ASEAN in Business & Social Science - MALAYSIA

Naginder Kaur
Mahyudin Ahmad Editors
Charting a
Sustainable Future
of ASEAN in Business
and Social Sciences
Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on the Future of ASEAN
(ICoFA) 2019—Volume 1
Charting a Sustainable Future of ASEAN
in Business and Social Sciences
Naginder Kaur Mahyudin Ahmad
•
Editors
Charting a Sustainable Future

of ASEAN in Business
and Social Sciences
Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on the Future of ASEAN
(ICoFA) 2019—Volume 1
123
Editors
Naginder Kaur Mahyudin Ahmad
Universiti Teknologi MARA Universiti Teknologi MARA
Perlis Branch, Malaysia Perlis Branch, Malaysia
ISBN 978-981-15-3858-2 ISBN 978-981-15-3859-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3859-9
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Contents
1 Developing the Framework Model in Teaching and Learning

Al-Ḍamīr Based on the Sequence of Students’ Acquisition in
Arabic Language Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Ummi Syarah Ismail, Nazri Atoh, Majdah Chulan,
Abdul Basir Awang, and Ahmad Tahir Hamid
2 Unifying Social Media APIs to Sustain Quality English
e-Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Noorfaizalfarid Mohd Noor, Mohamad Fadhili Yahaya,
and Nor Hidayah Abdullah
3 Drop Shipping Business via Instagram: An Epidemic Model
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Noorzila Sharif, Siti Nur Aisyah Abu Bakar, and Ku Azlina Ku Akil
4 Visual Communication, Photography-Based Research:
A View from Case Study of Phototherapeutic Influence
in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Ellyana Mohd Muslim Tan, Ruslan Abdul Rahim,
Muhammad Fauzan Abu Bakar, Noraziah Mohd Razali,
and Safrina Muhammad Azmi
5 Contribution–Classicizing Popular Songs of P. Ramlee
for the Flute and Guitar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Siti Hajar Mohamad Seperah and Sharifah Faizah Syed Mohammed
6 Determination Suitability in Comparing Selected Physical Fitness
Components among Young Athletes between Age Groups and
Gender during Talent Identification Process in Malaysia . . . . . . . . 57
Mohd Syafiq Miswan, Ellail Ain Mohd Aznan,
Ahmad Dzulkarnain Ismail, Siti Jameelah Md Japilus,
and Mohd Zaid bin Mohd Ghazali
v
vi Contents
7 Performance of Local Hotels: A Case of the Malaysian

Local Brand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Syazwani Ya, Mohamad Niza Md Nor, Noraini Nasirun,
Zulaiha Ahmad, and Noor Farhana Md Saad
8 Interpersonal Communication Skill and Da’wah Fardiyah
Approach in Sustainable Islamic Spiritual Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Noraini Ismail, Mardzelah Makhsin, Syuhaida Idha Abd Rahim,
Basri Abd Ghani, and Nor Alifah Rosaidi
9 Persistent Poverty Based on Three Dimensions in HDI . . . . . . . . . . 87
Amirul Iman Mohd Jazid and Patmawati Ibrahim
10 Issues and Challenges Contributing to Complexity
in Infrastructure Project Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Akhtarul Norfaiza Che Nen, Che Maznah Mat Isa,
Christopher Nigel Preece, and Che Khairil Izam Che Ibrahim
11 The Role of Service Quality on Muslim Customer Satisfaction:
A Case of Sustainable Umrah Industry in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Mohamad Niza Md Nor, Syazwani Ya, Zulaiha Ahmad,
Nurwahida Fuad, Ahmad Nizan Mat Noor,
and Khumaizi Kamarulzaman
12 National Interest Versus Regional Interest:
The Case of Transboundary Haze Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Dona Rofithoh Don Ramli and Rugayah Hashim
13 Examining Off-campus Students’ Housing Preferences
between Public and Private University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Nor Ain Mohd Mustafa Kamal, Thuraiya Mohd,
and Norhayati Baharun
14 Quality Education for Sustainable Development in Indonesia . . . . . 145
Sr Yuliani and Dicki Hartanto
15 Sport Participation Motivation among Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia Athletes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Nor Nandinie Mohd Nizam Edros and Tajul Arifin Muhamad
16 Walking Environment: Silhouettes Versus Shades . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Ruwaidah Borhan, Siti Syamimi Omar, and Atikah Fukaihah Amir
17 Perceived Sensory Dimension for Mental Health and Well-Being:
A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Azi Izwani Nor Hamzah, Lee Chia Kuang, Zetty Ain Kamaruzzaman,
and Nubli Abdul Wahab
Contents vii
18 Students’ Perceptions of Education for Sustainable Development

(ESD) to Achieve SDG 4 in Indonesia: A Case Study
of Universitas Islam Riau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Prima Wahyu Titisari, Elfis, Irina Safitri Zen, Yani Hendrayani,
Indry Chahyana, Khairani, Nadiatul Janna, Nunut Suharni,
and Tika Permata Sari
19 The Impact of Nearpod Interactive Learning Platform in Quality
Accounting Education for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Azrul Abdullah, Mohamad Fadhili Yahaya,
and Norshamshina Mat Isa
20 ASEAN as an Inclusive Community: Identifying and Overcoming
the Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Muhammad Anwar Mohd Nor, Mohd Nor Mamat,
Siti Fatahiyah Mahamood, and Muhammad Munir Mohd Nor
21 Halal Cosmetics Adoption among Young Muslim Consumers:
A Case Study in Kulim, Kedah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Nurul Atikah Kamarudin, Wan Mohd Farid Wan Zakaria,
Wan Muhd Faez Wan Ibrahim, Syed Khusairi Tuan Azam,
and Mohd Hafizan Musa
22 An Analytical Study of Mosques and Public Spaces: Integration
Space for Spiritual and Community Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Wan Noor Anira Wan Ali, Norasikin Hassan, Marina Abdullah,
Masthurhah Ismail, and Noraini Johari
23 ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025: Mainstreaming the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities: Lessons for Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Ikmal Hisham Md. Tah and Muhamad Nadhir Abdul Nasir
24 A Literature Review on Housing Supply Price Elasticity
for Kuala Lumpur Apartments/Condominiums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Noryanto Asroun Mohamad Asroun, Mohd Hasrol Haffiz Aliasak,
and Mohd Afandi Abu Bakar
25 Employees’ Performance and Working Environment
at a Workplace in Terengganu, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Suzila Mat Salleh, Norchahaya Johar, Siti Fatimah Mardiah Hamzah,
Noor Hafiza Mohammed, Hani Sakina Mohamad Yusof,
Ahmad Suffian Mohd Zahari, and Ferozah Haini Mohamed Ahmad
26 Manufacturing SMEs Sustainable Practices: Operationalization
of Sustainable Value Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Peter Yacob, Suresh Nodeson, Chew Fong Yee, and Mei Ling Sai
viii Contents
27 Adaptability of SMEs Owners’/Managers’ Environmental

Attitude and Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Peter Yacob, Mohamad Fared, Nurliyana Maludin, Nur Syaheeda,
Adi Wira, and Darren Peter
28 An Overview of Real Estate Modelling Techniques for House
Price Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Thuraiya Mohd, Nur Syafiqah Jamil, Noraini Johari,
Lizawati Abdullah, and Suraya Masrom
29 ASEAN’s Rohingya Dilemma: Limits of Regional Co-operation . . . 339
Rubiat Saimum
30 Revisiting MSME Cartel Under Competition Act 2010
in Malaysia: The Thin Line Between Collusion
and Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Angayar Kanni Ramaiah
31 Identification of Key Leadership Criteria Critical to SDG3
Success: Linking QFD and the Triple Helix Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Harshita Aini Haroon and Norshahrizan Nordin
32 Using the ASSURE Model in Developing an English Instructional
Module for Indonesian Migrant Workers in Penang, Malaysia . . . 383
M. Arif Rahman Hakim, Mohamad Jafre Zainol Abidin,
and Nur Ilianis Adnan
33 Acceptance of Food Waste Recycling Products among Public
toward Sustainable Food Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Noorazlin Ramli, Nur Sabrina Rosli, Faraezwantie Abdul Wahap,
Wan Nazriah Wan Nawawi, and Hayati Adilin Mohd Abd Majid
34 Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived Usefulness, and Behavioral
Intention: The Acceptance of Crowdsourcing Platform by Using
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Rosmiza Izyaty Mohd Amir, Idaya Husna Mohd, Shatina Saad,
Sharidatul Akma Abu Seman, and Tuan Badrol Hisham Tuan Besar
35 An Evaluation of Customer Rating, Online Review, and
Management Response in Measuring Budget Hotel Performance:
A Case of Seri Pauh Natural Motel, Perlis, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Zulaiha Ahmad, Syazwani Ya, Kamsol Mohamed Kassim,
Nurul Farihin Mhd Nasir, Nurwahida Fuad,
and Hasrul Nizam Hamsani
Contents ix
36 Systematic Literature Review on the Essential Items in a Grab

Bag for Flood Risk Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Mohamad Haizam Mohamed Saraf,
Sayed Muhammad Aiman Sayed Abul Khair, Thuraiya Mohd,
Farid Al Hakeem Yuserrie, and Asniza Hamimi Abdul Tharim
37 The Essential Items Needed in a Grab Bag by Flood Victims
in Kuala Krai, Kelantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Thuraiya Mohd, Asniza Hamimi Abdul Tharim,
Sayed Muhammad Aiman Sayed Abdul Khair,
Farid Al Hakeem Yuserrie, Fadhlizil Fariz Abdul Munir,
and Mohd Nasurudin Hasbullah
38 The Influence of Personality Differences on Job Burnout among
Medical Doctors in Public Hospitals: A Review of the Literature
and Model Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Nor Farehan Omar and Aizzat Mohd Nasurdin
39 Organizational Climate, Management Support, Workplace
Relationships, and Job Stress among College Workers . . . . . . . . . . 453
Nik Azlina Nik Abdullah, Rozihana Shekh Zain, Ismalaili Ismail,
Ahmad Aqram Azuha, and Siti Farhana Hasanudin
40 A Compilation and Analysis of Key Criteria for Land Bank
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Sharifah Nurul Akhilah Syed Mustorpha
and Tuan Badrol Hisham Tuan Besar
41 Sex Education for Children: A Betterment Pathway for ASEAN
Member States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Nur Ain Yaacob, Ainatul Fathiyah Abdul Rahim, Nurul Afzan Najid,
Rafizah Mohd Noor, and Nursyahida Zulkifli
42 Achieving Environmental Sustainability through Good
Regulatory Practice (GRP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Nursyahida Zulkifli, Nurul Afzan Najid, Rafizah Mohd Noor,
Ainatul Fathiyah Abdul Rahim, and Nur Ain Yaacob
43 Malaysia’s 14th General Election Dilemma: Candidate or Party,
the Case of Sepanggar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Al Hafiz Awang and Mohammed Rahezzal Shah Abdul Karim
44 The Role of Institutions in the Politics of Poverty Eradication
Programmes: The Case of Sabah, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Sitti Aisyah Orlando and Firdausi Suffian
x Contents
45 Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Food Safety Hazards

among Street Food Handlers towards Sustainability of Food
Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Hayati Adilin Mohd Abd Majid, Mufida Syasnim Mohd Sa’ad,
Norshafinas Mohd Noor, Noorazlin Ramli,
Wan Nazriah Wan Nawawi, and Jazira Anuar
46 The Level of Payment Mode and Advertising on Consumer
Buying Behaviour among Lecturers at Public Higher Learning
Institutions in Perlis, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Tengku Aroal Hawa Delaila Tengku Ahmad, Nurul Izzati Mohd Noh,
and Asmiza Osman
47 Goods and Services Tax (GST) Transition to Sales and Services
Tax (SST): Impact on the Welfare of B40 and M40 Households
in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Suriyani Saidi and Mukaramah Harun
Chapter 1
Developing the Framework Model
in Teaching and Learning Al-D.amı̄r
Based on the Sequence of Students’
Acquisition in Arabic Language
Curriculum
Ummi Syarah Ismail, Nazri Atoh, Majdah Chulan, Abdul Basir Awang,
and Ahmad Tahir Hamid
Abstract This study aims to develop a framework to design a model in teaching and
learning al-d.amı̄r based on the sequence of students’ acquisition in Arabic language
curriculum. Undoubtedly, the teaching and learning models in Arabic language have
expanded. However, these models still had not been able to overcome students’ dif-
ficulties in acquiring the Arabic language, especially in grammar aspect. This is
because most of the models are too general and are not able to identify the diffi-
culties in acquiring Arabic language among students. Consequently, it contributes
to students’ failure to understand Arabic language effectively. The researchers have
conducted a test in sentence constructions among 205 UiTM Perlis Malaysia stu-
dents who took Introductory Arabic III in order to develop this framework model.
Group Score Method (GSM), which was introduced by Dulay and Burt (Lang Learn
23(2):245–258, 1973) and Krashen (Mod Lang J 1(67), 1982), was used to design
this descriptive quantitative study. The findings revealed that there were clear dif-
ficulties among students regarding al-d.amı̄r acquisition sequence. Therefore, the
implementation of the al-d.amı̄r framework based on this sequence model is a new
innovation in the field of Arabic grammar and is expected to contribute to the Arabic
language education curriculum. It is also important for the academicians to develop
an established Arabic curriculum. Furthermore, this study will also contribute to the
development of systematically teaching and learning Arabic language that will give
a positive impact in Arabic pedagogy in order to enhance students’ understanding
and overcome their difficulties in learning al-d.amı̄r Arabic language.
Keywords Development · Model · Sequence · Acquisition · Al-D

. amı̄r
U. S. Ismail (B) · M. Chulan · A. B. Awang · A. T. Hamid

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perlis Branch, Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
e-mail: ummi@uitm.edu.my
N. Atoh
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

N. Kaur and M. Ahmad (eds.), Charting a Sustainable Future of ASEAN in Business
and Social Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3859-9_1
2 U. S. Ismail et al.
1.1 Introduction
There is a difference between al-d.amı̄r or pronoun in Arabic and Malay language.

Among the differences, there are many categories of al-d.amı̄r in Arabic language,
while in Malay language there are only three categories. There are categories of
al-d.amı̄r in Arabic by number ( ), i.e., mufrad ( ), muthannā ( ), and jama‘
( ). For example, al-d.amı̄r “ ” (he) for al-d.amı̄r mufrad (singular), “ ” (both
of them) for al-d.amı̄r muthannā (dual), and “ ” (all of them) for al-d.amı̄r jama‘
(plural). There are also categories of al-d.amı̄r by genus, i.e., mudhakkar ( ) and
mu’annath ( ), for example, al-d.amı̄r “ ” (he is for men) and “ ” (she is for
women).
There are also differences between al-d.amı̄r al-munfas.il ( ) (detach pro-
noun) and al-d.amı̄r al-muttas.il ( ) (attach pronoun) which differ from the aspect
of its use in the verse. For al-d.amı̄r al-munfas.il ( ) (detach pronoun), it is used
as a subject ( ) in the example sentence “ ” (he is a teacher). If al-d.amı̄r
is not in the position of the subject or not at the beginning of the verse, al-d.amı̄r
al-muttas.il (attach pronoun) is used, for example, “ ” (his teacher is beau-
tiful). This distinction also affects the students in learning Arabic al-d.amı̄r. This is
because the category of al-d.amı̄r mentioned is not in Malay language. The difference
between al-d.amı̄r categories in Arabic and Malay language is very clear, as shown
in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2.
Mu’annath ‫ُﻣ َﺆﻧﱠﺚ‬

(feminine) &
mudhakkar ‫ُﻣ ّﺬ ﱠﻛﺮ‬
(masculine)
Mufrad ‫( ُﻣ ْﻔ َﺮﺩ‬sin-
gular), Muthannā Munfaṣil
‫( ُﻣﺜَﻨﱠﻰ‬dual) & Jama ِ َ‫ ُﻣ ْﻨﻔ‬, muttaṣil
‫ﺼﻞ‬
‘‫( َﺟ َﻤﻊ‬plural) ‫ﺼﻞ‬ ِ ‫& ُﻣﺘﱠ‬
mustatir‫ُﻣ ْﺴﺘَﺘِﺮ‬
al-Ḍamīr
Category in
Arabic
Language
Mutakallim
‫ُﻣﺘَ َﻜﻠﱢﻢ‬ Ghā’ib ‫ﻏَﺎﺋِﺐ‬
(first pronoun) (third pronoun)
Mukhāṭab ‫ُﻣﺨَﻄﱠﺐ‬
(second pronoun)
Fig. 1.1 Al-D

. amı̄r category in Arabic language
1 Developing the Framework Model in Teaching and Learning … 3
Al-Ḍamir
Category in
Malay Language
Third pronoun
First pronoun
Second pronoun
Fig. 1.2 Al-D

. amı̄r category in Malay language
This can be seen through the findings of previous studies such as studies, con-
ducted by Ismail et al. (2014) and Normila Norudin. Norudin et al. (2014) found that
students were still weak using al-d.amı̄r in sentences. Mohd Nor (2000) stated that
the percentage of students’ mistakes in al-d.amı̄r usage was high. Among the highest
students’ mistakes were the mistakes of using al-d.amı̄r in the verb position, d.amı̄r
al-jarr (genitive) in the noun position, and al-d.amı̄r al-munfas.il ( ) in the case
of accusative ( ).
Mat (2000) stated that most students were still weak in the mastery of al-d.amı̄r,
especially al-d.amı̄r al-bāriz al-muttas.il, al-d.amı̄r al-mustatir, al-d.amı̄r al-ghā’ib,
and d.amı̄r al-nas.b. His research also found that the use of al-d.amı̄r al-munfas.il was
easier than al-d.amı̄r al-muttas.il. Students were found to have failed to use al-d.amı̄r
which was appropriate according to Arabic grammar, such as using d.amı̄r al-raf
’(munfas.il) at d.amı̄r al-jarr (muttas.il) position as “ ” (I buy
for all of you this food.) (Ismail @ Yaakub et al. 2012). Therefore, based on this
problem, a model of teaching and learning that is appropriate with the students’
ability is necessary to facilitate teaching and learning in Arabic language.
1.2 The Sequence of Acquisition of Al-D

. amı̄r in Arabic
Language
The sequence of acquisition of Arabic al-d.amı̄r means the sequence of al-d.amı̄r

is highly used and rarely used. Highly used means it is easy to use, while rarely
used means it is difficult to use. Dulay and Burt (1974) explain the acquisition of
grammatical structures and formulas for second language students is in natural order
and predictable. This is because according to Chomsky, biologically a human being
has been endowed with the ability to acquire language naturally, and this is known
as universal grammar (natural grammar). Chomsky states that a human has been
endowed with innate mechanism (called language acquisition device/LAD) which is
a tool that receives input that determines what needs to be mastered first like sounds,
words, and others (Cook 1988; Jumhana 2014; Guat 2006).
The development of this model is based on the previous studies which stated some
of the grammatical structures are obtained in sequence either earlier or otherwise
(Krashen 1982; Bahrani 2011). This is because there are grammatical structures that
are easy to master and there are some difficult to acquire (Abukhattala 2012). The
previous language researchers have done much research on the acquisition of a second
language or foreign language based on the order itself or morpheme acquisition order
(Kwon 2005; Dulay et al. 1982; Ellis 1994, 1997).
The sequence of morpheme acquisition has existed from the 70s to the 80s and
widely done in language studies, especially in English (Izumi and Isahara 2004).
However, studies on morpheme acquisition in the field of Arabic grammar, were
difficult to find. There were studies on mastery in the field of Arabic grammar but
they did not examine the order of morpheme acquisition. Arabic grammar studies
have touched many aspects of students’ mistakes and comparative studies.
Izumi and Isahara (2004), Dulay et al. (1982), and Ellis (1997) stated that the study
of this sequence is important because language learners need to know the order or
sequence of language structure proficiency. By having this knowledge, it helps the
educators and academics to develop a curriculum in a more complete sequence of
instruction. Moreover, it further helps to develop more effective teaching methods or
approaches as well as to enhance the understanding and to reduce students’ mistakes
in learning (Kwon 2005).
1.3 Population and Sample
The population refers to a group of subjects that have the same characteristics or
specific criteria determined by the researcher. The sample of the study was a group
of subjects taken from one population. This study used a stratified sampling pro-
cedure. Creswell (2008) described a coordinated random sampling strategy (strata)
was used when the researchers divided (stratify) the population based on specific
characteristics or differences. Then, simple random sampling was carried out for the
sample selection from each subgroup of the population, while Piaw (2011) stated
that sampling of random sampling strategies refers to the heterogeneous sampling
framework, for instance, subjects of various types or sub-samples such as race gender
and so on.
Therefore, the study population consisted of Bachelor’s Degree students at UiTM
Perlis who took the Introductory Arabic III course from September to January 2018
semester. Before taking the course, these students were required to enroll in Intro-
ductory Arabic I course and Introductory Arabic II course. The students who had
the basic knowledge of Introductory Arabic I and II courses were selected to enroll
in the course. There were 437 students who had taken Introductory Arabic III in the
September–January 2018 semester. These students were selected from four differ-
ent faculties: Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Faculty of Business, Faculty of
Applied Science, and Faculty of Computer Science.
The sample size was taken based on Krejcie and Morgan (1970) who explained
that if the population is 440, then the appropriate sample size is 205. Therefore, the
sample of respondents involved in the study was 205 students from a population of
437 students. The selection of sample study was based on the following criteria:
i. Students from the ages of 20 to 24 years.
ii. Students from different faculties.
iii. Students from different years of study.
iv. Students who had the knowledge of basic Arabic language.
1.4 Limitation of This Study
This study focuses on the order of acquisition of al-d.amı̄r. Therefore, the sentence
construction test is focused on the basic topics of Arabic as given below:
i. al-d.amı̄r al-munfas.il ( ) which only involves d.amā’ir raf ’munfas.ilat
( ) as a subject ( ) in the sentences.
ii. al-d.amı̄r al-muttas.il ( ) which only involves d.amā’ir nas.b muttas.ilat
( ) as an object ( ) in the sentences and d.amā’ir jarr
muttas.ilat ( ) as possessive pronouns.
iii. The sentences consist of subject ( ) and predicate ( ). The basic structure
of subject and predicate of the sentence is the single sentence of the noun (NP)
and the predicate of a single noun (NP) and noun subject sentence (NP) and the
predicate verb (VP).
1.5 Research Design
To further strengthen the development of this framework model, researchers con-

ducted sentence-building tests to students aimed at identifying the sequence of acqui-
sition of Arabic al-d.amı̄r. This study was conducted using descriptive quantitative
design. The test instrument for sentence constructs, Group Score Method (GSM),
introduced by Dulay and Burt (1973) and Krashen (1982) was used in order to obtain
the data. The frequency of proper use of al-d.amı̄r in the compulsory (obligatory)
context was calculated in GSM. The expectation score for each al-d.amı̄r was identi-
fied by the number of times it appeared in the mandatory context. An appearance was
obtained with a score of two points. For example, if there are 12 al-d.amı̄r, it means
the score is 24. Next, the learners’ score was calculated based on the number of
Table 1.1 Score category

Student use category Score
Correct 2
Incorrect (omission of a al-d.amı̄r) 0
Inaccurate (an erroneous al-d.amı̄r) 1
times the correct al-d.amı̄r was incorrectly used. When al-d.amı̄r was used correctly,
two points were given, and if an erroneous al-d.amı̄r was used, one point was given,
while for the omission of a al-d.amı̄r/rudimentary type of error, 0 point was given.
An example of this analysis technique can be seen in Table 1.1.
Score points will be calculated as follows:
Learning Score × 100

Score al-ḍamīr =
Expectation Score
Expectation score = frequency of al-d.amı̄r in obligatory context × 2 and learning

score = correct number used × 2 + incorrect number × 0 + less accurate number
× 1.
After the data have been collected through the GSM formula, the researchers
analyze the data using IBM SPSS statistical software. The results of the data analysis
can identify the highly used and rarely used sequence of al-d.amı̄r acquisition.
1.6 Findings and Discussion
The findings of this study are the results of data analysis from the tests given to
students who evaluated the highly used and rarely used sequence of al-d.amı̄r al-
munfas.il and al-muttas.il. It can be seen in Table 1.2.
Based on Table 1.2, the findings of the study show that the first order of acquisition
of the students is d.amā’ir raf ’munfas.ilat with a mean score of 87.70, followed by
d.amā’ir jarr muttas.ilat with a mean score of 34.35, and the latter is d.amā’ir nas.b
muttas.ilat with a mean score of 19.80. This means the students found that it was
Table 1.2 The D . amā’ir D

