Q
o
+ CSH11 COOC6 H13 (3-110)
o 95 '/,
The anodic cyanation of aromatics gives only exceptionally good results as

regards the corresponding nitriles [98], (3-111):
CN
-2e
MeOH, NaCN
~
~
(3-111)
74'"
Very interesting, however, is the course of the anodic cyanation of 1,4-

dimethoxybenzene in which an ipso substitution of the methoxyl group by the
cyanide ion occurs and 4-methoxybenzonitrile is obtained in a high yield [99],
[~~f~-J
(3-112)
¢
OMe CN
OMe
Et4NCN
MeCN
-2e
•
OMe
- CH20
-H+
. ¢
OMe
(3-112)
95%
A substitution of the aromatic nucleus by the electrochemically generated

halonium ions only occurs if the oxidation potential of the halogenide is lower
than the potential of the aromatic substrate. The other way round, first the
anodic oxidation of the aromatic substrate occurs, followed by the reaction of
the resulting carbo cations with halogenides of the supporting electrolyte [100],
(3-113):
-2e, MeCN
~
~
(3-113)
Ph F
75·/.
Among the anodic oxidations of heterocyclic compounds closest attention

has been paid to methoxylation, acetoxylation and hydroxylation of furan and
of its derivatives. The methoxylation in which 2,5-dihydro-2,5-dimethoxyfurans
result which are cyclic acetals of 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds, were studied in
detail; for this reason they are widely applied in the synthesis of various types of
compounds [101], (3-114)
R = Ac ~OH
~OH
Me
I
R = CH-NH-Ac ~OH
MeO
nOMe"
0 R l!.N~
R= H (3-114)
rI_OMe
MeOAO""-<:'R R = CH(OH)Me
aI I
o
o
OH
R = CH2COOt -Bu
The methoxylation is performed by electrolysis of the furan substrate in a

methanol solution and its reaction path depends on the structure of the starting
compound and on the supporting electrolyte. The very frequently used ammon-
ium bromide is suitable only for methoxylation of those furan derivatives which
carry electron donating substituents; a primary oxidation of the bromide ion
and the addition of bromine to the diene system are assumed. The reaction is
one of the first examples of indirect anodic oxidation (cf. Sect. 3.3). The
methoxylation of 2-acetyl- and of 2-carbalkoxyfurans must be performed in the

presence of sulfuric acid as supporting electrolyte in order to obtain acceptable
yields of dihydrodimethoxyfurans; the oxidation starts by an electron transfer
from the furan nucleus to the anode (an ECEC mechanism). In an oxidation in
an alkaline media (CH30H-KOH) a participation of methoxyl radicals in the
reaction is also possible (3-115).
R = alkyl MeOH, -HBr
~R
Br+ I MeOH Br 0 Br
(OMe)
NH4Br
[].
o R
MeOH, MeO-
( MeO")
. MeO
nOMe
0 R
(3-115)
1. -e
-e 2. MeOH.-H+
H2S04' MeOH
R =COOMe, Ac
[0
~
(+) " R
MeOH,-H+
.. MeO
n J
O' R
The selectivity of product formation is also affected by the amount of the

passed charge and by the current density. A selective transformation of furfuryl
alcohol to its dimethoxy-dihydro derivative is achieved at current densities
smaller than 0.05 A cm - 2 and a charge of 2 F mol-I. At higher current densities
(0.20 A cm - 2) and charge magnitudes of 4-6 F mol- 1 the cycle is opened, the
substituent at position 2 is split off and a methylester of the dimethylacetal of
3-formylpropenic acid results [102], (3-116)
n MeOH - Et4NCl04. 19 "OMe ~ rCOOMe

(3-116)
"O~OH O.02Acm-2 Me 0""""" 0 A..,...OH CH(OMe)2
(2,5-Dimethoxy2,5-dihydro-2-furyl)methanol [102]
1.00 g of 2-Furylmethanol was dissolved in 20 ml of methanol containing 0.10 g of
tetraethylammonium perchlorate as a supporting electrolyte. The solution was
electrolyzed at 15-16°C under a current density of 0.033 A cm- 2 in a com-
partment cell equipped with two platinum foil electrodes (2 x 3 cm 2 ). After
2.1 FmoZ- I of electricity was passed, the reaction mixture was concentrated under
reduced pressure, taken in ethylacetate, washed with aqueous NaHC0 3 and brine,
and dried. After evaporation of the solvent the residue was distilled to
give (2 ,5-dimethoxy-2,5-dihydro-2-furyl) methanol, bp 82-85 C (1.0 kPa) , in 0
91% yield.
Methyl-(Z)-4,4-dimethoxy-2-butenoate [102J
A solution of 3.00 g of 2-furylmethanol and 0.10 g of tetraethylammonium
perchlorate in 20 ml of methanol was electrolyzed under the same conditions as in
the preceding case. After 8.0 FmoZ- 1 of electricity was passed, the reaction
mixture was worked up in the usual way and methyl-(Z)-4,4-dimethoxy-2-
butenoate, bp 74-78°C (1.6 kPa), was obtained in 75% yield.
The same product may be also obtained in the oxidation of furan-2-carboxylic
acid; by changing the supporting electrolyte it is possible to prepare also the
opposite stereoisomer [103J, (3-117).
MeOH-Et3 N COOMe
NH4Br (Pt I F
CH( OMeI2
lCJlo COOH
(3-117)
-4e
MeOH - Et3N (Pt I
Et4NClO4
~COOMe
CH( OMeI2
Whereas the methoxylation only occurs in the positions of 2 and 5 of the

fur an nucleus, the acetoxylation of 2,5-dimethylfuran occurs on the methyl
groups [104J, (3-118)
R = Me
ACO~OAC
R
n 0 R
(3-118)
AcOH/AcONa
(Pt I, R =H AcoMoAC
The anodic oxidation of 3,4-disubstituted furans in acetonitrile in the

presence of water leads to the formation of 2,5-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxyfurans
[105J, (3-119)
R"'r.---i1'" R
ll.,JJ
o
MeC N - H20 - NaHC03
(Ptl, R=Et, ClCH2

. R
HoloiOH
R
(3-119)
70-80 '/,
The degree of oxidation of methoxylation products of pyrrole depends on the

character of substituents located on the nitrogen atom. N -methylpyrrole under-
goes a 4-electron oxidation whereas l-carbmethoxypyrrole yields only the
product of a 2-electron oxidation [106J, (3-120):
-2 e , R = COQl',je MeO~OMe I
COOMe
Q I
(3-120)
R
MeO~ J=I _OMe
-4e, R = Me MeO A N'J( OMe
I
CH3
Of great promise are the electrochemical oxidations of 5-membered hetero-

cycles (pyrrole, thiophene, furan) carried out in inert atmosphere in acetonitrile
solutions and in presence of tetraalkylammonium salts. During the oxidation
electrically conductive polymers are formed on the surface of platinum elec-
trodes; their analysis demonstrated that a single anion belongs to four mono-
meric units of the heterocycle [107, 108], (3-121):
(-1
Y (3-121)
A polypyrrole film prepared by the potentiostatic oxidation of pyrrole in an

acetonitrile solution of (C2Hs)4NBF 4 at 0.8 V (vs SCE) exhibits semiconducting
properties; in the oxidized (doped) state it is conductive, dark brown till black.
The charge of the anion of the supporting electrolyte (BF4") compensates for the
charge of the oxidized, onium form of polypyrrole; this corresponds to a single
electron per 4 monomeric units. In the cathodic potential range polypyrrole in
its reduced (undoped) form is nonconducting, its colour is yellow. The oxidation
potentials of monomeric heterocycles and the electric conductivity of the
polymeric films obtained are demonstrated in Table 3.2.
In the case of polypyrrole films their conductivity and many other properties
may be modified by suitable substitution on nitrogen (by an alkyl or by a
phenyl) on the one hand and by the choice of the anion which passes into the
doped form from the supporting electrolyte.
Table 3.2. Oxidation potentials of monomers and the electric con-

ductivity of polymeric films
Compound Oxidation potential Conductivity

(V vs SCE) (Scm- 1)
pyrrole + 0.8 30-100

indole + 0.8 5 x 1O~3-10-2
thiophene +0.9 10-100
furan + 1.85 10-80
3.2 Direct Cathodic Reductions
3.2.1 Reductions of Functional Groups
Electrochemical hydrogenations of multiple C-C bonds can proceed indirectly,

electro catalytically, or by a direct electron transfer on to the multiple bond. In
the electrocatalytic method hydrogen is developed in acid media on cathodes
activated by Pt or Pd or in alkaline media on Raney nickel cathodes. Hydrogen
then catalytically hydrogenates the double bond. In the other method a direct
reduction of the double bond occurs in an electro organic process (E) a radical
anion is primarily formed which in a chemical process (C) yields a radical by a
protonation; by a further E process this yields an anion which in a follow-up
C process leads to the corresponding dihydrogen derivative (3-122):
I 2e,2H+ \..-/
r-\+Hads -
pt
>=< (3-122)
l;- [F<f-i'- 'k -T [~r+ ~ H
The different mechanism of both methods of electrochemical hydrogenation

is also reflected in stereochemistry of the resulting products. Whilst in the
electrocatalytic hydrogenation prevalently the cis-dihydro derivatives result,
in the direct reduction occurring by an ECEC mechanism the trans-dihydro
derivatives are formed as the main product [109, 110], (3-123):
OH
"-1
+2e,Pd
-2-H+--"
~
I-..::H
OH MeO ~ H
I"~
Meo~
(3-123)
I
MeNH2' -20·C
The electrochemical reduction of benzene and of its derivatives carried out in

primary amines (ethylenediamine, methylamine) as solvents and in presence of
lithium chloride yields products which also result by "chemical" reduction under
3.2 Direct Cathodic Reductions 91
the influence of alkali metals (Na, Li) in solutions of primary amines (Birch
reduction). Benzene proper can be electrochemically reduced under the above
conditions to the 1,4-cyclohexadiene in an undivided cell or to cyclohexene in a
divided cell (3-124):
27
+2e
o MeNHLi
o •
[oJ - o +2e
2H+
(3-124)
The different course of the reaction is caused by the isomerization of the

primarily formed l,4-cyclohexadiene to 1,3-cyclohexadiene which, as a conju-
gated diene is electroactive again and undergoes a further cathodic reduction.
The above mentioned isomerization proceeds in a divided cell under the
influence of lithium methylamide, LiNHCH 3 , which is produced at the cathode.
In an undivided cell the above amide is decomposed by reaction with methyl-
amine hydrochloride resulting at the anode; this is why the main reaction
product is l,4-cyclohexadiene [111].
The different reducibility of an isolated double bond enables a chemoselec-
tive electroreduction of the aromatic nucleus in alkenylaromatics with a non-
conjugated double bond [112], (3-125):
+2e, LiCl
(3-125)
MeNH2
On the other hand, in case of conjugation, e.g. with cinnamic acid, a selective
reduction of the double bond (3-126) occurs at a mercury cathode:
o
~COOH
---- o+2e ~COOH
(3-126)
Dialkylacetylenes, however, are electrochemically active and by the reduc-

tion in a methylamine solution of lithium chloride they yield trans-alkenes
whereas by electroreduction in an ethanolic solution of H 2 S04 they give rise to
cis-alkenes [113, 114], (3-127):
I (Nil, EtOH - HCl

~
80 'I.
R1_E-R 2 (3-127)
+2e, LiCl/MeNH2
(Ptl undivided cell
On industrial scale the electro reduction of multiple bonds was applied

e.g. for the production of dihydrophtalic acid from phtalanhydride (3-128):
~O
+2e, Pb
(3-128)
H20 , H2S04
o
or of piperidine by the reduction of pyridine [115], (3-129):
o N
+6e .. 0 N
H
(3-129)
The electrochemical reduction of organic halogenoderivatives was studied

both from the point of view of mechanism and from that of the synthetic use.
The reaction products are based on the participation of radical anions, radicals
and carbanions which all in dependence on the conditions of electrolysis
(composition of the supporting electrolyte, the cathode potential, presence of
compounds with multiple bond) can undergo a number of reactions (proton-
ation, recombination, addition, reaction with the cathode).
The reductive cleavage of the C-Hal bond is irreversible. The ease of
reduction decreases in the order R- I> R-Br > R-CI ~ ~ R-F, further tert-
R-X>sec-R-X > prim-R-X and finally R-CX3 > R-CHX2 > R-CH2X,
An important role in the electro reduction of halogeno-derivatives is also
played by the electrode material and by the potential at which the reduction is
carried out. The final products of the reduction ofhalogenoalkanes at a mercury
electrode are mostly alkanes. Thus in the electroreduction of l-iododecane in
dimethylformamide at a cathode potential - 1.6 V (vs SCE) didecylmercury is
obtained whilst at - 2.21 V (vs SCE) decane (3-130) results. On the other hand,
I-bromodecane yields only decane in the reduction [116].
+2e, (Hg l, DMF +e, (Hgl, DMF

