Chapter 7

Manufacturing Automation
7.1 Automation Defined
Automation is a technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic, and
computer-based systems to operate and control production. This technology includes:
 Automatic machine tools to process parts
 Automatic assembly machines
 Industrial robots
 Automatic material handling and storage systems
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control
 Feedback control and computer process control
 Computer systems for planning, data collection, and decision making to support
manufacturing activities

7.2 Types of Automation

Automated production systems are classified into three basic types:
1. Fixed automation
2. Programmable automation
3. Flexible automation

7.2.1 Fixed automation

Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is
fixed by the equipment configuration. The operations in the sequence are usually simple. It is
the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece of equipment that
makes the system complex. The typical features of fixed automation are:
 High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
 High production rates
 Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes
The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products with very high demand
rates and volumes. The high initial cost of the equipment can be spread over a very large
number of units, thus making the unit cost attractive compared to alternative methods of
production.

7.2.2 Programmable automation

In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the capability

to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations. The
operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that the
system can read and interpret them. New programs can be prepared and entered into the
equipment lo produce new products. Some of the features that characterize programmable
automation include:
 High investment in general-purpose equipment
 Low production rates relative to fixed automation
 Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration
 Most suitable for batch production
Automated production systems that are programmable are used in low and medium volume
production. The parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each
new batch of a different product, the system must be reprogrammed with the set of
machine instructions that correspond to the new product. The physical setup of the machine
must also be changed over: Tools must be loaded, fixtures must be attached to the machine
table, and the required machine settings must be entered. This changeover procedure
takes time. Consequently, the typical cycle for a given product includes a period during
which the setup and reprogramming takes place, followed by a period in which the batch
is produced.

7.2.3 Flexible automation

Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. The concept of flexible

automation has developed only over the last 15 to 20 years, and the principles are still
evolving. A flexible automated system is one that is capable of producing a variety of
products (or parts) with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one product to the
next. There is no production time lost while reprogramming the system and altering the
physical setup (tooling, fixtures and machine settings). Consequently, the system can
produce various combinations and schedules of products, instead of requiring that they
be made in separate batches.

The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:

 High investment for a custom-engineered system
 Continuous production of variable mixtures of products
 Medium production rates
 Flexibility to deal with product design variations

The essential features that distinguish flexible automation from programmable automation
are (1) the capacity to change part programs with no lost production time, and (2) the
capability to change over the physical setup, again with no lost production time.

These features allow the automated production system to continue production without the
downtime between batches that is characteristic of programmable automation. Changing
the part programs is generally accomplished by preparing the programs off-line on a
computer system and electronically transmitting the programs to the automated production
system. Therefore, the time required to do the programming for the next job does not
interrupt production on the current job.

Advances in computer systems technology are largely responsible for this programming
capability in flexible automation. Changing the physical setup between parts is accomplished
by making the changeover off-line and then moving it into place simultaneously as the next
part comes into position for processing. The use of pallet fixtures that hold the parts and
transfer into position at the workplace is one way of implementing this approach. For these
approaches to be successful, the variety of parts that can be made on a flexible automated
production system is usually more limited than a system controlled by programmable
automation.

The relative positions of the three types of automation for different production
volumes and product varieties are depicted in Figure 7.1
 Figure 7.1 Three types of production automation as a function of
volume of production verses product variety
7.2.4 Reasons for Automating

The important reasons for automating include the following:

1. Increased productivity: Automation of manufacturing operations holds the promise of
increasing the productivity of labour. This means greater output per hour of labour input.
Higher production rates (output per hour) are achieved with automation than with the
corresponding manual operations.

2. High cost of labour: The trend in the industrialized societies of the world has been toward
ever-increasing labour costs. As a result, higher investment in automated equipment has
become economically justifiable to replace manual operations. The high cost of labour is
forcing business leaders to substitute machines for human labour. Because machines can
produce at higher rates of output, the use of automation results in a lower cost per unit of
product.

3. Labour shortages: In many advanced nations there has been a general shortage of labour.
Labour shortages also stimulate the development of automation as a substitute for labour.

4. Trend of labour toward the service sector: This trend has been especially prevalent in the
advanced countries. First around 1986, the proportion of the work force employed in
manufacturing stands at about 20%. In 1947, this percentage was 30%. By the year 2000,
some estimates put the figure as low as 2%, certainly, automation of production jobs has
caused some of this shift.

The growth of government employment at the federal, state, and local levels has consumed a
certain share of the labour market which might otherwise have gone into manufacturing.
Also, there has been a tendency for people to view factory work as tedious, demeaning, and
dirty. This view has caused them to seek employment in the service sector of the economy.

5. Safe: By automating the operation and transferring the operator from an active
participation to a supervisory role, work is made safer. The safety and physical well-being of
the worker has become a national objective with the enactment of the Occupational. Safety
and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA). It has also provided an impetus for automation.
6. High cost of raw materials: The high cost of raw materials in manufacturing results in the
need for greater efficiency in using these materials. The reduction of scrap is one of the
benefits of automation.

7. Improved product quality: Automated operations not only produce parts at faster rates
than do their manual counterparts, but they produce parts with greater consistency and
conformity to quality specifications.