. amā’ir N Mean Standard deviation
Munfas.ilat and Muttas.ilat
score D
. amā’ir Raf‘ 205 87.70 16.82
Munfas.ilat score
D
. amā’ir Jarr 205 34.35 27.74
Muttas.ilat score
D
. amā’ir Nas.b 205 19.80 23.76
Muttas.ilat score
easier to use d.amā’ir raf ’munfas.ilat than d.amā’ir jarr muttas.ilat and d.amā’ir nas.b
muttas.ilat. However, d.amā’ir nas.b muttas.ilat is the most widely used.
Hence, based on the results of the study presented above, it can be summarized
as follows:
i. Students feel easier to use d.amā’ir raf ’munfas.ilat than d.amā’ir jarr muttas.ilat
and d.amā’ir nas.b muttas.ilat.
ii. Students are more likely to use d.amā’ir jarr muttas.ilat than d.amā’ir nas.b
muttas.ilat.
1.7 Framework Model
The findings of the study show that a model of al-d.amı̄r teaching and learning
framework is based on the sequence of students’ acquisition. It can be seen from
Fig. 1.3.
Fig. 1.1 shows that the teaching and learning process of al-d.amı̄r is based on
the first and the last sequences. Early sequences are introduced or learned first.
In this study, the findings show that d.amā’ir raf ‘munfas.ilat should be introduced
before d.amā’ir jarr muttas.ilat and d.amā’ir nas.b muttas.ilat. Next, students need to
be introduced to d.amā’ir jarr muttas.ilat and how to use them in sentences. On the
other hand, d.amā’ir nas.b muttas.ilat should be introduced after the students have
well-mastered d.amā’ir raf ’munfas.ilat and d.amā’ir jarr muttas.ilat. Next, students
should be given more input on al-d.amı̄r and its use in sentences to enhance students’
Teaching and The first The rare

Learning Based on al-Ḍamīr al-Ḍamīr
al-Ḍamīr Acquisition Introduced Introduced
Order
Input al-Ḍamīr
Student Monitor Process

Using al-Ḍamīr Correctly
in Sentence
Output
Fig. 1.3 Model of Al-D. amı̄r teaching and learning framework based on student acquisition order
in Arabic language curriculum
understanding and mastery in learning. Through the process of monitoring, students

can distinguish al-d.amı̄r and its use in the sentences correctly. Brown (1994) and
Krashen (1982) explain that the monitor can alter system output or results obtained
before and after the oral or written utterances. The monitor will appear in one’s
mind to determine whether to use the mudhakkar or mu’annath nouns in the verse
(Setiyadi and Salim 2013).
1.8 Conclusion
A model of al-d.amı̄r teaching and learning framework based on the sequence of

students’ acquisition was established. This model is a new innovation in Arabic
language education. It can provide guidance to Arabic researchers, educators, and
academicians to develop a curriculum in the order of al-d.amı̄r which corresponds
to students’ abilities of learning Arabic. In addition, it can impact the pedagogues
in developing a more effective teaching method or approach to enhance the under-
standing and reduce students’ mistakes in Arabic al-d.amı̄r learning. Although the
study focuses on the title of al-d.amı̄r, this model is also suitable for other Arabic
grammatical titles. Through this framework model, a systematic procedure in the
implementation of pedagogy in Arabic grammar is shown.
References
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classes. English Language Teaching 6(1):128–131. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n1p128
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Social Science 7(10):281–284. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v7n10p281
Brown HD (1994) Principle of language learning and teaching. Prentice Hall Regents, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey
Cook VJ (1988) Chomsky’s universal grammar, 1st edn. Basil Blackwell Ltd., Oxford, UK
Creswell JW (2008) Educational research planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research. Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey
Dulay H, Burt M (1973) Should we teach children syntax. Language Learning 23(2):245–258
Dulay H, Burt M (1974) Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. Language Learning
24(1):37–53
Dulay H, Burt M, Krashen S (1982) Language two. Oxford University Press, New York
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Oxford
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Ta’dib 8(2):265–280
Chapter 2
Unifying Social Media APIs to Sustain
Quality English e-Learning
Noorfaizalfarid Mohd Noor, Mohamad Fadhili Yahaya

and Nor Hidayah Abdullah
Abstract Today, e-learning has been considered as a contemporary approach in

managing classes beyond the ordinary traditional classroom. Some educators have
struggled to explore and adapt such an approach in their teaching, especially in
selecting materials that suit not only the subject matter experts but also the learners.
Meanwhile, self-learning is not only recommended but also considered to be the
next best option for students. However, finding the right source of content for both
the educators and the learners is challenging. Consequently, social media feeds are
considered as they can be used to attain materials for teaching and learning. On that
basis, this paper aims to use social media content as e-learning materials in teaching
and learning English. A prototype was developed to unify all recognized cumulative
contents on Facebook, Instagram, YouTube and Twitter in a single web application.
The social media feeds in the prototype were generated from the application pro-
gramming interface (API) service and have been used as supplementary materials
to the learning and teaching of English. To assess this approach, 35 respondents
of UiTM Perlis Branch were asked to identify the perceived usefulness (PU) and
perceived ease of use (PEOU). The results showed that the prototype not only can
provide an additional source of materials to learn English but also had a good interac-
tive design to the users. Nevertheless, there were some indications that the prototype
needed to be improved to increase its effectiveness on the teaching and learning of
English. Eventually, using social media API in providing English teaching materials
has the potential to assist educators and learners in reducing the gap while embracing
a contemporary approach to education.
Keywords Application programming interface · e-learning · English language ·

Social media
N. Mohd Noor (B) · M. F. Yahaya · N. H. Abdullah

e-mail: nfaizalf@uitm.edu.my

12 N. Mohd Noor et al.
2.1 Introduction
Students have been acknowledged as digital natives who possess cognitive skills in
the digital platform through online collaborative features in Internet-based appli-
cation (Qi 2019). According to Schmidt and Brown, a combination of online
and traditional classrooms could improve the quality of a teaching and learning
environment (Schmidt and Brown 2004).
The existence of online classrooms has transformed the outlook of learning and
teaching. One of the elements that has been affected greatly is the learning and
teaching content of the classroom. The reliance on the traditional sources of content
has been found to limit the dynamics of the classroom. This has led to the call on the
use of more dynamic materials in the form of social media content.
Generally, social media content can also be incorporated in the learning of English
using e-learning platform. Social media applications or social network sites (SNS)
which are regularly known as Web 2.0 applications allow Internet users to create and
exchange their content in the written, graphic, audio and video forms in an informal
manner (Schmidt and Brown 2004; Kaplan and Haenlein 2010). The applications
are accessible and shared to the public at regular intervals. The total followers or like
clicks will be used as a rating factor to determine the popularity and the effectiveness
of the content. This kind of rating enables social media users to choose the best content
for their learning. Nevertheless, due to the richness of content, there is a need to refine
social media content as a preferred reference for the learning of English (Kaplan and
Haenlein 2010).
Social media contributes to a new pedagogy known as Pedagogy 2.0 (Mcloughlin
and Lee 2010). According to Farkas, Pedagogy 2.0 changes the classroom styles to
a ‘student-centred’ approach where students take the initiative to interactively learn
(Farkas 2012). Social media applications as teaching and learning tools also consent
the students to become prosumer of knowledge (Mcloughlin and Lee 2008; Tess
2013).
The use of social media, to a certain extent, is supported by social constructivism
theory (Qi 2019). According to this theory, the learner and the teacher play an active
role in teaching and learning. The interaction through social media can assist the
learners in the construction of knowledge. This is compounded with the idea that the
learners will be interacting and negotiating not only with their teachers but also with
their peers. On that basis, the use of social media can help students to learn certain
topics better.
According to Bai, English educators must improve their practices by searching
for a new teaching model, exploring the strategic method and achieving an effective
English learning (Bai 2018). Using e-learning, they may be able to develop a new
style of learning with varieties of online materials. However, this can probably lead to
issues in relation to the usefulness and ease of use of e-learning materials. Therefore,
this study attempts to answer the following research questions:
a. What is the perception on the usefulness of the prototype?
b. What is the perception on the ease of use of the prototype?
2 Unifying Social Media APIs to Sustain Quality English e-Learning 13
2.2 Methodology
2.2.1 Prototype Development
E-learning prototype known as ENGENIOUS was developed for English e-learning

using application programming interface (API) in Facebook, YouTube, Instagram
and Twitter. It is a web-based application composed of four main English learning
pages: writing, listening, speaking and reading.
The API is a dedicated computer programme which functions as a mediator to
furnish metadata for third-party application so that it can read, store and manipulate
digital traces of social media users (Lomborg and Bechmann 2014). All the APIs
from the SNS were embedded in the prototype based on the related account or pages.
Facebook API Facebook API is known as Graph API. It is the primary method to get
data and information from and beyond the Facebook platform. It is an HTTP-based
API that enables the applications to automatically query data, transfer photographs,
manage advertisement, post new stories and perform a variety of other tasks. For the
purpose of this study, the contents from many Facebook pages were retrieved.
To start with, Graph API was registered as a developer account in the Facebook
Developer site. The developer was granted permission to use many types of Social
Plugin. To get the Facebook Page content, Page Plugin was applied. Page Plugin
would generate the API code for each of the inserted Facebook Page’s URL. The
code was embedded with the prototype to display the page content. Figure 2.1 depicts
the generated code.
YouTube API YouTube Data API V3 is a YouTube API that gives access to YouTube
information, for example, playlists, videos and channels. The YouTube Data API is
incorporated on the YouTube site into developer site or application.
To use the API, a registered developer can access the Google API Console. Using
the console, an API Key is requested and a token is given to access an individual
channel. In this study, YouTube videos were used as the content for the prototype.
<div class="single-blog-area mb-100 wow fadeInUp" data-wow-delay="250ms

<iframe src="h ps://www.face-
book.com/plugins/page.php?href=h ps%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2FGram-
marUpdates&tabs= meline&width=3500&height=500&small_header=false&adapt_con-
tainer_width=true&hide_cover=false&show_facepile=false&ap-
pId=2199110550401892"width="850" height="500" style="border:none;overflow:hidden"
scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" allow="encrypted-me-
dia"></iframe>
Fig. 2.1 Facebook API code

The videos were listed using Playlist ID. Playlist ID was required to generate the
code for the prototype. Figure 2.2 shows the generated API code.
Instagram API Instagram Graph API is part of the Facebook Developer site which
allows the developer to automatically connect to the Instagram accounts. It effectively
manages media, views metadata and comments and gets experiences with custom-
assembled applications. In Instagram, the developer is known as a Manual Client.
The API requires authentication of the requests made on behalf of a user. The
authenticated request requires an access token. However, the access token is only
valid for a certain period. To embed Instagram page, the API code is generated
when a username is inserted. Figure 2.3 displays the generated Instagram API code
embedded in the prototype.
Twitter API Account Activity API is a simple Twitter platform for developer. The
registered developer inserts the URL of the Twitter page to generate the embedded
code. Figure 2.4 depicts the API code for the prototype.
<div class="single-blog-area mb-100 wow fadeInUp" data-wow-delay="500ms">

<iframe src='h ps://www.sociablekit.com/app/embed/index.php?embed_id=23035'
frameborder='0' width='100%' height='500'></iframe>
Fig. 2.2 YouTube API code

<iframe src='h ps://www.sociablekit.com/app/embed/index.php?embed_id=23039'
frameborder='0' width='100%' height='500'></iframe>
Fig. 2.3 Instagram API code

<a class="twi er- meline" href="h ps://twi er.com/londongr am-
mar?ref_src=twsrc%5E w" data-width="850" data-height="500">Tweets by londongram-
mar</a>
<script async src="h ps://pla orm.twi er.com/widgets.js" charset="u -8"></script>
Fig. 2.4 Twitter API code

2.2.2 Prototype
The prototype was developed as a web application. It contained six pages (main page,
writing page, listening page, speaking page, reading page and about page) that can be
linked using the top-right menu as shown in Fig. 2.5. To discuss English e-learning,
the writing page, listening page, speaking page and reading page were included for
the embedded API code to retrieve the social media contents.
The Learning Pages In this prototype, four pages (writing, listening, speaking and
reading) were embedded with predefined social media APIs. All the contents were
selected based on the title in the social media accounts or pages. Table 2.1 describes
the total number of social media content on each page.
Figure 2.6 represents the look of social media contents in the learning page.
Fig. 2.5 Main page for ENGENIOUS (Abdullah 2019)
Table 2.1 Number of SNS contents in the learning pages

Learning page Facebook Instagram Twitter YouTube
Writing 5 1 6 1
Listening 5 2 4 1
Speaking 8 1 3 1
Reading 7 1 3 1
Fig. 2.6 The arrangement of social media contents in page writing (Abdullah 2019)
2.2.3 Prototype Evaluation
In order to identify and explain the factors that affect the acceptance level of integrat-
ing social media content in English e-learning application, technology acceptance
model (TAM) was used. TAM is a common theoretical framework to explain and pre-
dict technology acceptance behaviour in e-learning (Abdullah et al. 2016). Perceived
usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) are the two variables in TAM.
PU was used to identify the level of effectiveness of the application while PEOU
measured the level of users’ rating on the ease of use of the application (Abdullah
et al. 2016; Davis 2013).
Evaluations were conducted on 5 lecturers and 30 students of UiTM Perlis Branch
during the March–July 2019 semester. Two types of questionnaires based on PU
and PEOU were used to collect the result from the users as shown in Table 2.2.
The respondents responded according to the Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly
disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree).
Table 2.2 PU and PEOU questionnaires

Perceived usefulness (PU)
1 Using ENGENIOUS enables me to retrieve English learning
material quickly
2 Using ENGENIOUS improves English learning material
retrieval performance
3 Using ENGENIOUS increases users’ productivity
4 Using ENGENIOUS enhances my effectiveness in retrieving
English learning material
(continued)
Table 2.2 (continued)

5 Using ENGENIOUS makes English learning material
retrieval easier
6 I find ENGENIOUS a useful e-learning tool
Perceived ease of use (PEOU)
7 Learning to operate ENGENIOUS is easy for me
8 I find it easier to get ENGENIOUS to do what I want it to do
9 My interaction with ENGENIOUS is clear and understandable
10 I find ENGENIOUS to be flexible to interact with
11 It is easy for me to become skilful at using the ENGENIOUS
12 I find ENGENIOUS easy to be used
2.3 Result
This section discusses the perception of the respondents on the usefulness of the
prototype as well as on the ease of use of the prototype.
2.3.1 Prototype Evaluation
The prototype was evaluated by 35 respondents. Tables 2.3 and 2.4 show the average
score of the respondents of each scale and mean for each question for PU and PEOU,
respectively.
From the PU and PEOU evaluations, it can be found that an average number of
the respondents fairly accepted that the ENGENIOUS was useful and friendly in
providing learning material for the e-learning of English.
The result of the respondents who indicated their disagreement would be
significant in improving the product.
2.4 Discussion and Conclusion
The literature showed that students and SNSs have established a good relationship in
embarking new social cognition of learning through Internet technology. The use of
e-learning has become the catalyst of change for both educators and students as they
approach teaching and learning. It also led to wider opportunities for educational
institutions to innovate their approaches in disseminating information to their stu-
dents. At the same time, the richness of information offered by social media can fill
the gap in supplying teaching and learning materials. The ubiquity of social media
Table 2.3 PU result

Perceived usefulness Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Average
disagree agree score
1 ENGENIOUS – 5 27 3 – 2.94
enables me to
retrieve
English
learning
material
quickly
2 ENGENIOUS – 4 7 21 3 3.66
improves
English
learning
material
retrieval
performance
3 ENGENIOUS – 3 19 8 5 3.43
increases
users’
productivity
4 ENGENIOUS – 4 16 12 3 3.4
enhances my
effectiveness in
retrieving
English
learning
material
5 ENGENIOUS – 1 14 15 5 3.69
makes English
learning
material
retrieval easier
6 I find – 5 13 11 6 3.51
ENGENIOUS
a useful
e-learning tool
Average 3.44
content allows English courses to use e-learning platforms that could be more inter-
active for students and, at the same time, provide opportunities for English educators
to improve their teaching skills.
Scholars found that the APIs are the mediators to retrieve social media metadata
from SNSs. Theoretically, it can incorporate e-learning and social media content
from SNS platforms. The regular interval feed from related social media users can be
retrieved in real time and can enrich the materials for the classroom. The customiza-
tion of APIs in e-learning development has managed to retrieve and accumulate
Table 2.4 PEOU result

Perceived ease of use Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Average
disagree agree score
1 Learning to – 6 13 10 6 3.46
operate the
ENGENIOUS
is easy for me
2 I would find it – 4 9 19 3 3.6
easy to get
ENGENIOUS
to do what I
want it to do
3 My interaction 2 3 10 15 5 3.51
with
ENGENIOUS
is clear and
understandable
4 I find – 4 7 17 7 3.77
ENGENIOUS
to be flexible
to interact with
5 It is easy for – 2 11 16 6 3.74
me to become
skilful at using
the
ENGENIOUS
6 I find – 2 18 10 5 3.51
ENGENIOUS
easy to use
Average 3.60
related content in a single application. Thus, this can reduce the hassle for educators
and students to use social media content for learning and promoting a more conducive
learning.
In this paper, e-learning based on social media content prototype has been devel-
oped. The prototype used the contents from Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and
YouTube in a single web-based application for English learning. The API codes
were embedded in the prototype according to the English learning categories, such
as writing, listening, speaking and reading.
Evaluations based on the PU and PEOU were conducted involving educators
and students. The result literally showed that respondents generally accepted that
the prototype can provide English learning materials using social media contents.
The design of the prototype seemed to be user-friendly. As for the PU result, the
identification of the social media contents from the accounts or pages may not be
related or interesting to the respondents. As for the PEOU result, the presentation of
the menu and content needed to be improved so that they would be more interactive
and easy to be used.
Based on the preliminary study, a survey is suggested to be done to identify the
preferred social media accounts or pages among the respondents. The result can be
used to update the APIs in the prototype.
References
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1016/j.chb.2012.12.032
Chapter 3
Drop Shipping Business via Instagram:
An Epidemic Model Approach
Noorzila Sharif, Siti Nur Aisyah Abu Bakar, and Ku Azlina Ku Akil
Abstract In business, a dropship or an agent is an intermediary between suppliers

and customers where he/she will get the commission or profit from markup price
through the online selling. A dropship does not own any stocks or products for the
business but takes possession in the business distribution process. Meanwhile, viral
marketing is a marketing technique that induces social media users to spread detailed
information about a certain product or service. This technique is very powerful since
it takes a very short time to reach potential customers. Instagram is one of the effective
social media platforms in providing a good environment for disseminating informa-
tion by using image posts. However, the effectiveness and the strength of certain
promotion for every product that has been posted on Instagram are uncertain. Some
might go viral and some might not. The purpose of this study is to investigate the
dynamics of drop shipping business through Instagram in a given period of time. The
epidemic model being applied in this study consists of a system of three differential
equations with three state variables, namely the number of followers, the number of
people reach the contents, and the number of people stops visiting the profile. The
parameters involved are the message transmission rate between the reachable follow-
ers and the registered followers and the recovery rate between the reacted followers
and the reachable followers. The data was collected from the dropship Instagram
account, babykids.branded_shoppe. There are four categories of products: attire set,
dress, shoes, and backpack. Each product has several items. The attire set, dress,
shoes, and backpack consist of nine, five, six, and three items, respectively. The
solution of the model was obtained using MATLAB software. The results showed
that message transmission reaches its peak within 2 days. The value of the basic
reproduction number shows that a few items were viral among Instagram followers.
Keywords Epidemic model · Instagram · Drop shipping business · Viral marketing
N. Sharif (B) · S. N. A. Abu Bakar · K. A. Ku Akil

e-mail: noorzila@uitm.edu.my
S. N. A. Abu Bakar
e-mail: aisyah_abakar@yahoo.com
K. A. Ku Akil
e-mail: kuazlina@uitm.edu.my

22 N. Sharif et al.
3.1 Introduction
Before the existence of Internet, social media was all about television, radio, news-
papers, and magazines. The concept is a one-way communication where a sender
delivers a message to a receiver but nothing flows back to the sender. The purpose
of this type of communication is to provide information or to entertain but cannot
interact. After the presence of Internet, the social media platform turns to Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, and others. The aim of this type of social media is to create a
two-way communication between individuals, communities, and organization. Thus,
this type of communication is very essential in business purpose.
An online business, which is also known as e-business, is a business where the
transaction is conducted through social media. In business, intermediaries are exter-
nal groups, individuals, or firms that link the supplier to the customers. They can
be categorized into four which are dropship (or agent), wholesaler, distributor, and
retailer. A dropship will get the commission or profit from markup price through
online selling. A dropship does not own any stocks or products for the business but
he/she takes possession in the business distribution process. Most of the time, people
join a drop shipping business when a product is trending. For them, it is an opportunity
to grab while the product is on high demand. However, there are some people who
join the business because of their interest in the products, their hobby, and friends or
family’s suggestion or due to other people’s business that seems interesting and get
high profit all the time.
An individual dealing with an online business applies viral marketing as a tech-
nique to spread or to forward the marketing message to online customers. The mate-
rials to be viral are usually in many formats such as video type, messages, pictures,
and songs. This marketing strategy concentrates on users of social media. Whenever
the customer receives the message, they may share the message, and hence influ-
ence others to spread the message until it becomes viral (Leskovec et al. 2007). The
increasing usage of broadband and Internet services leads to an increasing trend for
viral marketing (Shashikala and Mahapatro 2015).
Nowadays, Instagram is a trending social media platform that is made for sharing
photos and videos and also for directing message from a smartphone. Like other
social networking platforms, Instagram also enables a user to see other user’s posts
that will be displayed in their news feed if they follow the person; otherwise, the posts
will be displayed in discovery. Among all the features that Instagram can provide for
boosting a business account are hashtags, Instagram stories, highlight, and Instagram
ads (Marks 2018). A popular technique that is usually being used to personify their
brand is the branded hashtag. It is like a common language or style for captions in
their every post. It allows people to stay connected with the community that has the
same interests and then engage with potential customers. Even though Instagram
is one of the effective social media platforms in providing a good environment for
disseminating information by using image posts, the effectiveness and the strength of
certain promotion for every product that has been posted on Instagram are uncertain.
Some might go viral and some might not. Thus, the study needs to be conducted so
3 Drop Shipping Business via Instagram: An Epidemic Model Approach 23
that the promotion reaches the goals of marketing. The main objective of this study is
to investigate the dynamic of drop shipping business through Instagram. This study
provides advantages to the marketers especially those who have no experience in the
business. They are able to predict the appropriate time to post the product category,
especially during festive seasons. This also let them to know the impact of every post
of the product according to the time. Thus, the marketers can identify the customer’s
preference and demand and increase the sales with greater audience’s attention.
3.2 Literature Review
The population dynamics underlying the diffusion of idea and opinion is of not
much difference to disease infections (Bettencourt et al. 2006). The infection of
disease starts when a person is infected and is spread through contact. Thus, when
an individual has a contact with an infected person, she or he will become infected.
When there is an absence of the susceptible or infective, this infection process will
stop. The study applying the mathematical theory of epidemics has been inspired by
W. O. Kermack and A. G. Mc Kendrick in 1927. The population is divided into three
groups which are the susceptible, the infective, and the recovered. The susceptible
are those who are not infected and not immune; the infective refers to those who are
infected and actively transmitting the disease. The people who have been infected
and are immune to the diseases are called the recovered. The model is known as the
Susceptible-Infected-Recovered (SIR) and has been extensively used for modeling
of infectious diseases, such as dengue (Asmaidi et al. 2014; Side and Salmi 2013),
tuberculosis (Kalu and Inyama 2012; Side et al. 2017), and Ebola (Baujakjian 2016;
Rachah and Torres 2012).
The SIR model has also been remarkably applied in the field of network and
informatics. The observation on online social networks, viral marketing, audience
applause, and diffusion of ideas has been conducted to investigate the rumor spreading
and to explore the influence of the rumors (Cannarella and Spechler 2014; Zhao et al.
2013). The SIR model is used to mimic the key properties of spreading cascade in
a file-sharing process on peer-to-peer networks. Besides, this model is also applied
to understand the spreading mechanism of computer viruses to create a powerful
antivirus software (Rodrigues 2016).
Viral marketing has been categorized as the stealth of a marketing strategy. The
electronic word of mouth is able to help a company to have the lowest cost of
promotion, a rapid increase in the business credibility, increased visibility toward
the market, and improved format flexibility (Eckler and Rodgers 2010). Epidemic
model in marketing is a viral message where the message being sent and received
widely from person to person is transmitted by the target market (Gardner and Weaver
2013).
The posting action from the Internet forum users will affect instant infection and
reaction to other users (Woo and Chen 2012). When a user begins a conversation or
uploads a status, he or she becomes infective. The users who have an interest in the
24 N. Sharif et al.
topic that will read and post comments on the status are called susceptible. Some of
them will post another status about the same topic. Hence, this will influence other
people with information from their posts. At a certain time, the possibility of some
users losing interest and stop joining the topic discussion can happen. Therefore, this
will reduce the power of infection to others.
3.3 Methodology
3.3.1 Data Collection
The data was collected from the dropship Instagram account,

babykids.branded_shoppe. The dropship business deals with kid’s fashion wear
and accessories. There are four categories of products: attire set, dress, shoes, and
backpack. Each product will be available in a different week. One product for each
week. The first week of this study started with attire set and followed by dress in
the second week. For the third and fourth week, shoes and backpack have been
uploaded.
Each product has several items. The availability of the items for each product
might be varied. The attire set, dress, shoes, and backpack consist of nine, five, six,
and three items, respectively. The numbers of items uploaded on a particular day
might be one, two, or three. Sometimes, none of the items are available. The starting
time to upload the items is set to be at 8:30 a.m., as soon as the item is available. If
more than one item available, the items will be uploaded separately one after another.
The data was monitored in insights option on Instagram. In insights option, there
are three categories, which are activity, content, and audience. Instagram provides
weekly data showing information on those three categories. For activity, the data
provided are interaction type and discovery type. In interaction type, there are profile
visits and website clicks. Website clicks are the link of the phone number that has
been clicked by the customers. For those who are attracted by the posts, they will go
to the profile as recorded in profile visits. In discovery, the data provided are reach
and impressions. Reach denotes to the number of people in the unique account who
see the contents in the post. However, not all of the followers are interested to see
every content being posted. An impression refers to the total number of time that all
posts have been seen no matter it was being clicked or not. For the content category,
the data being shown is the total number of feed posts, stories, and promotions. For
audience category, the number of followers, top locations, age range, gender, and the
average time the follower is on Instagram are being provided.
The average time (in hours) that the followers spend their time on Instagram and
the highest number of followers active per day are stated in the follower’s insight.
Thus, the peak time (day) can be obtained. The followers comment for all the posts
in a week is known as interaction. The content is being delivered to someone’s feed.
Table 3.1 Information on the products posted on the dropship Instagram account,
babykids.branded_shoppe
Attire set Dress Shoes Backpack
Items post 9 5 6 3
Number of followers 21,033 21,219 21,349 21,449
Profile visits 4 11 21 10
Website clicks 1 15 7 5
Reach 2146 2251 2076 2011
Impressions 7472 9687 8419 7317
Interaction 75 5 10 10
A user could have multiple of impressions for a single piece of the content being
posted on Instagram. The data is listed in Table 3.1.
3.3.2 Data Analysis
In the context of the drop shipping business, the Instagram population has been
divided into three groups: the number of followers (S), the number of people who
reach the post (I), and the number of people who stop visiting the profile (R). The
number of followers in the first group refers to those who do not reach the post yet.
Once the followers reach the post, they will be categorized in the second group. Here,
the followers might at least see the post and forward the post to another user. The
followers who are interested in the post will end up visiting the profile to seek further
information. Once the interaction is complete, the follower is expected to leave the
profile. These users are considered in the third group.
Those three groups are illustrated in Fig. 3.1.
Parameter β represents the infectivity that partially controls the transmissibility of
the number of followers who receive and forward the posts to the number of people
who reach any post. Parameter γ indicates the recovery state of people who reache
the content of transmission to people who have done or stopped visiting the profile.
The other parameters involved in this study are listed in Table 3.2.
Let
S(t) be the number of followers at time t,
I(t) be the number of people who reach the post at time t, and
Fig. 3.1 An illustration of

the Instagram population for
drop shipping business
26 N. Sharif et al.
Table 3.2 Parameter and description