...... II<
-2,14 V -1,61V
(3-130)
The appearance of didecylmercury points to the primary formation of a radical

anion or of a radical with a sufficient stability which makes a reaction with
mercury possible. Only at more negative potentials a second electron is rapidly
accepted.
The above mentioned sequences in the reactivity of the individual types of
halogenoderivatives or the dependences of their reduction potentials on the
structure can be made use of in the selective reductions of the individual
halogens in presence of the others [117], (3-131)
o o
~Cl ~Cl (3-131)
Br~ H~ 96'/,
or to a partial "electrohydrogenolysis" of the higher halogenated substrates

[118], (3-132):
(3-132)
The selective reduction of halogenoderivatives is achieved even without a

potentiostat if a salt is chosen as the supporting electrolyte which also plays
simultaneously the role of a "potential buffer". In this way one can e.g. achieve
the reduction of a -CCI 3 group to -CHCI 2 or up to CH 2 Cl. In the first case the
easily reducible ammonium nitrate is chosen as the supporting electrolyte, in the
second case (CH 3 )4NCI is applied which is reduced with more difficulty [119],
(3-133)
Cl
+2e. NH4N03
MeOH
CI~CI
64 -94 0'0
CI3C~CI (3-133)
I +4e. Me4NCl
CI~CI
MeOH 63 - 95 0'0
The steric accessibility of the individual halides is also reflected in the

reduction selectivity [120], (3-134)
c:::;rH
Cl Cl
+2e. HCI
c::::plCI
(3-134)
MeOH
100 0'0
In a number of cases the selectivity of halide reduction is affected not only by

the electrode material but also by its "surface modification". Thus the highly
selective hydrogenolysis of tetrachloropicolinic acid to 3,6-dichloropicolinic
acid - a plant growth stimulator - is achieved on a carbon cathode on which
spongy silver has been deposited. Other electrodes, even silver cathodes treated
in another way are not active [121], (3-135):
Cl
CI~CI
. ~Cl
Cl .Jl:A
N" COOH C. Ag sponge Cl).!. N~COOH
+ 2Cl + 2HO- (3-135)
Cathodic reductions of halogeno derivatives by which purposefully organo-

metallic compounds are prepared are performed on the so-called sacrificed
electrodes from the corresponding metal and separated by a diaphragm from the
Pt anode [122J, (3-136)
+
(Hg), 2H. +2e
(H2S04)
(Sn)'+6e
NaOH
(3-136)
In a similar manner to the C-Hal bonds the strongly polar bonds in ammonium
salts also undergo electro reduction; the ammonium salts are transformed to
tertiary amines [123J, (3-137) and (3-138):
+2e ~(CH2)n-NMe2
(3-137)
H20 V B8-90·/.
n = 1- 3
Me
o
I
~0 (3-138)
+ R'~
o
Phosphonium salts yield tertiary phosphines [124J, (3-139):
+2e
(3-139)
H2 0
A nitro group, particularly one that is bonded to an aromatic nucleus,

belongs to the groups whose reduction on a cathode is extremely easy. Because
of its low reduction potential it can be selectively reduced even in presence of
other functional groups, e.g. of a carboxylic group. A high selectivity is achieved
when working with controlled potential, but also by the choice of current
density or by the choice of the cathode material, this being usually a metal with a
low hydrogen overvoltage. The course of the reduction also depends on the pH
of the solution and the products can be amines, 4-aminophenols, azoxy, azo and
hydrazo derivatives, as well as benzidines [111].
Nitrobenzene can be selectively reduced in a divided cell (Ni cathode and
Pb anode) to aniline or hydrazobenzene (3-140):
INi), NoOH
Q-N=N-o + 4H20
cr
Ih
N02 INi 1. 6H+, 6e
- -6 '/,-HCl-, PbCl2
--- (3-140)
INi1,10H+,10e
Q-NH-NH-(j + 4H20
AcONo, EtoH
The reduction of aromatic nitro compounds to azoxy, azo and hydrazo

aromatics is performed in alkaline media at cathodes with a low hydrogen
overvoltage. Since nitro (- 0.54 V), azoxy (- 0.55 V) and azobenzene
( - 0.31 V vs SeE) have very near reduction potentials the reduction usually
leads to the poorly soluble azoxy derivative which is deposited during elec-
trolysis (3-141):
Ar-N0 2 - Ar - N =N - Ar ---- Ar - N =N - Ar
o
I ----
- Ar - NH - NH - Ar - H2N - Ar - Ar - NH2 (3-141)
The further reduction of azoxy derivatives is carried out with an excess of

alcohol or in the presence of tetraalkylammonium salts of aromatic sulfonic
acids (McKee's salts) in order to increase the solubility of the azoxy derivatives.
As a rule, the azo compound is obtained, accompanied by the hydrazo deriva-
tive which can be by an oxidation in open air transformed to the azo species. By
a further reduction of the azo compound at lower current density hydrazo
derivatives result which in strongly acidic electrolytes rearrange to benzidines.
The reduction of 0- and p-nitrophenols and nitroanilines occurs also in
alkaline media because the temporarily formed nitroso derivative is transformed
to a quinoid form which is very easily reduced to the corresponding amino-
phenol or phenylenediamine (3-142).
(3-142)
Nitrobenzene reduced at a cathode with a low hydrogen overvohage (Pt,

carbon) in a strong mineral acid yields phenylhydroxylamine which is trans-
formed to 4-aminophenol.
By electrolysis at controlled potential and in a diluted acid, in order to
prevent the transformation, the corresponding phenylhydroxylamine can be
obtained which in case of a suitable substitution of the starting substrate
intramolecularly condenses with a carbonyl group; the reaction has been made
use of e.g. in the synthesis of quinoline-N-oxide (3-143)
~
~~J
+4e
l:0\ ..~o N02

~NH oJ.-..
I
OH
o
~
~N~
(3-143)
o+
High yields of amines are obtained in the reduction of nitro aromatics carrying a
group in the para position which prevents a rearrangement [125], (3-144).
¢
COOH R
¢ NH2
R = COOH, .6e
(Pbl. HCl ¢ N02

R=Me ,+6e
(Pbl. H2SO4
NH2
(3-144)
92 .,. 100·'.
By a suitable choice of conditions (cathode potential, temperature, pH of the

solution) in aromatic polynitro compounds one can carry out a selective
reduction of the individual nitro groups up to the oxidation degrees NHOH or
NH2 and obtain so the corresponding phenylhydroxylamines, nitroanilines,
aromatic polyamines or, perhaps, the aminophenols [126], (3-145).
¢'
Cl Cl Cl
NH2 +12e,-O.9V ~N02 +4e ,-O.08V ~NHOH
I~
NH2
-- ---
H+,20·C
Y N02
H+. 20·C
Y N02
+O.1V, +6e
H+, 80·C
HO
02N n .&
Cl
NH2
(3-145)
These possibilities may be seen on polarographic curves of such compounds

with two electroactive groups which are reduced in two waves with different
half-wave potentials.
Amines or hydroxylamines result also by reduction of aliphatic nitrocom-
pounds [111]. In general, one can say that the oxidation degree of amines is
achieved by electrolysis at a higher temperature (70 o q, higher current density
and at cathodes with sufficiently high hydrogen overvoltage (Hg, Pb); (3-146)
and (3-147).
OH
I +4e,H 2S04 +6e,H2S04
HO~NH - HO"""y N0 2 • HO"""yNH2 (3-146)
I 2S-30·C I 6S-8S·C I
79 "I. 88·/.
+6e,(PbJ
(3-147)
77 - 83 "I.
From the point of view of organic synthesis the selective reduction of nitro-
alkanes to the corresponding hydroxylamines is interesting and necessary; it is
performed at lower temperatures or at controlled potentials of the mercury
cathode (3-148),
CH3-N02
/
CH3-NH-OH
, HCl
,~__
+_4e_._E_t_O_H_-_H_20_-_H_C_l____~;f
(HgIJ -O.85V(SCEI (3-148)
or the reduction is performed at a cathode with a low hydrogen overvoltage

(Pt, Ni, graphite), (3-149)
MeOH-HCl
O NOZ + 4e + 4H+ - - -..... ONHOH + HZO (3-149)
(Ni)
94,4 '/,
Primary amines [127J can be obtained conveniently by electrochemical

reduction of aldoximes (3-150) and ketoximes (3-151)
(Pb l. K2HP04 - H2O

~NOH .. ~NH2+ H2 O (3-150)
+4e, NoOH
° 57 '/,
Oy (Pbl. KOH - H2O

+4e .Cy (3-151 )
NOH
85 '/, NH2
or by the reduction of nitriles; from the adipic acid dinitrile, 1,6-hexanediamine

(3-152) can be prepared in an undivided cell,
~ CN (steel). NoOH - CuS04

~,
+8 e. H20
. H2N
~NH2
83°'.
(3-152)
acrylonitrile can be transformed by electroreduction in a cell with a diaphragma

to allylamine (3-153).
~CN
4e
.. ~NH2 (3-153)
In the reduction of aromatic and heteroaromatic nitriles at a mercury cathode

the mechanism and hence also the products are strongly affected by the pH of
the solution; at constant pH also by the potential of the electrode [128J, (3-154).
CN CH2NHZ
pH< 7
6N'"
a'+'
H
4e , 4H+
(Hg) 6 N'"
1'+)
H
CN
pH» 7
6 Ze, H2O
'" CJ N'"
(-1
+ CN
(-1
+ HO
CN CH2NH2
pH::: 7
6
N'
more positive
potentials 6 N'
CN
6
N'
more negative
potentials
([)
N'"
+ CN
(-)
(3-154)
The primary step is the uptake of the first electron. At a pH of around 7 this
reaction is followed by two competitive reactions: uptake of further electrons
and protonation is faster and through the sequence ECEC leads to the product
RCH 2 NH 2 . If the potential is shifted to more negative values the rate of
protonation does not increase whilst the rate of the electron uptake grows
exponentially. The result is the splitting off of CN- as in alkaline media.
In the reduction of benzonitriles carrying electronegative - M substituents
e.g. COOCH 3 , CN which lower the electron density on the reaction centre
(electron-withdrawing groups) the same mechanisms make themselves active
and the same types of products result.
By electroreduction of N-nitroso and N-nitrocompounds the corresponding
hydrazine derivatives are formed [127], (3-155) and (3-156):
+ 4e (Pb)
. 90 "I•
H2 S04 - H20
(3-155)
(Pbl,+6e
H2N - C -NH- N02
II
X
- - - - - !......
..
H2N - C -NH -NH2
X
(3-156)
x= 0, 20% H 2 S0 4; X = NH, 30% (NH4)2S04

Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to the corresponding alcohols, as a rule
in alkaline and buffered media, at electrodes made of mercury, lead, zinc, or
cadmium. The aldehydes are more reactive than the ketones (3-157).
.2e, {Hgl
. HO~
10 'I. No HC03
(3-157)
66 'I.
The electrochemical method makes possible a chemoselective reaction of the

carbonyl group in the presence of other functional groups [127], e.g. nitrile,
ethoxycarbonyl etc. (3-158).
(3-158)
x = H (76.4%); X = CN, COOEt (75-79%)

The mechanism of the reduction of alkylarylketones in partly aqueous solutions
in a pronounced way depends on pH of the solution. Whereas in acid media
a two-electron reduction is preferred which leads to secondary alcohols, in
alkaline media a single electron reduction proceeds resulting in the formation of
vic-diols [129], (3-159):
cT'R
o OH
~~R
(3-159)
If D-( - )-ephedrine hydrochloride is used as supporting electrolyte an

enantioselective course of acetophenone reduction has been observed, but the
resulting (R)-( + )-2-phenylethanol is obtained in a low optical yield (4.2%),
(3-160)
HO NHCH3
C H 0 \ ·HCl
Oy (-)65' o
'71 " " H
- - - - - - -..- ~ I OH (3-160)
o
A substantially higher enantioselectivity in the formation of one enantiomer

(75%) has been achieved in the reduction of 2-acetylpyridine on a mercury
cathode on which strychnine was adsorbed [121], (3-161).
~
I
~
o
N
0
"'<;::
N
~
~N~
(3-161)
o OH
From the economic point of view a pairing of the cathodic reduction of

glucose to sorbitol with the oxidation of the former to gluconic acid taking place
at the anode is advantageous [130]; in this arrangement "a single charge

performs double work" (3-162):
1 1
{OH
CH=O COOH
+Ze. (Ra-Ni J
80 -100 '/,
-Ze. (C J
CaBr2
.. (3-162)
CHZOH CHZOH CHZOH

100 'I.
The cathodic reduction of 4-oxo-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidyl oxide is inter-

esting because its course can be controlled by the choice of the cathode material
and by the amount of the charge exchanged [127], (3-163).
A
OH
A
0
A
0
e, H+ (Ni J 3e.3H+(PbJ
p
(3-163)
KZ HP04 KZ HP0 4
I I I
OH 0' OH
81 ", 60,5 ",
The electrochemical reduction of carboxylic acids and of their esters to

aldehydes and alcohols only proceeds with those structures in which the
carboxylic group is activated by another carboxylic group or by an aromatic or
heteroaromatic nucleus. This means that aliphatic acids are not reduced at
a cathode. In industry, such a reaction has been used for the production of
glyoxylic acid from oxalic acid (3-164).
..
+
eOOH 2e,2H CH=O
I I (3-164)
eOOH (Pbl COOH
In a similar way to that in aliphatic-aromatic ketones the aromatic nucleus is

not attacked in the electroreduction of aromatic acid esters [131], (3-165).
QOH
¢
COOMe
(HgJ or (PbJ
• (3-165)
4e. H2S04 - H2O
COOMe CHZOH
75 ",
The oxidation degree of the resulting products can be affected by the cathode
material, by the pH value of the catholyte and by the exchanged charge [127],
(3-166).
r -_ _ _ _4_e_,4_H_~_{P_b_l_,... 0f'0H
H2 0 -H2 S04 ~NH2

