MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY - Cryophiles. Lives in extreme cold environment.

- Example of saprophytes are mushrooms.
COURSE OUTLINE - Microbial Ecology. Relationship between microbes and
• Definition of Microbiology & Parasitology environment.
• Pioneers in the Science of Microbiology and their contributions - Anton Van Leeuwenhoek. Father of Microbiology. He discovered
• Career fields in Microbiology and Parasitology protozoa in 1674 and bacteria in 1676.

What is Microbiology? PATHOGENS NON-PATHOGENS

• an advanced biology courses • disease causing • microbes that do not
• study of microbes (microbes are said to be ubiquitous) microbes cause disease
• mikros = small, bio = life, logos = to study • also called “germs” • vast majority of microbes
are nonpathogens.
Cellular Microbes Acellular Microbes
• living microbes • non-living microbes 3% percent of bacterias are pathogens while 97% are non-pathogens.
e.g. bacteria, archaea, some • infectious particles Indigenous Microflora – microbes that live on in our bodies.
algae and some fungi e.g. viroids, prions, and viruses (Opportunistic Pathogens)
Pathogens can cause two categories of disease:
1. Infectious Disease – once pathogen enter a person’s body
becomes an infectious disease.

2. Microbial Intoxication – produces a toxin in vitro and when the

person ingests the toxin it becomes a disease.

NOTES!
- Eucaryotes – true nucleus, cell membrane
- Procaryotes – does not have true nucleus
- Microbiology helps in various elemental cycles food for tiny
animals.
- Archaea. Lives in extreme environment.
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WHY STUDY MICROBIOLOGY?

• They are essential for life in the planet.
• Photosynthetic algae and bacteria
• It is also involved in decomposition of dead organism and waste
product.
• Saprophytes
• Bioremediation – use of microbes to clean up waste. NOTES!
o Microbes are used in many industries
SIGNIFICANCE OF MICROBIOLOGY o In genetic engineering, a gene or genes from one organism is/are
▪ Indigenous Microflora inserted into a bacterial or yeast cell; the cell that receives the new
▪ Opportunistic pathogens gene(s) is then capable of producing the gene product(s) coded for
▪ Microorganism supports life by the new gene(s).
▪ Saprophytes or decomposers o *Antibiotic. Inhibits the growth of bacteria
▪ Bioremediation o *Penicillin
▪ Links to food chain o *Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium.
▪ Elemental Cycles o Biotechnology
▪ Biotechnology o The use of living organisms or their derivatives to make or modify
▪ Genetic Engineering useful products or processes.
▪ Cell Model
FIRST MICROORGANISMS ON EARTH
Many microbes play essential roles in various elemental cycles.
Food for tiny animals - Fossils of primitive microorganisms date back about 3.5 billion
Aid in the digestion of food and produce beneficial substances. years ago
For many years, microorganisms have been used as “cell models”; the - Candidates for the first microorganisms on Earth are archaea and
more that scientists learned about microbial cells, the more they cyanobacteria.
learned about cells in general. - *cyanobacteria – bacteria that obtains energy fr. Photosynthesis or
bacteria that is photosynthetic.
Infectious diseases of humans and animals have existed for as long
as humans and animals have inhabited the planet.
Earliest known account of pestilence occurred in Egypt in about 3180
BC.
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

- Made contribution to the germ theory disease

4.5 billion years ago Earth was formed. - Championed changes in hospital practice to minimize spread of
disease by pathogens.
3.7 to 4 billion years ago Molecular fossils

3.5 billion years ago Cellular fossils

900 to 600 million years Animals
ago appeared ROBERT KOCH
100 thousand years ago Human existed - Made significant contributions to the germ theory of disease
- Discovered that Bacillus anthracis produced spores.
PIONEERS IN MICROBIOLOGY - Developed methods of fixing and staining bacteria.
- Developed methods to cultivate bacteria.
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK - Discovered Mycobacterium tuberculosis which causes
- “Father of Microbiology” tuberculosis and Vibrio cholera which causes cholera.
- Made many simple single-lens microscopes. - Tuberculin testing
- Observed animalcules” (bacteria and - *Richard Petri – assistant or partner
- protozoa).
- Discovered protozoa in 1674 and bacteria in 1676 KOCH’S POSTULATE
*A particular microbe must be found in all cases of the disease and
*ABIOGENESIS – Spontaneous Generation, life came from non-living must not be present in healthy animals or humans.
things. *The microbe must be isolated from the diseased animal or human
*BIOGENESIS – life came from living things. and grown in pure culture in the laboratory.
*The same disease must be produced when microbes from the pure
LUIS PASTEUR culture are inoculated into healthy susceptible laboratory animals
- Investigated different fermentation products. *The same microbe must be recovered from the experimentally
- Developed the pasteurization process. infected animals and grown again in pure culture.
- Discovered life forms that could exist without oxygen (anaerobes). LIMITATIONS:
- Developed several vaccines • Obligate intracellular pathogens or obligate intracellular
- including rabies and anthrax vaccines parasites.
- Disproved spontaneous generation. • Some organism are species specific
- Discovered the infectious agents that were causing the silkworm • Ethical considerations
disease. • Synergistic Infections
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• Pathogenicity of some microorganisms is affected in vitro

• Not all diseases are caused by microorganisms Genetic Engineering
- Involves technique that alter the genetic makeup of organisms to
produce hormones and pharmaceuticals, create totally new
substances.