Parameter Description
D Duration of promotion to be stopped
τ Carrier state which is given by the ratio of the number of followers and the number
of people who reach the posts
ρ The contact rate among followers per period of time
Q The number of interaction
R(t) be the number of people who stop visiting the profile at time t.
The total Instagram population N at time t is fixed and is given by
N (t) = S(t) + I (t) + R(t). (3.1)
This study assumes that the decreasing rate in the number of followers is equivalent
to the product of the number of followers and the number of people who reach the
posts. Thus, the reduction in the number of followers per period is as follows:
d S(t)
= −β S(t)I (t). (3.2)
dt
This study also assumes that the rate of change of people who are done visiting
the profile is proportional to the number of people who reach the posts. Hence, the
change in the profile visits is given by
d R(t)
= γ I (t). (3.3)
dt
Since the total population is constant, differentiating Eq. (3.1) gives
d N (t) d S(t) d I (t) d R(t)

= + + = 0. (3.4)
dt dt dt dt
The change in the size of the number of people who reach the posts can be written
as
d I (t) d S(t) d R(t)
=− − , (3.5)
dt dt dt
or
d I (t)
= β S(t) − γ I (t). (3.6)
dt
Thus, the dynamics of each group as time evolves is governed by the following
system of differential equations:
dS
= −β S I,
dt
dI
= (β S − γ )I, (3.7)
dt
dR
= γ I,
dt
subject to the initial conditions
S(0) = S0 , I (0) = I0 and R(0) = 0. (3.8)
The basic reproduction number is calculated as follows (Rodrigues 2016):
β
R0 = . (3.9)
γ
The value determines the virality of each item posted. If R0 < 1, it indicates that the
number of people who reach the posts will decrease, and thus the item is not viral. If
R0 > 1, it signifies the number of people who reach the posts among the population
will increase, and hence the item is viral. If R0 = 1, the number of people who reach
the posts among the population remains constant.
3.4 Results and Discussion
The system of differential equations in Eq. (3.7) is solved using MATLAB software.
The values of the parameters are displayed in Table 3.3.
The initial conditions are
S(0) = 19,000, I (0) = 2000 and R(0) = 0. (3.10)
The time evolution of each product posted online for 7 days is presented in Fig. 3.2.
Table 3.3 The values of parameters for each product

Parameter Attire set Dress Shoes Backpack
D 7 7 7 7
τ 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
ρ 1.0 0.7143 1.4286 1.4286
Q 7 5 10 10
β 0.11 0.0786 0.16 0.16
γ 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
28 N. Sharif et al.
Attire Set Dress
Shoes Backpack
Fig. 3.2 The time evolution of Instagram population for each product posted
Item 3 Item 9
Fig. 3.3 The time evolution of Instagram population for the posted items 3 and 9 of attire set
Table 3.4 The value of the reproduction number for each item
Item Attire set Dress Shoes Backpack
1 0.64 0.79 1.0 0.43
2 2.29 1.07 0.36 0.36
3 2.79 0.79 0.43 0.86
4 0.50 0.36 1.71
5 0.50 0.64 0.71
6 0.64 0.57
7 0.50
8 1.86
9 0.36
For an attire set, the number of followers drops to zero on day three. The followers
who reach and share the contents spread quickly through the population to more than
16 thousand followers in 2 days. More than 11 thousand followers stop visiting the
profile on day seven. For a dress, the number of followers drops to zero in 5 days and
becomes constant until the last day of the promotion. The followers who reach and
share the contents spread slowly compared to the attire set, reaching more than 15
thousand followers in 3 days. About 11 thousand followers stop visiting the profile
on day seven. For shoes and backpack, the number of followers who reach and share
the contents reaches the peak almost in 2 days. The number of followers drops to
zero in two-and-a-half days and becomes constant. About 12.1 thousand followers
stop visiting the profile on day seven.
The value of the reproduction number for each item is listed in Table 3.4.
This value reveals that for attire set, items 2, 3, and 8 are viral among the followers.
Items 2 and 3 were uploaded on the same day and both items were able to attract the
followers. Items 4 and 5 were also uploaded on the same day but none of them were
able to attract the followers. The same situation occurred for items 6 and 7. However,
for items 8 and 9, only the first item uploaded was viral.
For dress, items 2 and 3 were uploaded on the same day but only the first item
uploaded was viral among the followers. The same patent also occurred for shoes
in the third week. Items 1, 2, and 3 were uploaded on the same day, and items 4, 5,
and 6 on another day. In two different days, only the first item uploaded (items 1 and
4) was viral. For the backpack, all of the items were uploaded on the same day, but
none of them went viral. It seems that a backpack is not popular among followers.
Among all items posted, item 3 of attire set is recorded as the most viral item
(reproduction number, 2.79). Meanwhile, item 9 of attire set, item 4 of dress, item 2
of shoes, and item 2 of the backpack are the least viral item with the reproduction
number, 0.36. Figure 3.3 shows graphs of two different items, the most and the least
viral post. For item 3, the number of followers drops to zero in 1 day, but for item
9, it takes more than 7 days to drop to zero. The post of item 3 reaches almost all
followers on the first day. For item 9, the post reaches the highest number of followers
30 N. Sharif et al.
(only about 15,000) on the fifth day after upload. On the seventh day, about 12,500
followers visit the profile for item, 3 but only about 7000 followers visit the profile
for item 9.
3.5 Conclusion
This study is to investigate the dynamic of posts through Instagram. It only focuses on
dropship business that is related to the selling of kid’s fashion wear and accessories.
There are four different products that have been promoted: attire set, dress, shoes, and
backpack. The promotion only focuses one product on each different week. Within
one particular week, several postings might be done depending on the availability
of the new items. Sometimes, there are more than one item that have been posted
in 1 day. Each item is posted separately, one after another. If there is no new item
available, no posting is made.
The initial values of SIR model that is being used are 19 thousand for the number
of unreached followers, 2 thousand for the number of people who reach the contents
and actively share the posts, and zero for the number of people who visit the profile.
The virality of each post can be identified through the value of the reproduction
number. Each post is considered viral if the reproduction number is more than 1.
The higher the reproduction number, the more viral the posting. The time evolution
of viral post can be clearly described through a graph that has the three components
of the SIR model: number of followers, number of reaches, and number of profile
visits. The more viral the post, the faster the post reaches all of the followers. By
that time, the number of followers who respond to the post starts to increase. For the
unviral item, the post may still be unable to reach all of the followers even though
the items have been posted for more than a week. As a result, the response from the
followers might be less.
The virality of a certain product might tell the agent which items are popular
among the active followers. Since Instagram is one of the famous online business
platforms, the items are expected to be posted more frequently. With the increasing
number of product posting through Instagram, the followers might forget about the
product easily if they are not frequently reminded.
Through the observation of the occurrence of multiple posts in a day, the first post
appears to be viral, while the other posts are unviral. This pattern of virality might
be taken into consideration in order to enable every post of a particular item viral in
the future. In the future, the agent might try to post all of the available items at once
or still make multiple posts, but the duration of one post to another post might be
longer about 2 or 3 h. Since this study is based on the observation of an approach
that has been made, all of the suggestions can be considered to be an experiment for
future study.
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quantitative modeling of the spread of ideas from epidemiological models. Phys A Stat Mech
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the era of mobile messenger apps with special reference to WhatsApp. ACME Intellects Int J Res
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Sulawesi, Indonesia and Selangor, Malaysia). World J Model Simul 9(2):96–105
Side S, Sanusi W, Aidid MK, Sidjara S (2017) Global stability of SIR and SIER model for
tuberculosis disease transmission with Lyapunov function method. Asian J Appl Sci 9(3):87–96
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Chapter 4
Visual Communication,
Photography-Based Research: A View
from Case Study of Phototherapeutic
Influence in Malaysia
Ellyana Mohd Muslim Tan, Ruslan Abdul Rahim,

Muhammad Fauzan Abu Bakar, Noraziah Mohd Razali,
and Safrina Muhammad Azmi
Abstract The field of visual communication is an important structure of visual

studies. The branches of visual communication literally sum up to all visuals as pro-
jection to every element of communication form. The study develops these verti-
cal integrations into a powerful tool for viewers or creators to advocate the diver-
sity of visual meaning metaphorically. Underneath this layer of understanding,
the study researches the possible benefits of the phototherapeutic technique as an
alternative therapeutic treatment for case study in Malaysia. The study focuses on
analysing the trend of phototherapy as a visual meaning approach, and its benefit and
prospects for Malaysia health departments. This study is narrowed into the source
of understanding the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agenda THREE (3)
on section non-communicable diseases and mental health, mainly discussing the
national apprehension.
Keywords Phototherapeutic technique · Case study · Visual communication
E. Mohd Muslim Tan (B) · M. F. Abu Bakar · N. Mohd Razali · S. Muhammad Azmi
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sarawak Branch, Mukah, Sarawak, Malaysia
e-mail: ellyana@uitm.edu.my
M. F. Abu Bakar
e-mail: mfauzan@uitm.edu.my
N. Mohd Razali
e-mail: noraziahmohdrazali@uitm.edu.my
S. Muhammad Azmi
e-mail: Safrina_azmi@uitm.edu.my
R. Abdul Rahim
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: ruslan@uitm.edu.my

34 E. M. M. Tan et al.
4.1 Introduction
Visuals are cognitive intelligent tools and a powerful source of production and repro-
duction (Bolwerk et al. 2014). The visual data can stimulate memory and enable
retracing of memory (Roach et al. 2016). With the evolution of digital technology,
the computer algorithms have brought visual production to the next level. Revolution
4.0 has added value to intelligent learning, mainly in the camera industry (Vaquero
and Turk 2015). Inclusively, as a part of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology, all
data images are available for mutual categorisation (Li et al. 2012). By emphasising
integrated information into a form of visual creativity, the human brain recognises
and processes every data in his/her memory through their visual experience (Borkin
et al. 2016). In terms of reviving data, identifying the right tools for respondents is
very important. With the evolution of the technology era, the future of technology
is flourishing. Visuals, mainly photography in the development of Artificial Intelli-
gence (AI), have become an easy tool on the digital platform. All forms of technical
formula have been combined into one simple merchandise. Altogether, the practice
of visual has formed into many branches of ‘ism, which still presents many arguments
in the terminology of value (Zhang 2017).
On the other hand, photography is an easy technique of visual communication to
increase understanding (Keshavarzi 2010). The instance of image photography reflec-
tively gaining and building memory is achievable, giving meaning and the ability to
evaluate (Peregrina 2015). The photograph is one of the visual imagery memories.
It is divided into two separate codes, verbal and another verbal (Dewan 2015). The
photograph dual-code theory remains in the storage of long- and short-term memory
and improves the abilities to recall (Lury 1999), which explains why the idiom into
the visual perception has advanced by the use of image, purpose, development and
marketing. Its purpose in this context has added to the objectivity of advertising,
artwork, fashioning or journalism. With an advanced objective, message will be easy
to explain. Hence, the study of communication is generally used within the appli-
cation of learning and interaction. As a result of the development of technology,
products can be accessed through digital technology or via exhibitions. The results
discussed not only visual communication but also several branches of visual stud-
ies, such as visual literacy, visual persuasion, visual rhetoric, visual meaning and
visual imagery. These studies determine the value of an image, whether a drawing,
video, sculpture, photograph or animation. Focusing on the level of meaning, Weber
(Knowles and Cole 2008) explained the value of denotative and connotative visual
messages towards meaning. This study confirms that denotative visuals commonly
provide direct messages, and it is explicitly proven these can be used to persuade the
audience to understand the image and be able to explain their meaning.
4 Visual Communication, Photography Based Research: A View … 35
4.2 Visual-Communication-Based Research
Visual communication evokes the diversification of visual formula. The appreciation

of visual is sensory to the effectiveness of products. In every frame of these needle-
points, the wider influence of the visual becomes more noticeable. The use of visual
has been in practice in the technology, especially through IOT (Internet of Things).
Therefore, the process of visual development preferences ought to relate back to the
basic understanding of the foundation theory of visual communication. Visual stud-
ies are determined by sets of visual communication, including segments like visual
rhetoric, visual persuasion, visual literacy, visual meaning and visual imagery (see
Fig. 4.1).
Visual image is a form of items that please the grey area of visual meaning,
through all the processes of key development by persistence with the philosophy of
visual literacy, and later through rhetorical materials and persuasions. Visual imagery
is commonly a part of the process. In the past, the process was slow, but with the
evolution of the industry, especially revolution of Photography 4.0, the AI technol-
ogy may develop unbelievable competencies. Information or image-based research
development has become widely interactive and easy to explore. The variety of visual
imagery is imagination which assists the mental storage. Visual imagery is a common
practice in psychomotor psychology and aids the ability to explain using cognitive
skills (Darling et al. 2015). Psychologically speaking, the process, also known as
visual mental imagery, involves the deliberation use of pictures, recalls the imagery
memory and relates it to experience (Fery 2003). When participants bring the imagery
to mind, the brain will recondite memory and share the result. For example, the case
study of de Gelder et al. (2015) explored the mental emotion with blind participant,
exposing participants to the feeling of anger, and learned how they described this
as the figure image of a tree, an imaginary conclusion that is beyond the reach of
standard visual communication studies.
Visual Image Visual Meaning
Fig. 4.1 The segmentation of visual communication

4.3 Definition of Visual Photo as Therapeutic Approach
Visual communication in terms of meaning is focused mainly on understanding

the deep meaning of image photography. The approach of every segment can sup-
port understanding from the visual communication point of view. In addition, the
study also focused on phototherapeutic techniques, an approach and method that can
provide a reference for future researchers. Phototherapy is a process of expressing
feelings beyond words. Therapeutic photography does not mean only photo-taking.
It also includes other photo-interactive activities, such as photo-viewing, posing,
planning, discussing or even only remembering or imagining photographs. The use
of photographs as a therapeutic tool was started in 1844 by Dr. Thomas Kirkbribe and
was followed up by Dr. Hugh Diamond in 1856 (de Gelder et al. 2015). Phototherapy
can also provide therapeutic treatment and satisfaction and has received much aca-
demic interest. As a branch of art therapy, phototherapeutic technique, particularly
the study of visual imagery, presents a means to gain information through experi-
ence or memory recall, either as a form of study or a foundation of phototherapy.
These robust techniques have brought photography to a different level tremendously
overtime with the influence of digital technology.
4.4 A View from Case Studies of Photo as Therapy in Malaysia
Case Study 1: An Approach Using Photographs as a Part of the Therapeutic

Process for the Mentally Ill Patients, Perlis, Malaysia (see Fig. 4.2).
Five (5) • non-voilent

Patients • under supervision
• Random Images
• CHOOSE ONLY ONE
200 Images (1)
• Pre-Interview
• Drawing Process
Interview • Data Collecting
Fig. 4.2 Design structure flow work of photo elicitation interview (PEI) approach
20 Travelers: Pre Interview
Travelers present ONLY (1) photograph from their album and Talk about it
Result/ Analyze Data
Fig. 4.3 Design structure flow work of photo elicitation interview (PEI) approach with image-
sharing technique
Result:
From the study, participants gave qualitative feedback that gives a positive impact
to their development. The most significant observations were that patients appeared
to become more sociable, relaxed, more in control and focused, and were better
able to reflect on experiences. Participants have discussed deeper meaning which is
significant to their personal life.
Case Study 2: Gauging Tourist Interests Using Photo Elicitation Interview
(PEI), Kuching, Sarawak (see Fig. 4.3).
Result:
The study used the photo elicitation interview approaches on different partici-
pants, objectively, to see the value of the acceptance point of view from multiple
participants. The results from this research found that most of the travellers shared
their pictures which influenced the traveller behaviour and preferences. Besides the
tourism recommendation, travellers also shared new location that is suitable for
Sarawak Tourism. It also raised certain issues regrading public transport in Kuching,
Sarawak.
Case Study 3: Phototherapy and Mental Health Stability for Displaced Persons:
A Study of Myanmar Refugees in Malaysia (see Fig. 4.4).
Result:
The study sought the comparisons between participants and different photothera-
peutic approaches. In this study, participants were asked to choose images related to
their hobbies, age and lifestyles. The study enhances the indirect message, which is
an important information for the organisation and therapists involved in supporting
these refugees.
Asked to CHOOSE
12 participants
ONLY ONE (1) Talk about it
[7-51years old]
IMAGE from 200 Photographs
Fig. 4.4 Design structure flow work of photo elicitation interview (PEI) with case study (1)
approach
4.5 Discussion
From all three (3) piloted studies, all participants were asked to choose a photograph
according to the images of their experience, background and feeling. The process
of case study no. 1 which detailed the influence of art therapy (i.e., drawing with
participants) was enhanced during the process. Meanwhile, case studies 2 and 3
focused on participant’s preferences and needs. The studies related to the impact
of visual persuasion would depend on ascendancy of visual literacy towards the
functionality visual itself because every visual gives a different effect and affects
viewers in certain understanding. In addition, the tendencies of visual to relate to
individual or groups can always be traced back to their background, experience and
level of knowledge (Weiser 2015). Therefore, the observable explanation towards
visual persuasion is like a metaphoric of ‘tongue twister’ energy; the visual would
be successfully elaborated if it is structurally literate. All the case studies focused on
visual persuasion, which is usually practiced on image advertising that interprets the
use of any form of visual to persuade a viewer (Maitland 2013). In this context, visuals
are used to persuade the communication between viewers to analyse, discuss and
interpret the impact of the image. Messaris concluded the narrative of photographs
should be divided into index, icon and symbols (Fig. 4.5) (Lewis 1998), which is
explained in the book ‘Visual Persuasion: The Role of Images in Advertising as follow
to the Messaris theory’.
In addition, visual rhetoric is an interdisciplinary study of persuasion gained by
multilevel factors (Hjarvard 1997) as a formula to prove the appropriate data to deliver
and receive. However, in terms of interpretation, one has to resolve the questions of
what visual means, why was it created and how to understand it? Visual rhetoric
Fig. 4.5 Inspired by P. Messaris Visual Persuasion

is a form of persuasion (Tao 2018). The art is to persuade the audience with meth-
ods that enable them to analyse it (Foss 2004). The psychology of visual rhetoric
always highlighted visual arguments. The association between both relationships is
entirely related. Visual rhetoric is the use of image, whereas visual persuasion acts
as a platform to process the meaning from the image (Helmers 2004). Furthermore,
visual is a rhetorical argument, which is an instrument to deliver message (Murray
2013), and also the conception language for explaining visual (Birdsell and Groarke
1996). Gaining the cognitive response from the viewer turns visual rhetoric subjects
into metaphor and argument. According to Ortiz (Seliger 2014), firstly, visual seg-
mentation leads to the visual metaphorical expression indication and development
of visual imagery; secondly, it leads to the literal meaning, which is the purpose
of development; thirdly, the advertiser’s message is used to convince the viewer on
buying, looking or interpreting the product.
4.6 Conclusion
As a visual persuasion is the ability to react in a certain way while viewing the
image, with the image giving infinitive or definitive meaning, it can be summed up
into one general root of visual communication. Coined into the visual literacy chain,
visual persuasion is triggered by the act of literacy and an action of visual rhetoric,
and verbal, or logical discussion. Hence, the symbolical foundation of visual per-
suasion is described as a banking system of image perception of visual persuasion.
Hence, the study of visual communication is generally an application for learning and
interaction. Following the recent development of technology, tangible or intangible
products can be accessed through digital technology, or via exhibitions. Studies by
Lam (2015) and Matilda Ståhla (2019) show the influence of visual on participants.
The results discussed not only visual communication but also several branches of
visual studies, such as visual literacy, visual persuasion, visual rhetoric, visual mean-
ing and visual imagery. These branches of studies determined the value of images in
drawings, videos, sculptures, photographs or even animations.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all researcher specialists for these three (3)
research projects: Professor Dr. Mustaffa Halabi Haji Azahari (UUM), Dr. Mastura Jarit (UiTM),
Dr. Wan Samiati Andriana Wan Daud (UiTM), Dr. Nagib Padil (UiTM), Clement A/K Jimel (UiTM)
and Noorhaslina Seni (UNIMAS). Their commitment to the project helped us to get results of better
quality. Thank you so much.
References
Birdsell DS, Groarke L (1996) Toward a theory of visual argument. Argumentation Advocacy
33(1):1–10
Bolwerk A, Mack-Andrick J, Lang FR, Dörfler A, Maihöfner C (2014) How art changes your
brain: differential effects of visual art production and cognitive art evaluation on functional brain
connectivity. PLoS ONE 9(7):e101035, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101035
Borkin MA, Bylinskii Z, Kim NW, Bainbridge CM, Yeh CS, Borkin D, Pfister H, Oliva A (2016)
Beyond memorability: visualization recognition and recall. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph 519–
528
Darling S, Uytman C, Allen RC, Havelka J, Pearson D (2015) Body image, visual working memory
and visual mental imagery. PeerJ, 3
de Gelder B, Tamietto M, Pegna AJ, Van den Stock J (2015) Visual imagery influences brain
responses to visual stimulation in bilateral cortical blindness. Cortex 72:15–26
Dewan P (2015) Words versus pictures: leveraging the research on visual communication. Can J
Libr Inf Pract Res 1–10
Fery Y-A (2003) Differentiating visual and kinesthetic imagery in mental practice. Can J Exp
Psychol 57(1):1–10
Foss S (2004) In defining visual rhetorics. In: Hill CA, Helmers M (eds). Lawrence Erlbaum
Helmers M (2004) Defining visual rhetorics. In: Helmers M (ed). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers, London
Hjarvard S (1997) Anmeldelse af Paul Messaris: visual persuasion. The role of images in advertising.
Retrieved 21 July 2019, from https://forskningsdatabasen.dk/en/catalog/2398155712
Keshavarzi F (2010) Evaluation techniques of photography in visual communications in Iran.
OpenAIRE 1–4
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ologies, examples, and issues. Retrieved 20 July 2019, from https://hdl.cqu.edu.au/10018/
32344
Lam WC (2015) Exploring the influence of social interaction, pressure and trust in a social media
environment on political participation: the case of occupy central in 2014. Retrieved 1 Aug
2019, from https://ojcmt.net/article/exploring-the-influence-of-social-interaction-pressure-and-
trust-in-a-social-media-environment-on
Lewis C (1998) Review of Paul Messaris’ visual persuasion: the role of images in advertising. J Vis
Literacy 18(1): 125–127. Retrieved 20 July 2019, from https://tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/
23796529.1998.11674532
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Chapter 5
Contribution–Classicizing Popular Songs
of P. Ramlee for the Flute and Guitar
Siti Hajar Mohamad Seperah and Sharifah Faizah Syed Mohammed
Abstract A well-known Malay pop composer, musician, and singer, P. Ramlee,