~COOH
~ X=OH, NH 2 (3-166)
X
I
CC
2e,2H~{Hgl
I~ CHO
H20, No 2S04 , NoHS04 ' ~ OH
H3 P04 • No 2 C03
Among the other acid derivatives the electrochemical reduction of amides of

aliphatic and aromatic acids as well as that of lactams should be mentioned. All
these reactions give rise to the corresponding amines [132J, (3-167).
+4e, {Pbl
~COOH
H
(3-167)
35·'.
N-Ethyl-I-methyl-2- (3-trijluoromethylphenyl )ethylamine [I33J

A solution of I-(3-trijluoromethylphenyl)-2-propanone (2.02 g; 10 mmoi) in an
electrolyte consisting of 70% aqueous ethylamine (10 ml, 150 mmol) , 2N Hel
(37.5 ml) and ethanol (50 ml) is purged with N2 and electrolyzed at 10 0 e with
controlled potential of - 1.75 V (vs SeE) in a divided cell with mercury pool as
working electrode and a platinum anode. The current drops from an initial 50 rnA
to 2-3 mA when the necessary 1960 A. s have been consumed. Then the electrolyte
is acidified by adding 2M Hel (to pH 1). After the ethanol has been removed
under reduced pressure, the aqueous solution is extracted with ether (2 x 50 mi)
and NaOH is added (to pH 14). The alkaline solution is extracted with ether
( 3 x 50 ml), and the combined organic phase is dried (Mg SO4). Removal of the
solvent under reduced pressure gives 2.0 g (87%) of N-ethyl-I-methyl-2-
(3-trijluoromethylphenyl) ethylamine.
Substituted amines also result in the electroreduction of azomethines
(Schiff's bases); it is not necessary to prepare them in advance; it is sufficient to
reduce electrolytically a mixture of an aldehyde with an amine: the transiently
resulting amine is reduced to the corresponding amine [133J, (3-168).
o
Me
CH=O
+ Me- NH 2 VN+ I
H2 0
1+ 2e • Hg
(3-168)
3.2.2 Reactions of Cathodically Generated Species
3.2.2.1 Additions
Carbanions or radicals resulting by cathodic reduction of suitable substrates, in

particular halogenoderivatives, are used for functionalizing a number of organic
substrates by adding the carbanions on to unsaturated compounds, especially to
those with activated double bonds.
By reduction of tetrachloromethane in dimethylformamide the trichloro-
methyl carbanion results which, by reacting with aldehydes or ketones, or in an
addition to an activated double bond in acrylonitrile forms the corresponding
trichloromethyl derivatives [134, 135]. In the presence of chloroform the
following addition takes place:
CCl4 + 2e --- c-'CCl 3 + Cl(-)
R-CH=O
R - CH-CCl3
CHCl3
.. R-CH- CCl3
I
0<-)
-cclf) I
OH
(-)
C Cl3
~CN
CCl3
~CN
c-)
CHCl3
-CClr)
.. CCl3
~CN
(3-169)
It can be looked upon as a chain reaction and the current yields of the products
reach values up to 10 3 % (3-169).
The reaction was made use of, for example, in the construction of sugar
molecules; by adding CCl~-) to o-glyceraldehyde acetonide a mixture of epimers
of the corresponding trichloromethanol is obtained which are in the following
step transformed by electrohydrogenolysis to the tetrose oxidation step. De-
pending on the following treatment of the epimeric dichloromethylalcohols one
can arrive to the o-erythrose or o-threose isopropylidene dimethylacetal or to
o-erythrulose isopropylidene acetate [136], (3-170).
~O
O~CH=O
j. 2e, CCl4 ' CHCl3
66".
-;(..0 Mel, HO
0~CCl3" 92 .,.
OMe
\-::,.
~O ~O
\.'-y
-/-0
0~CHCl2 0~CHCl2
l
CHCl2
OH OH
j
OMe
80'~11. KOH, EtOH

2. H30+, acetone KOHIM'OH KOHIM,OI
~O
°'--Y
-/0 -/-..0
O~Cl CH !OMel2 _~CH(OMel2
\ ..
o OH OH
"'' 1
53'!. 52'!.
A,OH
-/-.0
(3-170)
O~OAC
o
In a way analogous to the addition of tetrachloromethane, the "chain"

addition of a mixture of ethyltrichloroacetate and ethyldichloroacetate to
carbonyl compounds (3-171) is carried out
+2e
---- R - CH - CCL2 - COOC2 H5 (3-171)

I
OH
or the addition of other geminal trichloromethyl derivatives [137]. The alcohol-

ate anions resulting in their addition need not necessarily be transformed to
the final product by protonation only. In aprotic solvents intramolecular
nucleophilic substitution may occur under the formation of cyclic ethers [138],
(3-172).
~CCl3 Cl Cl
~
+ Br +2e, LiCl04..
DMF
Br "\
Cl
~
{-I
- Br
(3-172)
40 ·f.
The alcoholate ions resulting from the addition of carbanions generated by

cathodic reduction of 13-halogenoesters or of the corresponding 13-trimethylam-
monium derivatives, also cyclize intramolecularly to the corresponding lactones
(3-173).
- +2e
DMF
(3-173)
x = I, MeEt 2 N+; Rl = H, Me; R2 = CSHll' C 7 H 1S

As the electrophilic component for the addition of cathodically generated
carbanions carbon dioxide may also be applied; the reduction products of such
a "electro carboxylation" reaction are carboxylic acids or their methyl esters
[139], (3-174).
OCH=N-Q + C02
+2e
- o-1 H- NH - Q
COOH
60 '/.
(3-174)
Among the other types of ions the addition of amidic ions generated by cathodic
reduction of N-chlorocarbamates, e.g. to acrylic acid esters (3-175) may have a
synthetic significance [140].
H
~
Cl
;' N .......... OEt
II +
-?y0Me --_o_.
+Ze EtO
y---Y OMe
(3-175)
o o MeOH- CHCl3 0 0
61'/,
The cathodic reduction of aldehydes and ketones in acid media gives rise to
radicals which upon addition to unsaturated compounds yield adduct radicals
which undergo a further reduction at the cathode; then by protonation give the
corresponding adducts - secondary or tertiary alcohols [141], (3-176).
Me,-
R
r O -
+e, H+
1-0H .
Me
R
~X
[~X ~ OH
-~xJ-~x~~no..ko OH OH X =COOEt "

(3-176)
80 '/,
The above addition is often denoted as the mixed or the crossed hydrodimeriz-
ation. The electro reductive hydrodimerization of aldehydes or ketones with
ethyl acrylate is carried out in an aqueous - methanolic solution at a potential
- 1.20 to - 1.30 V vs SeE on a mercury cathode; the primary product of the
addition, the y-hydroxyester, cyclizes to a derivative of y-butyrolactone (3-176).
Good yields of the addition products are also obtained with a carbon cathode
and a buffered base solution (K 2 HP0 4 etc.)
The additions carried out to a nonactivated double bond in an analogous
way give relatively low yields of tertiary alcohols with the only exception of
allyl alcohol (3-177).
~OH.(CI
• ~OH
+Ze. R =Me OH
NoOH -HZO 98 'I.
0
)l...R
(3-177)
I ~C6H13
+Ze , R =Et ~
OH
2 - PrOH - dioxane 22 '/.
If, however, the crossed hydrodimerization can occur in an intramolecular way,

cycloalkanols are obtained with a high degree of regio- and stereo selectivity
[142], (3-178).
+Ze, Et4NOTs ~/H

~RZ (3-178)
MeOH - dioxane
23 - 98 '/,
Electroreduction of Nonconjugated Olefinic Ketones [142]

In a 100 ml undivided electrolysis cell equipped with carbon rod electrodes and a
reference electrode was placed a solution of 0.01 mol of nonconjugated olefinic
ketone and 30 g (0.10 mol) of tetraethylammonium p-toluenesuljonate in 50 ml of
methanoldioxane (1: 9). Stirred with a magnetic bar and cooled with running
water, the solution was electrochemically reduced at the constant current of
200 rnA. After almost complete consumption of the starting ketone (about
10 Fmol- 1 of electricity was passed), the reaction mixture was poured into 200 ml
of saturated solution of sodium chloride and extracted with three 100 ml portions
of ether. The combined ethereal solution was dried over anhydrous magnesium
sulfate and evaporated. All products were isolated by preparative Gc.
3.2.2.2 Substitutions (acylation, alkylation)
The anionic intermediates resulting from the cathodic reduction of various types
of organic substrates can react with acylating and alkylating agents. The
acylating agents are usually anhydrides and halogenides of acids, their nitriles
and dimethylformamide. In the acylation of heteroanions acid derivatives are
formed. Thus, by cathodic reduction of nitroalkanes in the presence of acetan-
hydride, the corresponding N -alkyl derivatives of the mixed anhydride of acetic
and acetohydroxamic acid were obtained [143], (3-179).
O-COMe
+2e. MeCN I
R- N02 ----
.. R-N (3-179)
{MeCO)2 0 ~ Me
o
R = Me (54%), Ph (55%)
Under analogous conditions, the disulfides yield thioacetic acid esters [144],
(3-180).
(J(s-s~ 2e,OMF
(3-180)
AC20
By the cathodic reduction of pyrazine 1,4-diacetyl-l,4-dihydropyrazine was

obtained [145], (3-181).
+2e,OMF
(3-181)
AC20
Ketones are obtained by the acylation of cathodically generated carbanions.

The carbanions can be formed by the reduction of halogenoalkanes [146],
(3-182)
+2e. MeCN
C('Cl
Et4NOTS
~ 69 .,.
(3-182)
or of compounds with an activated double bond [147J, (3-183).

o
~OMe (3-183)
82 .,.
In the reduction of 2-phenylpropene acetonitrile plays simultaneously both

role of the solvent and that of the acylating agent [148J, (3-184).
+2e. MeCN
(3-184)
A similar situation can be observed in the "double" electroreductive formylation

of styrene which is carried out in a dimethylformamide solution [148J, (3-185).
CHO
+2e. HCO-NMe2 ~CHO
LiCl04 V __ 82 .,.
(3-185)
For the alkylating of the electrochemically generated carbanions usually

alkylhalogenides, -mesylates and -tosylates are applied. Relatively good yields of
the products are obtained, particularly if the alkylation can proceed as an
intramolecular process. It is interesting to compare the different regiose1ectivity
in the intramolecular cyc1ization of dimethyl-4-bromobutylidenemalonate
achieved by electro reductive generation of the carbanion and by the chemical
generation caused by the influence of a complex hydride. In the former case
dimethylcyc1obutylmalonate results, in the latter case dimethylcyc1opentanedi-
carboxylate [149J, (3-186).
Li( h3BH
. OCOOMe
COOMe / THF.O·C COOMe
Br~COOMe (3-186)
""
+2e 0-<COOMe
COOMe
65 .,.
An almost quantitative yield of (4,4,1) propellan-3-one was achieved in the

electro reductive intramolecular alkylation (cyclization) of the corresponding
cx,~-unsaturated bicyclic ketone [150], (3-187).
~ +2e. HMPT ~
(3-187)
o~ ---"o~
98 '1.
An intramolecular alkylation of anions resulting in the electroreduction of

azomethinium ions was used in the synthesis of alkaloids [151], (3-188).
+2e. DMF
(3-188)
Both types of alkylations - the inter- and intramolecular one - occur if the
reduction of benzanil or azobenzene is carried out in presence of 1,4-dibromo-
butane [152], (3-189).
/
+2e. DMF
X=N
0-0
~
o-X=N-Q 81'1. V
(3-189)
+
Br~Br
" +2e. DMF
~J;J
cr~
'\.~-------
x = CH
59 '1.
~
3.2.2.3 Pinacolizations and Hydrodimerizations
By electroreduction of aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes and ketones at catho-

des with a different hydrogen overvoltage and within a broad range of poten-
tials, vicinal diols [153] (pinacols) are formed. The new C-C bond is a result of
recombination of radicals or of radical ions formed by a "single electron"
reduction of the carbonyl group. The aromatic carbonyl compounds give as
a rule higher yields of pinacols than the aliphatic ones (3-190).
2 R - CO - R' + 2e .. (3-190)
The pinacolization is very often applied in synthesis, e.g. the most suitable
method for the preparation of 1,2-cycIopropanediols is an intramolecular
pinacolization of 1,3-diketones [154J, (3-191).
+2e
THF.IMeCO)20 if 33·'.
(3-191)
Relatively good yields (50%) of pinacol prepared from retinol can be

achieved by an electrochemical procedure alone if diethylmalonate was applied
as the source of protons [155J, (3-192).
+2e, MeCN
CH2ICOOC2H5)2
(3-192)
The azomethines [156J also dimerize under conditions of ketone pinacolization