Microbial Physiology
- Use of microbial cells as cell models

Paleomicrobiology
- Involves the study of ancient microbes through molecular fossils.
JOHN TYNDALL
- Provided the initial evidence that some of the microbes in dust Parasitology
and air have very high heat resistance. - parasitic protozoa

CAREERS IN MICROBIOLOGY -helminths

-anthropods
Agricultural Microbiology
- Concerned with relationship between microbes and crops, with an Sanitary Microbiology
emphasis on improving yields and combating plant diseases. - Includes the processing and disposal of garbage and sewage
waste as well as the purification and processing of water supplies
Biotechnology to ensure that no pathogen are carried to the consumer by drinking
- Used in industrial microbiology which is concerned with the uses water.
of microbes to produce large quantities of substances such as Veterinary Microbiology
amino acids, beer, drugs, enzymes and vitamins. - Bacterial and viral disease of domesticated animals

Environmental Microbiology 1. BACTERIOLOGY

- Application of Microbiology in ecology. 2. PHYCOLOGY
3. MYCOLOGY
Medical and Clinical Microbiology 4. PROTOZOOLOGY
- Aim to monitor and control the spread of diseases in communities. 5. VIROLOGY
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

MICROORGANISM AND CAREER FIELDS MICROBIAL MORPHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION

Bacteria Bacteriology
Algae Phycology Algology HISTORICAL NOTES
Protozoology Robert Hooke – honeycomb like structures in a corke slice --- cell.
Protozoa Mycology Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf, Virchow – zoologist,
Fungi Virology they have seen in a microscope a cell.
Virus
WHAT IS A CELL?

• Fundamental unit of any living microorganism.

• It exhibits basic characteristics of life.
• Can grow, reproduce, response via stimuli and metabolisms.
• Cytology. Study of the structure and function of cells.

EUKARYOTE

Algae, Protozoa, Fungi

Cellular, has true nucleus
STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

• 10-100 micrometers
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CYTOPLASM
1. CELL MEMBRANE
• A semi-fluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix.
• Encloses and holds the cell intact • Contains storage granules and a variety of organelles where most
• Regulates the passage of nutrients, wastes product, and metabolic reactions occur.
secretions into and out of the cell. *SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY • Where organelles are suspended or lumulutang.
- Extracellular. Outside the cell • Where metabolic mostly occur.
- Intracellular. Inside of the cell.
- Phospholipid by Layer RIBOSOMES
- Hydrophobic. Water fearing
- Hydrophilic. Water loving • Consist of ribosomal RNA and protein (enzymes).
• Site of protein synthesis.
NUCLEUS • 80 svedverg

• TRUE NUCLEUS ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Nucleoplasm
Chromosomes • Smooth ER
Nuclear Membrane Without attached ribosomes and plays a role in lipid (fat) synthesis.
• The command center of the cell • Rough ER
• 2 Types of RNA With attached ribosomes.
Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid (rRna) Protein synthesis
Transfer Ribonucleic Acid (tRna)
• 46 chromosomes in humans. GOLGI COMPLEX
• “control center”
• Golgi apparatus or Golgi body
NUCLEOLUS • Completes the transformation of newly synthesized proteins and
packages them for storage or export.
• Dark area in the nucleus where the rRNA are manufactured. • “packaging center”
• rRNA manufacturing area • Secretory Vesicles
• organelles are everything that is stored in a cell. • Transfer Vesicles
• Cistems
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• Transport vesicles from rough ER INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

• Structural indignity, giving or provide, shape of cells, cell division.
LYSOSOMES or PEROXISOMES
CELL WALL
• Contains lysozyme and other digestive enzymes. Breaks down
foreign cells. • External structure that provides rigidity, shape a protection.
Macrophage. It is an immune cell. It eats bacteria (phagocytosis). • Outer layer of cell.
• Peroxisomes are membrane-bound vesicles where H202 is • Cellulose are plant cell walls.
generated or break down. • Chitin are cell walls of fungi.
• Converts H202 into water and oxygen. • Animals, protozoa, mycoplasma species do not have cell walls. We
• Equivalent of mitochondria. have cellular membrane instead.
•
MITOCHONDRIA
FLAGELLA AND CILIA
• Powerplants, powerhouse or energy factories
• ATP (energy currency of the cell) molecules are produces within • Organelles of locomotion wc is necessary for survival.
mitochondria by cellular respiration. • Microvilli can be found on intestine that helps in movement and
absorption of food.
PLASTIDS • Bolus are digestive food in intestine.
• Monotrichous – sperm
• Membrane-bound structures containing photosynthetic pigments. Lophotrichous
• They are sites of photosynthesis. Peritrichous
• Chloroplast are a type of plastid; they contain chlorophyll. Amphitrichous
• Photosynthesis (sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, glucose
or oxygen).

CYTOSKELETON

• A system of fibers throughout cytoplasm.

MICROTUBULES
MICROFILAMENTS
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• Undulating
• DNA- occupied space within a bacterial cell.
STRUCTURE OF PROCARYOTIC CELLS • It does not have nuclear membrane so it does not contain genetic
material.
• PC are 10x smaller than EC
• Bacteria, cyanobacteria and archaea are PC. CYTOPLASM
• Binary Fission are the replication of PC, the time required to
replicate from parent cell are called generation time. • Semiliquid containing a complex mixture of all materials required
• 0.2-2.0 micrometers for metabolism.
• Metabolic processes occur
RIBOSOMES

• For protein synthesize

• 70 svedverg

CELL WALL

• Provides strong structural support that prevents the cell fr. bursting
CELL MEMBRANE or collapsing.
• Dominant part of PC
• Mesosomes are sites for cellular respiration in bacteria. • PEPTIDOGLYCLAN (composes of alternating NAM-NAG (n
• Mitochondria are equivalent of mesosomes in EC. acetylmuramic acid, n acetyl glucosamine acid)
Gram Negative – small or thin peptidoglycan
Gram Positive – thick peptidoglycan
CHROMOSOMES
GLYCOCALYX
• Single, long, supercoiled DNA molecules.
• “control center” • A slimy, gelatinous material produced by cell membrane and
• Contains genetic material secreted outside the cell wall.
• Protects cell from desiccation (leaking of the cellular component of
NUCLEOID the cell).
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• 2 types: slime layer (for bacteria to slide, movement) capsule; for SPORES or ENDOSPORES
protection. • Very rare
• As a means of survival
• Sporulation (spore formation)
FLAGELLA • A bacteria can be resistant to heat, cold and dying bc of this