has a significant impact on the Malay music and film industries as well as Asian
cultures. P. Ramlee has composed and produced more than 300 songs during his
musical journey. The purpose of this research is to explore the possibilities of a
modern popular Malay music performed by a duo group, which consists of a flute
and a guitar. Secondly, it examines the two closely related musical instruments: flute
and guitar, in performing a new arrangement of music of “Bekorban Apa Saja” (To
Sacrifice Everything) and “Menceceh Bujang Lapok” (Chatter of the Old Bachelor).
The music was originally composed by P. Ramlee for solo vocal, a band consisting
of guitar, bass, and drum. It will specify the techniques and methods to depict the
melodies and accompaniment for both instruments. By using practice-led research
as a conceptual framework, this study generates detectable output from the creative
work. Most commonly, a practice-led research project consists of two components:
a creative output and a text component, commonly referred to as an “exegesis”. The
work itself provides the outcome of the research flow and answers all the research
questions (Candy in Practice based research: a guide. Creativity and cognition studios
report 1, 2006). The deliberations for musical arrangement incorporate the following
research questions: i) what are the specific music elements and methods of the flute
and guitar that can be portrayed for the selected song? ii) what are the structures
of the new arrangement for the songs? The primary source of “lead-sheet” of the
selected repertoires was gathered from a music score published by Perkamus in Sin-
gapore. The new arrangement of music for flute and guitar then had been reproduced
and recorded. The selection of these two instruments features significant impact of
P. Ramlee’s music on instrumental performances.
Keywords P. Ramlee · Flute · Classical guitar · Music analysis · Performance

studies · Practice-led research · Duo performance
S. H. Mohamad Seperah (B) · S. F. Syed Mohammed

e-mail: sitihajarmohamadseperah@gmail.com

44 S. H. M. Seperah and S. F. S. Mohammed
5.1 Introduction
The music of P. Ramlee has been widely performed and studied in Malaysia. Most
of his music was produced and written for his film, and during 1961 and 1972,
his compositions became prominent in the Malay community (Ahmad and Johari
1995). Also, his music has been greatly discussed in the historical context of the film
(Barnard 2003‚ D. Abd Kadir 2016; a.Hamdani 2010; A.Sarji 2011; Chan 2012).
In Malaysia, P. Ramlee’s music has been rearranged for many types of styles in
arrangement and ensembles (Simposium Karya Seni Agung P. Ramlee. 2003). The
variety unfortunately was limited. This research thus intended to expand on the flute
and classical guitar works performed by P. Ramlee. The original music works were
produced for a band and have become popular songs in his films called Bujang Lapok
and Hang Tuah. Flute and guitar, on the other hand, have a very proficient collab-
oration since the classical music era. The twenty-first-century flute and guitar duo
literature contains equal parts of intricate melodic and harmonic content, challeng-
ing both players with standard and contemporary techniques. The general consensus
reached was that the flute and guitar duo has developed into an equal partnership
in the last 30 years, accomplished through music with more substantial parts for
both instruments, beginning with the legendary Histoire du Tango by Astor Piazzola
(Schroeder, 2015). This research intends to expand the arrangements for the flute and
classical guitar combination of P. Ramlee’s music. Two songs “Bekorban Apa Saja”
and “Menceceh Bujang Lapok” are chosen as case studies to illustrate the relation-
ship between the instruments. “Bekorban Apa Saja” (To Sacrifice Everything) is a
song expressing the eagerness in surrendering for the sake of love in a slow tempo of
rhumba style. In contrast, “Menceceh Bujang Lapok” (Chatter of the Old Bachelor) is
in a lively beguine-style. Its humor lies in its text added to a humorous scene depicted
in the film, where all three bachelors rode on a single bicycle, singing of their scanty
lifestyle. The new arrangement addresses the following questions: i) what are the
specific music elements and methods of the flute and guitar that can be portrayed for
the selected song? What are the structures of the new arrangement for the songs? The
original music was performed by a band accompanying the singer, consisting of the
guitar, drum, and electric bass. Both songs have become synonymous with his films,
Hang Tuah and Bujang Lapok, respectively. These two types of music genre were
selected due to their range, the character of the melodies, and phrasing. This associa-
tion of duo ensemble thus was examined and analyzed in both songs Berkorban Apa
Saja and Menceceh Bujang Lapok. It has been arranged by a classical-trained teacher
and free lance musician, Mr. Zhuraini Jihat. This research thus analyzes the elements
of music such as phrasing of the melodies, textures, articulation, themes, techniques,
rhythmic patterns, and the connotation of the collaboration of both instruments. It
portrays the duo group flute–guitar effective association in performing the music
works by P. Ramlee.
5 Contribution–Classicizing Popular Songs of P. Ramlee … 45
5.2 Method
This study was carried out by using a practice-led research method. Practice-led
research focuses on the nature of creative practice, leading to new knowledge of
operational significance for that practice, in order to advance knowledge about or
within the practice. The results of practice-led research may be communicated in a
critical exegesis without inclusion of the creative artifact, though the creative practice
is an integral part of the research (Dean 2019). The primary sources of music lead-
sheet were taken from a publisher from Singapore, Perkamus. Having two types of
music genre of which the great composer P. Ramlee normally has, the slow and fast
tempo of “Berkorban Apa saja” and “Bujang Lapok”, were selected. These two types
of music genre were selected due to their range and suitability for guitar and flute.
To create the new arrangement effectively, I worked collaboratively with Zhuraini
Jihat (b.1972), a classical-trained, free lance musician and guitar teacher for 20 years.
Zhuraini formed the group Trio Satu Malaysia in 2005 and arranged music for the
ensemble. As a flutist, I suggested the framework for the new arrangement. It is
one that would utilize both instruments effectively and suggest the characteristics of
pieces and styles that typify such combination. The discussion incorporates a new
rhythmic pattern, key, tempo, style, and techniques of playing both instruments, the
introduction of new theme or melodies, and the interpretation of the new theme. The
study intends to portray the effectiveness of the flute–guitar duo in performing the
works of P.Ramlee. The components of the analysis will incorporate the elements
of music, such as the phrasing and articulation of the melodies, theme, techniques,
rhythmic patterns, and texture, providing the connotation and hence the direction of
the music.
The sound recording of the arrangement forms the basis of the analysis, as it gives a
complete impression of providing a report to the researcher. The audio recording took
place at the Universiti teknologi MARA (UiTM) Faculty of Music recording studio
in Shah Alam. The sound provided data to test and illustrate the new arrangement
of the song. The recording offers additional directions for the interpretation of the
phrases, fine-tuning the dynamics, and expression marks for the recurring themes
within the music.
The computer notational program, Sibelius, generates the score for the music
arrangement. It ensures the provision of a conventional music sheet. The software
allows the arranger to produce and make quick amendments to the score. Different
articulations are tested and performed as the software is fast and legible.
Both the selected pieces are discussed in this section within the context of musi-
cal analysis. The perspective of this duo ensemble is then explored. Firstly, the new
arrangement of both the pieces has been analyzed on its musical structure. It includes
Fig. 5.1 Bekorban Apa Saja (Bars 1–8)
the form of each section and melody segment. Secondly, the analysis was directed on
the harmonic analysis structure by the guitar chords’ progression. Then, the overall
rhythmic patterns of both the pieces were examined to develop the style and inter-
pretation of the music. It formed the techniques of playing both instruments. Every
single melody and harmonic sections were clarified to produce a specific technique
in flute and guitar. This included the articulation such as slur, staccato, tenuto, and
trills. Further description can be found on its explicit sections (Fig. 5.1).
5.3.1 Analysis on Bekorban Apa Saja
The whole arrangement showed the structure of the homophonic texture, which was
a melody and an accompaniment. The flute, in a duo group, played the melody
lines, while classical guitar was the accompaniment. The accompaniment provided
rhythmic and harmonic support for the melody. The rhythmic and harmonic support
are combined in the same material/parts or separate parts. This is shown in bars
2 and 3. For the accompaniment part, the whole arrangement uses an arpeggios
rhythm structure, scales, and a two-beat count (minim) with harmonic support. This
is shown in bar 2 and bar 3, where there is a combination of both rhythmic and
harmonic support. The accompaniment is always felt on the first beat. It keeps the
beat and flow together with the melody. The melody is the most important line in
a musical texture. In this homophonic texture, there was only one primary melody
which was carried by the flute. The primary melody occurred frequently, and there
was a certain part that repeated the melody and rhythm as well. This can be observed
in Fig. 5.1.
However, the melody and rhythm are the same. Besides, as for the melody, it
uses non-harmonic tones (non-chord tones) which are pitches that sounded along
with a chord but were not the chord pitches. For example, bars 10 and 12 have
showed the melody on beat three and four and have used suspension (non-harmonic
tones). Suspension occurred only as an accented non-harmonic tone. This is shown
in Fig. 5.2.
The melodic pattern of the suspension was the preparation, the suspension, and
the resolution. To be more specific and clearer, the preparation was the common tone,
suspension (SUS), and then step. As for the accompaniment at bar 33 of Fig. 5.3,
on beat 3 there was a use of passing note. It occurred when it needed to have a
single note before it was moved to another chord. In bar 43, the melody played hemi-
demisemiquaver notes, while the accompaniment rhythm was quaver. It has shown
a good counter and interaction between the melody and accompaniment although it
is not a long structure or repetition.
As for the chords, the arrangement has a song chord progression. It has a common
chord progression. However, in Fig. 5.3 as well, there was a difference in the middle
of the arrangement where the accompaniment, the guitar, played Fmaj13 in bar 34.
It showed that the part is to highlight the tension chords by classical guitar without
the melody. The cadence for this arrangement is an Authentic Cadence (V7 to i).

The dominant (V7) chord is resolved down to the tonic chord toward the end of the
music (Fig. 5.4).
5.3.2 Analysis of Bujang Lapok
The key for this arrangement was in E Major at the beginning and modulated several
times only for the “intro”. The lists of the key signature involved were E Major (Tonic
key), F# Major at bar 5, F Major at bar 9, and then reverted to the original key. The
modulation function stopped when it came to the E Major key, of which introduced it
to a new section. Obviously, in the first section, from bar 1 to bar 12, both parts were
in linear rhythmic patterns, which sounded like a unison pattern; nonetheless, the
counter-melody was highlighting the flute at every four bar phrases. As it is noticed,
the modulation occurred in every four bar phrase that led to the second section until
bar 12 and later entered the new section. The modulation technique that has been
used is a direct modulation in all the three modulation parts (Fig. 5.5).
Then, the guitar took place playing as a melody for the intro and flute as a second
voicing/harmonizing to the melody patterns. For the second section at bar 13, the
accompaniment guitar maintained the same rhythm/intro motive as it became the
harmony device for the melody part and flute as a main melody. As for harmony, it
involved the triplet rhythmic hooks which contrasted the melody where flute was a
common rhythm and created a variety for movements. At the same time, for harmony,
the cadences were the same as the arranger uses a perfect cadence that involves chords
I and V to support the melody line. Then, the plagal cadence occurred at bar 26 to bar
27 and continued using a perfect cadence at bar 28 to bar 29. Later, the new pattern
was introduced subsequently in the “third section” of the piece (Fig. 5.6).
For rhythmic formation, there were new rhythmic shapes for the guitar which
could be considered as “against the rule” of music theoretically. This is shown at
bar 22. Later at bar 30, both the accompaniment and melody lines were in common
time notation featuring the I-V-I chord scale, while the counter-melody interlocked
inbetween the notes. The arranger modified the third beat of the melody in bar 32
using a D natural trills instead of D sharp, creating a dominant equation E for classical
guitar and D for the flute to sound as in E dominant. For Adagio section, the new
harmony function occurred at bar 40 when the chords at guitar were using ii-V
progression and back to ii minor position of which was not resolving it to the tonic
key as ordinary progression ii-V-I. That function also has been repeated at bar 48
(Fig. 5.7).
The appealing part is when both flute and guitar using homophonic textures began
at bar 42, where the guitar took part as the melody and flute as the harmonic to the
melody lines. The ideas have been highlighted at bar 43 and bar 44 when the full triad
is used for each melody rhythm. The flute occurred to play as a third note function
compared to the classical guitar that played the first and fifth note positions. Here,
the function of flute was to support the melody as it has created a sound fully in terms
of harmonic melody thickness. Arriving at a tempo, the rhythmic pattern has been

Fig. 5.5 Modulation which occurs at the beginning of the music
Fig. 5.6 Bujang Lapok (Bars 22–29)

repeated invariably as in the intro section, and it has been featured again at bar 54
(Figs. 5.8 and 5.9).
A Dorian scale was later formed at bar 67 when the counter-melody of the guitar
played at second beat, starting on G and descending to the F note before it jumped to
the E note on the next bar, and thus it completed the perfect cadence function. The
Dorian was used not only to create insensible vibes but also to simultaneously create

a resolution toward the harmony progression. Afterward, at bar 87, the key changed
to F sharp major considering as a direct modulation to this piece. It continued after
each four bar phrases and led to the new F Major key. Finally, the piece ended with
a plagal cadence of I-iv-I progression. The I-V chord changed into minor key before
it resolved to the tonic of the key in F Major (Fig. 5.10).
5.4 Conclusion
This study has contributed to the music elements by revealing a flute and guitar
to showcase a good collaboration in performing Malay pop music in the classical
technique style. It has shown how classical flute and guitar techniques were involved
in presenting both the selected pieces.
A few flute technique can be found in repertoires such as staccato, accent, trills,
triplets, tenuto, and slur. These techniques are required to suit the style of each
phrasing of the melodies. They have strengthened the flow of the melody in both
pieces. The slur, accent, tenuto, and staccato helped to make the phrasing to be
cantabile for the vocals, while the trills indicated ornamentation on certain phrasing.
This can be seen at the beginning of Menceceh Bujang Lapok music score in Fig. 5.11.
Next, the vibrato techniques played an important role to execute each of the phras-
ing in Bekorban Apa Saja music. This helped the music to flow parallel to the voice
in the original music. This technique has offered the essence of the interpretation in
performing the music for flute and guitar pungently. Figure 5.12 shows the melody of
Bekorban Apa Saja. The lyrical melodies demand a preeminent technique of vibrato.
As for the guitar, a few of classical techniques have been used in both pieces.
There are Rasguedo (Spanish way of strumming), Octave, staccato, and voicing on
third and fifth and arpeggios. These styles of technique are found in the form of
Argentinian Tango. Furthermore, both instruments were captured using the same
running scales and voicing on chords arpeggios as well. The ranges of notation for
these instruments are playable. Even though it seemed intricate at certain bars, it
could still be considered as intermediate techniques in demand.
In conclusion, the flute and guitar duo is suitable to be arranged exquisitely for
the music of P. Ramlee. The characters of flute and guitar enriched the melodies and
Fig. 5.11 Menceceh Bujang Lapok (Bars 1–17)
Fig. 5.12 Bekorban Apa Saja

rhythms for P. Ramlee compositions. It has been demonstrated that this duo fits in to
execute genres in “adagio” and “animated” styles in music.
This research has widened the knowledge on issues of performing modern music
in a classical style. It helps to identify specific techniques of flute and guitar to be
pertained in the selected piece of music. The element of music by P. Ramlee thus has
explored to complement the instruments in a variety of musical styles.
References
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Kuala Lumpur
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Ramlee. Suria Records Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur
Schroeder LM (2015) The Flute and Guitar Duo: the development of an equal partnership. DMA
(Doctoral of Musical Arts) thesis, University of Iowa
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Kumpulan kertas kerja simposium karya seni seniman agung P. Ramlee. Kuala Lumpur
Chapter 6
Determination Suitability in Comparing
Selected Physical Fitness Components
among Young Athletes between Age
Groups and Gender during Talent
Identification Process in Malaysia
Mohd Syafiq Miswan, Ellail Ain Mohd Aznan, Ahmad Dzulkarnain Ismail,
Siti Jameelah Md Japilus, and Mohd Zaid bin Mohd Ghazali
Abstract The purpose of this study is to determine the suitability of grouping ages
in comparing the physical fitness performance among 13- to 17-year-old male and
female athletic athletes during the talent identification process. A total of 178 males
[mean (±SD) age 14.3 (±1.2) years; weight 55.7 (±11.8) kg; and height 166.0
(±6.8) cm] and 214 females [mean (±SD) age 14.5 (±1.3) years; weight 49.5
(±10.4) kg; and height 157.2 (±5.9) cm] young healthy athletic athletes from 12
different States’ Sports School across Malaysia participated in this study. Subjects
performed seven selected fitness testing; 40 m sprint, vertical jump, standing broad
jump, medicine ball throw, max push-up, 1 min sit-up, and yo-yo endurance level 1
test. Statistical analyses used were a one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc tests,
with p < 0.05 denoting significance. No significant differences were found in all
fitness components, except explosive power for male athletic athletes aged 13 and
14 years and female athletic athletes aged 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 years. No significant
differences were also found between 15-, 16-, and 17-year-old male athletic athletes
in all fitness component variables. However, there is a significant difference between
the lower and upper tiers of age groups in various fitness components. Combina-
tion of data between ages into one group between ages (13- and 14-year-olds), (15-,
16-, and 17-year-olds), and (14- and 15-year-olds) for future data analysis regarding
physical fitness component can be done. Muscular endurance component is robust
and not influenced by age group differences. These differences may be caused by
differences in physical fitness maturity rate in which female athletes mature at an
early age compared to male athletes.
Keywords Physical fitness · Young athlete · Data management
M. S. Miswan (B) · E. A. Mohd Aznan · A. D. Ismail · S. J. Md Japilus

e-mail: syafiqmiswan@uitm.edu.my
M. Z. Mohd Ghazali
National Sports Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

58 M. S. Miswan et al.
6.1 Introduction
“Scientific selection” or processes of talent identification (TID) in sports can be

viewed as a more proactive procedure through which the identification of the talents
takes place as a result of testing individuals on values associated with expertise in
a sport. It is possible to determine physical, physiological, and mental qualities that
influence sport performance. By using scientific research to determine the charac-
teristics that elite athletes have and the ideal climate to cultivate those requirements,
resources can be directed at those people who have the greatest potential to become
exceptional performers (Gould and Carson 2008). To date, the initiative to recog-
nize sports talent is widely carried out in Malaysia. In order to make this program a
success, multiple ministries and parties are involved. The National Sports Council,
the National Sports Institute, the Ministry of Youth and Sports, and the Ministry of
Education are working together to carry out this program in order to achieve excellent
sporting performance on an international level. The TID program previously focused
on anthropometric measurement, physical skills, and mental toughness assessment
(Krasilshchikov 2013). Various physical fitness testings were attempted to under-
stand the physical attribute performance with a different type of sports (Miswan
and Wilson 2010; Rasid et al. 2019). Nevertheless, it is also important to include
in the TID system other attributes that are physiological, psychological, and socio-
logical (Honer et al. 2015; Gabbett et al. 2007; Gabbett and Georgieff 2006). Some
researcher used more sophisticated software to predict future talent in sports using
k-nearest neighbor algorithm to determine suitable sport for the athlete based on
attributes from physical fitness components (Jamaluddin et al. 2019). Hoffmann and
Wulff (2015) emphasize that the accurate assessment of the TID system will have
a significant long-term effect on the development potential of young athletes. How-
ever, during the selection process, biases in talent identification occur. Researchers
continue to challenge the notion that talent selection in sport is done on a “level
playing field,” with systemic biases existing in both talent selection and develop-
ment. The “relative age effect” remains a popular topic. Several talent identification
processes did not consider age, gender, and peers as these may be overlooked due to
poor performance in physical fitness assessment due to relative age effect (Cumming
et al. 2018). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the suitability of
grouping ages in comparing the physical fitness performance among 13–17-year-old
male and female athletic athletes. The result of this study is potentially useful in
grouping the young athletes’ data processes based on physical fitness component
and gender differences during the data management process for talent identification.
6.2 Methods
Subject: A total of 178 male [mean (±SD) age 14.3 (±1.2) years; weight 55.7
(±11.8) kg; and height 166.0 (±6.8) cm] and 214 female [mean (±SD) age 14.5
(±1.3) years; weight 49.5 (±10.4) kg; and height 157.2 (±5.9) cm] young, healthy
6 Determination Suitability in Comparing Selected Physical … 59
athletic athletes from 12 different States’ Sports School across Malaysia participated
in this study. All participants were provided with an information sheet and a consent
form to sign. Subjects performed seven selected fitness testing: 40 m sprint, vertical
jump, standing broad jump, medicine ball throw, max push-up, 1 min sit-up, and
yo-yo endurance level 1 test.
6.2.1 Anthropometrics
All testings were completed during school hours. Weight was measured on a Seca
weight scale. Each participant was measured twice, and the mean of the two measure-
ments was used. Height was measured with the subject barefoot using a measuring
tape attached to the wall. The measurement of height, sitting height, and weight was
taken to nearest 0.1 cm and 0.1 kg, respectively, and body mass index (BMI) was
calculated.
6.2.2 Fitness Test
The fitness tests included 40 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (vertical explosive leg
power), standing broad jump (horizontal explosive leg power), medicine ball throw
(upper body power), maximum number of push-ups (upper body strength/endurance),
1 min sit-up (muscular endurance), and a yo-yo endurance level 1 test (aerobic
fitness).
Speed was measured over 40 m with a set of electronic timers (Swift Power timer,
Swift Performance Equipment, Australia). This test was performed from a standing
start, with timing starting immediately after the subject passed the starting line. Two
trials were performed, and the fastest time was recorded.
The vertical jump height was measured using the Swift Vertec (Swift Performance
Equipment, Australia) equipment. The subject was instructed to make a counter-
movement jump (no arm swing) and hit the maximal height scale blades on the
Vertec with the dominant hand. Three trials were allowed and the best score, the
difference between standing reach height and jump height, was recorded.
The standing broad jump height was measured using the Swift long jump mat.
The subject was instructed to make a counter-movement jump (with arm swing) and
land at the maximal distance with two feet. The measurement was taken at the nearest
foot from the starting line. Two trials were allowed, and the best score was recorded.
Medicine ball throw was measured using 5 and 3 kg medicine balls for male
and female athletes, respectively. The subject was instructed to hold the ball, bend
forward with both arms and medicine ball between legs. With maximum effort, the
subject throws the ball as far as possible. The maximum distance traveled by the ball
was measured by determining the landing mark on the floor. Two trials were allowed,
and the best was score recorded.
The maximum number of push-ups was measured as an indication of the muscular