8. Reduced manufacturing lead time: Automation allows the manufacturer to reduce the
time between customer order and product delivery. This gives the manufacturer a
competitive advantage in promoting good customer service.
9. Reduction of in-process inventory: Holding large inventories of work-in-process
represents a significant cost to the manufacturer because it ties up capital. In process
inventory is of no value. It serves none of the purposes of raw materials stock or finished
product inventory. Accordingly, it is to the manufacturer's advantage to reduce work-in-
progress to a minimum. Automation tends to accomplish this goal by reducing the time a
workpart spends in the factory.

10. High cost of not automating: A significant competitive advantage is gained by

automating a manufacturing plant. The advantage cannot easily be demonstrated on a
company's project authorization form. The benefits of automation often show up in intangible
and unexpected ways, such as improved quality, higher sales, better labour relations, and
better company image. Companies that do not automate are likely to find themselves at a
competitive disadvantage with their customers, their employees, and the general public.

All of these factors act together to make production automation a feasible and
attractive alternative to manual methods of manufacture.
7.2 Protocols
7.2.1 Network Architecture
A communication network consists of a number of components such as hardware, software,
and media. A network architecture describes the components, the functions performed, and
the interfaces and interactions between the components of a network. It encompasses
hardware, software, standards, data link controls, topologies, and protocols. It defines the
function, and interactions among three types of components.
 Network hardware, components such as cables, modems, communications controllers,
and adapter cards.
 Communication software modules, which establish and monitor sessions between
remotely located processes, and allow exchange of data and control messages.
 Application programs (user processes) that uses the networks.

7.2.2 Protocols
Protocols in the network system are a set of instructions used to exchange information
between two devices. A protocol specifies the message format and the rules for interpreting
and reacting to messages.

The open system interconnection (OSI) reference model proposed by the International
Standards Organization (ISO) incorporates a framework for modelling communication
protocols. This model encompasses interoperability between dissimilar systems. The whole
communication process is divided into several layers by ISO/OSI as shown in Figure 7.2; the
physical layer, the data layer, the network layer, the transport layer, the session layer, the
presentation layer and the application layer.

The lower four layers are responsible for the transfer of information between applications.
The upper three layers support the applications. Standards are set for each layer to handle
communication from one device to another. A brief discussion of the functions of these layers
is as follows:

Figure 7.2 Communication Layers

The Physical Layer

It consists of the hardware that drives the network and circuits and specifies the type of cable
that is used. It deals with mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural characteristics to
access the physical bits and are passed from one device to another.

The Data Link Layer

It performs the task of transferring information across the physical link by sending blocks of
data (frames) with necessary synchronization, error control, and flow control functions. It is
used to improve the error frequency for messages moved between adjacent nodes. The data
integrity transmitted between two devices in the same network is ensured on this layer. The
ISO HDLC (high-level data-link control) standard is used in this layer. The HDLC standard
starts and terminates with an 8-bit flag frame.

The Network Layer

It uses to select the outgoing line to send the message to a node. Since it knows the physical
connections and paths between the transport entities in a session, it relieves the transport
layer of the need to know anything about the underlying network technologies used to
connect end systems.
The Transport Layer
It ensures the transparent transfer of packets (data), to and from the session layer without
disruption. This layer has three major functions; to establish a proper connection and quality
(speed), to initiate the data transfer and manage the data to be sent, and to release the
connection.

The Session Layer

It controls the communication between applications by establishing, managing, and
terminating virtual connections between cooperating applications.

The Presentation Layer

It decodes the data to match the device and requirements. It makes the application process
independent of differences in data representation.

The Application Layer

It provides the user interfaces to the networking system. The services provided by this layer
include terminal emulation, file transfer, electronic mail, and distributed database managers.
Based on this OSI reference model, a number of protocols have been developed. Examples
include MAP/TOP, TCP/IP, SNA from IBM, DECNET from DEC and many others. A brief
discussion of the above mentioned protocols, MAP/TOP and TCP/IP has been given in
following two sections.

7.2.3 MAP and TOP

The manufacturing automation protocol (MAP) was developed by General Motors to meet its
manufacturing integration needs. Sometimes the networks for different products of the same
vendors are not always compatible. To connect these products directly in a communication
network becomes a seemingly impossible task. On the other hand, to implement a computer-
integrated system, it is required to have communication between different factory devices
such as NC machines, robots, cell controllers, and area controllers.

MAP supports application-layer protocols such as manufacturing messaging specifications

(MMS), intended for real time communication between such devices. The different layered
approach of MAP, as shown in the Table 7.1, allows new technology to be incorporated when
it becomes available. It uses the ISO reference model and coordinates with the Technical and
Office Protocol (TOP) developed by Boeing Company for office communications, and other
standards. TOP and MAP share the standards on several layers. The difference is on the
physical layer, where TOP is based on the CSMA/CD bus of Ethernet. A gateway can easily
be built to bridge the two networks. With MAP and TOP, not only communication within a
manufacturing shop can be ensured, but also a link to the corporation office can be
established.
Table 7.1 describes the MAP and TOP specifications as prescribed by IEEE.
Table 7.1 : MAP 2.1 Standard