(3-193).
R-CH=N-R'
+2e
EtOH - AcOMe - H20 - R- CH-CH-R
r I
NHR' NHR' 88 "I.
R = 4-CI-C 6 H4' R' = cycIohexyl (3-193)
The intermolecular electro reductive hydrodimerization of a,~-unsaturated com-
pounds (aldehydes, ketones, esters and nitriles) is one of the most powerful
electro organic synthetic reactions [141]. The best results were achieved in the
case of commercially realized acrylonitrile dimerization to adiponitrile [157J,
which at the beginning was performed in divided cells, at lead cathodes and in
the presence of tetraethylammonium tosylate or ethyl sulfate as supporting
electrolyte. The above salts ensure high conductance, prevent the reduction of
acrylonitrile to propionitrile and increase its solubility in the solution to be
electrolyzed. The formation of the C-C bond is interpreted by the recombina-
tion of resulting radical anions or by their conjugated addition on to the starting
substrate (3-194).
2. +e
2H20
NC
~CN (3-194)
Recently, the economy of the electrochemical production of adiponitrile has

been improved by the technique in which the hydrodimerization is performed
in undivided cells. This has been made possible by applying highly selective
cadmium cathodes and an optimal composition of the electrolyte; the support-
ing electrolyte is hexamethylene bis(dibutylethylammonium)phosphate jointly
with corrosion inhibitors (Na 2 HP0 4 , Na 2 B4 0 7 , Na 4 -EDTA) (3-195):
NaOOC CH2 CH2COONa

\ I
N-CH2CHZ-N (3-195)
NaOOC CHI 'CH2COONa
Symmetrical CL,~-unsaturated carbonyl. compounds which can, after the

uptake of a single electron, undergo an "intramolecular hydrodimerization"
usually give high yields of the corresponding cyclic products [158J, (3-196).
~
COOEt
+2e. Et 4NOTs
MeCN. H20
c( COOEt
(3-196)
COOEt COOEt
100 'I.
This reaction was preparatively used in the formation of the perhydrophenan-

threne framework [159J, (3-197).
~ U o __
VJ"
+2e_ _ _
(3-197)
MeCN - H2 0
a
The double bond in the fluorinated alkenes has, in a similar way as in CL,~
unsaturated nitriles, an electrophilic character and easily undergoes a reduction
at the cathode. In the case of e.g. octafluorocyclopentene the potentiostatic

reduction at a platinum cathode at - 1.80 V (vs SeE) in aprotic media
(acetonitrile, dimethylformamide) and with tetraalkylammonium salts as
supporting electrolyte led to the preparation of a glossy polymer which in the
doped state is blue-black and exhibits the properties of a semiconductor
(conductivity 10- 3 Scm- 1). It is assumed to have a structure in which one
tetraalkylammonium cation compensates for three monomeric units of cyclo-
alkene [160], (3-198).
1.1
F F F
IPtl,MeCN
..
Et4 NBF4
-1.9V vs SCE
(3-198)
3.2.2.4 Eliminations
In the preceding chapter the cathodic reductions of the geminal polyhalogeno

derivatives were mentioned in which the carbanions thus formed yielded
addition products with compounds containing an activated double bond in the
molecule or gave products of hydrogenolysis when proton donors were present
in the reaction mixture. Of course in the absence of both types of compounds
(electrophiles and proton donors) the resulting carbanion is stabilized by
splitting off a further halogenide ion which, in the presence of a sufficiently
"nucleophilic" alkene adds on to the double bond and forms gem-dihalogeno-
cyclopropanes. From tetrachloromethane a dichlorocarbene was prepared in
this way by whose addition to 2-methyl-2-butene 1,1-dichlorotrimethylcyclo-
propane is formed [161], (3-199).
:Y: 82 .,.
(3-199)
In an analogous way, difluorocarbene results from the cathodic reduction
of dibromodifluoromethane; on addition it yields a gem-difluorocyclopropane
derivative [162], (3-200).
+2e, -2Br-
•
.. H5C6 + 57 "I.
CF 2
(3-200)
As far as the structure of the substrate and the reaction conditions make it
possible, the carbene thus formed may undergo an intramolecular "insertion"
reaction [163], (3-201).
d:; Cl
Cl
+2e. -2Ct: [
DMF
H
~"
~l
--cb 60 '/,
(3-201)
The reduction of N,N-dichloro-p-toluene sulfonamide is an example of

a cathodically formed nitrene which reacts with l,4-dioxane in an insertion
reaction [164], (3-202).
N ---
A"S02NCl2 +2e
2-C-=l(--=-)--
.. (3-202)
The carbanions which result by an electrochemical reduction of vic-dihalo-

genoderivatives undergo a stereospecific trans-elimination of the vicinal halogen
under the formation of an alkene [165, 166], in a similar manner as when using
"chemical reductants" (1,2-elimination), (3-203), (3-204).
"--M >=<
(-)
, ,,
+2e. -2Br
(3-203)
DMF. BU4N BF4
H' Br H H
90 '/,
CF 2Cl- CHCl2
+2e. NaOAc
HOAc
• CF2 =CHCl (3-204)
80°'.
A preferred use has been found for the electrochemical dehalogenation in the
synthesis of alkenes with a strong internal stress; these are usually isolated as
stable cycloaddition products of a reaction with dienes [167], (3-205).
-I[)-~. ~ (3-205)
100 '/,
The electrochemical technique can be also used for the 1,2-elimination of

substituents of different type: thus e.g. the elimination of a hydroxy and of an
arylsulfinyl group was applied in the transformation of a methoxycarbonyl
group to a vinyl group [168], (3-206)
R-COOMe + Ar-S02-CH2M91 - R-CO-CH2-S0Z-Ar -
+2e
R -CH - CH2 - - _ . . R - CH = CHZ (3-206)
I I DMF
OH SOZAr
R = C17H35 (82·,.1
and the elimination of hydroxy and phenylmercapto groups in the homolog-

ation of carbonyl compounds [169], (3-207).
-
+2e
DMF
. oc~ (3-207)
OMe
92 ·f.
Formally, a cathodic reduction of 1,0l-dihalogenoalkanes can be looked upon as

an elimination if such a reaction proceeds by an intramolecular SN reaction and
enables the synthesis of cyclic compounds [170], (3-208).
r<~~OMe (X'COOMe
(3-208)
,-<Br
COOMe
COOMe
This method is specially convenient for the synthesis of compounds with a

large internal stress - cyclopropanes and spiro cyclic compounds [171], (3-209)
Br Br Br
U +2e.-1.6V(SCE~ ~ +2e. -2.3V (SCE I
(3-209)
(l DMF. 47·f. ~ DMF. 40·f.
Br Br
Br
and propellanes [172], (3-210).
d5 Br
d:;12.f. (3-210)
For reaching the same synthetic aims one can also use esters of 1,3-diols with
methanesulfonic acid which are easily procurable from 1,3-carbonyl derivatives
[173], (3-211).
o
~8r CH2i COOEt )2 ~OMe 1. LiAlH4
~ Br V-l'n-oMe 2. MsCl
o
OX
+2e
-. ;::...
I OMS
OMs DMF (3-211)
84 ·t.
Electroreductive Synthesis of Cyclopropanes [173]

Electrochemical reduction of dimethanesulfonates was carried out in a divided cell
equipped with a lead cathode and a platinum anode. To a stirred solution of
dry DMF (50 ml) containing tetraethylammonium p-toluenesulfonate (5.0 g,
17 mmol) was added drop wise a solution of dime thane sulfonate (5 mmolJ in dry
DMF (5 mlJ over the period in which 3 Fmol- 1 of electricity had been passed.
The current was constant (0.2 AJ, and the current density was 5.7 mA cm- 2 • The
cathode potential was about - 2.5 V vs SCE. During the reaction, the solution
was stirred and cooled in an ice-water bath. After 4~10 Fmol- 1 of electricity was
passed, the cathodic solution was poured into cold 5% hydrochloric acid ( 100 ml) ,
and the product was extracted with pentane (3 x 50 mlJ. The combined organic
layer was dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. After the drying agent was
removed by filtration, the solvent was evaporated, and the residue oil was puri-
fied by column chromatography on silica gel (pentane J to afford cyclopropane
derivatives.
3.2.2.5 Removal of Protecting Groups (174)
The electrochemical method for the removal of the protecting groups has
a parallel in the above-mentioned cathodic reactions ~ i.e. in the electro hydro-
genolysis and in the 1,2-elimination of halogenoderivatives. An advantage of
this method in comparison to chemical procedures is its high selectivity and
mild reaction conditions. A high selectivity is achieved by combination of
suitable electrophores-protecting groups which sufficiently differ in reduction
potentials (11E1/2 200 mY). The difference in the values of reduction potentials of
a benzene sulfonyl and 4-methoxybenzoyl group enables their selective cleavage
and hence also their application in the protection of the respective amino group,
e.g. in the molecule of L-Iysine [175], (3-212).
o COOH
___
.. ~~~NH2 (3-212)
Meo)0J
90 .,.
In the chemoselective 1,3-etherification of glycerol, 9-phenyl-9,1O-dihydro-

10-Qxo-9-anthracenyl (Tro)- and the 4-cyanobenzyl (3-213) were applied as
protecting groups [176].
0H -foC18H37
- f0\/ - OH -
o~ OH
-f °
0~H37
10
jO::H37
+2e, -1.4 V
C6 H4 CN MeOH,IHgl C6 H4CN
OTro OH
~ -f 0C18H37
0~C6H4CN
OC12 H25
+2e, -2,2V
MeOH,IHgl
-f 0C18H37
OH
OC12 H25
(3-213)
90 "I.
The above examples represent a category of protecting groups which in fact

are removed by electrohydrogenolysis of a single bond. The second category of
protecting groups comprises the 2,2,2-trichloroethyl group, applicable for pro-
tecting hydroxyl, amino and mercapto groups. The principle of their removal is
based on the cathodic 1,2-elimination of vic-derivatives [177], (3-214).
+2e. MeOH
------
~ IC\ r- Cl~
~R-O-C-O-CH2-CCl2
-1.5V (SCE) M
- R- 0
(-)
+ C02 + CH2=CCl2 + Cl (3-214)
R = benzyl (70 0,.)

Selective Removal of Protecting Groups Using Controlled Potential

Electrolysis [174J
The electrolysis was carried out in a cylindrical vessel jitted with two side arms
which are separated from the main compartment with coarse grade glass frits. A
mercury pool electrode in the main compartment serves as the cathode (working
electrode) while a saturated calomel reference electrode is placed in one side arm
and a platinum sheet in the other side arm (anode, counter electrode). The
electrolyte solution (0.1 M lithium perchlorate in methanol) is added to the cell
and the side arms. To the solution in the main compartment (ca. 20 ml) is added
2,2,2-trichloroethyl benzoate (0.50 g, 1.97 mmol) and the mixture is degassed
with argon for 15-30 min. Then the potentiostat is applied to ensure a potential
difference of - 1.65 V between the mercury pool and the reference electrode. The
current, initially 145 mA, drops off slowly over 2 h, reaching a steady value of
ca. 3 mAo Water cooling is necessary to prevent local heating effects. The reaction
mixture is separated from the mercury, concentrated at reduced pressure, and
after protonation, the usual isolation via acidification, aqueous extraction, and one
recrystallization, 0.21 g (87%) of benzoic acid is obtained, mp 120-121°C.
The difference between the reduction potentials of the C-Cl and C-Br bonds is
applied for the selective protection of phosphoric acid esters in the synthesis of
nucleotides in such a way that the 2,2,2-trichloroethyl and 2,2,2-tribromoethyl
groups are applied, both groups simultaneously [178J, (3-215).
(3-215)
MeCN, Py iLiCl04
o H 0 H
I I
0:P-OCH2CCl3 0=P-OCH2CCl3
I I
0- CH2-CBr3 0'-'
The different substitution on carbon atoms of vic-dibromoderivatives is reflected

in the different values of reduction potentials. This fact enables e.g. the synthesis
of 1,2-dibromo-1-(3-cyclohexenyl)ethane from 4-vinylcyclohexene which adds
one equivalent of bromine on to a single double bond in the cycle. For this
reason the initial addition of two equivalents is performed which is followed by a
selective cathodic elimination of vic-bromines from the cyclohexane ring [179J,
(3-216).
Br Br
2 Br2 Brm +e, -1.2VISCE)
a-
I Br.···· Br DMF
BU4NBF4
mr
62 'I.
~ (3-216)
I Py • liBr3
.. Br~
"
Br
3.3 Indirect Anodic Oxidations [180, 181, 182]
These reactions are carried out by means of the so-called mediators i.e.
electrochemically regenerable redox systems. The mediators may be fixed to
the anode surface or may be a part of the mixture to be electrolyzed (of the
electrolyte).
In the former case of the oxidation agent (Mox) is generated on the electrode
surface and fixed on it; after the reaction with the substrate (S) Mox forms the
product from it and is transformed to its reduced form (M red) which is again
continuously reoxidized to Mox (cf. Fig. 3.3).
The most frequent kind of such an electrode is the so-called
nickel-hydroxide electrode which is prepared by deposition of nickel(III}
oxide-hydroxide on the surface of a platinum or nickel anode by electrolysing
an alkaline solution of nickel(II) salts (3-217).
2 [3NilOH)2' 2H20] + 6HO