• Primary function is for motility or self-propulsion and eventually

chemotaxis (movement) thru runs and tumbles.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA
• Thinner than flagella in EC.
• SAME KINDS WITH THE EC ENDOSPORE
• Components are;
• Uses heat
Basal Body
Hook • Primary Stain: MALACHITE GREEN
Filament • Counterstain: SAFRANIN
*Flagellin
• Blue Color
• It allows 360 degrees rotation.
• Rotating
FLAGELLAR
TESTING FOR MOTILITY Primary stain: Carbolfuchsin

• Stabbing a tin mass of cells into soft medium. *Proteus

MOTILITY
• Microscopically through hanging drop technique. *Vibrio Cholera
PILI • Get pond water and then salt with petroleum jelly, hanging drop
technique
• Hair-like structures, most often observed on Gram-negative
bacteria.
MOTILE MICROORGANISM
• Also called fimbriae.
• For attachment on cell linings. • Those with FLAGELLA or AXIAL FILAMENT.
• For conjugation (process of reproduction on bacteria; sex pili) • With SLIME
• Most Spiral shaped, include some bacilli
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ORIGIN OF VIRUSES
ACELLULAR INFECTIOUS AGENTS
1. Viruses existed before cells
VIRUSES, VIROIDS, AND PRIONS 2. Viruses came from cells they cannot multiply without the host
cell; they need cell for reproduction
PROPERTIES OF A VIRUS THAT MAKES IT NON-LIFE
CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES
1. Has DNA or RNA, not both only have one, but living org. have both.
2. Unable to replicate - According to Nucleic Acid has something to do with their genetic
3. Does not divide thru MITOSIS, MEIOSIS, or BINARY FISSION. material/genome
4. Lacks genes and enzymes necessary for energy production, 1. Double-stranded DNA most viruses that has been classified has
CAN’T SYNTHESIZE PROTEINS 2. Single-stranded DNA
5. Depends on host for energy and nucleic acid production. 3. Double-stranded RNA
BASIC STRUCTURE 4. Single-stranded RNA most viruses that has been classified has

- Shape of Viral Genomes located in the center

1. Circular
2. Linear

Shape of Capsid, Number or Capsomere

1. Polyhedral/Icosahedron forms a geometric shape; 20 sides
2. Helical
3. Bullet-shaped
▪ CAPSID – protein coat
4. Spherical
▪ CAPSOMERES – circular protein units
▪ Genomes – located at the center [RNA or DNA]
▪ Outer envelope – COMPOSED OF LIPIDS and
POLSACCHARIDES; SARS-CoV-2 they can come out from the
plasma/cell membrane of the host and reproduce themselves and
transmitted from one organism to another
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• Acquired by the virus and escape through the cytoplasm of the

host cell and replicate and invade the next host cell.

BACTERIOPHAGES
• They don’t invade the host cell; they inject their nucleic acid into
the cell.
VIRULENT TEMPERATE
- Polyhedral (Adenovirus) causes the lytic cycle which Causes the lysogenic cycle,
- Spherical (Influenza) means that the host cell is their DNA remains integrated to
- Complex (Bacteriophages) have the thin fiber, sheath, tail; destroyed after/ or die after the bacterial cells,
infects bacterial cells injecting nucleic acid chromosomes, generation after
- Helical (Tobacco mosaic virus) generation, but the moments
that the person’s immune
system weakens that’s the time
they will undergo the lytic cycle

• Presence of envelope

STEPS OF INASION OF VIRUS IN THE BACTERIAL CELL

• If a virus has an envelope, they can be easily transmitted from
one organism to another. LYTIC CYCLE
• It makes the virus appear spherical or irregular and has spikes.
1. ABSORPTION
• Part of the nuclear or plasma membrane of their host cell.
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• attaches to a protein, polysaccharide, or the receptor on the LYSOGENIC CYCLE

surface of the bacterial cell
• the phage can only attach and invade if it possesses the • The phage DNA becomes a part of the bacterial chromosomes
appropriate receptor (a virus that is able to recognize that some causing the lytic cycle to occur. So, each time lysogenic cell
are some species or strain specific). undergoes binary fission, the phage DNA is also replicated and is
passed onto the daughter cells.
2. PENETRATION
• The phage injects its DNA into the cell. • Medical implication: the lysogenic cell can produce new gene
products that isn’t produced before.
3. PROPHAGE FORMATION
• The DNA enters the bacteria and dictates what happens inside the • Ex. Only lysogenic cell of the clostridium botulinum and vibrio
cell cholerae can produce the toxins necessary for the disease to occur
• The virus will control the bacterial cell. in humans.

4. SPONTANEOUS INDUCTION
• If these bacteria where not infected with phages, they won’t be able
• Production of the viral pieces or parts
to cause disease.
• Biosynthesis (the genes are expressed; overcomes the host cell;
the gene of the virus represents the whole organism/ host cell).
VIRUSES

5. REPLICATION AND MATURATION

Animal Viruses
- Assembly of the viral pieces or parts are arranged to complete to - Viruses that infect animals as well as humans
produce the viral particle VIROIDS. Latent Virus Infection
- A situation in which virus is present in the body, but it remains
6. RELEASE dormant, not causing any overt symptoms
- Escape from the bacterial cell - Dormant: resting stage; not causing major symptoms
- The host cell burst open, and the viroids come out from the host - Ex. Herpes Zoster: painful skin rash with blisters; latent form of
causing the destruction of cell wall and find new cells to invade. chicken pox
- It hides in the nerve cells and become inactive for awhile and when
the body weaken, the virus reactivates causing shingles which is the
deadliest part of the infection
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Oncogenic Viruses - They can’t be killed by pure physical agents rather they need a
- Causes cancer combination of chemical and physical agents or higher toxic agents
- Ex. Kaposi’s Sarcoma: Herpes Zoster - Stanley B. Prusiner, American neurobiologist who coined the
Ex. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) term “prion”
Ex. Cervical cancer: Human papillomavirus (HPV) most especially for
women SARS-CoV-2
Ex. Leukemia: retro virus • SARS-CoV-2 is the official, scientific name of the virus, the germ
that causes the disease COVID-19
Human Immunodeficiency Virus • COVID-19 is the name of the disease – the fever, cough, chills,
- An enveloped (easily transmitted from one person to another; lipids, and other symptoms that people have when they are infected with
polysaccharides can be released through budding), the virus SARS-CoV-2.
- double stranded RNA virus (retrovirus) known to have AIDS • All viruses have two parts:
• Genes that contain all the information needed to make more virus
Plant Viruses copies
• Cause disease to economically important crops • Proteins that protect the genes and help the virus spread
• Morphologically similar to animal viruses and have similar types of • Some viruses – SARS-CoV-2 is one of them – also have a third
nucleic acids part: an envelope made of special fats that protects the genes and
• Transmitted through worms, infected seeds or contaminated tools proteins.
used in farming
CELL REPRODUCTION
Viroids (plants) Sexual Asexual
Two parents give rise to Single microorganism is the
• Short, naked fragments of single stranded RNA. offspring sole parent
• Interfere in the metabolism and the growth sometimes killing the through binary fission they can
plant. have offspring
Involves fertilization Does not involve fertilization
Prions Involves meiosis Does not involve meiosis
- Infectious proteins which cause fatal neurologic diseases in Eukaryotes only Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
animals and humans
- Ex. Scabies (galis: rashes in dogs) Mitosis all the division of body cells
- Ex. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) (humans) 1. Interphase – where the chromosome is still preparing to divide
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2. Prophase – when the prominent chromosomes are being