endurance of the subject. The subject had his/her hands and toes touching the floor,
body and legs in a straight line, the arms shoulder-width apart, extended and at a
right angle to the body. The subject lowered the body until there was a 90° angle at
the elbows, and then returned to the starting position with the arms extended. This
action was repeated until exhaustion.
Sit-up was measured by counting the maximum number of push-ups in 1 min.
The subject lay on the mat and raised the knees at 90 degrees, and both hands at
crossed chest was the starting position. The subject held the body up until the chest
met the knee and going back to starting position was counted as one repetition. The
subject kept repeating the movements up and down as many times as possible in one
minute and the data were recorded.
Aerobic fitness was estimated from the yo-yo endurance level 1 test (Williams
1988). The objective of the test was to run for as long as possible in a 20-m-long
lane, keeping to the speed indicated by the “beeps” on the recording. As the test
progresses, the time between “beeps” decreases, and the subject drops out when
they fail to reach the 20 m line before the next “beep” on two consecutive shuttles.
Maximal oxygen uptake was estimated based on the data from Leger et al. (1988)
and the distance covered was recorded.
All the fitness tests, except aerobic fitness, were completed in a counterbalanced
order to minimize the impact of fatigue and any influence of testing order. The aerobic
fitness test was held as the final test for all participants. The subjects were assigned to
a group based on their gender (male and female) and age (13–17 years). The results
were analyzed using standard descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, standard deviation).
Statistical analysis used was a one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc tests with p
< 0.05 denoting significance. All data were analyz SPSS (version 16.0) using p <
0.05 to indicate statistical significance.
6.3 Results
Anthropometric characteristics between age groups are shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.
For male groups, there were significantly lower weight, height, and BMI between 13-
and 14-year-old age group with 17-year-old age group except for BMI for 14-year-
old age group. There also shown significantly lower height between 13-year-old age
group with the rest of the age groups. However, there were no significant differences
in weight, height, and BMI in all groups for female athletes.
Physical fitness performance between age groups is shown in Tables 6.3 and 6.4.
Table 6.1 Anthropometric characteristics (mean ± SD) of male athletic athletes between 13 and
17 years
Age (years) n Weight (kg) Height (cm) BMI
13 63 52.32* ± 11.68 163.42* ± 7.18 19.46* ± 3.52
14 52 55.44* ± 10.21 166.43 ± 6.98 19.92 ± 2.88
15 27 57.18 ± 10.86 167.41* ± 5.37 20.34 ± 3.28
16 27 58.94 ± 8.83 168.45* ± 5.31 20.68 ± 2.19
17 9 67.91* ± 21.63 170.47* ± 6.82 23.15* ± 5.92
Total 178 55.73 ± 11.82 166.03 ± 6.85 20.1 ± 3.34
*P < 0.05 significant difference between age groups
Table 6.2 Anthropometric characteristics (mean ± SD) of female athletic athletes between 13 and
17 years
Age (years) n Weight (kg) Height (cm) BMI
13 68 47.91 ± 11.92 156.58 ± 6.13 19.42 ± 3.82
14 57 50.12 ± 10.05 157.41 ± 6.18 20.20 ± 3.72
15 44 49.41 ± 8.35 157.29 ± 6.30 19.90 ± 2.70
16 34 51.96 ± 11.45 157.75 ± 5.16 20.84 ± 4.21
17 11 48.52 ± 5.87 157.61 ± 5.95 19.47 ± 1.78
Total 214 49.50 ± 10.44 157.19 ± 5.98 19.96 ± 3.58
6.3.1 Male Age Groups
Differences between 13-year-old and other age groups—there were significant dif-
ferences between 13- and 17-year-old age groups in all fitness component variables
except 1 min sit-up, estimated Vo2 Max, 40 m speed, and max push-up performance.
There was a significant difference between 13- and 16-year-old age groups in all
fitness component variables except weight, BMI, 1 min sit-up, and max push-up per-
formance. There was a significant difference between 13- and 15-year-old age groups
in all fitness components except weight, BMI, 1 min sit-up, estimated Vo2 Max, and
vertical jump performance.
Differences between 14-years-old and other groups—there were no significant
differences between 14- and 17-year-old age groups in all fitness component variables
except weight and medicine ball throw. There were no significant differences between
14- and 16-year-old age groups in all fitness component variables except 40 m sprint
and vertical jump. There were no significant differences between 14- and 15-year-old
age groups in all fitness components.
The rest of the groups—there were no significant differences between 13- and 14-
year-old age groups in all fitness component variables except standing broad jump
62
Table 6.3 Physical fitness characteristics (mean ± SD) of male athletic athletes between 13 and 17 years
Age n 40 m speed (s) Vertical jump Standing broad Medicine ball Maximum 1 min sit-up Estimated
(years) (cm) jump (cm) throw (m) push-up (reps) (reps) Vo2 Max
(kg/ml/min)
13 63 5.79* ± 0.57 51.39* ± 6.95 201.09* ± 27.09 8.06* ± 1.48 25.82* ± 10.53 28.31 ± 13.22 41.24* ± 7.82
14 52 5.69* ± 0.38 52.85* ± 6.33 220.48* ± 24.23 9.06* ± 1.72 28.87 ± 9.89 28.00 ± 11.81 44.29 ± 6.58
15 27 5.46* ± 0.21 54.66 ± 5.51 221.69* ± 25.39 9.39* ± 1.37 34.00* ± 13.28 28.55 ± 10.33 45.41 ± 5.04
16 27 5.34* ± 0.31 57.50* ± 6.76 236.07* ± 23.51 10.15* ± 1.79 31.26 ± 8.81 36.23 ± 17.67 47.38* ± 4.91
17 9 5.43 ± 0.53 58.78* ± 7.95 239.44* ± 29.60 10.94* ± 1.05 29.44 ± 12.50 35.33 ± 28.76 43.95 ± 4.64
Total 178 5.63 ± 0.47 53.63 ± 6.95 217.16 ± 28.63 9.06 ± 1.78 29.03 ± 10.97 29.87 ± 14.49 43.85 ± 6.83
M. S. Miswan et al.
Table 6.4 Physical fitness characteristics (mean ± SD) of female athletic athletes between 13 and 17 years
Age n 40 m speed (s) Vertical jump Standing broad Medicine ball Maximum 1 min sit-up Estimated
(years) (cm) jump (cm) throw (m) push-ups (reps) (reps) Vo2 Max
(kg/ml/min)
13 68 6.47 ± 0.36 40.39* ± 5.95 164.04* ± 24.42 5.43* ± 1.16 21.20 ± 8.81 25.69 ± 12.25 33.77 ± 5.75
14 57 6.49 ± 0.51 41.83* ± 5.17 169.58* ± 26.96 5.58* ± 1.30 25.57 ± 8.75 30.41 ± 12.17 34.30 ± 6.35
15 44 6.50 ± 0.46 43.69* ± 5.06 171.69 ± 21.23 6.09 ± 1.09 25.64 ± 10.34 25.58 ± 10.79 31.87 ± 5.56
16 34 6.52 ± 0.41 44.92* ± 5.50 175.10 ± 19.22 5.65 ± 1.48 23.00 ± 11.75 27.58 ± 14.97 31.51 ± 6.79
17 11 6.15 ± 0.36 46.75* ± 3.70 190.00* ± 13.90 7.12* ± 1.50 26.08 ± 8.03 28.85 ± 12.63 37.28 ± 1.97
Total 214
6 Determination Suitability in Comparing Selected Physical …
6.47 ± 0.44 42.55 ± 5.69 170.29 ± 23.86 5.70 ± 1.29 23.81 ± 9.79 27.31 ± 12.50 33.30 ± 6.07
63
and medicine ball throw. There was no significant difference between 15-, 16-, and
17-year-old age groups in all fitness component variables.
6.3.2 Female Age Groups
Differences between 13-years-old and other groups—there were no significant dif-

ferences between 13- and 14-year-old age groups in all fitness component variables.
There were no significant differences between 13- and 15-year-old age groups in all
fitness component variables except vertical jump (Tables 6.5 and 6.6).
There were no significant differences between 13- and 16-year-old age groups
in all fitness component variables except vertical jump. There was significant dif-
ference between 13- and 17-year-old age groups in all fitness component variables
except explosive power fitness component (vertical jump, standing broad jump, and
medicine ball throw).
Differences between 14-year-old and other groups—there were no significant dif-
ferences between 14- and 15-year-old age groups in all fitness component variables.
There were no significant differences between 14- and 16-year-old age groups in
Table 6.5 Results of Tukey’s post hoc (p-value) analysis summary—comparison of physical fitness
component between males of 13- and 17-year-old age groups
Age Age
Fitness Fitness
group group
compo- 13 14 15 16 17 compo- 13 14 15 16 17
(years (years
nent nent
old) old)
13 0.001 13 0.012 0.001
14 0.022 14 0.009
40 m
Weight 15 15 0.012
speed
16 16 0.001 0.009
17 0.001 0.022 17
13 0.040 0.004 0.023 13 0.009 0.016
14 14 0.019
Vertical
Height 15 0.040 15
jump
16 0.004 16 0.009 0.019
17 0.023 17 0.016
13 0.015 13 0.001 0.004 0.001 0.001
14 Standing 14 0.001
BMI 15 broad 15 0.004
16 jump 16 0.001
17 0.015 17 0.001
13 13 0.022 0.013 0.001 0.001
14 Medicine 14 0.022 0.019
1 min
15 ball 15 0.013
sit up
16 throw 16 0.001
17 17 0.001 0.019
13 0.006 13 0.005
Esti- 14 Maxi- 14
mated 15 mum 15 0.005
Vo2Max 16 0.006 push up 16
17 17
Table 6.6 Results of post hoc (p-value) analysis summary—comparison of physical fitness
component between female age groups 13 and 17 years old
Age Age
Fitness Fitness
group group
compo- 13 14 15 16 17 compo- 13 14 15 16 17
(years (years
nent nent
old) old)
13 13
14 14
40 m
Weight 15 15
speed
16 16
17 17
13 13 0.011 0.001 0.002
14 14 0.047 0.035
Vertical
Height 15 15 0.011
jump
16 16 0.001 0.047
17 17 0.002 0.035
13 13 0.004
BMI
14 14 0.047
15 Standing 15
16 broad 16
17 jump 17 0.004 0.047
13 13 0.017
14 14 0.038
1 min Medicine
15 15
sit up ball throw
16 16
17 17 0.017 0.038
13 13
14 14
Estimated Maximum
15 15
Vo2Max push up
16 16
17 17
all fitness component variables except vertical jump. There were no significant dif-
ferences between 14- and 17-year-old age groups in all fitness component variables
except vertical jump, standing broad jump, and medicine ball throw. There were no
significant differences between 13- and 14-year-old age groups in all fitness compo-
nent variables. There was no significant difference between 15-, 16-, and 17-year-old
age groups in all fitness component variables. There were no significant differences
between 13-, 14-, 15-, 16-, and 17-year-old age groups in all fitness component vari-
ables except explosive power fitness component (vertical jump, standing broad jump,
and medicine ball throw).
6.4 Discussion
The result obtained from the current study implies that anthropometric characteristics
(weight, height, and BMI) and selected physical fitness components (40 m sprint
(speed), vertical jump (vertical explosive leg power), standing broad jump (horizontal
explosive leg power), medicine ball throw (upper body power), maximum number
of push-ups (upper body strength/endurance), 1 min sit-up (muscular endurance),
and a yo-yo endurance level 1 test (aerobic fitness)) were significantly different
between 13- and 17-year-old age groups, especially between lower and upper tier
groups (13 and 14 year olds) and (15, 16, and 17 year olds) male athletes. This trend is
concurrent with the previous study, which has shown that age groups had a significant
effect on every other measured variables except for the percentage of body fat and
that of grip strength (Vänttinen et al. 2011). A study by Chuman et al. (2011) has
shown that age also has an effect on yo-yo endurance level 1 performance between
13- and 17-year-old Japanese soccer players. However, a study by Cunha et al.
(2016) has shown that maturity status showed no positive effect on cardiovascular
endurance component when the data were properly normalized by training in young
soccer players. Variation in several findings may show that other indicators such
as quality and standardization of training may influence the performance outcome
(Cunha et al. 2016). When puberty advances, particularly between 13 and 15 years
of age, advanced boys have an advantage over average and later maturing peers
in height, strength, and power. Nevertheless, maturity-related disparities between
non-athletes and athletes diminished and were largely eliminated between 16 and
18 years.
However, data is minimal and variable for athletes (Malina et al. 2013). Late
maturing soccer players aged 11–14 years, for example, performed better in aerobic
tasks (intermittent shuttle runs), while contrasting maturity players did not differ
in sport-specific skills (Figueiredo et al. 2009). However, female data have shown
there were no significant differences between 13-, 14-, 15-, 16-, and 17-year-old age
groups in all fitness component variables except explosive power fitness component
(vertical jump, standing broad jump, and medicine ball throw). Although there is
a wide range of normal ages, girls typically begin puberty around ages 10–11 and
end puberty around 15–17; boys begin around ages 11–12 and end around 16–17
(Schuiling and Likis 2016). Girls reach sexual maturity approximately 4 years after
the start of the first external puberty shifts. By comparison, after the first noticeable
pubertal changes, boys develop more gradually but continue to grow for about 6 years.
It is rare to see an increase in height beyond the post-pubertal period (Schuiling and
Likis 2016).
6.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, the results of the present study suggest coaches and sports talent
officer should consider age, gender, and type of physical fitness component during
data analysis during a talent identification program. Combination of data between
ages into one group between ages (13- and 14-year-olds), (15-, 16-, and 17-year-
olds), and (14- and 15-year-olds) for future data analysis regarding physical fitness
component can be done.
What did we learn from this study?
i. A researcher can combine the data between ages into one group between ages
(13- and 14-year-olds), (15-, 16- and 17 year olds), and (14 and 15 year olds)
for future data analysis regarding physical fitness component.
ii. Muscular endurance test such as 1 min sit-up and max push-up is robust and
not influenced by age group difference, especially between lower and upper tier
groups (13- and 14-year-olds) and (15-, 16-, and 17-year-olds).
iii. A researcher can combine the data between ages into one group of female athletes
between ages (13- and 14-year-olds), (15-, 16-, and 17-year-olds), and (14- and
15-year-olds) for future data analysis regarding physical fitness component.
iv. A researcher can combine the data between ages into one group of female
athletes between 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 years for group analysis of various
fitness components except for explosive power (vertical jump, standing broad
jump, and medicine ball throw).
v. Data show the influence of age on physical fitness maturity, which comes early
for a female compared to a male within a gender group.
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Chapter 7
Performance of Local Hotels: A Case
of the Malaysian Local Brand
Syazwani Ya, Mohamad Niza Md Nor, Noraini Nasirun, Zulaiha Ahmad,

and Noor Farhana Md Saad
Abstract Brand performance is playing an important role in the hotel industry,

particularly to the hotel representing Malaysian brand. Hence, the aim of this study
is to investigate the factors influencing brand performance for Malaysian hotel. There
are four factors tested, namely brand signature, brand attitude, brand awareness, and
brand reputation, toward the brand performance. Data were collected using a self-
administered survey at the premise. There were 322 valid questionnaires used for
data analysis. Data were analyzed using SPSS. The result found that brand attitude,
awareness, and reputation have a significant effect on brand performance. However,
brand signature shows the insignificant effect on the dependent variable. Discussion,
conclusions, and recommendations were also presented in the article.
Keywords Malaysian hotel · Brand performance · Quantitative analysis · Survey
7.1 Introduction
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were introduced in 2015, and it has become
the agenda of the development for ASEAN region until 2030. The aim for this agenda
is to share prosperity in a sustainable world, where all people in the region can live
productive, vibrant, and peaceful lives on a healthy planet (United Nations 2019).
S. Ya (B) · M. N. Md Nor · N. Nasirun · Z. Ahmad · N. F. Md Saad

e-mail: syazwani446@uitm.edu.my
M. N. Md Nor
e-mail: mohdniza@uitm.edu.my
N. Nasirun
e-mail: noraini305@uitm.edu.my
Z. Ahmad
e-mail: zulaiha895@uitm.edu.my
N. F. Md Saad
e-mail: nfarhana@gmail.com

70 S. Ya et al.
There are 17 goals identified in the agenda, with decent works and economic growths
outlined as the eight (8) agenda (Department of Statistics Malaysia 2019a; United
Nations 2019). One of the subcomponents in the eight (8) agenda is to promote
sustainable tourism in the ASEAN region so that this industry is able to offer job
creations, as well as to promote local culture and products by 2030.
Tourism is one of the main economic activities in ASEAN (ASEAN Secretariat
2017). The ASEAN Tourism Marketing Strategy 2017–2020 Report also highlights
that this industry offers 30 million jobs for the community of the ASEAN in 2016,
which contributed to 31 million jobs in the said year (ASEAN Secretariat 2017).
Malaysia was reported as the second country in the ASEAN after Thailand that has
attracted international arrivals approximately 6.8 million in 2020 (ASEAN Secre-
tariat 2017). This report also further reported that, in order to sustain the attractive-
ness, ASEAN countries are urged to focus on developing the brand that focuses on
local culture and products as one of the marketing strategies using marketing mix.
Marketing mix has always been known as one of the powerful tools for developing
marketing strategies for various types of industries, particularly to promote the local
products and local brands (Khalique et al. 2011; Noraini et al. 2019). This suggestion
from the ASEAN Tourism Marketing Strategy 2017–2020 Report is aligned with the
aims of the eight (8) agenda of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Based on the above, this study was conducted to investigate how the local brand
hotel influences hotel performance in Malaysia. There were four brand variables
chosen to be included in this study, namely signature, attitude, awareness, and
reputations.
7.2.1 Hotel Performance in Malaysia
Service sector like hotel industry in Malaysia is one of the most competitive busi-
nesses that has become a major player in the growth of the Malaysian economy. It
plays an important role in complementing tourism as it provides accommodation and
facilities for travelers and tourists. In 2018, through domestic tourism, Malaysia
achieved a higher record in the number of visitor arrivals and tourism expen-
diture. There was a total of 221.3 million domestic visitors recorded in 2018 with
a growth of 7.7% expected yearly. The report also exhibits that shopping activi-
ties contribute to the highest share of total expenditure, 37.6% of the total income
(Department of Statistic Malaysia 2019b). This report is the evidence of the hospital-
ity industry which is facing strong competition from the rapid technological turbu-
lence, frequent changes in customer’s needs and expectations, external environmental
complexity, and volatility (Kaliappen and Hilman 2013).
In order to take advantage of the positive development in the industry, Malaysia
has taken a move to introduce a local brand hotel, Hotel Seri Malaysia. Hotel Seri
7 Performance of Local Hotels: A Case of the Malaysian Local Brand 71
Malaysia offers comfortable, clean, and safe rooms with other facilities like meet-
ing rooms, laundry service, restaurants, and convenient stores at a reasonable price.
In order to improve the performance and sustainability, “Soul of Seri Malaysia”
becomes a new initiative for the re-branding of Malaysian Series to combine the val-
ues that will be applied to staff and customers of Hotel Seri Malaysia. It is hoped that
the re-branding program will be able to gain market credibility and gain satisfaction
among guests of the hotel (Hotel Seri Malaysia 2019).
7.2.2 Brand Performance
In the service industry, brand performance is a very crucial phenomenon to enhance

customer retention and to develop brand loyalty. The hotel that shows has a good
brand performance will be longlasting and stays competitive in the industry. Brand
performance is defined as a form of corporate financial performance that is brought
by the brand of the supplier and perceived by the buyer (Saurage-Altenloh 2017).
The brand performance can be used to measure how successful the brand is in the
market and can be seen based on the size of the market share. For the service sector,
brand performance also needs to consider human resources, quality, brand awareness,
image, and other tangible factors (Santoro 2014). According to the Nyffenegger et al.
(2015), the brand performance is also related to the guests’ emotions and cognitive
route. The guests’ emotions are about how they feel with the experience of the brand,
and the cognitive route is how the guests think about themselves with the brand.
7.2.3 Brand Signature
A signature brand is an original and cohesive design based on the company itself
(Jennifer 2015). Brand signature is the most famous product that is produced by the
company and shows the uniqueness of the firm. Signature design is based totally on
persona and identification that is carried across all brands verbal exchange. In the
hotel industry, the brand signature is the uniqueness of the hotel logo, interior design,
food, and beverage that plays an important role. It could reflect a brand’s image and
reputation, so brand signature also requires careful selection and understanding of
the enterprise identification in phrases of name and brand of the company (Foroudi
2018).
A previous study found that the brand signature influences the brand performance
because of the customer’s desire to pay a premium price and share wallet in the service
sector industry (Casidy et al. 2018). On the other hand, a previous study conducted by
Foroudi (2018) found that the brand signature did not have a direct relationship with
the brand performance. The brand signature needs brand awareness as a mediating
variable to influence brand performance. It will influence the guest awareness about
the hotel’s brand, and brand awareness will influence the hotel’s brand performance.
72 S. Ya et al.
The brand signature is a valuable asset to the company in developing the brand image
or brand entity. Hence, the hypothesis is formulated as follows:
H1: There is a significant relationship between brand signature and brand
performance.
7.2.4 Brand Attitude
Brand attitude or the customer attitude closer to the brand may be described as the
customer’s perceptions toward the business enterprise or brand (Foroudi et al. 2014).
The customer’s attitude to the brand can be changed over time, and it will affect the
brand reputation and brand performance. The strength of the positive or negative
association that a customer experiences is with regard to a particular brand and the
conviction that the positive or negative association is accurate (Devault 2018).
The previous study by Foroudi (2018) found that the brand attitude has a positive
influence on brand performance in the hotel industry. From another study on the
airline industry, it was also found that the brand attitude influences the brand per-
formance (Cheng and Jin 2019). Therefore, brand attitude plays an important role
as a factor that influences the brand performance, especially in the service industry.
Based on the discussion, the second hypothesis is outlined as follows:
H2: There is a significant relationship between brand attitude and brand
performance.
7.2.5 Brand Awareness
Brand awareness can be described as the customer’s memory of the brand store,
which means the brand familiarity and brand recognizability. Brand awareness which
is recognizability can be increased by the brand signature of the company such as
products or services (Foroudi et al. 2017). The higher the brand awareness, the higher
the possibility for the customer to purchase the product or services. Brand awareness
is also a tool to generate the familiarity of the brand (Foroudi et al. 2014).
Brand awareness is important for the organization such as hotel because it helps
the business to compete with the competitors in the same industry. It is also important
to promote the product and company, introduce the new product, build a good reputa-
tion, differentiate from the competitors, and retain the loyal customer or guest (Sheri-
dan 2017). Brand awareness influences brand performance because brand awareness
can create brand loyalty among customers (Amegbe and Hanu 2016). An earlier
study found that the brand awareness influenced the brand performance of B2B, and
the brand awareness was one of the important components that has a positive impact
on the brand performance of B2B (Anees-ur-Rehman et al. 2018). Therefore, the
third hypothesis is as follows:
H3: There is a significant relationship between brand awareness and brand

performance.
7.2.6 Brand Reputation
Brand reputation is customer assessment and instantaneous images toward the brand.
According to Foroudi et al. (2017), brand reputation is fashioned as an aggregation
of pictures, accumulating in customers’ minds over time into an overall assessment
of a company. The emotion of the stakeholder association can affect the image of the
company. The reputation of the brand is a combination of reliability, administration,
benevolence, respect, and confidence of the business enterprise.
A previous study found that the brand reputation can moderate the brand reputation
which is related to the service failure and the customer evaluation toward the firm
(Sengupta et al. 2015). Another study in the automotive industry showed that good
brand reputation online through the platforms like Google, Facebook, Instagram, and
YouTube increased the brand performance of the car brands (Dorčák et al. 2017).
Nowadays, most customers search the information from the online website or social
media when they want to purchase something, especially a luxury item. Therefore,
the fourth hypothesis is as follows:
H4: There is a significant relationship between brand reputation and brand
performance.
7.3 Methodology
This study primarily investigated the factors affecting the brand performance of Hotel
Seri Malaysia, and it was conducted among the customers of this hotel. Data were
collected using a self-administered survey between October and November 2018.
G-Power software was used to estimate the sample for this study, as proposed by
Cunningham and McCrum Gardner (2007). The number of the sample size required
using a power analysis—a priori to compute the sample size (with five predictors
and medium effect size of 0.15)—is 129. There were 322 questionnaires collected,
and they were valid for further analysis. Hence, the data were sufficient enough to
explain the framework tested for this study. The measurement consists of 33 items
adapted from Foroudi (2018). There are several sections in the questionnaire. Section
A was on respondents’ demographic information, Section B was on brand signature,
Section C was on brand attitude, Section D was on brand awareness, Section E was
on brand reputation, and Section F was on brand performance. There were 33 items
in the questionnaire. A five-point Likert scale was applied to measure the scale with
one as “strongly disagree” and five as “strongly agree”. Data were analyzed using the
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 22. This is a cross-sectional
study conducted among customers of Hotel Sri Malaysia, Sungai Petani, Kedah.
74 S. Ya et al.
7.4 Findings
The 322 respondents comprised of 58.4% females, while 41.6% were males. Most
of the respondents were married (55.0%) and working in the private sectors (34.8%).
They were all Malaysians with most of them aged from 20 to 29 years (35.1%). and
the range of their income was from RM3000 to RM3999 (Table 1).
The reliability of the questionnaire ranges from 0.8 to 0.9, which indicates that it is
appropriate to be used (Sekaran and Bougie 2013). The mean value for all dimensions
shows that most respondents agree with the statements offered in the questionnaire.
Table 2 shows Cronbach’s alpha value, the mean, and standard deviation of the
variables used in this study.
In order to achieve the objectives of this study, the data were analyzed using
Pearson’s correlations. Table 3 depicts strong relationship among all the independent
variables, which are brand signature (r = 0.655, p = 0.000), brand attitude (r = 0.758,
Table 1 Demographics of
Characteristics Categories Percentage (n = 322)
respondents
Gender Male 41.6
Female 58.4
Marital status Single 40.7
Married 55.0
Divorce 4.3
Profession Government sector 26.1
Private sector 34.8
Retiree 16.8
Student 17.1
Unemployment 5.3
Citizen Malaysian 100.00
Others 0.00
Age Below 19 years 8.7
20–29 years 35.1
30–39 years 15.2
40–49 years 19.3
50–59 years 9.9
60 years and above 11.8
Income Less than RM1000 23.3
RM1000–RM1999 13.4
RM2000–RM2999 20.5
RM3000–RM3999 24.5
RM4000–RM4999 13.0
RM5000–RM5999 5.3
Table 2 Reliability coefficients, mean, and standard deviation for the variables
Variables No. of item Cronbach’s alpha Mean Standard deviation
Brand performance 8 0.930 4.210 0.639
Brand signature 8 0.916 4.487 0.554
Brand attitude 4 0.890 4.367 0.609
Brand awareness 6 0.908 4.193 0.640
Brand reputation 6 0.910 4.249 0.565
Note *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01
Table 3 Correlation analysis

Variables Brand Brand Brand Brand Brand
signature attitude awareness reputation performance
Brand 1.000
signature
Brand 0.745 1.000
attitude
Brand 0.638 0.681 1.000
awareness
Brand 0.657 0.766 0.804 1.000
reputation
Brand 0.655 0.758 0.713 0.796 1.000
performance
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01
p = 0.000), brand awareness (r = 0.713, p = 0.000), and brand reputation (r = 0.796,

p = 0.000). In conclusion, all of the variables were significantly positively related to
the hotel’s brand performance.
A multiple regression test was conducted to understand the predicted power of the
factors that affect the brand performance of Hotel Seri Malaysia. Table 4 shows the
adjusted r2 is 0.694, with a different weighting of the standard coefficient. Among the
variables, brand signature shows there is no significant relationship with the hotel’s
brand performance, with a standard coefficient of 0.098. Meanwhile, brand attitude,
brand awareness, and brand reputation were found to have a significant and positive
relationship with hotel brand performance.
The result of this study exhibited that three of four brand variables, namely atti-
tude, awareness, and reputation, have significant relationships with brand perfor-
mance. However, brand reputation appeared not to have a significant relationship
76 S. Ya et al.
Table 4 Multiple regression