(-)
+ 3/2 NoOH •
...
... • 2 [3Ni(O)OH] .7H20· 3/4NoOH + 3H20 + 6e
(3-217)
This electrode is especially suitable for the oxidation of primary alcohols to
alkanoic acid and of primary amines to nitriles. The oxidations at Ni(O)OH
electrodes are probably indirect, heterogeneous anodic dehydrogenations. The
generally accepted mechanism assumes a homolytic cleavage of the Cl-hydrogen
atom in the alcohol molecule which is adsorbed on the anode surface; under the
influence of Ni(O)OH an Cl-hydroxyalkyl radical results in this way which is then
further oxidized - directly or indirectly - to the carboxylic acid (3-218).
a fast
•
reaction
RCH2-0H ....
dissolv.
rate
RCH20Hads + NiOOH ... R-CH-OH + Ni( OHI 2
determining step
+
•
R-CH-OH + H20 - - -.......... ReOOH + 3e + 3 H
.
R -CH-OH + 3 NiOOH + H2 0 -_
direct oxidation
.. ReOOH + 3 Ni(OHI2
indirect oxidation
(3-218)
3.3 Indirect Anodic Oxidations [180, 181, 182] 119
s
e
chemically modified
anode Fig. 3.3. Principle of the indirect electrochemical
synthesis with use of a chemically modified anode
electrolytic cell
The oxidation of alcohols is carried out in an aqueous solution of sodium

hydroxide or in potassium hydroxide in a mixture of water with tert-butyl
alcohol. The anode is kept in the "catalytic state" by adding trace amounts of
nickel(II) salts. High yield of alkanoic acids are obtained from lower alcohols at
laboratory temperature, from octanol and higher alcohols not until temper-
atures from 60 to 70°C are reached (3-219).
R - CH2-0H
Ni (0 )OH • -4e
.. R -COOH (3-219)
R = C4 H 9 H 2 O-t-BuOH-KOH, 25 °C 92%
C 6 H 13 H 2 O-t-BuOH- KOH, 91%
ClOH21 H 2 O-NaOH, 25 °C 27%
H 2O-NaOH, 70 °C 87%
Oxidations at a nickel-oxide anode resemble both in selectivity and in the

yields the oxidations carried out with nickel peroxide. They successfully com-
pete with oxidations by permanganate or potassium bichromate as regards the
simplicity uf the application the ease of processing the reaction mixture, and
the yields. In their technological application, the troubles with the liquidation of
the reduction products may be omitted, e.g. that of manganese(IV) oxide and of
chromium salts. For this reason the procedure has been successfully applied in
the "wasteless" technology for one step in the production of vitamin C,
in the oxidation of 2,3: 4,6-di-O-isopropylidene-L-sorbose to 2,3: 4,6-di-O-
isopropylidene-L-gulonic acid (3-220). The oxidation can be carried out in
undivided cells without controlling the anode potential; the good conductivity
of the electrolyte makes it possible to reach high currents at a low voltage across
the electrodes.
_____________
NiOOH. -4e
o
U 0O
COOH
(3-220)
~o
In analogous oxidations of secondary alcohols ketones may be prepared in

high yields (3-221).
NiOOH. -2e
•
~ H20 - KOH ~
o
73 "I.
OH
(3-221)
The high chemoselectivity of the oxidation is exhibited particularly in steroid

alcohols in which the oxidation occurs most easily in the sterically accessible
hydroxyl group at position 3cx or 3~; the ease of oxidation of the individual
groups in molecules of steroid alcohols was determined in the sequence
3~-OH ... 3cx-OH > 17~-OH ~ 20~-OH > l1~-OH (3-222).
~
o
~
HO
HO
HO
NiOOH, -2e
. (3-222)
HO
vic-Diols are oxidized in combination with a cleavage giving rise to acids (3-223).
HO NiOOH, -6e
(3-223)
70 "!.
1,ro-diols yield alkanedioic acid (3-224).
NiOOH, - Be
.......... ......... ......... ____ -... .OH
HO' ........ "'" "'" ........ ....,
NoOH - H20
80'C
-
o
HO'
Jl......./'00..
~
~./'oo..
~ 1(_OH
..........
...... (3-224)
85 '1.
o
In the oxidation of aldehydes to acids the basicity of the electrolyte and the
temperature must be lowered in order to prevent disproportionations and aldol
reactions (3-225).
2 2
CH=O eOOH
NiOOH • -2e
(3-225)
57 'I.
Primary amines are "dehydrogenated" at a nickel-hydroxide anode and give

nitriles in high yields; the oxidation of amines with a shorter chain proceeds
already at 5°C, amines with a longer chain are oxidized at 40°C (3-226).
NiOOH e f- NIOOH, -e
R- CH 2- NH2 - - - - .. [R-CH=NH] ------i.~ R - C eN
(3-226)
H 2 0-KOH 72%
H 2 0-KOH-t-BuOH 91%
Indirect electro oxidations occur also on anodes the surface of which has been
chemically modified by bonding to a suitable, electrochemically regenerated
redox system (mediator). By this approach one succeeded in carrying out an
indirect anodic oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine nucleotide (NADH)
to its oxidized form NAD+ which acts as a coenzyme in a number oxidations
catalyzed by enzymes (3-227). The oxidation potential E1/2 for the electrochem-
ical oxidation of NADH to NAD+ at pH = 7 is 0.7 V vs SCE.
H H 0 . NH2
GrNH2 N:;CN
N~o_~_o_~_odl!.N N~ _____
OHHO OH OH El/2= O.6V
o
OH OH vs SCE
Rib-®-® -Ad
NADH
o
~NH2
IlN:J (3-227)
(+'1
Rib-ev-®-Ad
(+)
NAD
This oxidation, however, can be accomplished at 0.34 V (vs SeE) if ortho-

dihydroxyaromatic compounds, such as 3,4-dihydroxybenzylamine or 2-(3,4-
dihydroxyphenyl)ethylamine (dopamine) are attached to the surface of an anode
fabricated from pyrolytic graphite (3-228).
~
NH2
~NH2 71 (3-228)
HO~ HO ~
OH OH
The catalytic cycle comprises the direct anodic oxidation of dihydroaro-

matics (M red ) to their ortho-quinoid form (Mox) which oxidizes NADH to
NAD+ and is regenerated again back to M red (3-229).
(3-229)
A much larger number of indirect anodic oxidations can be implemented by

applying mediators dissolved in the electrolyte. The reduced form of the
mediator (M red) is oxidized by a heterogeneous electron transfer to the anode at
a lower potential than that of the substrate. In this way the oxidized form of the
mediator (MoX> results which in a homogeneous reaction oxidizes the substrate
(S) to the product (P) and M red , resulted in this reaction, is transformed by an
electrochemical oxidation in the following cycle to Mox again (3-230).
Mox
s e
(3-230)
p anode
If the lifetime of the whole redox system MoxMred is sufficiently long only a
catalytic amount of the mediator suffices for the initiation of the reaction.
What conditions must a good mediator fulfill?
1) It must be chemically stable in both oxidation states Mox and M red in order to
prevent the decrease of its catalytic activity by the fact that one of the species
would be transformed to an electrochemically non-regenerable compound.
2) The heterogeneous electron transfer from the mediator to the anode, as well
as the redox reaction with the substrate must be fast enough, in order to
prevent side reactions and not to force the experimenter to construct large-
area electrodes.
3) The mediator must not react with the product or with the solvent, or these
reactions must be maximally suppressed.
4) Both oxidation states of the mediator must be easily soluble in the electrolyte,
except for electro oxidations in a two-phase system.
5) The mediator should be easily separable from the product and its purification
before the electrolysis and after it should be easy.
The oxidation of the substrate by the mediator in the solution could
essentially proceed in two ways:
a) direct electron transfer from the substrate (SH) to the mediator; such
a process is usually called "redox catalysis" or a "homomediator system"
(3-231).
M --e
Mo
(+)
- SH
-M
-H(+)
- -...... S o _ - P (3-231)
b) chemical oxidation of the substrate by the oxidized form ofthe mediator, e.g.
by an abstraction of hydrogen or of the hydride ion; such a process is usually
called "chemical catalysis with electrochemical regeneration" or also "hetero-
mediator" or "chemomediator" system (3-232).
-e (+) __S_H_
s·_-p
M-M· .. (3-232)
-MH+
In case of chemomediators as electrochemically regenerable redox systems,
aromatic amines covering the potential range from 0.76 V to 2.0 V (vs SeE) are
most frequently applied. Such a potential range is sufficiently broad to enable
the choice of the most suitable mediator (3-233) for a given oxidation.
N
BryYyBr
=--- I I -.;;::
~
X ¢x
Ih
h
Br
x x
QNVN
-P
o
(3-233)
Br x
Q x
X,Y,V,U,V,Z = H, Br, CH 3 ,CN, CF 3 ,N0 2
Table 3.3. Standard potentials of some Triarylamines
Name EO, (V) vs NHE
N,N,N' ,N'-tetraphenyl-1,4-benzenediarnine 0.75

N,N,N',N'-tetratris(4-bormophenyl)-1,4-benzenediamine 0.93
tris(4-bromophenyl)amine 1.30
tris(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)amine 1.60
tris(4-cyanophenyl)amine 1.68
tris(2,4-dibromophenyl)amine 1.74
tris(2,4,6-tribromophenyl)arnine 1.96
Selected amines and their standard potentials are shown in Table 3.3.
The triarylamines are anodically oxidized and yield the corresponding
cation radicals, whose aromatic nucleus can be attacked by nucleophilic sol-
vents (acetonitrile, methanol) present in the electrolyte. For this reason their
stability is increased by substitution of the phenyl groups by bromine atoms or
other substituents (CH 3 , CF 3, CN, N0 2 , . . . ) at positions ortho or para. One of
the most stable amines is e.g. tris(2,4-dibromphenyl)amine in which not less than
2500 catalytic cycles were found without any irreversible transformations.
In comparison with direct electro oxidations, when applying anodically
gen:erated triarylammonium cation radicals the potential of the working elec-
trode may be lowered by 0.6 to 1.0 V. Thus the direct anodic oxidation of
carboxylate ions proceeds at potentials higher than 1.8 V vs SCE. However, in
presence of tris(4-bromophenyl)amine such a reaction can be performed at
potentials near to the equilibrium potential of the given reaction (1.05 V vs
SCE), (3-234).
(-, ______.. R-e-o·
R-e-o
II +.~ II
o Ar3N ",,-----,"Ar3N 0
-e !1,05V vs SeE)
R-coo· Ar = 4-bromophenyl
2 R" (3-234)
Indirect anodic oxidations by triarylammonium mediators proceed under

very mild conditions and with a very high chemoselectivity which can be "tuned
up" by the choice of the amine with a suitable oxidation potential. For this
reason these mediators are especially useful, particularly in the oxidative
removal of protecting groups. For example, they become a part of the strategy
in the transformation of 3-hydroxymethyl-4-heptanol to 3-bromomethyl-4-
heptanol which cannot be accomplished by any direct substitution reaction.
Chemoselectively, however, it is possible to protect the hydroxyl groups succes-
sively by an anisyl and then by a benzyl group. From the resulting diether one
can selectively remove only the anisyl group by an anodic oxidation in presence
of tris(4-bromophenyl)amine as mediator. The resulting alcohol is transformed

to the corresponding bromide in the following step and the remaining benzyl
group is then removed by the oxidation with the help of anodically generated
tris(2,4-dibromophenyl)ammonium cation radicals (3-235).
OH 1. No 1dioxane OBz
~OH 2. 4 - CH30C6H4 CH2Cl
3. NoH/DMF
~OAn
4. BzCl 80 'I.
+,
Ar N
( 3 )
Ar3N
OH 1. I C6H5 )3 PBr2 OBz
~Br .. ~OH
2. MeCN , NaHC03
.---.. (3-235)
3. Ar3N~Ar3N
Ar = 4-bromophenyl, Ar' = 2,4-dibromophenyl, Bz = benzyl, An = 4-methoxy-

benzyl
In both cases the protective groups are transformed to the corresponding
aldehydes-anisaldehyde and benzaldehyde. In preparative chemistry this reac-
tion is used in the aimed preparation of aromatic aldehydes from the corres-
ponding alcohols and ethers of the benzyl type (3-236).
(3-236)
83 - 95 'I.
Ar= 4-bromophenyl
The nonactivated hydroxyl groups resist the oxidative influence of ammonium

radical cations up to potential values in the vicinity of 1.6 V (vs NHE). The very
mild conditions of the above reactions enable hence e.g. a selective liberation of
carbonyl compounds from 1,3-dithians or 1,3-dithiolans without attacking the
double bonds or hydroxyl groups (3-237) already present in the system.
(3-237)
The high selectivity of the indirect oxidation under the influence of anod-
ically generated trisarylammonium radicals is evident even in the removal of an
anisyl group from the molecule of an unsaturated benzylether in which the

difference in the potentials of tris electrophores - the double bond and the anisyl
group - amounts to 100 mV (3-238).
Epa = 1.85 V
direct oxidation
anode 11.90 V) anode 11.3 V)
mixture of products (3-238)