emphasized or you can already see in the slides in the microscope the SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
threads Five-Kingdom System Three-Kingdom System
3. Metaphase – where the chromatids start to align to the equator ROBERT HARDING CARL WOESE
4. Anaphase – separation WHITTAKER
5. Telophase –daughter cells divide and produce two daughter cells • Kingdom Prokaryotae / • Archaea
• Nuclear division Monera • Bacteria
• bacteria • Eukarya
• Two genetically identical nuclei
• Kingdom Protista
• Either haploid or diploid cells • protozoa
• Two daughter cells • Kingdom Fungi
• Yeast, molds
Meiosis Division of Sex Cells • Kingdom Plantae
• Only diploid cell • plants
• Changed to haploid • Kingdom Animalia
• Gametes are produced • Mammals
• Four daughter cells
Phenotypic categories BACTERIA
PROKARYOTIC CELL REPRODUCTION - Characteristics that we can see
• Through binary fission, one solo parent divides into two identical - Genotypic: we can’t see but it is within us; behavior
cells. 1. Gram negative and have a cell wall
TAXONOMY 2. Gram positive and have a cell wall
CLASSIFICATION NOMENCLATURE IDENTIFICATION 3. Lack cell wall
Arrangement of org. Assignment of Process of Morphology
into TAXONOMIC NAMES according to determining where - Has something to do with the shapes when you view it in the
GROUPS INTERNATIONAL isolate belongs. microscope
RULES. Isolate and be on
Study one specific the different phylum Three basic shapes:
specie all over the (microorganisms); 1. Round or spherical
belong in one group 2. Rectangular or rod
world.
but differ in 3. Curved or spiral
characteristics.
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1. COCCI EUKARYOTIC MICROORGANISM

- When they divide, the cells can remain attached to one another
PROTOZOA, ALGAE, FUNGI
giving it different morphological arrangement.
- Ex. Streptococcus pneumonia – named after the shape of cells PROTOZOA
a. Diplococci – 2 CHARACTERISTICS
b. Streptococci – chain
c. Tetrad – 4 • Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
d. Sarcinae – 8 • Protozoology, Protozoologist
e. Staphylococcus – clusters or grape shape/kumpul-kumpol • F-K: Protista
• Classified acc. To LOCOMOTION
2. BACILLI
Divide only across their short axis 3 Defining CHARACTERISTICS
- Fewer groupings compared to cocci
a. Single bacillus – 2 micrometers 1. Eukaryotic
b. Diplobacilli 2. Unicellular
c. Streptobacilli – rod shaped or in rectangular shaped 3. Lack cell wall
d. Coccobacillus – combination of circular and rod shaped
SPECIAL STRUCTURES
3. SPIRAL
1. PELICLES – replacement for cell wall, supports the
- Have one or more twists, they are never straight
microorganism
- Ex. Vibrio cholerae
2. CYTOSOME – primitive mouth, for ingestion of food
a. Vibrio
b. Spirillum 3. Contractile vacuole – pumps water out from the cell
c. Spirochete 4. . Pseudopodia, Cilia, Flagella – for movement

BACTERIAL SHAPE IS DEFINE BY HEREDITY Two stages of life cycle:

• Passing of traits from one organism to another. 1. TROPHOZOITE [motile, feeding, dividing stage] active
MONOMORPHIC – maintain single shape, most bacteria 2. CYST [dormant, survival stage] [thick capsule and low metabolic
rate]
PLEOMORPHIC – No cell wall [CWO bacteria], L forms, example is
MYCOPLASMAS. Nutrition
1. Source of energy
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2. Chemoheterotroph] use inorganic compound for their source of