Variables β t Sig.
results
Brand signature 0.098 1.769 0.078
Brand attitude 0.303 5.201 0.000
Brand awareness 0.127 2.368 0.019
Brand reputation 0.472 6.935 0.000
R 0.875
R square 0.697
Adjusted R square 0.694
F value 157.469
Dependent variable: brand performance
Note *p < 0.05
with the dependent variable, brand performance. Brand performance for this study
was reflected by the loyalty of the guests on the services provided by the hotel, cred-
ibility, positive perception, intention to repeat staying in the hotel, and willingness
to recommend to others about the hotel.
Among the brand variables tested, the brand reputation showed the highest influ-
ence to brand performance. The items used to measure this variable were related to
how guests perceived the service they received from the hotel such as whether the
hotel service met their expectation, trust on the service provided, and how the hotel
staff treated their guests. The result showed that guests were happy with the service
provided by the hotel. Similar results revealed by previous studies found the impor-
tance of brand reputation to influence the performance, for example, brand reputation
was able to moderate the relationship between the service failure and the customer
evaluation toward the firm (Sengupta et al. 2015). Furthermore, the strategy to build
brand reputation is able to increase brand performance in the automotive service
industry (Dorčák et al. 2017).
The brand attitude was measured using items related to the feeling of the respon-
dents on brand performance. Clearly, the respondents felt that they were proud to stay
in the hotel, the brand is appealing, they enjoyed their stay, and the hotel offered good
service. The result indicated that the respondents have a good brand attitude prior
to making the decision to stay with the hotel. The result also further indicated that,
among the guests of the hotel, attitude was the second important brand factor after
brand reputation. This result also confirms the study by the previous scholars who
found that brand attitude has a significant influence in the service industry including
the hotel industry (Foroudi 2018; Cheng and Jin 2019).
Another brand variable tested was brand awareness. This variable was to measure
if guests were aware of the hotel. It seemed that the guests were able to recognize
the services offered by the hotel and to remember the differences of the offering if
compared with another hotel. This is also important in the hotel industry to ensure
that the local hotel brand is able to compete with international hotels with their own
uniqueness, through local culture and products. The result offered similar results
from previous researchers who agreed that brand awareness is able to differentiate
the products and services provided by different companies in the same industry
(Sheridan 2017). Furthermore, the differentiation made through brand awareness
will lead to brand loyalty among customers (Amegbe and Hanu 2016).
Overall, it can be concluded that the brand is crucial to any industry, including
the hotel industry and the tourism industry as a whole. Clearly, brand reputation,
brand attitude, and brand awareness are among the major brand factors that influence
brand performance as a whole. Hotel Seri Malaysia, as the Malaysian local brand,
has proven that the company is able to compete with international hotels of its own
class through the inclusion of local cultures, products, and services offered by the
company. The result of this study is significant to the brand developments of the
local brands, particularly in the local hotel industry and the development of the
brand strategies through local offerings and services.
From this study, Hotel Seri Malaysia is following the strategies highlighted in the
ASEAN Tourism Marketing Strategy 2017–2020 Report and suggestions made by
SDG to focus on the tourism industry as one of the solutions to create job offerings
among local people, thus improving their incomes and economic state of the nation.
Future researchers are encouraged to explore more related variables in the various
local contexts in the ASEAN regions and how the brand strategy is able to facilitate
the development of the nations through job offerings.
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Chapter 8
Interpersonal Communication Skill
and Da’wah Fardiyah Approach
in Sustainable Islamic Spiritual
Mentoring
Noraini Ismail, Mardzelah Makhsin, Syuhaida Idha Abd Rahim,

Basri Abd Ghani, and Nor Alifah Rosaidi
Abstract Islamic spiritual mentoring is a process of giving assistance to individuals

or group of people to live their lives in accordance to the fate destined by Allah SWT.
This is to help them achieve sustainable happiness in life here and thereafter. The
methods often used for this purpose are known as interpersonal communication skill
and da’wah fardiyah. As known, Islam has put an emphasis on interpersonal commu-
nication skill and da’wah fardiyah as effective strategies in the execution of Islamic
spiritual mentoring. Nonetheless, in Islamic spiritual mentoring context, implemen-
tation of interpersonal communication skill cannot stand alone without being accom-
panied by skill of da’wah fardiyah. This is because interpersonal communication only
aims at interpersonal needs and differs with the objectives in da’wah fardiyah. On
the other hand, da’wah fardiyah fulfills not only the relationship between human
interaction but also the vertical relationship with Allah SWT. Thus, this conceptual
paper gives an overview of similarities, differences, and benefits in using interper-
sonal communication skill and da’wah fardiyah in implementing Islamic spiritual
mentoring. Understanding and comprehending both of these approaches could cre-
ate a balanced and guided interpersonal communication skill in creating sustainable
spiritual mentoring for ones’ better lives. This study was conducted using doctrinal
and library researches.
N. Ismail (B) · B. Abd Ghani · N. A. Rosaidi

e-mail: noraini045@uitm.edu.my
B. Abd Ghani
e-mail: basri@uitm.edu.my
N. A. Rosaidi
e-mail: alifah.rosaidi@uitm.edu.my
M. Makhsin
Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia
e-mail: mazfaniy@uum.edu.my
S. I. Abd Rahim
e-mail: idha63@uitm.edu.my

80 N. Ismail et al.
Keywords Islamic spiritual mentoring · Interpersonal communication · Da’wah

fardiyah
8.1 Introduction
Islam is a deen of da’wah where each of its teaching needs to be transmitted to

mankind. Thus, the existence of da’wah is really crucial for the religion to expand and
excel. There are many methods used by ulama in introducing Islam to people. Islamic
spiritual mentoring is one of the methods to build understanding and comprehension
about Islam via mentor and mentee, and da’wah fardiyah or interpersonal da’wah
is the most appropriate and sustainable one to be used. This method is similar to
interpersonal skills used in mentoring system or mentor and mentee program. So
this article intends to give an overview of similarities, differences, and comparison
between these two concepts in implementing Islamic spiritual mentoring.
8.2 Spiritual Mentoring in Islam
Mentoring is a system to guide an individual or group of people led by a mentor

and followed by mentee(s). Today, mentoring is essential not only in the educational
and counseling field but also for the development of human resources. Apart from
that, there is also mentoring system that focuses on spiritual aspect which is a part
of human’s needs and development (Miller 1999; Myers and Williard 2003).
Spiritual element is considered as the heart and soul of a religion, and it is also the
religion’s most central function (Zinnbauer et al. 2003). However, the implementation
of spiritual mentoring is not solely for elevating comprehension on religious belief,
but it has been used in managing organization, leadership, economy, and so forth.
In addition, the purposes of spiritual mentoring are to support personal growth and
provide a context that nourishes a mentee or protege’s spirit (Weinberg and Locander
2014). This element helps human to live a decent and harmonious life as a whole.
In Islam, spiritual mentoring is not a new concept. It has been practiced and
sustained by Muslims in leading their religious life since the supremacy of Prophet
PBUH. It can be seen clearly that Islam teaches its people to live with each other
or in groups while practicing their religion. For example, Muslims are encouraged
to perform their prayers in congregation based on the hadith, and this practice is
equivalent to 27 times worth of deeds than performing the prayers individually. The
same practice is followed for the prayers performed on Friday, Eid al-Fitr and Eid
al-Adha, where Muslims gather at mosque to perform their prayers in congregation.
Every year, millions of Muslims from all over the globe gather to perform their
pilgrimage in Mecca (Ismail et al. 2010). The concept to live in congregation has
been stressed in Islam, and it has connection with mentoring system where there is
a leader (imam) and followers (makmum). A leader has a role to guide the people,
8 Interpersonal Communication Skill and Da’wah Fardiyah Approach … 81
transmit the religion, taking care of the well-being and safety of people, command
the good and forbid the bad (amar makruf nahi munkar), and so on. Meanwhile, a
follower should obey the leader and follow his guidance based on the teachings of
Quran and Sunnah.
There are many terms related to spiritual mentoring in Islam such as halaqah
(circle) led by a naqib (mentor) who is responsible for spreading the knowledge
or conduct discussion with the members or mentees. Muhammad PBUH initiated
halaqah with his companions secretively (da’wah bissir) at the house of Al-Arqam
bin Abi Al-Arqam. Apart from that, mentoring concept is also related to hisba in
Islam. In hisba, a mentor is referred to as muhtaseb, and he is responsible for the
well-being and safety of the members (Ismail et al. 2010). The implementation of
mentoring in Islam is based on Islamic requisites from the Quran where there are
a few rights to be considered: the rights with the Creator, among humans, and the
rights of the Creator with the servants. Mentoring in Islam focuses not only on the
management of life between humans but also the relationship with the Creator after
one dies.
8.3 Interpersonal Communication Skill
Clark (1996) defined interpersonal skill as “basic setting” to human communication

that happens face-to-face, and it involves two or more individuals or a group of
people. According to Cangara (2012), communication between two people is known
as dyadic communication. Meanwhile, small-scale communication refers to three or
more people interacting face-to-face with one another.
Interpersonal communication between human can be in either written or verbal
form. These could create a better and comfortable means of communication with dif-
ferent individuals at different situations. Nonverbal communications such as gestures
and eye contact are also a part of interpersonal communication. Interpersonal commu-
nication can affect someone to share ideas, thoughts, desires, favorites, experiences,
and undesirable things verbally or nonverbally. Effective interpersonal communica-
tion leaves a strong impact on someone in creating a close and fond relationship
(Shukla and Dixit 2015).
8.4 Da’wah Fardiyah Approach
According to Syed Muhammad Nuh (2015), da’wah fardiyah is a face-to-face dialog

with mad’u (target) or a small group of people who have specific characteristics or
personalities. Mahmud (1995) defined da’wah fardiyah as an invitation or prosely-
tization to Allah SWT carried out individually by da’i (preacher) to another person
with the intention to transform al-mad’u to better circumstance which is granted
by Allah SWT. Syukri (2007) explained da’wah fardiyah as a form of direct and
82 N. Ismail et al.
personal interaction between da’i and mad’u to transmit certain preaching which
help the mad’u in various aspects of Islam. Gade and Don (2015) defined da’wah
fardiyah as a prolific face-to-face communication between da’i and mad’u so that
the response from mad’u on the preaching can be known within that time, may it be
negative or positive, accepting or rejecting. All these definitions show that the skill
used in da’wah fardiyah is interpersonal communication based on the teachings of
Quran and Sunnah. It is meant to spread Islamic preaching and elevate understanding
among Muslims.
8.5 Interpersonal Communication and Da’wah Fardiyah

in Islamic Spiritual Mentoring
8.5.1 Interpersonal Communication
For sustainable spiritual mentoring implementation, interpersonal communication

skill is the tool used in extending greeting between people, to create better relation-
ship, influence others to do good and to avoid conflict. According to Devito (1991),
there are three means of understanding the definition of interpersonal communica-
tion. The first one is the definition that looks at main components in communication
(componential definition), which are sender, receiver, and feedback. The second
one is the definition that explains the relationship between people who are close to
one another or known as relation (dyadic definition). The last one is the definition
that looks at interpersonal communication as the paramount of impersonal commu-
nication that leads to closer or intimate personal communication between humans
(developmental definition).
Da’wah fardiyah uses an implementation that combines all those three approaches
in interpersonal communication. This concept not only enforces the components of
da’i (preacher), mad’u (target), and maudhu’ (message given) but also does beyond
that. Da’wah fardiyah is a process of creating intimate and sustainable relationship
between da’i and mad’u that can generate positive changes for both parties.
The basic interpersonal communication skill is not based on the Quran and Sun-
nah. This is different from the approach by da’wah fardiyah, a theory or da’wah
brought forward by ulama based on Quran and Sunnah. However, this difference
cannot be used as a hindrance for both approaches to be used collectively. It is pos-
sible as long as it is not against Islamic practice. Thus, the usage of both approaches
in Islamic spiritual mentoring is in sync, and they complement each other.
Interpersonal communication skill in Islamic spiritual mentoring is in sync with
the approach in da’wah fardiyah, which is to create good relationship between human
beings. This communicational method has been used since the supremacy of Prophet
PBUH. According to Sakdiah (2016), interpersonal communication method was used
as a strategy by Prophet PBUH to spread his preachings and implement spiritual men-
toring, especially during the early phase of transmitting Islam. Muhammad PBUH
Interpersonal
CommunicaƟon
RelaƟonship with humans RelaƟonship with oneself
RelaƟonship with nature
Fig. 8.1 The approaches in interpersonal communication
managed to deliver his preaching face-to-face to his family and his companions using
interpersonal communication. In psychology, interpersonal communication can be
carried out smoothly and effectively if both parties know each other.
However, interpersonal communication cannot represent da’wah fardiyah
entirely. This is because in theory, communicational method in interpersonal skills
is not based on manhaj Islami or ilahiyah doctrine as mentioned in the Quran and
Sunnah. According to Basit’ (2007), interpersonal communication which originated
from the West is based on the orientation of relationship with oneself, between
humans and nature. It is not vertical, does not commend the relationship with the
Creator, and does not last. This makes interpersonal communication and da’wah
fardiyah differ in terms of aim, object of delivery, and qualification of the preacher.
The aim of interpersonal communication is to gain amity in the relationships
between humans, nature, and oneself. The object of delivery has nothing to do with
aqidah, ibadah, and the life after death. Meanwhile, the aim in implementing da’wah
fardiyah is to bring human to pious life that upholds the relationship with Allah SWT
as the core business (Fig. 8.1).
8.5.2 Da’wah Fardiyah
The use of da’wah fardiyah in the implementation of Islamic spiritual mentoring

is precise to the objective of Islamic spiritual mentoring, which is to create a deep
understanding and comprehension on Islam to every Muslim. Apart from that, the
main targets in da’wah fardiyah are not only in creating good relationship between
humans (hablun minan nas), nature, and oneself but also in adhering to the relation-
ship with Allah SWT (hablun minallah) which starts before birth (ruh). So, the use
of da’wah fardiyah in Islamic spiritual mentoring will produce Muslims who are
balanced duniawi (worldly) and ukhrawi (heavenly). Indirectly, this approach sup-
ports the concept of Ihsan: each individual needs to be aware that his or her action,
speech, and thoughts are monitored by the Almighty (Ismail et al. 2010) (Fig. 8.2).
The use of da’wah fardiyah in the context of Islamic spiritual mentoring was
started and is sustained since the sovereignty of Muhammad PBUH through the
84 N. Ismail et al.
RelaƟonship with Allah

SWT
RelaƟonship with The approaches in RelaƟonship with

other humans da’wah fardiyah oneself
RelaƟonship with
nature
Fig. 8.2 The approaches in da’wah fardiyah
existence of mosques. Muhammad PBUH was a prophet, leader, naqib, and advisor
in transmitting Islam, guiding and solving rising issues among the companions or
ummah. The existence of mosques as an institution for people has opened up the
space for creation and synergy of halaqah or mentoring system. His role was not
restrained to transmitting his sermons to companions but reminding them to deliver
his preachings to other people as well through da’wah. He wanted his companions
to not only be mentees but also become mentors by sharing the knowledge learnt
from him. This shows that mentoring system handled by Prophet PBUH focused on
implementation, education, and guidance to produce mentees who are responsible
enough to carry out the requisites in Islam (Ismail et al. 2010).
According to Sakdiah (2016), Prophet PBUH implemented interpersonal commu-
nication in his da’wah not for the sake of his personal benefit which was ephemeral.
However, it was more on fulfilling the needs of mad’ua and fulfilling his task entrusted
by Allah SWT. Thus, ulama debated that the use of communicational approach
by Prophet PBUH was interpersonal da’wah or da’wah fardiyah. This shows that
the two approaches are related and complement each other. Figure 8.3 shows the
complementary relationship between the two approaches to ensure the objectives in
implementing Islamic spiritual mentoring are achieved.
8.6 Conclusion
The implementation of interpersonal communication and da’wah fardiyah in sustain-

able Islamic spiritual mentoring is complementary. The aim is to focus on building
the spiritual belief and living one’s life believing in one creator, whereby interper-
sonal communication only focuses on interaction skills between humans, nature,
and oneself. All of these cannot be segregated in the approach of da’wah fardiyah.
Each mentor, who is responsible or in charge of Islamic spiritual mentoring, needs to
master the skills to meet the objectives of the mentoring system. The sustainability
of these approaches can be used to help human beings in creating a harmonious and
better life.
Da’wah Fardiyah Relationship with Allah SWT

Aproach
Islamic
Spiritual
Mentoring Relationship with another human
Relationship with oneself

Interpersonal
Communication
Skill
Relationship with nature
Fig. 8.3 The use of da’wah fardiyah and interpersonal communication in implementing Islamic
spiritual mentoring
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https://doi.org/10.12816/0028490
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RA, Bakar MAA (2010) Amalan program mentoring Sebagai Peramal Pembangunan Pelajar:
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management (IC-DAIM 2010), April 2017
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00077
Chapter 9
Persistent Poverty Based on Three
Dimensions in HDI
Amirul Iman Mohd Jazid and Patmawati Ibrahim
Abstract Poverty is one of the global issues that never has an ending due to pockets
of poverty, and this subsequently has led to the issue of persistent poverty. Persistent
poverty means poor people stay in poverty within a period of time. By using the
three dimensions in Human Development Index (HDI), quantitative method had
been used to seek the one that has an effect on poor people, making it hard to get out
of poverty and leaving them in persistent poverty. Respondents for this study are the
poor population who received financial aid from anti-poverty agencies. The results
obtained show that among the three dimensions, standard of living/economy aspect
had the highest ranking in the Friedman test. In the meantime, the statement under
standard of living/economy also shows that poor people found it really hard to save
some parts of their income for retirement and emergency due to lack of resources.
It can be concluded that standard of living for poor people was the one that makes
it difficult to get out of poverty, and as a result, they remain receiving financial aid
from anti-poverty agencies for a long time.
Keywords Persistent poverty · Human development index · Well-being
9.1 Introduction
While the number of people living under chronic poverty globally in other regions is
falling rapidly, the number in few areas in Africa still remains high (The World Bank
2018). Poverty becomes more persistent to individuals who stay in that condition for
too long. Mansur et al. (2013) stated that poverty should be solved immediately as
it affects the country’s economic growth. Due to the lack of income, households are
A. I. Mohd Jazid
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
e-mail: amirulaimj@gmail.com
P. Ibrahim (B)
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
e-mail: patmawati@uthm.edu.my