80 '1.
Ar= 4-bromophenyl
By indirect electrolysis in the presence of tris(2,4-dibromophenyl)amine as

mediator alkyl- or arylthio groups in thioesters can be activated: this facilitates
their hydrolysis to acids; by oxidation of the sulfur atom these groups are
transformed to "good leaving" groups (3-239).
R-C-S-R'
II
MeCNI0.3"J. H20), NaHC031LiCl04
.
o
Ar=2,4-dibromophenyl
R-C-OH + R'SSR' (3-239)

II
o
The reaction was applied for the synthesis of the otherwise only hardly
accessible trans-cyclopentanolactone from the corresponding S-phenyl-trans-
(2-hydroxycyclopentyl)-thioacetate (3-240).
(3-240)
52 '/.
The degree of electro oxidation of methylaromatics depends on the way how

the operation is performed. By a direct oxidation they give rise to dimethyl-
acetals of aldehydes, in the presence of tris(2,4-dibromophenyl)amine they are
oxidized at lower potentials up to the oxidation degree of acids; in neutral media
methyl benzoates result, in alkaline solutions trimethylorthobenzoates were
detected (3-241).
anode
...------ R
MeOH;>2.2V
0-
Ii CH IOMe}2
RO Me - (3-241)
MeOH
MeONa
There are not many organic compounds which satisfy the requirements
concerning the stability of all oxidation states through which they pass as
mediators. In addition to the above-mentioned ortho-quinones and tris-aryl-
amines this group also comprised N-hydroxyphthalimide, 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-
piperidyloxide (TEMPO) and 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-l,4-benzoquinone
(DDQ), (3-242).
o o
~N-OH
o M I
o·
NC:Q:Cl
NC
I I
o
Cl
(3-242)
N-Hydroxyphthalimide is anodically oxidized to a phthalimide N-oxylo

radical which splits off a hydrogen atom (H') from the organic substrate. The
regeneration of the active radical proceeds at the anode in presence of a base
(pyridine, 2,6-lutidine). It is used in the oxidation of secondary alcohols to
ketones (3-243).
-e ~N_O';(R_~H_R'
V-,( OH
~ -H' 0 •
'/ O.85V -H (3-243)
/ 0
~N-OH
~
7 . -e
R-C-R' ----rR-C-R'
I -H II
o OH 0
On the other hand, by the anodic oxidation of piperidyl oxide (TEMPO)

in the presence of a base an oxoammonium ion is formed which oxidizes
the organic substrate in situ in such a way that it splits off a hydride ion. The
resulting hydroxypiperidine reacts with the oxoammonium ion again under the
formation of piperidyl oxide which in the following cycle is reoxidized to the
oxoammonium ion. It can be used again for a selective oxidation of primary

alcohols to aldehydes, even in the presence of secondary hydroxyl groups. The
oxidation is performed at - 60°C in the system acetonitrile-LiCI0 4 -2,6-
lutidine with a platinum anode (3-244).
-e 2~
II
o
2~
I
O'
(3-244)
The largest group of mediators for indirect anodic oxidations comprises

metal ions, particularly the ions of transition metals and a number of their
coordination compounds. The electrochemical regeneration of many oxidants
has been described such as Cr(VI), Ce(IV), Mn(III), V(V), Fe(III), Hg(II), Pd(II),
Te(III), Ag(II), Os(VIII), Fe(CN)~-, Ru(IV)-complexes, Ru0 4 • These oxidants
are transformed from their reduced form M red to Mox by electro oxidation at
anodes such as Pb, Pb0 2 , alloys of Pb with metals (Ag, Sb), as well as Pt and
Pt(Ti). By a suitable choice of the mediator and by optimization of the reaction
conditions a high selectivity of oxidation reactions is achieved and various types
of compounds are prepared. Thus, for example, for the "four-electron" oxidation
of methylaromatics to the corresponding aldehydes the redox systems
Mn(III)/Mn(II) and Ce(IV)/Ce(III) are most frequently used as "oxygen trans-
fer" reagents (3-245).
(3-245)
R = H. OMe
The technique proper of performing an indirect anodic oxidation is deter-

mined by the kind of separation of both processes - the electro oxidation of the
mediator from M red to Mox and the chemical oxidation of the organic substrate
by the mediator Mox. Both processes may proceed jointly in a simple electrolytic
cell, in the so-called "in cell" method (3-246) or can be separated from each
separation of the organic

from the aqueous phase (3-246)
other, in the "ex-cell" method (3-247).
H3COVCH3 -<S>-
~~ Ce 3+ Ce4+
separation of
the organic
from the aqueous
phase
(3-247)
The "six-electron" oxidation of methylaromatics to acids is carried out with

Cr(VI)/Cr(III) redox systems and it has been used for example, in the synthesis of
sacharine (3-248).
(3-248)
80 '/,
or is performed by electrochemically generated Ru(IV) chelates in the presence

of phosphate or borate butTers (3-249).
¢
CH3 COOH
¢
~
~
[[tPY)[bPY)RU01:~[(tPY)[bPY)RUOH12:
PO4,
3- 80 33-
(3-249)
CH3 COOH
tpy = terpyridyl; bpy = bipyridyl

The "two-electron" selective acetoxylation of methylaromatics is reached

with anodically generated cobalt(III) acetate (3-250).
0'
::;.-' I CH3 co3~o2+
_---"'---o;,I! _ _ __
AcOK I AcOH I H20

(3-250)
X
Electrochemically generated Mn(III) acetate is the source of carboxymethyl

radicals resulting in the oxidation of the acetate ion in the coordination sphere
of Mn(III). The radicals thus formed may be added on to the double bonds of
unsaturated compounds; the addition to butadiene is made use of for the
synthesis of intermediates required in the production of sorbic acid. The
oxidation ofthe resulting "radical adduct" to the corresponding carbocation can
be also considered an indirect anodic oxidation by the electrochemically
generated manganese(III) acetate (3-251).
anode: HOAe + Mn(OAc)2 - Mn(OAc)3 + H+ + e
Mn(OAC)3 + HOAc - Mn(OAc)2 + HOAc + CH2COOH
o Mn(OAc)3
~ + CH2COOH - - - ~OH
-Mn(OAe)2
-AcO-
o
~OH
OAe
+
o (-)
o
~OH
AcO
~OH
OAe
y
+
-AcOH
o
~OH (3-251)
The group of indirect electrochemical oxidations of aromatic compounds

can also include the oxidation of benzene to phenol in a reaction with the so-
called "Fenton reagent" generated in situ. The Fenton reagent is formed,
however, at the cathode by the reduction of ferric to ferrous salts and by the
reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide. An addition of Cu(II) salts facilitates
the reaction because Cu 2 + ions are better oxidants than the Fe3+ ions (3-252).
cathode;
C+>
Oz + Ze + ZH - HZOZ
Fe Z+ + HZOZ - Fe 3+ + 'OH + OHC- l
. f=\. ~ Cu Z+ ~
HO + V - Y-0H - V- 0H + Cu
C+) C+l
+ H
(+l 3+ Z+ Z-
Cu + Fe - Cu + Fe
(3-252)
j=\
Oz +H
C+)
+ Ze + V -
Particularly interesting mediators for indirect oxidations are non-metal ions.

Most frequently the systems Br-/Br+, Cl-/Cl+, 1-/1+, 10-/IOt, Cl-/CIO-,
etc. are used, the redox potentials of which (Eo) vary in alkaline media from
+ 1.09 V up to + 1.64 V. The redox systems of such mediators can be
generated by the in-cell method. They are applied for overcoming the relatively
large potential differences between the redox calyst and the substrate (as much
as 2.0 V). Thus a direct anodic oxidation of secondary alcohols proceeds at
potentials approaching 2.8 V (vs SCE). However, they can be indirectly oxidized
to ketones in an aqueous solution of tert-butyl alcohol with potassium iodide by
the anodically generated J+ ion as soon as at 0.6 to 0.8 V (vs SCE) - (3-253).
anode + O.6V
(3-253)
Under analogous conditions the primary alcohols yield alkylalkanoates

(3-254).
KI. HZO
;::
+
'iii:
1-
• (3-254)
""'-./
When using a polymeric mediator - poly(4-vinylpyridine) hydro bromide

(PVP.HBr) one can accomplish a selective oxidation of secondary alcohols in
the presence of a primary alcoholic group (3-255).
OH (Ft), MeCN o
~OH PVP· HBr ~OH (3-255)
The different course of the direct and of the indirect anodic oxidation can be
demonstrated with the methoxylation of lysine methylester N,N'-biscarbamate.
The direct anodic oxidation occurs on the electron pair of the nitrogen atom of
the co-amino group which has a lower oxidation potential than the nitrogen
atom in the <x-position. On the other hand, Cl + formed at the anode yields an
N-chloro derivative with an <x-amino group; by elimination of hydrogen chlor-
ide through the action of a base, resulting in situ, an iminoderivative results
which by adding methanol gives rise to the <x-methoxylated derivative (3-256).
OMe COOMe
-2e
N~NH
I I
COOMe COOMe COOMe
N~NH
51 "f.
(3-256)
I I
COOMe COOMe COOMe
N~NH
-2e
MeOH, NaCl I MeO I

COOMe CDOMe
70 'I.
Important from the synthetic point of view is the epoxidation of unsaturated

compounds in which Br+ formed at the anode takes part (3-257).
~S02C5H5
MeCN - THF - NaBr (PI I
;:
Br
~-
Br
"--.../
(3-257)
The efficiency of the applied bromides decreases in the following sequence: NaBr
(91 %) > (C2Hs)4NBr (82%) > KBr (78%) > LiBr (75%) > NH4Br (13%).
A transient formation of an enamine corresponding to an epoxide is also
assumed in the anodic oxidation of a mixture of aldehydes and secondary
amines in the presence of potassium iodide in which N,N-dialkylaminomethyl
ketones result (3-258).
C6 H13- CH =O
-2e, KI, Me3COH - H20
+ ----:;T\...;:,.---=----~ CsH11-f.-CH2NMe2 (3-258)
Me2NH ,+ I 0
~
56 '/,
The electrochemical methoxylation of furan in presence of ammonium

bromide (cf. page 87) and the oxidation of glucose to calcium gluconate
performed in the presence of bromide ions as redox catalyst can be both
considered the oldest indirect anodic oxidations: the oxidant proper is calcium
hypobromite which is formed by the reaction of bromine resulting at the anode

with calcium carbonate present in the reaction mixture (3-259).
1
CH=O
+ CaCQ3 + H2O
-
Br
-2e
(-,
{~ + C02 + H2t (3-259)
CH20H CH20H
Both reactions were introduced in industry as well as the oxidation of starch to

the corresponding dialdehyde by the periodate regenerated at the anode (3-260).
(3-260)
The indirect anodic oxidations of organic substrates can be also performed

by applying "double" redox systems. In this way a further lowering of the
potential of the working electrode was achieved as compared to a system with
a single mediator.
The oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones is carried out in the presence
of octylmethylsulfide as mediator which gives rise to the redox system
R 2 'SjR 2 'S + having a potential E = 1.93 V vs SCE. As far as bromide ions are
present in the mixture to be electrolyzed, the redox system Br- jBr+ with
Ep = 1.1 V vs SCE results; at this potential the electrochemical reaction proper
proceeds (3-261).
-e
(3-261)
A different double mediator system was used for the hydroxylation of a

double bond by Os(VIII) compounds (3-262).
-et' K4[F'ICNl6Ixo,Vllxl R-CH=CH-R'
~ 2 K3[Fe(CN)6J OsVI R-CH-CH-R'

I I
(3-262)
OH OH
94 - 99·'.
The indirect electrochemical oxidations of organic compounds can be

performed in two-phase systems applying phase-transfer catalysis as follows
from the oxidation of benzylalcohols by hypobromite ions. The anodic oxida-
tion of bromides in the aqueous phase leads to the formation of bromine which
yields the hypobromite ion by disproportionation in water. This is transported
into the organic phase as ammonium hypobromite. The bromide ion resulting in
the oxidation is transported into the aqueous phase in the same way (3-263).
organic phase
(+) {-1
aqueous phase R4N BrO
_ -2e H20
anode 2 Br - Br2 ::;;::= HOBr + HBr (3-263)
, R4NBr
(+) (-)
R4N BrO + HBr
3.4 Indirect Cathodic Reductions [180,181]
In the case of indirect cathodic reductions the mediators can be also a

component of the cathode (electrocatalyzed reductions) or a component of the
electrolyte.
The group of electrocatalyzed reductions comprises all reductions by "amal-
gamated" cathodes. These electrodes are formed by the reduction of metal salts
or even of tetralkylammonium salts at mercury electrodes. Reduction with
electro generated amalgams can be carried out either by the "in cell" or by the
"ex-cell" method. The reductive power of amalgams of the individual metals
decreases in the sequence Li > Na > K > Ba > Sr > Ca. The reductive power
of the amalgam can be to a certain degree varied by the choice of the metal, by
its concentration or by the choice ofthe amalgam surface (3-264). Electrochemi-
cally prepared amalgams can be used e.g. for regioselective reductions of double
bonds,
0y0
~
CH
h 0y0
::::-.. h 0y0
~ h
CH CH
I NaHgx I AlHgx II
CH2 CH CH (3-264)
I II Et20 - H2O I
CH2 CH CH2
I I I
Ph Ph Ph
for hydrodimerization of compounds with an activated double bond (3-265)