energy 4. Sporozoa – spores are dormant
3. Chemical compounds rather than light - nonmotile protozoa
4. Carbon source from organic compounds other than CO2 - lack pseudopodia, flagella, cilia
- ex. Plasmodium spp. [causes malaria] Toxoplasmosis gondii [causes
Symbiotic relationship toxoplasmosis]
1. Parasitic
2. Mutualistic ALGAE
CHARACTERISTICS:
Reproduction • • Eukaryotic/Prokaryotic: Eukaryotic
1. Through schizogony • • Study of is called: Phycology
2. Through gametes • • Person studying: Phycologist
3. Through conjugation • • Five-Kingdom: Protista Classified according to:
Photosynthetic pigment
Classification and Medical Significance
Features:
1. Ciliates
- Balantidium coli [only ciliated protozoan that causes disease in 1. Pellicle – thickened cell membrane
humans] 2. Stigma / Eyespot – light sensing organelle
3. Flagella – for movement
2. Amebae
- [ameboid movement] [phagocytosis- cell eating] [pinocytosis- cell Nutrition
drinking]
- Entamoeba histolytica [causes amebic dysentery] - Photosynthetic [photoautotroph]
- Use energy from the sun, carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic
3. Flagellates nutrients from soil
- move by means of whip-like flagella
- exhibit a wavelike motion Reproduction/Life cycle
- ex. Trypanosoma brucei, Trichomonas vaginalis Trypanosoma cruzi
Giardia lamblia 1. Alternation of generation
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• Eukaryotic/Prokaryotic: Eukaryotic
Classification • Study of is called: Mycology
• Green algae: Chlorophyta from the word chlorophyl • Person studying it is Mycologist
• Red: Rhodophyta Golden / Yellow green: Chrysophyta • Five-Kingdom: Fungi
• Brown: Phaeophyta • Classified according to: Mode of sexual reproduction
• Dinoflagellates: Pyrrophyta
Defining characteristics:
Significance 1. Eukaryotic
2. Not photosynthetic
1. Basis of the food web 3. Cell walls contain chitin
2. Production of atmospheric O2 4. Sexual and asexual spore
3. Source of food, iodine, and minerals
4. Emulsifiers and stabilizers Special structure
5. Gelling agent for jam and agar 1. Hyphae – long filaments of cells joined together [septate or
aseptate
2. Mycelium / Thallus – mass of hyphae
Medical significance
Hyphal growth
1. Prototheca [only pathogenic genus] [lives in soil] 1. Growth of a Hypha from a spore
2. Protothecosis [small subcutaneous lesions] [crusty, warty-looking
lesions] [fatal for immunosuppressed] Nutrition
1. Chemoheterotroph
2. Absorptive
3. Saprophytes decaying matter
FUNGI
Reproduction
• Member of a large group of organisms that includes yeasts,
molds, and mushrooms 1. Budding
• Classified in a kingdom separate from plants, animals, and 2. Hyphal extension
bacteria 3. Formation of Spores allergens; spores are transmitted through
dust and accidentally inhale causing allergies
CHARACTERISTICS:
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Reproduction - Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ferments sugar to alcohol) (simple sugar

- Spore to CO2 and H2O)
- Sexual - Candida albicans (most frequently isolated from human clinical
- Asexual specimen) mouth
Classification (Phyla)
2. MOLDS
• Ascomycetes: Septate
- Phytophtera infestans (potato blight mold)
• Basidiomycetes: Septate
- Penicillium and cephalosporium antibiotics
• Chytridiomycetes: Aseptate
- Production of enzymes, cheese
• Zygomycetes: Aseptate
• Deuteromycetes: Septate 3. DIMORPHIC FUNGI combination of the yeast and mold
- 37oC: yeast
Classification (Sexual Spores) - In vivo: yeast
• Ascomycetes : Ascospore - 25oC: mold
• Basidiomycetes : Basidiospore - Ex.
• Chytridiomycetes : Oospore 1. Histoplasma capsulatum [causes histoplasmosis]
2. Sporothrix schenckii [causes sporotrichosis]
• Zygomycetes : Zygospore
3. Coccidioides immitis [causes coccidioidomycosis]
• Deuteromycetes :
4. Blastomyces dermatitidis [causes blastomycosis
5. Fleshy fungi [mushrooms] edible
None Classification (Asexual Spores)
• Ascomycetes : Conidiospore Significance
• Basidiomycetes : Rare 1. Decomposition
• Chytridiomycetes : Motile zoospore - For human consumption either in raw form or as used in industry
• Zygomycetes : Nonmotile sporangiospore 2. Antibiotics [penicillin and cephalosporin] Cyclosporine
• Deuteromycetes : Conidiospore
MYCOSES causes by fungi
1. Superficial
Classification
- outermost areas of the human body

1. YEAST 2. Epidermis
- Responsible for fermentation - usually acquired by direct contact skin to skin or open wounds
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2. Slime mold
4. Superficial Dermatophytes - fungal and amoeba character

- causes tinea infections Diagnostics

- Ex. 1. Dx for yeast: Biochemical test they use a lot of chemicals to
a. Tinea pedis (feet) confirm that something is cause by yeast
b. Tinea unguium(nail) 2. Dx for molds: Macro and microscopic examination
c. Tinea barbae (face) 3. Dx for other mycoses: Immunodiagnostic procedure including skin
test
d. Tinea corporis (body)
e. Tinea crucis (underarm) SUMMARY
f. Tinea capitis (head) 1. Acellular agents
g. Candida albicans (thrush or vaginitis) opportunistic
- Viruses, Prions, Viroids
4. Cutaneous
- dermis and underlying tissue deeper part of the system; blood, 2. Cellular
veins, nerves - Prokaryotes: Bacteria
- exposure is common but infection is rare - Eukaryotes: Protozoa, algae, fungi
5. Systemic
- inhalation or direct implantation
- zygomycosis and mucormycosis
- Rhizopus and Mucor

Cultivation
1. Sabouraud’s agar
- preferred in isolating fungi from mixed sample

Therapeutics
1. Nystatin
2. Amphotericin B

Variations
1. Lichens
- combination of Algae and fungus
 AUTOTROPHS
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC - organisms that can make its own food

Microbial Growth Requirements

Outline Energy
Source
Nutritional Carbon LIGHT (photo) CHEMICAL
Requirements source COMPOUDS (chemo)
Atmospheric
Requirements
Temperature Carbon PHOTOAUTOTROPH CHEMOAUTOTROPH
Photoautotrophs are organisms that can produce their own foods using other
Dioxide use light energy and inorganic chemical
Requirements carbon to produce organic obtains energy through chemosynthesis
[auto] materials. rather than by photosynthesis.
Moisture
Ph Organic PHOTOHETEROTROP CHEMOHETEROTROP
the consumers; they need to
Compounds H consume H they use other organic compouns to
Osmotic Pressure other organisms for
live (EX: consume photoautotrops)
[hetero] them to live
Barometric Pressure

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Autotrophs
means
NUTRIENTS – refers to the various chemical compounds that organism can
inorganic make its own
organisms utilize in order to sustain life. sourve food
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS – Materials that the organism is unable to
synthesize but are require for sustaining life. needed kasi di natin kaya Heterotrophs
break down
iproduce materials that
organic they obtain
molecules from other
organisms