88 A. I. M. Jazid and P. Ibrahim
unable to meet their basic requirements, which makes them barely achieve the ideal
standard of living.
Persistent poverty is a situation where individuals cannot get out of poverty for
a long time. Hill (1985) looked at persistent poverty through various perspectives.
One way is to observe the status of an individual’s poverty for several years within
a period of time, and then see how many years the individual is in poverty. If the
individual was poor throughout the year, it was clear that the individual is in persistent
poverty. In addition, getting trapped in poverty also can lead a person to experience
persistent poverty (Lade et al. 2017), and this also inhibits the government’s capacity
to eradicate poverty thoroughly. In defining the actual period of persistent poverty,
it leads to some definitions from previous researchers. Mood (2015) explains that
in order to translate the concept of persistent poverty, it requires observation for a
certain period of time. It can be taken from the date the poor individual is interviewed,
for example, as in Valletta’s (2006) study which illustrates the shift of poverty to
persistent poverty in a 6-year observation period. If the poor are in poverty for six
consecutive years, it is considered as persistent poverty. In fact, putting a period of
observation in a study to see the pattern of persistent poverty is more reliable than
measuring the pattern of poverty at a single point of time.
According to an article released by the Office for National Statistics (2017), 7.3%
of the UK population, which is equivalent to nearly 4.6 million people, is experiencing
persistent relative poverty for 2–3 consecutive years. Relative poverty in this case
means individuals with less than 60% of the country’s median income for the year
suffer from poverty for 2–3 consecutive years of observation. Also, McGuinness
(2018) described relative poverty is experienced by those with less than 60% of
the country’s median income for 3–4 consecutive years. Furthermore, he has also
proven that persistent poverty in the UK was very alarming during 2012/13 and
2015/16, since 9% of individuals suffered from persistent poverty, and it was even
more worrying when it involved pensioners and children who were more vulnerable
to persistent poverty as they lacked sufficient resources and income.
However, poverty cannot be measured by income level only. According to Biewen
(2014), the government should pay attention to the poor who are in and out of
poverty several times because this is also one of the reasons they stay in poverty for
a long time. He further argued that the government needs to understand individual
characteristics of the poor as there are other aspects that can be addressed to assess
persistent poverty. On the other hand, the Poverty Line Income (PLI) results show
different standards of living, where there are slight differences between urban and
rural areas (Nair and Sagaran 2015). Poverty is not based on only income level, as
even economists now argue that a multidimensional approach is needed to change
the environment. Poverty should be covered and viewed from a wide area. Alkire and
Santos (2011) explain that individuals’ income could not be taken as a sole source in
identifying poor people as they might have enough income but lack other resources
like education, health, housing, empowerment, employment, and personal security.
9 Persistent Poverty Based on Three Dimensions in HDI 89
9.1.1 Impact of Poverty on HDI Dimensions
As poverty has been measured using a multidimensional approach, the indicator that
shows an impact on poor people must be from a wide perspective and must not
dependent on a single factor. Earlier, Anand and Ravallion (1993) argued that well-
being has to do with “being well,” which in the most straightforward terms is about
being able to live long, being well-nourished, being healthy, being literate, and so
on. Besides, development from the perspective of Jahan (2002) highlights poverty
as not about economic performance alone, but crucially about the people and their
well-being. Other than that, the country’s economic growth should not be the end
product to be achieved per say, as it is also aimed at enhancing people’s lives. When
poverty comes in, it will distract the development of its people as well as the country.
Sagar and Najam (1998) said that the alternatives that we have to look up in our
life can be infinite and can also revolutionize over time, but health, knowledge, and
standard of living are the ultimate necessities at all levels of development. Sagar
also stated that distribution of country’s performance is significant because of the
development. Since the measures of HDI are very important to capture the growing
inequality in human development, they add more indices to ensure the distribution
of well-being for inequality, gender equity, and poverty.
Education. Education is the key to change, to reduce poverty, and also to support
development. More than 200 children below 5 years of age face a stagnant develop-
ment because of psychosocial factors such as early childhood education, parenting
practices, and exposure to violence as well as biological factors like growth restric-
tion, undernutrition, and transmittable disease (Tran et al. 2016). Education poverty
studied by Nawaz and Iqbal (2016) in Pakistan shows that the literacy rate was far
different from MDG target with a 30% gap difference. The completion/survival in
school was also different from MDG target, and it shows majority of households in
Pakistan were deprived of attaining education. This was due to the lack of education
facilities and insufficient household income that resulted in their inability to pay for
basic education. They were less prepared or even not prepared at all for school. This
also led to the inability to integrate (Mihai et al. 2015). Besides that, majority of the
poor families could not cope with the financial shocks, and due to that, some of their
children had to quit school in order to earn money and help out their family.
In order to succeed in school, every child should have the ability to perform
both academically and socially. According to Ferguson et al. (2007), there are six
poverty-related circumstances that could impact child development in general and
also in school readiness; the poverty rate, seriousness, length, and timing have an
impact on the child’s social network. HB Ferguson also argued that children from
low-income families often do not obtain, or otherwise know, how to learn the social
skills to make them prepared for school. A report by Willms (2003) and Thomas
(2006) states that children from lower income households had lower achievement
in vocabulary, communication skills, number knowledge, copying and symbol use,
self-regulation, independence, and self-control behavior compared to children from
higher income household. It is proven that poor children have some disadvantages
with the education system in school (Ferguson et al. 2007). Meanwhile, a study
by Awan et al. (2011) in Pakistan shows that the higher the level of education the
population can obtain, the lesser the number of poor people, as the education level
helped to increase their income earning.
However, Bramley and Karley (2007) mentioned that poverty also can affect the
educational achievement in three scopes. The first one is from the resource-side where
all the financial and learning resources will be affected. The second is the mindset
of the poor people who are always thinking they cannot perform well in academics
because of their surrounding, and lastly when poverty affects the institution itself, it
will ruin the teaching standards. A report by British Columbia Teachers’ Federation
(BCTF) (2016), when asked about priorities in advocating for the needs of students
who were experiencing poverty, stated that most of them needed a teaching support
to address their learning gap. Most of the respondents in the study also responded
for an increase in funding programs that can support poor students in building their
level of readiness in school.
The problem also occurs when there is high indirect cost in education, and this
might be the reason why parents in poverty could not afford to send their children
to school. As mentioned by Yi et al. (2012), there are many indirect costs to be paid
by parents and this could hinder the opportunity for their kids to study further. The
indirect costs are like transportation fees, extra classes fees, as well as uniform fees.
In the short run, households with low income view more loss when their children
attend school (Julius 2015). In contrast, education from Maiyo’s perspectives is also
important for economic growth and performances. When there is a lack of adequate
skills from education, there will be limitation on the growth of countries. We can
see this in poor countries, where their labor force may lack in basic literacy and
numeracy skills.
Standard of Living/Economy. The impact of poverty on economy is very signifi-
cant. It can really affect the growth and economic performances. To understand the
impact of economic growth on poverty, Kakwani (2001) stated that it is important to
measure separately the changes in terms of average income and also income inequal-
ity on poverty. Sala (2014) proved that poverty is an obstacle for economic growth.
Other than that, Laura also mentioned that the reason for the absence in growth and
persistent poverty is because the income levels of certain regions remain low, and
they are considered to be consistently stuck in perpetuate poverty.
In addition, inequality is also one of the reasons for low economic growth. Some
previous papers by Galor and Zeira (1993) and Galor and Moav (2004) pointed out
that inequality will affect economic growth in terms of depriving the poor from stay-
ing healthy and developing human capital. Hence, it is because of inequality also that
the process of development will be changed. Forbes (2000) finds that inequality can
lead to an increase in economic growth in the short and medium terms. Empirical
findings by Halter et al. (2014) also matched with some of the theories that highlight
higher inequality can greatly affect the economic performance but for a short term,
it can reduce the growth rate of GDP and per capita in the future. In the end, the
effect of higher inequality tends to be negative. To make sure people can escape from
poverty, each member of a household should get enough resources to make sure they
can invest into something and is able to build investment for the children’s develop-
ment, helping in academic and social proficiencies (Conger 2005). According to the
authors, financial stress faced by the household probably could disturb the children’s
growth development, as Chaudry and Wimer (2016) proved that children from poor
backgrounds are more likely to be stagnant in the growth in terms of education,
health, and others as compared to children from a better family background. How-
ever, we should also take a look at the number of old populations. Lack of earnings
will affect the standard life of an individual. Poverty and economic strain affects the
ability of individual, for example, in searching for jobs, not having enough income,
difficulty in fulfilling the basic needs, and having a standard life (Murray et al. 2015).
Haushofer and Fehr (2014) explained that poverty disturbs one’s economic trend.
They added that poverty also disrupted one’s behavior to get out of poverty due to
the lack of resources they faced. They also believed that a strong economic status can
lead one to happiness and satisfaction in life. This is proven in the study conducted
by Adamkovic and Martoncik (2017) that someone who had low resources and
lived in poverty was consistently forced to deal with stress and was always worried
of his financial status. This is similar to what happened in some African countries,
where the economic movement in the country is declining as poverty, unemployment,
and inequality are rising (Oluwatayo and Ojo 2018). In fact, there are some other
things also that messed up economic growth in Africa apart from poverty, such as
infrastructure deficits, corruption, national security, and sole dependence on a source.
Therefore, household or individual economic growth is very imperative.
Besides that, having financial difficulties and poverty later would also affect the
social, physical, and developmental needs of children and families. A report by
Mokhzani (2016) stated that in Malaysia, only 10.8% of households were able to
survive when economic shock happens because of a few factors, namely unemploy-
ment, physically inability, mortality, and changes in economic trend. Ng et al. (2018)
mentioned that individuals who earned less than RM2000 in 2016 spent almost 95%
of their income, and they literally did not have any saving. Even if they had, the
saving decreased from RM124 per month in 2014 to RM76 per month in 2016.
Moreover, accelerated population aging in developing countries also gives some
implications to poverty. This economic hardship gives an undesirable effect on par-
ents’ emotions, behaviors, and relationship which affect their parenting strategies. All
of these resources including both cash and non-cash incomes determine the economic
well-being of households in all nations (Smeeding et al. 1993).
Healthcare. People who are stuck in poverty for a period of time will have problem
in getting proper healthcare due to lack of resources. According to World Health
Organization (WHO), investing in health will help reduce poverty. Indeed, three of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) appeal for health improvements. Besides
that, at least half of the world’s population cannot acquire health services and some
of them are being pushed into poverty because they have to pay for healthcare out of
their own pockets (World Health Organization). These people have higher average
maternal mortality, higher level of disease, and more limited access to healthcare
due to limited sources of income, and they even die younger (Grant 2005). Grant
also said that ill-health can be such a catalyst for poverty, and in turn, poverty can
perpetuate poor health status.
According to Philip and Rayhan (2004), there is another aspect of poverty which
makes it difficult to escape, that is vulnerability, where the poor are more vulnerable
than any other group to health risks and economic down-turns. A few case studies
also show that interaction between poverty and vulnerability is directly connected.
When poor people face climate changes, floods and droughts, or HIV/AIDS, they
would be affected, especially the vulnerable ones. It is even robbing their ability to
contribute and participate in the society (Kaplan 2009). Most of the individuals in
the poor countries also have lower lifespan than advanced countries. This is because
individuals in poor countries are more susceptible to the spread of the disease, with
the unbalanced diet, unhealthy lifestyle, and bad surrounding environment which
can be considered as the factors of their low life expectancy. Differences in social
style, economic trends, and political background of an individual reflect the level of
health services they will use (Trani et al. 2010; Balarajan et al. 2011). The poor who
have education but do not manage to excel also fail to get good health services.
Moreover, World Bank Group has voiced out what poor people feel. It is revealed
that the problems such as lack of food, lack of safe water, poor drainage, unstable
areas, and disability are the causes of their diseases and illnesses. They cannot reach
any healthcare because they lack proper resources (Swartz 2009). Shortage of nurses
in poor areas, low level of awareness on medical needs, and inability to explain their
health condition are the reasons poor people are getting trapped along with their
existing health problems. Besides that, the cost of getting healthcare is also one of
the problems for the poor. NCOSS (2016) conducted a survey, and it was proven that
the cost was the most frequent barrier for the poor in getting their health services
attended. It even affected most of the respondents who received career allowance
and disability support pension. Half of the respondents indicated that they could not
access the services, medicine, or other support just because they really could not
afford it. High out-of-pocket expenditure is one of the major factors in increasing the
cost of health services that ultimately impact on their inability of paying healthcare
bills (Swartz 2009).
Orentlicher (2018) said that income probably has a greater effect on health com-
pared to health on income. If people get sick and they lack resources like insurance,
they do not receive adequate healthcare, and as a result, they get sick easily, they can-
not work, and their income will drop. Physicians for Fair Coverage (2018) reported
that the high cost shifts in getting healthcare services were among the poor. Majority
of the patients need to spend few dollars out of their own pocket before they get their
actual healthcare plan. The actual healthcare plan is dependent on the individual’s
income gap. They spend a few dollars because they cannot afford to get life insur-
ance. Life insurance is actually an investment that can cover and support them in a
long term. However, the problem happens when the households are stuck in poverty,
and they cannot even invest for life insurance. Manik (2017) said that only four out
of 1000 people had an insurance policy, while only 35% of low-income households
held life insurance policy, but the coverage was not large enough to support them for
a long term (Brobeck 2017).
Several researchers also state that a higher income usually would have longer
life expectancy (Dickman et al. 2017; Chetty et al. 2016). The difference in life
expectancy gap between the rich and the poor is up to 1% now. Wealthy persons
receive adequate healthcare, while the poor are stuck with poor health because they
cannot afford the healthcare services. This is also shown by the differences of fre-
quency of getting treatment shortly after getting sick between poor children and
those who come from a capable family (Schellenberg et al. 2003). In addition, many
patients cannot afford the healthcare they need and always forgot the medical care
altogether. These were the reasons why people in the middle-class had medical
bankruptcy (Himmelstein et al. 2009). Based on the demographic characteristics,
most debtors had slightly lower incomes, educational attainment, and occupational
prestige scores, and more were married and fewer were employed—reflecting to their
disability.
9.2 Methodology
This study aims to explain the impact of poverty on Human Development Index
(HDI). Basically, HDI consists of three indicators to measure poverty, which are
education, standard of living, and healthcare. Each indicator shows that poverty not
only depends on income but also many other factors that possibly affect people
who are considered poor. It is important to have a systematic method in conducting
a research. So, quantitative data had been used in this study. Questionnaires were
spread out among poor in designated areas. The authors focused on poor people who
received financial aid from anti-poverty agencies like zakat institution and Jabatan
Kebajikan Masyarakat. The items in the questionnaire also covered the time duration
of receiving the aid so that the authors could get the real number of people from
the poor populations that can be considered as in persistent poverty. In addition, this
questionnaire also includes items related to factors contributing to persistent poverty.
The items were developed based on Likert scale. Respondents were selected using
non-random sampling, and 328 peoples in Muar were selected through two agencies.
For analyzation, SPSS has been used to determine the frequency, mean, and median
for every item in questionnaires. Next, the Friedman test begins by rank-ordering the
measures for each dimension in HDI. It is used to test the differences between groups
when dependent variables measured are ordinal. For example, “3” is the highest of
a subject’s three measures, “2” is intermediate, and “1” is the lowest.
Table 9.1 shows the statement related to the standard of living/economic of the
poor who were getting trapped in poverty. Due to financial difficulties faced by
the poor, a majority of 52.3 and 51.5% of them agreed with the statement on their
low monthly income as well as inadequate income to support their families. In the
meantime, with the effects of inadequate income to support their families, women
need to go to work in order to support their husbands. Therefore, it can be seen
that 31.9% of the respondents agreed with the lack of resources requiring women to
work. Furthermore, the poor also realized that it was difficult for them to grab any
employment opportunities, and this is the reason why they had to work overtime and
do more than one job.
In addition, 71.5% of these poor people agreed that they spent according to their
financial capability. Similarly, due to lack of income sources, it is difficult for the
poor to keep part of their wages for emergency use and pensions. That is why 64.6
and 80% of the respondents strongly agreed with the statement. Besides that, 53.5%
of the respondents were less exposed to money management techniques, and this
makes them difficult to save some of their income for future use. The findings show
that the economic or standard of living dimension was the main contributing factor
Table 9.1 The frequency of each statement for standard of living/economy dimensions
Statement for standard of living/economy dimension Frequency (%)
1 Lower income 52.3—strongly agree
2 Income not sufficient to support 51.5—strongly agree
whole family
3 My wife need to work to support 34.2—agree
family
4 Difficult to grab suitable job 65.4—strongly agree
5 Work overtime 50.8—strongly agree
6 Do more than one job 45.4—agree
7 Spending according to ability 71.5—agree
8 Cannot buy other things after 54.6—neutral
paying bills
9 Bill payment was overdue 52.7—neutral
10 Difficult to separate income for 64.6—strongly agree
emergency
11 Difficult to separate income for 80.0—strongly agree
retirement
12 Facing with debts 54.2—not agree
13 Keep worrying how to pay debts 41.5—strongly not agree
14 Less exposed on money 53.5—agree
management
Table 9.2 Mean ranking for

HDI’ dimensions mean ranking
HDI dimension
Standard of living/economy 3.00
Healthcare 1.59
Education 1.42
for the poor to remain in poverty. Individuals who were experiencing poverty in life
feel that the economic factors were the ones that prevent their ability to participate
and compete in the society.
Aside from that, Friedman’s tests on the three dimensions of the Human Devel-
opment Index (HDI) as in Table 9.2 show that the economic aspect got the highest
mean rank value, and this proved that the economic aspects were the main reasons
why poor people hardly get out of poverty. Looking at the Likert scale on economic
dimensions, the majority of the respondents agreed with the fact that it is difficult for
them to get the right job opportunities to support their families. As (Paul et al. 2018)
said, joblessness is the main cause of poverty, but those who worked also cannot
escape from poverty because it was not enough to help them get out of poverty.
In fact, those who suffered from poverty need to work overtime and do more than
one job, although their wives also had to work to support the family. This study
also supported (Rahman 2017) which explains the financial challenges faced by the
urban poor households. According to the report, the rising cost of living has led the
poor households to feel the burden because the income earned was insufficient and
some was just enough to meet their basic needs, but not for savings or other passive
investments.
9.4 Conclusion
There are a lot of things that need to be done in alleviating poverty. Poverty also
should be measured from different angles so that it can be minimized thoroughly
as the vision of World Bank is to reduce poverty by half before 2030. Even the
concept of persistent poverty needs to be exposed to the citizens in Malaysia so that
they are aware with the impact of poverty. For the factors contributing to persistent
poverty based on the dimensions, the economic aspects are the biggest challenge for
persistently poor people to get out of poverty due to the lack of monthly income
sources that individuals cannot afford to meet their household needs. This proves
that lack of income sources also affects other aspects including education and health.
Thus, poverty alleviation agencies are responsible for the welfare of the poor by
providing them with some form of entrepreneurial concepts to assist in the economic
recovery of the poor. This study also can serve as a useful guideline for anti-poverty
agencies on the application of human development index in alleviating poverty.
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Chapter 10
Issues and Challenges Contributing
to Complexity in Infrastructure Project
Performance
Akhtarul Norfaiza Che Nen, Che Maznah Mat Isa,

Christopher Nigel Preece, and Che Khairil Izam Che Ibrahim
Abstract The objective of this paper is to identify the complexity factors affecting
infrastructure projects in order to evaluate the relationship that is significant between
complexity factors and project performance in infrastructure projects during the pre-
construction stage based on time. This paper draws on existing research and the
observations of previous studies and identifies the outlines to produce a greater con-
sideration of the issues or factors of complexity affecting project performance in the
construction industry, especially in infrastructure projects. A systematic literature
review process is used to determine the most significant issues, challenges, and fac-
tors affecting infrastructure project performance in relation to time. The results are
expected to lead toward a conceptual framework for integrating complexity assess-
ment for infrastructure projects and a model in improving project performance for
complex infrastructure projects. This research paper has been undertaken as part of
an overall research project which aims to develop a complexity model in order to
identify the most significant factors contributing to complexity and to develop a the-
ory and model of complexity assessment for infrastructure projects. A pilot study was
carried out based on 37 respondents’ feedback to determine the level of importance
of these factors using the relative importance index (RII). This study contributes
to the theory of integrating complexity assessments for infrastructure projects in
construction life cycles and a model to integrate construction project management
using complexity assessments during the pre-construction stage. It will also con-
tribute toward the Eleventh Malaysia Plan in the construction industry, especially in
infrastructure projects.
Keywords Issues · Challenges · Complexity factors · Infrastructure project

performance
A. N. Che Nen (B) · C. M. Mat Isa · C. K. I. Che Ibrahim

e-mail: akhtarulnorfaiza82@gmail.com
C. N. Preece
Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

100 A. N. Che Nen et al.
10.1 Introduction
There exist many definitions of complexity. Yong and Othman (2018) stated that
project complexity is a crucial problem as it is closely connected to the project man-
agement process predominantly for the construction industry. The Collins English
Dictionary (2006) defines complexity as “the state or quality of being intricate or
complex,” where complex is defined as “made up of many interconnecting parts”
(Wood and Gidado 2008). Complexity is a wide-ranging topic which can relate to
any subject.
In fact, the problems that occur in construction projects before and during con-
struction may be considered as the main factors that contribute to project complexity.
The construction industry is complex in nature because it involves a large number
of parties such as owners (clients), contractors, consultants, stakeholders, and reg-
ulators. Despite this complexity, the industry has a major role in the growth and
achievement of society’s goals. It is one of the largest industries and contributes
about 10% of the gross national product (GNP) in commercial countries (Navon
2005). However, many local construction projects report poor performance due to
many evidential project-specific causes (Enshassi et al. 2009).
According to Cheung et al. (2004), project performance can be measured and
evaluated using a large number of performance indicators that could be related to
various dimensions (groups) such as time, cost, quality, client satisfaction, client
changes, business performance, health, and safety.
The main aim of this paper is to identify the complexity factors affecting infras-
tructure projects in order to evaluate the relationship that is significant between
complexity factors and project performance in infrastructure projects during the
pre-construction stage based on time.
Complexity can be derived into project and process complexity. According to

Cardoso (2006), process complexity is defined as “the degree to which a process
is difficult to analyze, understand or explain.” Wood and Gidado (2008) stated that
complexity can be difficult to define as it has a number of different meanings. Accord-
ing to Wood and Gidado (2008), the application of complexity to the construction
industry is not widely researched; however, some evidence has been found that the
process of construction can in itself be thought of as a complex system. It has been
proven by Baccarini (1996) that the construction process may be considered the most
complex undertaking in any industry, and lately the construction industry, has been
having great difficulty in coping with the increasing complexity of major construction
projects.
As reported by Mills (2001), the construction industry is one of the most dynamic,
risky, and challenging industries. It has a very poor reputation for managing risk,
10 Issues and Challenges Contributing to Complexity … 101
with many major projects failing to meet project performance requirements. This
is supported by Wood and Gidado (2008) who stated that project success in terms
of cost, time overruns, quality, performance, and safety is historically poor in the
construction industry due to the design and construction processes being particularly
complex. According to Rahman et al. (2013) and Masrom et al. (2015), a successful
project meets the requirements of time, costs, quality, performance, and safety. The
effectiveness of performance measurement is an issue of growing importance to
industrialists and academics alike. Cost, schedule, and quality are the traditional
performance areas in construction projects.
In general, construction projects including road infrastructure projects are all made
up of many interconnecting parts which fit well with the definition of complexity.
However, previous studies on complexity in construction projects are very limited,
with most studies focusing only on the conceptual factors that contribute to complex-
ity in the construction industry (Wood and Gidado 2008; Baccarini 1996; Williams
1999; Sinha et al. 2006; Brockmann and Girmscheid 2007; Pitsis et al. 2004).
Luo et al. (2017) summarized that there are many types of project complexity
(Table 10.1).
Table 10.1 Types of project complexity

Researcher (year) Types of project complexity
Baccarini (1996) Organizational complexity (the vertical and horizontal
differentiation, and the degree of operational
interdependencies and interaction among the project
organizational elements) and technological complexity
(the variety or diversity of some aspects of a task, and
interdependencies among tasks and teams)
Maylor (2003) Organizational complexity (including the number of
members, departments, organizations, regions, nations,
languages, time zones, level of the organization, and
power structure), technological complexity (including
technology, innovation system, uncertainty of the process
or demand), and resource complexity (including project
scale and budget size)
Geraldi (2008) Complexity of fact (refers to the complexity in dealing
with a very large amount of interdependent information),
complexity of faith (refers to the complexity involved in
creating something unique or solving new problems),
and complexity of interaction (interfaces among systems
or locations of complexity)
(continued)

Girmscheid and Brockmann (2008) Task complexity (density of activities in a spatial and
temporal frame), social complexity (number and
diversity of actors), cultural complexity (diversity of the
cultural human mindset), operative complexity (the
degree of independence when defining operations to
achieve given goals), and cognitive complexity (the level
of a person or a group)
Remington and Pollack (2007) Technical complexity (interconnection among multiple
interdependent solution options), structural complexity
(difficulty in managing and keeping track of the large
number of different interconnected tasks and activities),
directional complexity (ambiguity related to multiple
potential interpretations of goals and objectives), and
temporal complexity (uncertainty regarding future
constraints, the expectation of change, and possibly even
concern regarding the future existence of the system)
Bosch-Rekveldt et al. (2011) Organizational complexity (including size, resources,
project team, trust, and risk), technological complexity
(including goals, scope, tasks, experience, and risk), and
environmental complexity (including stakeholders,
location, market conditions, and risk)
Senescu et al. (2013) Organizational complexity (organizational multiplicity
and organizational openness), product complexity
(quantity of building components and level of detail at
which building components are considered by the project
team), and process complexity (process interdependence
and process causal connections)
He et al. (2015) Organizational complexity (involves project staff,
organizational structure, and various teams),
technological complexity (building type, overlapping of
design and construction works, and dependency on
project operation), goal complexity (various project
participants’ requirements, project task complexity, and
limited resources), environmental complexity (the
complexity of the context in which a project operates,
such as the natural, market, political, and regulatory
environment), cultural complexity (the diversity of the
cultural human mindset), and information complexity
(complicated communication among a great number of
project stakeholders under complicated contractual
arrangements)
Lu et al. (2015) Organizational complexity (amount and complexity of
organizational members and complexity of
organizational structure) and task complexity (amount
and complexity of task and complexity of dependency
among tasks)
(continued)

Nguyen et al. (2015) Organizational complexity (contractual conditions,
number of contract/work packages, coordination of
stakeholders, and project planning and scheduling),
technological complexity (characterized by the variety of
technologies employed and technological newness of the
project), sociopolitical complexity (including
administrative policies/procedures, number of applicable
laws and regulations, local experience expected from
parties, and influence of politics), environmental
complexity (local climatic conditions, geographic
conditions, and environmental risks), infrastructural
complexity (site compensation and clearance,
transportation systems, and qualifications required for
contractors), and scope complexity (ambiguity of project
scope and project size in terms of capital)
Source Luo et al. (2017)
10.3 Methodology
A pilot survey questionnaire was developed to measure and verify the completeness
of the questionnaire in capturing the relevant complexity factors that most affected
the performance of infrastructure projects. The pilot survey questionnaire was given
to the clients, consultants, contractors, sub-contractors, and other parties who are
involved in infrastructure projects to get their input on the complexity factors that
affected the performance of infrastructure projects based on time during the pre-
construction stage. The questionnaire was divided into three parts. The first part was
a demographic study of the respondents.
The second part of the questionnaire focused on the complexity factors that
affected the performance of infrastructure projects based on time during the pre-
construction stage. The respondents were asked to highlight the complexity factors
that affected the performance based on their working experience related to infras-
tructure projects with a five-point scale (1: Strongly disagree, 2: Disagree, 3: Agree,
4: Much agree, 5: Strongly agree).
The third part of the questionnaire focused on effective mitigation plans for the
impact of critical complexity on project performance in infrastructure projects.
10.3.1 Data Analysis
This paper used the reliability test and relative importance index to analyze the
data. Kometa et al. (1994) and Sambasivan and Soon (2007) used the RII method to
determine the relative importance of the various causes of delays. The same method
was adopted in this study. RIIs are calculated for each factor as in Eq. (10.1):

RI I = W/(A ∗ N ) (10.1)
where RII = relative importance index, W = weighting given to each factor by

respondents (ranging from 1 to 5), A = highest weight (i.e., 5 in this case), and N =
total number of respondents. The RII value had a range of 0–1 (0 not inclusive); the
higher the RII, the more important the complexity factor that affected performance
based on time. The RIIs were then ranked, and the results are shown in Table 10.5.
Calculating the average RIIs of the causes in each group gives the RIIs of the mean
groups. The mean RIIs and the ranking of all groups are also shown in Table 10.5.
The purpose of each method and its results are explained in the results and
discussion section.
10.4.1 Respondents
In total, 37 respondents returned the completed pilot survey questionnaires giving a

response rate of 25.9%. The response rate is reasonable since most of the surveys
done in Malaysia generate a rate that falls between 10 and 20% (Ramayah et al.
2005; Ainin et al. 2010).
The demographic characteristics of the respondents are given in Table 10.2.
10.4.2 Reliability Test
A reliability test using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was conducted to measure the
internal consistency of the specific factors under study. Table 10.3 shows the results
for the reliability test of the complexity factors affecting the performance of infras-
tructure projects based on time during the pre-construction stage (design stage,
tendering stage, and contract award stage).
The results reveal that all the complexity factors are acceptable. The most reliable
complexity factors affecting performances based on time during the pre-construction
stage are insufficient study on construction ability and feasibility with a value of 0.925
(design stage); award to low bid that is qualified or non-compliant with a value of
0.968 (tendering stage); and a contractor, supplier, or service provider challenges
the procurement process with a value of 0.959 (contract award stage). Hence, these
factors shall be further used in the following analysis.
Table 10.2 Demographic study of respondents

Frequency Percentage
Respondent’s background
Client 8 21.6
Consultant 15 40.5
Contractor 8 21.6
Sub-contractor 1 2.7
Others 5 13.5
Respondent’s position
Project director 1 2.7
Project manager 4 10.8
Contract manager 2 5.4
Design manager 0 0
Project engineer 11 29.7
Construction manager 0 0
Risk manager 0 0
Site supervisor 1 2.7
Quantity surveyor 1 2.7
Others 17 45.9
Respondent’s working experience
<5 years 11 29.7
6–10 years 11 29.7
11–15 years 8 21.6
16–20 years 2 5.4
>20 years 5 13.5
Type of sector
Public sector 11 29.7
Private sector 26 70.3
Table 10.3 Reliability tests of complexity factors affecting performance of infrastructure projects
based on time during pre-construction stage
Independent variables Cronbach’s Alpha
Insufficient study on construction ability and feasibility (design stage) 0.925
Award to low bid that is qualified or non-compliant (tendering stage) 0.968
A contractor, supplier, or service provider challenges the procurement 0.959
process (contract award stage)
Table 10.4 Normality tests for complexity factors affecting performance in infrastructure projects
during pre-construction stage
Variable Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Standard error Statistic Standard error
Design stage −0.344 0.388 0.332 0.759
based on time
performance
Tendering stage −0.200 0.388 −0.299 0.759
based on time
performance
Contract award −0.021 0.388 −1.170 0.759
stage based on
time
performance
10.4.3 Normality Test
In this study, the normality of the variables was proven by evaluating the data distri-
butions for skewness and kurtosis. The standard error is the range of possible errors
occurring in data (good standard error value <1.0).
Table 10.4 shows the values of the standard errors for skewness and kurtosis are
0.388 and 0.759, respectively. Both values indicate that the standard errors are good
values (<1.0). Hence, the normality assumption for each variable is acceptable, which
indicates that all the specific factors are normally distributed.
10.4.4 Relative Importance Index (RII)
The data collected from the pilot survey questionnaire was analyzed from the per-
spective of clients, consultants, contractors, sub-contractors, and other parties who
are involved in infrastructure projects. Each complexity factor’s RII perceived by all
the respondents was computed for overall analysis.
The relative importance index, RII was computed for each complexity factor to
identify the most significant complexity factor. The complexity factors were ranked
based on the RII values.
The rankings of all complexity factors during the design stage, tendering stage,
and contract award stage in the pre-construction stage based on time performance
are shown in Table 10.5.
Design Stage Based on Time. The five most important complexity factors as
perceived during the design stage in the pre-construction stage were: (1) lack of
optimization of cost and time (RII = 0.778); (2) change of original design from
client (RII = 0.773); (3) insufficient study on construction ability and feasibility (RII
Table 10.5 Relative importance index (RII) of the complexity factors affecting performance of
infrastructure projects based on time during pre-construction stage
Design stage Tendering stage Contract award stage
Factor of RII Rank Factor of RII Rank Factor of RII Rank
complexity complexity complexity
Lack of 0.778 1 Award to low 0.741 1 Delays during 0.773 1
optimization bid that is the approval
of cost and qualified or process
time non-compliant
Change of 0.773 2 Insufficient 0.724 2 Delay in 0.751 2
original time to contract
design from evaluate negotiations
client tenders from
sub-contractors
Insufficient 0.746 3 Exercise 0.714 3 Failure to 0.735 3
study on privilege start the
construction clause to award procurement
ability and in accordance process on
feasibility with time
non-disclosed
criteria
Insufficient 0.735 4 Insufficient 0.708 4 Extension of 0.735 3
collection time in bid or
and preparing proposal
reviewing of tender submission
all drawings documents to date
sub-contractor
Errors of 0.730 5 Tender 0.692 5 Delay in 0.724 4
original document not preparing
design complete technical
specifications,
scope of
work, or
terms of
reference
= 0.746); (4) insufficient collection and reviewing of all drawings (RII = 0.735);
and (5) errors of original design (RII = 0.730) as shown in Fig. 10.1.
Tendering Stage Based on Time. The five most important complexity factors as
perceived during the tendering stage in the pre-construction stage were: (1) award
to low bid that is qualified or non-compliant (RII = 0.741); (2) insufficient time to
evaluate tenders from sub-contractors (RII = 0.724); (3) exercise privilege clause
to award in accordance with non-disclosed criteria (RII = 0.714); (4) insufficient
time in preparing tender documents to sub-contractors (RII = 0.708); and (5) tender
document not complete (RII = 0.692) as shown in Fig. 10.2.
Contract Award Stage Based on Time. The five most important complexity factors
as perceived during the contract award stage in the pre-construction stage were: (1)
delays during the approval process (RII = 0.773); (2) delay in contract negotiations
60
51.4
50
40.5
37.8
Percentage (%)
40 35.1 35.1 35.1