3.4 Indirect Cathodic Reductions [180, 181] 135
62 0'0
/
..?--CN
'"
NC
"'~_ _N_a_Hg::..:x,----,/
~CN
37 0'0
(3-265)
or for partial reductions of aromatic compounds (3-266).
~OH (3-266)
In organic synthesis, metals (Zn, Sn) or their ions in a low oxidation state -
Ti(III), V(III), Sn(II), Cr(III), Ce(III) are used as selective reductants. If they are
applied in stoichiometric amounts, problems arise with their regeneration or
with the liquidation of salts containing ions in a higher oxidation state.
In two-phase systems the metals (Zn, Cu, Fe, Sn) can be electro generated
with a high current yield in powder form and at high current densities
(;?: 0.5 A cm - 2). The metals obtained in this way are highly reactive and are used
for reductions of nitro compounds and for dehalogenation of vic-dihalogeno
derivatives (3-267).
CH2Cl- cHel2 7 .... • CH2=CCl2 + 2 ct' (3-267)

Zn Zn 2+
~ 84 0'0
Cr(II) salts are selectively reducing reagents which are widely applied in
organic synthesis. Since they are easily oxidized even by atmospheric oxygen
their electrogeneration in situ is particularly convenient; in this form they can be
used e.g. for the reductive coupling of alkyl- and benzylhalogenides (3-268)
R~Br R~R (3-268)

77 - 81 0'0
further for the reduction and also simultaneously for the reductive elimination of
vic-halogenohydrines (3-269).
o OH o
~CCl3 ~
V I ~l
(3-269)
The electrochemically prepared complex of ethylenediamine and chro-

mium(II) perchlorate in wet dimethylformamide gives an alternative method for
the synthesis of desoxynucleotides (3-270).
RO~ 2. 5 .,. AcOH

HO~ (3-270)
11
OR Br OH OH H
60 .,.
R = CH3CHOC2H5 ' U =
o N
I
Electrochemically generated Ti(III) salts are used for the reduction of

aromatic nitro compounds. The reaction was also applied in the production of
4-aminobenzoic acid. Starting from 4-nitrotoluene one can "couple" both
electrode processes; in the first step 4-nitrobenzoic acid is prepared by indirect
electrooxidation and in the following step it is transformed by indirect electro-
reduction to 4-aminobenzoic acid (3-271).
COOH COOH
¢ NOz
¢ NH2
(3-271)
A very broad spectrum of activity has been found with redox catalysts based
on complexes of transition metals. From higher oxidation states they are
transformed to their active form Ni(O), Ni(I), Co(I), Sn(O) by cathodic reduc-
tion. The redox potentials of such mediators and thus also their selectivity for a
given substrate can be "tuned up" by the choice of the central atom and of the
ligands.
In the reaction with alkylating and acylating reagents, the active form of the
mediator undergoes the so-called oxidative addition. This reaction leads to a
change in the polarity ("Umpolung") of the alkylating or acylating agent; they
are transformed to "carbanions", linked by a coordination bond to the central
atom whose oxidation state has been increased in such a reaction. The complex
further undergoes an electrochemically induced reductive elimination in which
the active form of the coordination compound is regenerated at the cathode;
simultaneously a radical or a carbanion is formed which can react with
unsaturated compounds in an addition reaction.
A suitable mediator in such reactions is the vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamine)-
the oxidized form of the mediator containing Co(III) used in amounts from 1 to
10 mol%. The general scheme of the catalytic reductive activation of an alkyl
halogenide is illustrated in (3-272).
(3-272)
A particular example may be the intramolecular alkylation of 2- and 3-(0)-

bromoalkyl)-2-cyclohexenones by which one may arrive at cyclic and spirocyclic
ketones (3-273), (3-274).
(3-273)
o
~ vi tarnine B12
(3-274)
~(CH2)n-Br
If the electrochemical reductive elimination in which the Co(I) complex is
regenerated occurs in dark it takes place at more negative potentials ( - 1.5 V vs
SCE) than the cathodic reduction of the starting Co(III) complex to the Co(I)
complex ( - 0.9 V).
The reduction potential for the reductive elimination can be decreased down
to - 0.9 V (vs SCE) if the alkyl- or acyl Co(III) complex is activated by light
(the so-called photoelectrocatalysis). The catalytic cycle of such a reductive and
photochemical activation of acylhalogenides by vitamin B12 is shown in the
following Scheme (3-275).
(3-275)
e
Table 3.4. Reduction potentials of organic

mediators for unidirectional e1ectroreductions
Compound - £1/2 (vs SCE)
perylene 1.67
anthracene 1.96
pyrene 2.09
chrysene 2.25
phenanthrene 2.45
naphthalene 2.50
biphenyl 2.70
The above technique was made use of in the synthesis of natural products,
e.g. pheromones, 3-substituted steroids etc. (3-276).
e; -0.95V (SCE)
hv. 812 (4 mol "J. )
o
_~COOMe o
yo 65"1.
• ~/'o....~COOMe
V - 9;'/, ~
(3-276)
H
Among the organic compounds those radical anions and dianions were
tested as mediators for indirect electrochemical reductions which prevalently
result from the electrochemical reduction of aromatic compounds. Reduction
potentials of selected organic mediators in indirect electro reductions are shown
in Table 3.4.
They are in some cases applied to the indirect electrohydrogenolysis of alkyl
and aryl halogenides, sulfonates, sulfonamides, sulfides and ammonium derivat-
ives. The reductions occur with a high selectivity and at milder conditions than
those observed in the absence of mediators (3-277).
anthracene
~S02~
60 ./.
V
~S02~S02~
o V (3-277)
I direct number of
10 ./. + side products
In synthetic work they are applied for removing protecting groups:
.,,:;\
Py '-- LPy
(3-278)
DMF I LiCl04
Py = pyrene
The anion radicals prepared by reduction of aromatic compounds cannot be

used as mediators in pro tic media. For these media only cation radicals are
suitable which result e.g. by the cathodic reduction of methyl viologen (My2 +
= N,N'-dimethyl-4,4-bipyridinium dihydrochloride) (3-279). They can only
be used at potentials not more negative than - 1.0 Y (vs SeE) and they were
actually used to an indirect electro reduction of NAD(+) to NADH:
c+).~(+}
Me-~-Me Me~)~:"'Me (3-279)
-e
MV·'+>
The reductive activity of NADH was proved with the reduction of hydroxy-
acetone; in the presence of yeast the reduction occurs stereoselectively and by
this "electromicrobial" way (R)-1,2-propanediol (3-280) results:
C",-E~~
~DH+
Y
ANADH
NAD'
X 2 MV+·
2My2.
(3-280)
yeast
4 Acids and Bases Generated at Electrodes [183)
It can be observed in the electrolysis of any solution that the electrolyte turns
more acid in close vicinity to the anode and more alkaline in close vicinity to the
cathode although the bulk of the solution as a whole remains neutral. This fact
attracts the attention not only of theoreticians but also that of organic chemists
who attempt to utilize such locally generated acids and bases in organic
synthesis.
4.1 Electrochemically Generated Acids (EGA)
By the electrolysis of certain types of supporting electrolytes in organic solvents,

acid media are formed in the vicinity of the platinum anode; this change can be
applied for the so-called "functionalizations catalyzed by electrochemically
generated acids".
The course of such a reaction and the selectivity of the resulting products
depends on the character and on the strength of the electrogenerated acid; the
latter is given particularly by the combination of the supporting electrolyte and
the solvent used. The different pH values in the vicinity of a platinum anode after
electrolysis explains e.g. the different representation of products resulting in the
anodic oxidation of hexamethylbenzene which is performed in an undivided cell
in moist acetonitrile containing lithium perchlorate or tetrabutylammonium
tetraftuoroborate (4-1).
LiCl04
(C4 H9 i4 N BF4
5 '/,
95 'I,
+
*I~
h
NHCOCH3
95 'I,
5 'I,
(4-1)
By measuring the pH value in the surroundings of the anode immediately after

the electrolysis, a lower value (2.19) was found for the system acetonitrile-
LiCIO 4 than that (3.93) for the system acetonitrile-N(C4H9)4BF4' Also the fact
4.1 Electrochemically Generated Acids (EGA) 141
that the hydroxymethyl derivative is spontaneously transformed to the aceta-

mido derivative by the electrolysis in presence of LiCIO 4, points to the catalytic
effect of the electrogenerated perchloric acid on the above reaction which is
not a redox process. The acid transforms the hydroxymethyl derivative back to
*
the carbocation which reacts with acetonitrile giving rise to the acetamido
derivative (4-2).
C+l
* ~
CH
e CH 0H
-2e. -H H2 0 •_ H +) 2
:;;:=~. I
• EGA ~
(4-2)
A further example may be represented by the rearrangement of oxirane to a

ketone which can be effected in an undivided cell by the influence of an acid
generated in the vicinity of a platinum anode (4-3). The existence of this acid and
its catalytic effect is confirmed by the following circumstances:
a) the reaction proceeds with a high conversion even after applying a catalytic
amount of charge (0.01-0.1 F mol- 1 ); it does not occur, however, without
passing a charge through the solution.
b) in a divided cell, the reaction proceeds only in the anodic compartment, never
in the cathodic one.
e) the presence of an equivalent amount of the base (e.g. pyridine) makes the
transformation impossible;
d) the reaction also takes place in the case when oxirane is added into
a preelectrolyzed mixture of the supporting electrolyte and the solvent (4-3).
EGA. 25·C. (Ptl

electrolyte I solvent
)yR (4-3)
o
electrolyte/solvent charge yield

(F'rnol- I ) (%)
LiCI0 4/CH 2CI 2 0.06 91

LiCI0 4fTHF 0.03 86
(C2Hs)4NCI04/CH2C12 0.50 87
LiBF4/THF 0.90 62
(C2Hs)4NBr/CH2CI2 0.30 o
CF 3COOLi/CH2CI2fTHF 4.50 o
The acidity of the eleetrogenerated acid is particularly affected by the

combination of the supporting electrolyte (both ions playa role) and of the
142 4 Acids and Bases Generated at Electrodes [183]
solvent. The high acidity of the acid resulting at the anode in electrolysis of a
solution oflithium perchlorate in CH 2 Cl 2 (cf. Fig. 4.1a) is explained by the fact
that metallic lithium is deposited at the cathode which in absence of a proton
source (i.e. of a pro tic solvent) cannot form the corresponding base and passes
into the bulk of the solution. On the other hand, in close vicinity of the anode
"naked" perchlorate ions accumulate which do not possess the corresponding
"counter-ions" (the "unbuffered" perchlorate); the latter react with traces of
water present in the solvent and thus form perchloric acid jointly with hydroxyl
anions which are further anodically oxidized to oxygen or to hydrogen peroxide
(4-4).
(-) (-)
Cl04 + H20 HCl04 + HO (4-4)
This reaction renders the whole electrolytic system acidic and, particularly in the
neighbourhood of the anode, a strongly acidic reaction zone is formed where
a number of acid catalysed reactions may proceed spontaneously.
Weaker EGA are obtained by the electrolysis of a system such as R4 NCl0 4
in CH 2 Cl 2 because the trialkylamine resulting by the cathodic reaction of
tetraalkylammonium ions neutralizes the acid which is formed at the anode.
On the other hand, in the electrolysis of lithium perchlorate in methanol
(cf. Fig. 4.1 b) lithium deposited on the cathode reacts with methanol, hydrogen is
evolved and the resulting lithium methoxide neutralizes the acid formed at the
anode. As far as in these systems acid catalyzed reactions occur they proceed in
close vicinity of the anode surface during electrolysis and for accomplishing
them an excess charge is usually required. Tetraalkylammonium bromides and
lithium trifiuoroacetate do not represent very suitable electrolytes for generating
acids at the anode since their anions are first oxidized on account of water
oxidation or, respectively, on account of the oxidation of hydroxyl anions. This
latter reaction is necessary for the formation of the acid. The combinations of
supporting electrolytes and solvents applied in the anodic generation of acids of
different' strength are shown in Table 4.1.
The anodically generated acids are broadly exploited in organic synthesis for
a number of acid catalysed reactions. Particularly made use of is the fact that the
acid in the electrolysed mixture can be only locally active and its strength can be
c=:::> CD
H2O
ClOr) -e
for'
Fig. 4.1. Schematical repres-
LiClO4 entation: the formation of
electrogenerated acids; a - in
a aprotic solvents, b - in protic
b solvents
4.1 Electrochemically Generated Acids (EGA) 143
Table 4.1. Combinations of supporting electrolytes and solvents for the anodic
generation of acids
Electrolyte Solvent
MCl0 4
(M = Li, Na, Mg)
increasing MBF4 tetrahydrofuran
acidity (M = Li, Na)
R4 NCl0 4 ethylacetate
R4 NBF 4 acetone
(CzH5)4NOTs acetonitrile
(CZH5)4NBr methanol
"tuned up" by the suitable choice of the supporting electrolyte and of the
solvent. From a number of reactions one can quote e.g. acid catalysed nu-
cleophilic substitutions of alkoxy groups in acetal (4-5):
, OCH3 Nu
I
R-CH • R-CH
\ Me3SiNu \
OCH3 OCH3
Nu = H. CN. CH2=CH-CHz
(4-5)
and crossed aldol condensations of enolethers with acetal (4-6).
(4-6)
By a suitable combination of the supporting electrolyte and the solvent, also

perhaps the duration of the electrolysis, the tetrahydropyranyl group for
protecting hydroxylic groups can be introduced, but it can also be selectively
removed (4-7).
R-OH + 0 LiCl04 - MeOH (lOR