C - arbon
H - ydrogen
Six major elements
O - xygen +
ATMOSPHERIC REQUIREMENTS OOMFA
N - itrogen Other and trace elements
S - Sulfur + Classifications according to relationship to oxygen:
Vital macromolecules of life OBLIGATE AEROBE
P – hosporus
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

• Needs oxygen to survive • can live with oxygen but may limitation, higher than
• [20-21% or room air] limitation, mamamatay.
• Mycobacterium specie
OBLIGATE ANAEROBE CAPNOPHILES (carbon)
• Grows in absence of oxygen • Grow better in the increased level of carbon dioxide.
• Clostridium spp.
TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS
MICROAEROPHILE
• little to low only concentration of oxygen. THREE CARDINAL TEMPERATURES
• Requires O2 at 5%
1. MINIMUM GROWTH REQUIREMENT – at which

Inn
• Neisseria gonorrhea
microorganisms grow best lowest lowest that a bacteria can live or growth ceases

Inn
• Helicobacter Pylori
2. OPTIMUM GROWTH REQUIREMENT – below which, growth
FACULTATIVE ANAEROBE ceases best environment or temperature where bacteria would flourish or grow
3. MAXIMUM GROWTH REQUIREMENT – above which,
• Grow with or without O2 in which a bacteria could live at 90 degrees temperature but
destruction occurs dies at 90 degrees above
• 0-21% O2
• E. coli
Components of Microorganism affected by temperature:
• kaya nilang mabuhay with or without oxygen
• Protein
• Lipids

GROUP MINIMUM OPTIMUM MAXIMUM

Psychrophile -5 10 to 20 30
Mesophile 10 20 to 40 45
Thermophile 25 50 to 60 113
Hyperthermophile 85 to 130 [geogemmabarossiiaka strain 121]
geogemma barossii aka strain 121
AEROTOLERANT ANAEROBE
• Can grow equally well in absence of O2. PSYCHRODURIC ORGANISMS
• Lactobacilli • Survive or endure very col environment.
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC
THERMOPHILE
THERMODURIC ORGANISMS - can live at high temperature
Survive boiling
HYPERTHERMOPHILE
- can live at extreme
MESOPHILE temperature
• Human body temp

MOISTURE

• All living organisms require water to carry out their normal

metabolic processes. • Movement of solvent from higher concentration to lower area.
TONICITY
• Concentration on blood.
pH
ISOTONIC SOLUTION -- same solute concentrations inside and outside the cell.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
• Acidity or alkalinity of solution. • equal concentration, equal number of H and N. outside and inside.
• Water leaves nor enter the cell. Cell: H - water inside
N – salt and sodium chloride
tend to live at highest PH
ALKAPHILES HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
• number of solute is lower compared inside to the cell, bursting,
CELL BURSTING. - has lower concentration of solutes and higher
NEUTROPHILES neutral or balance PH concentration of water
• Results in hemolysis or plasmoptysis - solution has less osmotic pressure than cell
- Cell swells = it can bursts (lysis- destruction)

ACIDOPHILES tend to live at lowest PH

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
- lower solute concentration inside
• Results in crenation plasmolysis. and higher water concentration
• lower no. of solvent, crenation – nangangyayat than the surrounding solution.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE - cells shrinks = crenation

dictates the movement of solutions inside and outside

OBLIGATE HALOPHILES
• Pressure that is exerted on a cell membrane outside the cell.
• Grown on in salty environment
OSMOSIS
HALODURIC MICROORGANISMS
anwmmmrnrnnnn
• Movement of solvent from lower area to higher concentration.
- is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane
from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration.
- exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure, which is the force required to
prevent movement of water across cell membrane '
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

• Do not prefer but are capable of living in salty environment.

BAROMETRIC

• Normal Atmospheric pressure [14.7 PSI]

BAROPHILES
• Thrive in deep ocean
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

PHYSICAL METHODS • Preparation of canned food

• Microbiological culture media
• Dry heat, steam under pressure, chemicals, radiation
STAGES OF MICROBIAL GROWTH
DISINFECTION (non-living objects)
Bacterial Population and Growth Phases • Destruction or removal of pathogens from nonliving objects by
physical or chemical methods
LAG PHASE
• Pasteurization, alcohol or bleach, UV light
• Period of little or no cell division.
• Last 1 hour or several days -- adaptation
no growth and reproduction
ANTISEPSIS (for skin and tissue)
• Synthesize of enzymes - flat-like • Destruction or removal of pathogens in the skin or other tissue.
- no increase of bacteria
• Iodine, alcohol
LOG PHASE Logarithmic - actively dividing
SANITIZATION (for utensils - public)
• Begins to divide and grow
• Disinfecting utensils used by publics.
• EXPONENTIAL GROWTH PHASE • Lowering microbial counts to safe public health levels.
• Cellular reproduction is most active
MICROBICIDAL VERSUS MICROBISTATIC
STATIONARY PHASE - has growth and reproduction
• Slow growth rate MICROBICIDAL (cidal = kills or destroy)
• Drug or chemical that kills or destroy microorganisms
• Death and growth is EQUAL.
• Stable MICROBISTATIC (static = inhibits or stops growth and reproduction)
• Drug or chemical that inhibits growth and reproduction of
DEATH PHASE -- rate of dying is equal to the rate of dividing
death is greater than reproduction microorganisms.
• Logarithmic decline phase SEPSIS
• Number of deaths exceeds the number of new cells. • Presence of pathogens

ASEPSIS
INHIBITING THE GROWTH OF MICROORGANISMS IN VITRO • Absence of pathogens
Two methods of MICROBIAL CONTROL
ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE
1. STERILIZATION (for microorganisms)
• Exclusion or elimination of pathogens
• Handwashing, sterile PPE’s, sterile PPE’s, use of disinfectants
• Massacre or complete destruction of all microorganisms.
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