(4-7)
In anodic oxidations one must bear in mind that parallel with the substrate
oxidation required also the formation of EGA proceeds at the anode. Therefore
one must very carefully consider the choice of a suitable electrolyte and its
combination with the solvent, in particular as regards the preparation and the
isolation of oxidation products sensitive toward acids. On the other hand, this
fact can be intentionally made use of. The EGA can catalyze the transformation
of a primarily formed product of anodic oxidation to a new intermediate which

in the following step undergoes a subsequent anodic oxidation. This sequence of
reactions is assumed in the "four-electron" oxidation of methyl-5-acetyl-2-furan-
carboxylate, the primary product of the "two electron" oxidation is transformed
to a hemiacetal in a reaction catalysed by the electro genera ted acid which is then
further oxidized as a vic-hydroxy-alkoxy derivative with a simultaneous cleav-
age of the dihydrofuran cycle (4-8).
°
MeOH - li Cl04 - HZS04 - (PI) --t:'(.0Me
. fill
Y' °"'" C02Me
• MeO OMe
I
-4e, 79"1.
COzMe
° -2e j-CH3COOMe
-Ze MeOH MeOH - Z H+
~eo~oMe M:;H • Mp~~oeJ (4-8)

[(,o"'cooMe
MeO OH I.:]
4.2 Electrochemically Generated Bases (EGB)
The cathodic reduction of organic compounds leads to anion radicals and

anions as radical intermediates which can behave as bases and/or nucleophiles
and/or as reducing agents. The compounds which by the reduction yield
intermediates which behave as bases, are called probases (PB) and the electro-
chemically formed bases are then called electrogenerated bases (EGB).
The electrochemical technique makes it possible to generate bases in situ in
aprotic solvents; by the choice of a suitable PB the strength of the EGB can be
controlled and by the amount of charge passed through the solution, also, the
concentration of EGB.
Several requirements (4-9) must be fulfilled in order to have a PB which
by cathodic reduction yields a good EGB (PB-), being able to deprotonate
e.g. a weak C-acid (HA):
PB(-) PBH
HA>-<A(-)
(E21
- --- PRODUCTS
(E3 ..... )
(4-9)
a) The reduction potential PB(E 1 ) must be lower than those of the other
solution components of the electrolyte, e.g. of the C-acids (E z) and of the
products of the subsequent reactions (E3' ...);
b) EGB should be a strong base but a weak nucleophile and a weak reductant;
4.2 Electrochemically Generated Bases (EGB) 145
c) The protonated form of EGB (PBH) should be easily transformable back to

PB, in particular in the cases where PB is not readily available or expensive.
The organic compounds utilized as PB can be divided into two groups. The
first group comprises the compounds in which after the reduction (after the
formation of EGB) a fission of covalent bonds occurs. Thus by the electrochem-
ical reduction of cyanomethyltriphenylphosphonium salts triphenylphosphine
and the cyanomethyl carbanion are formed; the latter plays the role of EGB by
splitting off a proton from the starting phosphonium salt and transforming it to
the corresponding triphenylphosphoniomethylylide (4-10).
In the presence of carbonyl compounds the ylides prepared in this way react
in the sense of the Wittig reaction and form the corresponding alkenes (4-11).
IC)
•
R-CH=O
• R -CH=CH -COOMe (4-11)
R = C6HS (75%); C3H7 (50%)
In tetrachloromethane a cleavage of the C-Cl bond occurs during the
cathodic reduction, giving rise to a trichloromethyl carbanion which reacts with
dimethyl-4-bromobutyl malonate simultaneously as a base (it deprotonates the
C-acid) and as a nucleophile (it substitutes the C-Br bond), (4-12).
COOMe
2e (-) 8r~cooMe
CCl4 - - ; : ; Cl 3 CI
-Cl
O< COOMe
COO Me
+
(4-12)
The cathodic reduction of 2-pyrrolidone takes place at considerably nega-

tive potentials ( - 2.4 V vs SCE). This is why the corresponding amidic anion
cannot be generated in situ. As a rule, it is prepared in advance, by "pre-
electrolysis" at - 78°C in dimethylformamide (4-13).
146 4 Acids and Bases Generated at Electrodes [183J
2e,-70·C
r:-t
"~AO
+ 112 HZ (4-13)
It can be used as a base for the deprotonation of C-acids, e.g. in the

Dieckman condensation (4-14)
MeOOC_N~cOOMe
yCOOMe & I
COOMe 81.'.
(4-14)
or as a nucleophile in the synthesis of Cl-amino acids (4-15).
rI -Ze
'NAO MeOH
..AcooMe
83·,.
47·,. HBr
(4-15)
-MeoMo
ACOOMe
81·,.
The other group of PB is represented by compounds in which no covalent

bonds are split in the formation of EGB. The compounds include particularly
the aromatic azo derivatives and alkenes with an activated double bond. The
azobenzene proper reduces at the cathode at - 0.9 V (vs AgjAgCl) and in its
reduced form it is a sufficiently strong base to be used for the deprotonation of
C-acids in the Wittig reaction (4-16)
[C6HS -N=N -C6HS1.

-O,9V (vs AgIAgCl)
DMF, LiCl
(4-16)
or in the intramolecular alkylation of malonic acid esters (4-17).
~COOMe [ CSH S -N=N- C6H51 a,oOMe

Br I (4-17)
COOMe 1.5V(vs SCE), DMF.
COOMe
BU4N Br
The same advantages as in azobenzene (a low reduction potential,

a relatively high basicity, easy processing of the reaction mixture) are also
exhibited by its alkylated derivatives, such as 2,2'-di-tert-butylazobenzene
(DT AB); the anion radicals or dianions resulting by their reduction are more
basic than the intermediates in the reduction of azobenzene because the artha
substituents make the planarity impossible which is necessary for the charge
delocalization. Di-tert-butylazobenzene was applied for the deprotonation of
ethyl phenyl acetate in its carboxylation to diethylphenylmalonate (4-18).
DTAB
e i1.1V (VS SCE)

DMF. Et4NCl
[DTABJ~ [DTABH]"
~COOEt
>-<~CDOEt
COOEt
1. C02 ~COOEt (4-18)
The anions resulting by the cathodic reduction of ethenetetracarboxylic acid

esters or of disubstituted derivatives of9-methylenefluorene (4-19) can be used in
the same type of reactions.
ROOC COOR
~
, I
c=c, (4-19)
Z~X~'Z
I
ROOC COOR
x y
X,Y = CN, COOEt
Z = H. Cl. Br
An "inorganic" PB is dioxygen by the cathodic reduction of which the

superoxide anion radical O~-)· is generated. The reduction is performed in a
simple H-cell at a mercury cathode in such a way that at - 1.0 V (vs SeE)
oxygen is induced into a solution of a tetraalkylammonium salt in dry aceto-
nitrile or dimethylformamide. The superoxide radical anion alone is a relatively
weak base; pK. of its conjugated acid is 4.69. In the presence of an acid (HA),
however, superoxide disproportionates to oxygen and to the hydroperoxide
anion. This disproportionation increases its base properties to such a degree
that it can perform the deprotonation of acids the pK. of which reach values
approaching 24 (4-20).
0i
o
+ HA ::::;;,;:=::::::!-!:: 02 + HOO - + A- (4-20)
The carbanions resulting by deprotonation of C-acids under the influence of

the superoxide anion radical react further with an excess of dioxygen. The
resulting alkylperoxide anions are transformed to alkoxide ions by the reaction
with carbanions; the alkoxide ions act as bases again and deprotonate the
C-acid under formation of hydroxy derivatives and new carbanions (4-21).
o
2
(-)
20 H 02 (-) R .. 2 Ro'-)-
R-H - - - -...... R - R-O-O
-02·- HOO -
2RH 2 RC-) + 2 ROH

• (4-21)
By the combination ofthe superoxide anion radical with dioxygen a new reagent
is obtained - the "superoxide-dioxygen reagent" which can be conveniently used
in synthesis. The esters of alkylmalonic acid can be transformed to the corres-
ponding ex-hydroxyesters in high current yields with respect to the chain
mechanism of the reaction (4-22).
COOEt
CH3 - CH ( caOEt )2
02. DMF. (Hg)
.. I
CH3 - C - COOEt
0.17 Fmol- 1 I
OH 95 0, .
(4-22)
Nitriles, sulfones and nitroalkanes are transformed to the corresponding
carbonyl compounds (4-23).
.. 02
..
(-)
-X .. (4-23)
Particularly important from the synthetic point of view is the transformation

of nitro compounds to ketones in a high yield (an alternative of the Nef
reaction}. The reaction was made use of in the elegant modification of the
synthesis of l,4-dicarbonyl compounds; in the first step the nitroate anion is
prepared from the nitro compound by preelectrolysis in the presence of azoben-
zene. The nitroate anion reacts with the later added cx,~-unsaturated ester in the
sense of the Michael addition. The addition product thus formed - a 4-nitro-
ester - reacts then by applying the O~-) "/0 2 reagent to the corresponding 4-oxo-
ester (4-24).
.J-.COOMe
D COOMe MCOOMe
(4-24)
60 '/,
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J. Volke, F.

With 18 Figures and 12 Tables

Dr. Frantisek Liska

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-78701-0 e-TSBN-13: 978-3-642-78699-0

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

I. Organic compounds - Synthesis. 2. Organic electrochemistry.

© Springer- Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1994

Typesetting: Macmillan India Ltd., Bangalore-25

This book has been written as an introduction to the electro-

2 Experimental Factors and Methods of

References to Chapters 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3 Reactions of Organic Compounds at Electrodes 45

3.2.1 Reactions of Functional Groups . . . . . . . . 90

4 Acids and Bases Generated at Electrodes. 140

References to Chapters 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Further it is the frequently high stereoselectivity [3] of chemical reactions to

in its close vicinity. Thus, the proportion of Ct,p-stereoisomers of unsaturated

Finally, it is also the exceptional reactivity of electro generated particles in the

2.1 Fundamental Conceptions of Organic Electrochemistry (4)

Electroorganic reactions are often a combination of two processes, the electrode

Fig. 2.1. Schematic depiction of

Keeping all other experimental conditions constant, the fundamental factor

2.2 Laboratory Electrolysis Cells [5, 6)

For studying electro organic synthetic reactions on a laboratory scale (1-10 g of

Fig. 2.3. Laboratory electrolytic cell with stirrer but

Fig.2.4. Schematic depiction of an electrochemical

Fig. 2.5. Laboratory electrolyzer with a diaphragm; 1 -

anode ~L._ _ _---';:::"""'..J

asbestos, cellophane frits etc.) or semipermeable ionex membranes which are

2.3 Electrodes (7)

properties of its surface. The electropreparative work - in particular long-term

If one requires the applicability of the electrode up to distinctly negative

of- of- 4 e (2-4)

Au of- 4 CI AuCl.. of- 3 e (2-5)

The applicability of an electro preparative method is best characterized by the

general, they are used in potentiostatically controlled electrolyses with a three

In preparative electrochemistry our ignorance of the answer is not important to

Table 2.1. Standard potentials of reference electrodes EO' + Ej (Vat 0c)

Reference Molarity EO' + Ej (Vat DC)

AgCI/Ag 3,5 M KCI 0.208 0.205

2.4 Solvents and Supporting Electrolytes [8)

Electrolytic reactions and, consequently, also electropreparative processes occur

Table 2.2. Potential range in acetonitrile under different conditions

Supporting Electrodes Potential

(C2Hs)4NCI04 Hg SCE 0.6 to - 2.8

Table 2.3. Potential ranges in dimethylformamide under different conditions

Supporting Electrodes Potential

(C2Hs)4NCl04 Hg SCE + 0.5 to - 3.0

Although a perfect purification of AN is difficult, in the pure state it can be

salt as the supporting electrolyte potentials as high as - 3.6 V can be reached

Table 2.4. Potential ranges in dimethylsulfoxide under different conditions

Supporting Electrodes Potential

NaClO 4 Pt SCE + 0.7 to - 1.85

For anodic oxidations of aromatics, nitromethane (E = 36) is used as

Supporting Specific resistance (0 cm - ')

(C4H9)4NCI04 37 (0.60)a 312 (1.0)' 77 (0.60)'

'in brackets: concentration in moll- 1

When applying quarternary ammonium salts as supporting electrolytes,

Table 2.6. Potential ranges in common organic solvents (Pt-electrode,