ASEPTIC - Boiling [exposure to material to 10-30 minutes] [unsafe

• Environment free of contamination drinking water, materials for babies, food preparation and
• E.g. surgical field utensils] - can be relied for disinfection but not sterilization
- autoclaving [121 degrees Celsius, 15 PSI 2 atm, 15-20
HEAT minutes]
• Most practical, efficient, inexpensive - use to pressure temp. to destroy spore formers.
ACTION - [Clostridium tetani, clostridium botulinum]
- Denatures proteins - Effective for oils, waxes, powders, and heat-resistant

÷
Not Effective in ^
- Interferes with the integrity of the cytoplasmic membrane materials
and cell wall - Pasteurization, destruction of microorganisms that
- disrupts the function and structure of nucleic acids causes spoilage without ruining the taste of liquid.
HEAT - High Temperature Short Time HTST – 72 degrees
- Microorganisms vary their susceptibility Celsius for 15s
- Time, temperature, and mixture - Ultrahigh-High Temperature UHT – 134 degrees Celsius
- E.g. using Bunsen burner, using an electric device for 1s
- Thermoduric and thermophilic microorganisms survive
:

THERMAL DEATH POINT pasteurization

- Lowest temperature that kills all cells in a broth in 10 - Use for milk, ice cream, yogurt, fruit juices
minutes. DRY HEAT
- Time it takes to completely sterilize - Hot air, incineration
- Higher temperature allows shorter exposure times. : HOT AIR
- 160-165 degrees Celsius for 2 hours
DECIMAL REDUCTION TIME - 170-180 degrees Celsius for 1 hour
Trophozoites - reactive
- Time required to destroy 90% of microbes - Rubber, paper, and many types of plastics, may oxidize
Spores - inactive
INCINERATION
MOIST HEAT - To sterilize inoculating loops flammable contaminated
- Applied in the presence of moisture, more effective, faster, medical waste and diseases carcasses.
lower, heat - Bunsen burner and electric heating device.
- Denatures proteins, destroys cytoplasmic membrane COLD
- Refrigeration or freezing
- Slows growth of cultures and microbes in food during
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

- Slow freezing, rapid freezing 1. MOIST - [boiling, autoclaving, pasteurization]

- For food preservation 2. DRY – [hot air, incineration]
- Lyophilization or freeze dying [methods of preserving for
- COLD
many years] (instant sublimation)
1. Refrigeration
- Desiccation [proper wound dressing disposal, careful 2. Freezing – [slow, rapid]
rolling of bed linens and towels, damp dusting of furniture,
wet mopping] (removal of moisture or lost of water) - DESSICATION
1. LYOPHILIZATION (freeze-drying)
UV RADIATION
- Passes readily through air slightly through air, slightly thru - RADIATION
liquids, and only poorly liquids, and poorly thru solids
- ULTRASONIC WAVES
- [X- ray and gamma radiation] – beef pork, chicken, fruit,
and vegetables - FILTRATION (for heat sensitive material : vitamins, and enzymes)

- GASEOS ATMOSPHERE

- Ultrasonic waves [high-frequency sound wave to CHEMICAL METHODS OF MICROBIAL GROWTH

mechanically dislodge organic debris on instrument and
glassware FACTORS THAT AFFECTS CHEMICAL AGENTS
- Filtration [heat sensitives materials such as antibiotics,
vaccines, liquid enzymes] [surgical masks and HEPA - Prior cleaning of objects
filters] - Organic load - biologic substances that contaminate certain
substance (e.g. blood)
- Bioburden
GASEOUS ATMOSPHERE - Concentration
- Wounds likely to contain anaerobes are opened - Contact time – more contact time more disinfectant activity
- Gas gangrene debridement + antibiotics + Hyperbaric - Physical nature – smooth surfaces are easier to disinfect
oxygen chamber - Temperature The higher the temp the shorter the time
- pH
PHYSICAL METHODS
- HEAT
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

❖ Stronger and more effective antimicrobial chemical agents are

of limited usefulness. the stronger they are the more side effects they could give
- it can effect to bacterias and human
➢ USE – DILUTION TEST (measure efficacy of disinfectants and antiseptics)
• measures efficacy of disinfectants and antiseptics against
LEVEL OF SUSCEPTIBILITY specific microbes
• measures efficacy of disinfectants and antiseptics against
MOST RESISTANT specific microbes:
- Prions – most resistant S. aureus
- Bacterial endospore P. aeruginosa
- Mycobacteria – cell wall contains fatty acid S. choleraesuis
- Cyst of protozoa
- Active-stage protozoa – more active than cyst Process:
- Gram-negative bacteria • Researcher dips several metal cylinders into broth cultures of
- Fungi bacteria and dries them at 37degrees celsius.
- Nonenveloped viruses
- Gram-positive bacteria • Immerse dried cylinder into disinfectants of different dilutions
- Enveloped viruses – most susceptible • Rinse with water after 10 minutes to remove excess chemicals
• (Growth in the cylinder – ineffective) 48 hours of incubation
MOST SUSCEPTIBLE

• Susceptible - they can’t grow if the drug is present. This means ➢ DISK-DIFFUSION METHOD evaluate the efficacy of chemical agents
the antibiotic is effective against the bacteria. • Used in teaching laboratories to evaluate the efficacy of
• Resistant - the bacteria can grow even if the drug is present. chemical agents.
This is a sign of an ineffective antibiotic. Process:
• A disk of filter paper is soaked with a chemical and placed on
MEASURE EFFECTIVENESS an agar plate inoculated with the test organism
• A clear zone representing inhibition of growth can be seen
➢ PHENOL COEFFICIENT - use to compare chemical into phenol or carbolic acid around the disk
• measure of the bactericidal activity of a chemical compound in
relation to phenol (carbolic acid) • (Zone of inhibition is a circular area around the spot of the
• a coefficient greater than 1.0 indicates that the agent is more antibiotic in which the bacteria colonies do not grow. The zone
effective than phenol, and the larger the ration, the greater the of inhibition can be used to measure the susceptibility of the
effectiveness bacteria towards the antibiotic.)
• ex. CHLORAMINE
S. aureus – 133.0 Refer to the figure Disk Diffusion Method
S. enterica – 100.0 Hexachlorophene
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

unable to kill E. coli - g (-) - Disagreeable odor and possible side effects.
zone of inhibition is shown in S.aureus – g(+)
2. ALCOHOL (ineffective against spores)
P. aeruginosa – most resistant - intermediate-level disinfectants which is effective as
bactericidal, fungicidal, and virucidal but ineffective against
➢ IN USE TEST (in-time or realistic determination of chemical’s efficacy) fungal spores or bacterial endospores.
- realistic but time-consuming method for determining the higher than 70% percent of alcohol can damage skin
efficacy of a chemical (Determines the efficacy of ACTION
materials). - denature proteins and disrupt cytoplasmic membranes
(same as phenol)
TYPES OF DISINFECTANTS (PAHOSHAG)

ADVANTAGE
1. PHENOL AND PHENOLICS - Leaves no residue (meaning alcohols evaporates leaving
no residue behind).
a) PHENOLICS
- compounds derived from phenol molecules that have been DISADVATAGE
chemically modified by the addition of halogens or organic - they may not contact microbes long enough to be effective
functional groups (because alcohols evaporate rapidly).
- TRICLOSAN – Phenol and safeguard
EXAMPLE OF USE
b) BISPHENOLICS - 70% to 90% alcohol – for example, Rubbing Alcohol
- Composed of two covalently linked phenolics such as - Swabbing the skin with alcohol prior to an injection (to
hexachlorophene, orthophenylphenol and triclosan. disinfect the skin which is the site of injection) 100% alcohol
is not effective. It needs to be diluted in aqueous solution.
ORHTOPHENYPHENOL – phenol in Lysol - Dilution – addition of water to reduce the strength
TRICLOSAN – phenol in safeguard
3. HALOGENS
ACTION - four very reactive, nonmetallic chemical elements which
- Intermediate to low level disinfectants that denature are intermediate-level antimicrobial chemicals.
proteins and disrupt cell membranes.
ADVANTAGE
- Effective even in the presence of contaminating organic
materials and remain active on surfaces for a prolonged EFFECTIVE AGAINST:
period. • Vegetative bacterial cells
• Fungal cells
DISADVANTAGE • Fungal spores
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

• Bacterial endospores • Sodium hypochlorite – bleach; most common and disinfect

• Protozoan cyst blood stain
• Many viruses • Chlorine dioxide
• Chloramine
Halogens include the following elements:
• Iodine c) BROMINE
• Chlorine - Effective disinfectant in hot tubs bc it evaporates more
• Bromine slowly than chlorine at high temp
• Fluorine – most electronegative element - Good alternative to chlorine
• Halogens belong to the Group 7 of the periodic table - Has brown suffocating odor

ACTION d) FLOURINE
- exact action is unknown but is thought to participate in - Antibacterial in drinking water and toothpaste
denaturation. - 0.5 to 1 mg or L is the permissible limit of fluorine in
drinking water.
a) IODINE TABLETS - DENTAL FLUOROSIS – excessive se of fluorine
- used in the potability of water. Potable – microbial number
is enough to be safe for drinking
MEDICAL USE: 4. OXIDIZING AGENTS
- Disinfectant, usually 2-7 % - High-level disinfectants ad antiseptics that are particularly
- Potassium iodide or sodium iodide and elemental iodine, effective against anaerobic microorganism.
dissolved in a mixture of ethanol and water [tincture] E.G
- As an iodophor: an iodine containing organic compounds - HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
that slowly releases iodine containing organic compounds Most common, most effective in inhibiting anaerobes in
that slowly releases iodine. deep wounds.
- Surgery, burns, injections OZONE
❖ Good example of an iodophor is polyvinylpyrrolidone [PVP] PERACETIC ACID
❖ Betadine – most effective antiseptic in medical practice.
5. SURFACTANTS
b) CHLORINE TABLETS - “surface active”
- Used in potability of water - Chemical that is reduce the surface tension of solvents
- Amount of residual chlorine to ensure bacteriological becomes more effective at dissolving solute molecule.
safety of water is 0.1 [parts per million. e.g.
Chlorine Compounds soap
• Calcium hypochlorite - One end of soap molecule is hydrophobic and the other
end is hydrophilic.
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

- Hydrophobic [water-fearing], Hydrophilic [water-loving] - Inexpensive and easy to prepare for use
- It must be stable
6. HEAVY METALS - It must be fast-acting and have a broad antimicrobial spectrum
- Low level bacteriostatic and fungistatic agents - Broad spectrum – kills both gram positive and gram-negative
E.g. organisms Spectrum - range of microorganisms that are killed
• Silver nitrate – anti gonococcal (gonorrhea) by antimicrobials.
• 1% Silver Nitrate – used before in ophthalmia neonatorum
• New: Erythromycin
• Silver sulfadiazine – used in burns ➢ Phenols
• Thimerosal – contains mercury; used in vaccine - Phenolics
• Copper - Bisphenolics

7. ALDEHYDES ➢ Alcohols
E.g. - Ethanol
• 2 solutions glutaraldehyde - Isopropanolol
- More preferred, less toxic,
- Used in cleaning medical equipment ➢ Halogens
- Formaldehyde - Iodine
- Chlorine
8. GASEOUS AGENTS - Bromine
- High level chemical method that is used to sterilize heat and - Fluorine
water sensitive objects.
E.g. ➢ Oxidizing Agents
• Ethylene oxide – used in gas sterilization for heat sensitive - Hydrogen Peroxide
materials - Ozone
• Propylene oxide - Peracetic Acid
• Beta- propiolactone
➢ Surfactants
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL CHEMICAL AGENT - Soap

- Must kill pathogens within a reasonable period and in specified ➢ Heavy Metals
concentration - Silver Nitrate
- Not toxic to human tissues and not corrosive and not - Silver Sulfadiazine
destructive to materials - Thimerosal
- Must be soluble to water and easy to apply - Copper
MC 101NUR Microbiology and Parasitology - LEC

➢ Aldehydes
- Glutaraldehyde
- Formaldehyde

➢ Gaseous Agents
- Ethylene Oxide
- Propylene Oxide
- Beta-propiolactone