32.4
29.7 29.7 29.7 29.7
30
21.6 21.6
18.9
20 13.5
10.8
8.1
10 5.4 5.4
2.7 2.7 2.7
0 0 0
0
Lack of Change of Insufficient Insufficient Errors of
optimization of original design study on collection and original design
cost and time from client construction reviewing of all
ability and drawings
feasibility
Complexity Factors
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Much Agree Strongly Agree
Fig. 10.1 Five important complexity factors affecting performance of infrastructure projects based
on time during pre-construction stage (design stage) based on rank of RII
40 37.8 37.8
35.1
35 32.4 32.4
29.7 29.7
Percentage (%)
30 27
24.3 24.3 24.3
25 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6
20 16.2
13.5 13.5
15
8.1 8.1
10 5.45.4
2.7 2.7 2.7
5
0
Award to low bid Insufficient time Exercise privilege Insufficient time Tender document
that is qualified or to evaluate tenders clause to award in in preparing tender not complete
non-compliant from sub- accordance with documents to sub-
contractor non-disclosed contractor
criteria.
Complexity Factors
on time during pre-construction stage (tendering stage) based on rank of RII
45 40.5
37.8 37.8 37.8
40 35.1 35.1
32.4
Percentage (%)
35 29.7
30 27
24.3 21.6 24.3
25 21.6 21.6
20 18.9 16.2
15
8.1 8.1 8.1
10 5.4 5.4
2.7
5 0 0 0
0
Delays during the Delay in Contract Failure to Start Extension of Bid Delay in
Approval Process Negotiations the Procurement or Proposal Preparing
Process on Time Submission Date Technical
Specifications,
Scope of Work or
Terms of
Reference
Complexity Factors
on time during pre-construction stage (contract award stage) based on rank of RII
(RII = 0.751); (3) failure to start the procurement process on time (RII = 0.735); (4)
extension of bid or proposal submission date (RII = 0.735 same as RII no. 3); and
(5) delay in preparing technical specifications, scope of work, or terms of reference
(RII = 0.724) as shown in Fig. 10.3.
The results show that all the complexity factors are most significant factors that
affect the performance in infrastructure projects during the pre-construction stage,
especially based on time which is the factor contributing to the respondents’ decision.
Hence, the analysis should also include other performance indicators such as cost
and quality.
10.5 Conclusion
The literature reviews have shown a current lack of understanding of the term com-
plexity in the construction industry, especially with regard to infrastructure projects.
Complexity appears to provide a prolific new understanding of the construction
process. The aim of this paper was to identify the complexity factors that affected
performance in infrastructure projects during the pre-construction stage based on
time. The results show that the complexity factors during the pre-construction stage
based on time were affecting the performance of the infrastructure projects.
Finally, similar studies could be performed for other performance indicators
such as cost and quality which are crucial for project success and should be taken
into account before the construction stage in construction projects, especially in

infrastructure projects by developing and utilizing the findings of this study.
This research paper has been undertaken as part of an overall research project
which aims to develop a complexity model in order to identify the most significant
factors contributing to complexity and to develop a theory and model of complexity
assessment for infrastructure projects.
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Chapter 11
The Role of Service Quality on Muslim
Customer Satisfaction: A Case
of Sustainable Umrah Industry
in Malaysia
Mohamad Niza Md Nor, Syazwani Ya, Zulaiha Ahmad, Nurwahida Fuad,

Ahmad Nizan Mat Noor, and Khumaizi Kamarulzaman
Abstract Umrah industry has become a prominent industry as the demand has
increased over the years. Due to high demand in the Umrah industry, the emergence
of travel agencies involved in this industry also keep increasing. The industry cre-
ates high competition among travel agencies in order to win the customers’ heart.
Therefore, the aim of the study is purposed to identify the relationship between ser-
vice quality toward Muslim customer satisfaction. Five independent variables were
selected, namely, caretaking, promise keeping, problem-solving, accessibility, and
tangibles. Researchers adopted quantitative research method, and the scope of the
study involved 265 respondents in Langkawi. The result of this study revealed that
there is a correlation between caretaking, promise keeping, accessibility, and tangi-
bles toward customer satisfaction. However, problem-solving shows no correlation
with customer satisfaction. From the result, several recommendations have been
made on how to remain in competitive advantage as well as reduce the tendency of
problem during performing Umrah.
Keywords Service quality · Customer satisfaction · Umrah sustainability
M. N. Md Nor (B) · S. Ya · Z. Ahmad · N. Fuad · A. N. Mat Noor · K. Kamarulzaman

e-mail: mohdniza@uitm.edu.my
S. Ya
Z. Ahmad
N. Fuad
e-mail: wahida.fuad@uitm.edu.my
A. N. Mat Noor
e-mail: ahmadnizan@uitm.edu.my
K. Kamarulzaman
e-mail: khumaizi9516@gmail.com

114 M. N. M. Nor et al.
11.1 Introduction
Recently, the emergence of trave agencies has become wider. This industry has
tackled the attraction of many people to spend their money just to fulfill their needs
such as enjoyment, relaxation, education, sport, adventure, medicine, pilgrimage,
and cultural and social interaction, among others.
According to Taylor and Baker (1994), the key influence on service quality and
customers’ satisfaction is the formation of consumer purchase intentions in service
environments. Thus, it is very important to understand the impact of service quality
since it involves the profit of an organization and others (Ziethaml et al. 1996). There-
fore, understanding, achieving, and maintaining the quality of customer experience
are the successful links between travel agencies and their customers.
Obviously, those who offer heritage tourism services seem to be less concerned
with studying and measuring the quality of service experience, perhaps because many
practitioners in this specialty still do not consider their field to be tourism business
(Garrod and Fyall 2000). Indeed, the need to evaluate the quality of delivered services
and their impact on tourists’ entire experience is crucial since it will represent the
image of the firm (Carmen and Carmen 2008).
Religious tourism has great potential as a growing phenomenon that would ben-
efit from academic advancement and applied improvements (Alecu 2010; Collins-
Kreiner and Gatrell 2006). It is considered as the oldest form of tourism (Rinschede
1992). It is a type of heritage tourism that is motivated exclusively or strongly by
religious reason ( Timothy and Olsen 2006). In religious tourism, people of the same
faith travel individually or in groups for religious purposes.
The rise in demand for religious travel is clearly part of a larger trend toward
deeper interest in religious products of all sorts. This form of tourism comprises many
facets of the travel industry ranging from pilgrimages, missionary travel, leisure (fel-
lowship), vacations, faith-based cruising, crusades, conventions and rallies, retreats,
monastery visits, and guest-stay (Okonkwo 2015). The global changing of Muslims
population will increase the demand for the travel agencies that provide service and
guidance to perform Umrah.
Realizing the importance of service quality toward customers’ satisfaction, this
study, therefore, is conducted to determine the customer satisfaction on Umrah
tourism agency in Langkawi. In the next section, review-related literature is pre-
sented, followed by detailed discussion of the methods used, and findings and
discussions of the study.
11 The Role of Service Quality on Muslim Customer Satisfaction … 115
11.2.1 Customer Satisfaction
The customer is considered as a part of the company’s assets, and satisfying the
customer is crucial to ensure the survival of the company to prolong their business.
As a travel agency, most of their services deal with customers, and based on previ-
ous research done by various researchers, satisfaction is related to service quality.
However, service quality is an overall evaluation or global assessment, but customer
satisfaction is a transactions assessment ( Darfoon 2013). Besides, it is also treated
as the outcome of the customer’s perception of the value received by Umrah travelers
in a transaction.
According to Ramachandran and Chidambaram (2012), the degree of customer
satisfaction depends on the quality of products and services. Recently, Umrah travel
has become easier with modern transportation. The availability of fast airplane and
a comfortable hotel makes people more satisfied (Utomo et al. 2016). Therefore,
consistency in maintaining customer satisfaction of Umrah pilgrims should contin-
uously be considered by travel agencies. This included good service quality, ease of
service delivery as well as the cost required.
As a result, if the customers have positive impression of the services, they might
as well tolerate minor errors made by travel agencies. However, travel agency must
not make repeated errors as this will tarnish their image (Ashdaq et al. 2015).
11.2.2 Caretaking
Caretaking involves the ability of travel agency to respond directly to customers.

According to Winer (2004), by combining the abilities of travel agency to respond
directly to customer request and to provide customers with highly interactive and
customized experience, Umrah travel agency will have a greater ability today to
establish and nurture a long-term relationship.
According to Wiltshier and Griffiths (2016), conceptually the activity requires
organizations to be more aware of their networks, partnerships, supply-chain man-
agement, and community development collaborations and to participate in elements
of customer relationship management activity. A knowledgeable and experienced
travel consultant or representative (Mutawwif) on Umrah package becomes influen-
tial factors in determining the overall satisfaction of customers and enhances their
service delivery.
11.2.3 Promise Keeping
Promise keeping refers to travel agent’s ability to perform the services dependably
and accurately as promised (Darfoon 2013). Travel agency needs to really keep their
promise on timing issues because this may be a sensitive issue for Umrah travelers.
Promise keeping is an obligation that justifies in the making and receiving promises.
According to Oktora and Achyar (2014), there were two dimensions of trust. The
first dimension is their belief that travel agency has appropriate skills and expertise.
The second dimension is goodness, that is, they believe that travel agency will give an
assistance, try hard to avoid any risk to ensure that the condition remains normal, will
put customer’s needs into their priorities, and will be ready to help them whenever
needed.
Recently, there have been a few Umrah travel agencies without license or recog-
nition that take advantage by providing cheap packages that include all facilities and
accommodation, even flight tickets. However, on the day of travel, customers face
problems because those travel agents disappear with their money. The report from
the New Straits Times Online (2016) indicates that the police recorded 216 cheating
cases involving “Umrah” packages with losses of RM 9.1 million in the same period.
This shows that travel agencies cannot keep their promises and attempts fraud.
11.2.4 Problem-Solving
Liu et al. (2016) define problem-solving in the term of problem-focused coping (PFC)
as purposeful problem-solving through rational and measured efforts to confront
and remedy the stressful situation (Lewin and Sager 2008). Meanwhile, Giampaoli
et al. (2017) perceive problem-solving as a capacity. From a cognitive perspective,
problem-solving consists of information analysis and transformation that aims to
reach a specific goal regardless of the difficulty in decision making (Anderson 1980;
Lovett 2003).
Darfoon (2013) in his study on religious tourism industry described problem-
solving as one of the main dimensions that is important in assessing service quality
on how a travel agent deals with potential critical incidents that happened with
pilgrims. The ability to solve different problems is the main aspect of this dimension;
because of this mass event, pilgrims seem to be worried about any potential problem
that may affect performing their Hajj the right way. Liu et al. (2016) proved that
problem-focused coping helps in service recovery.
There are several studies on problem-solving dimension which have been con-
ducted from different industries such as tourism (Darfoon 2013), manufacturing
(Giampaoli et al. 2017), and finance and insurance (Giampaoli et al. 2017), and
among B2B sales professionals (Liu et al. 2016). Therefore, the ability to learn
through problem-solving activities is one of the most important strategic dynamic
capabilities (Teece et al. 1997) that may lead to successful organizations where they
transform new ideas faster than their competitors (Giampaoli et al. 2017). To satisfy
customers, an organization must hire and train good employees.
11.2.5 Tangible
SERVQUAL is an instrument that has been frequently applied to measure the level
of service quality (Liao 2012). Darfoon’s (2013) studies on Hajj service indicate
that appearance of service providers is not important given the nature of this spiri-
tual experience and the religious teaching that call for sameness in this event. This
dimension measured the tangible aspects of accommodation, transportation means,
food, and cleanliness.
SERVQUAL instrument could operationalize the concept of service quality from
five perspectives, including tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, safety, and empathy
(Sadeh 2017). Several studies on SERVQUAL instrument to measure service quality
had been conducted in different industries such as tourism industry (Darfoon 2013)
and healthcare sector (Sadeh 2017; Al-Borie and Damanhouri 2013; Ramez 2012).
Thus, tangible factor is crucial in service industry, and establishment of higher levels
of service quality will lead customers to have a high level of satisfaction (Amin
and Nasharuddin 2013) which in turn has a significant positive impact on customer
loyalty (Santouridis and Trivellas 2010).
11.2.6 Accessibility
In recent years, accessibility is one of the key factors in determining a travel destina-
tion (Apollo 2017). Accessibility is described by Alkahtani et al. (2015) as the ability
of tourists to conveniently reach their destination. It is based on meeting the visitors’
needs in terms of accessibility to dignify their experiences and make them feel free
within the destination. Meanwhile, from the context of religious tourism industry,
Darfoon (2013) states that accessibility refers to the locations of accommodation
and how it is convenient to access other services’ places and locations where rituals
are to be performed, such as Haram in Mecca, Jamarat and Arafat. Hence, most of
the previous studies on accessibility dimension take place in tourism industry set-
ting (Apollo 2017; Uchiyama and Kohsaka 2016; Capitaine 2016; AlKahtani et al.
2015) and transportation sector (Yatskiv et al. 2017). Previous tourism literature had
emphasized on the behavior of religious tourists (Eid 2015; Battour et al. 2012) and
accessibility at tourism destinations (Bi et al. 2007; Darcy 2010).
Melian et al. (2016) in their study in assessing the accessibility of several tourism
and religion-related activities within the destination, such as accommodation, trans-
portation, hospitality services, religious sites, and religious activities, proved that
there is a relationship between perceived value of accessibility and customers’ satis-
faction. It shows that accessibility is important in determining satisfaction positively
related to customer loyalty and will eventually lead to customer retention (Eid 2015).
Providing an appropriate product or service by targeting the individuals with acces-
sibility needs with a correct approach and strategy, the travel agencies will be able
to have a competitive advantage (Özogul and Baran 2016).
11.3 Methodology
This study employed a survey method whereby primary data were collected via a
distribution of questionnaires. The populations on this study comprised 813 cus-
tomers from six prominent Umrah service provider agencies in Langkawi who
have performed Umrah during July 2015 to June 2016. The travel agencies cov-
ered include MN Ajwa Travel & Tours, Jagung Mas Travel & Tours, Multaqa Al
Iman Travel, Harun She Travel, Fadhlim Travel, and Al-Quds Travel. Simple ran-
dom sampling was used to draw the samples. A total of 246 samples were selected
from the population to be used in this study. A set of questionnaire had been given to
the respondents which consists of six sections, namely, caretaking, promise keeping,
problem-solving, accessibility, tangible, and customer satisfaction.
All the items were adapted from the study by Darfoon (2013) and were rated
on a five-point Likert cale. The scales have been found to have sufficient levels
of reliability and validity. Bivariate correlation was used to test the relationship
between the study variables, and multiple regressions were utilized to test the effect
of independent with dependent variable.
11.4 Findings
The study was conducted which involves the Muslim consumers who used Umrah
package service at six travel agencies in Langkawi. Among those who participated,
the majority of the respondents were female (52.4%), while 47.6% was male. Most of
the respondents (30.9%) were consumers in the range of 50–59 years, were married
(74.8%), and had an income in the range of RM0–RM1500 (44.3%). Cronbach’s
alpha test shows all variables have excellent result which is Cronbach’s alpha coef-
ficient more than 0.9. This result indicates that the instrument is appropriate for use.
The mean value for all variables shows that most respondents agree with the state-
ments issued in the questionnaires. Table 11.1 shows Cronbach’s alpha value, mean,
and standard deviation of all variables used in this study.
The relationship between caretaking, promise keeping, problem-solving, acces-
sibility, and tangible with customer satisfaction was investigated using Pearson’s
correlation coefficient.
Based on the findings, there was a strong positive correlation between
each variable with customer satisfaction. The strength of relationship between
Table 11.1 Reliability coefficients, mean, and standard deviation for major variable
Variables No. of item Cronbach’s alpha Mean Standard deviation
Caretaking 5 0.91 4.35 0.67
Promise keeping 6 0.93 4.41 0.66
Problem-solving 4 0.93 4.35 0.72
Accessibility 5 0.94 4.39 0.68
Tangible 6 0.93 4.31 0.69
Customer satisfaction 6 0.95 4.33 0.68
Table 11.2 Regression results

Variables β t Sig
Caretaking 0.167 1.477 0.010
Promise keeping 0.156 2.585 0.046
Problem-solving 0.035 2.002 0.572
Accessibility 0.198 0.567 0.001
Tangible 0.385 3.279 0.000
R 0.875
R square 0.766
Adjusted R square 0.762
F value 157.469
Dependent variable: Customer perceived quality and satisfaction
caretaking (r = 0.781, p < 0.01), promise keeping (r = 0.814, p < 0.01), problem-
solving (r = 0.765, p < 0.01), accessibility (r = 0.792, p < 0.01), and tangible
(r = 0.844, p < 0.01) was significantly positively related to customer satisfaction.
Regression analysis was conducted mainly to predict the hypotheses in this study.
Table 11.2 shows that only four hypotheses were significant which are caretaking,
promise keeping, accessibility, and tangible that were found to have a significant and
positive relationship with customer satisfaction. Overall, the variance explained by
all the independent variables is 76.6%.
This research revealed that there is relationship between caretaking, promise keeping,
accessibility, and tangibles toward customer satisfaction. Mainly, the findings of the
study showed that tangibles are the strongest predictors and positively associated
with customer satisfaction that consists of facilities provided by the service provider,
for instance, transportation, accommodation, and meal. Similarly, promise keeping
by the service provider and accessibility that pilgrims can commute from one place
to another easily were delivered accordingly.
Promise keeping is related to trust and commitment by the Umrah travel agencies
as supported by Oktora and Achyar (2014), that is, trust was a form of customer’s
belief of honesty by the travel agency, and it refers to the desire of customers to
trust their service provider. The result is consistent with that of Uchiyama Kohsaka
(2016); when evaluating the tourism potential of an area, along with the land use and
distribution, there is a need to consider accessibility. Caretaking was also found to
be positively and significantly related to customer satisfaction, that is, the pilgrims
were kept informed about the schedule and activities and were guided by the qualified
mutawwif.
Generally, the findings of this study also reveal the crucial influences in ser-
vice quality and customers’ satisfaction that lead to the respondents’ determinants
in service atmosphere. Therefore, it is essential to understand how service quality
influences customer satisfaction. Thus, the results obtained from this study provide
several implications for service industry in order to enhance sustainability such as
competitive advantage, ROI growth, and business longevity, instead of the religious
obligation.
Indeed, the need to assess better service quality and their influence on customers’
satisfaction is vital since it will represent the image of the service organization. Future
studies may focus on other populations and increase in sample size that may yield
further results that could enrich the body of knowledge.
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Chapter 12
National Interest Versus Regional
Interest: The Case of Transboundary
Haze Pollution
Dona Rofithoh Don Ramli and Rugayah Hashim
Abstract Air pollution has been identified as one of the major environmental prob-
lems which causes many detrimental consequences, particularly on health and the
environment. It is important to keep the air and atmosphere free from pollution to
promote quality and healthy life, in line with the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) set by the United Nations (UN) under Goal 3 which demonstrates both
good health and well-being for people. Since the 1980s, transboundary haze pollu-
tion has become another “season” affecting many countries in the Southeast Asian
region. It is a recurring regional environmental pollution associated with substantial
effects/interests such as economics, human, and environment. In addressing trans-
boundary pollution, a regional organization such as the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) has a significant role. This article reports the results of
qualitative in-depth interviews via face-to-face and email using a semi-structured
interview guide. Arguably the national interest overrules regional interest such as
exploiting the economic concern and neglecting the social well-being and environ-
mental security. Even though ASEAN has initiated various mitigating efforts since
the past few decades, ASEAN Way of implementation of these efforts seemed to be
ineffective. As a result, concrete actions and policies are needed to better address the
problem.
Keywords Sustainable Development Goals · Transboundary haze pollution ·

Association of Southeast Asian Nations · National interest · Regional interest ·
ASEAN Way
D. R. Don Ramli (B)

Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: donarofithoh@ymail.com
R. Hashim
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor Branch,
Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: gy@uitm.edu.my

124 D. R. Don Ramli and R. Hashim
12.1 Introduction
Transboundary haze is an environmental crisis that has hit Southeast Asian region
since the 1980s and has affected countries in various aspects. The root cause of the
haze is the land clearing for agricultural uses and palm plantation via open burning in
Sumatra and Kalimantan, Indonesia (Mayer 2006; Gibbs et al. 2010; Vermeulen et al.
2012). This is because Indonesia is currently the world’s biggest producer of palm
oil (McCarthy 2010; Varkkey 2012). There are mainly three reasons why Indonesia
began to focus on palm oil cultivation in the 1980s. Firstly, due to dwindling primary
forests, which means that Indonesia’s earlier reliance on logging as a driver of its
economy was unsustainable. Secondly, the palm oil prices surpassed rubber during
that time (Hansen et al. 2009), and climate conditions in Indonesia are ideal for
palm oil plantation (McCarthy and Zen 2010). Hence, the crop is deemed to be the
most favorable for plantation (Walhi 2009). However, the slash-and-burn practice
for this plantation is the main problem which has contributed to the development of
haze (Hamzah 2012; Varkkey 2012; Palanissamy 2013). The haze can even worsen
during the El Nino season (van der Werf et al. 2008; Herawati and Heru 2011). As
transboundary haze affected Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and other Southeast
Asian countries with dirty smoke and dust, ASEAN is expected to play a critical role
in addressing the problem. The profound effects of the haze have initiated ASEAN’s
plenteous efforts, but the implementation of these efforts continuously failed in mit-
igating the haze pollution in this region over a few decades (Nguitragool 2011). In
simple words, the past and the present efforts and policies are no longer effective in
addressing this issue. One of the reasons that the haze mitigation efforts are facing
obstacles is due to the regional engagement of ASEAN which is known as ASEAN
Way (Murray 2010; Kim 2011; Varkkey 2013). ASEAN Way consists of a bundle of
norms that act as a guideline and has created peace and stability in the region con-
stantly utilizing the states sovereignty, consultation, consensus, and non-interference
norm in other domestic affairs (Jones 2006). However, it is a question of interest as
ASEAN has used various diplomatic approaches that are in line with ASEAN Way,
but to this day, even after more than 30 years, the issue of haze is still being raised.
How have these national and regional interests influenced the ASEAN Way of mitiga-
tion efforts in addressing the transboundary haze pollution? The analytical outcome
of this paper is from the preliminary, qualitative data obtained through in-depth semi-
structured interviews to argue that the national interest has always become a priority
by states compared to the regional interest. Besides, there are many studies that are
more focused on the national interest and palm oil patronage, and there is limited
“concern” about human security/rights; every person has the right to clean air and
safe environment.
12 National Interest Versus Regional Interest: The Case … 125
12.2 Methodology
This study used both primary and secondary data. For primary data, this study
employed an in-depth qualitative approach guided by a semi-structured interview
protocol. Also, the respondents identified were through judgmental sampling after
the approval of the Research Ethics Committee of the Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Shah Alam. Email and face-to-face interviews were conducted, depending on the
preference of the interviewees. The units of analysis are individuals from selected
organizations such as government, non-governmental organization (NGO) repre-
sentatives, and academicians under the purposive sampling. These three types of
representatives were able to provide a wide spectrum of perceptions on the haze
issue. Besides, the key informants were considered knowledgeable as some may
have directly or indirectly tried to tackle this issue, and generally all possess unique
ideas and perceptions with regard to the haze issue in the Southeast Asian region.
All respondents are informed either verbally or in writing regarding the consent.
Besides, the pseudonyms are used to ensure the confidentiality of the interviewees.
In addition, to maintain uniformity, the interviewees are anonymously known as
Interviewee 1, Interviewee 2, Interviewee 3, and so on in this paper. Other than
that, the secondary data from various materials such as newspapers, journal articles,
websites, documents, and reports were being utilized to support the arguments.
12.3 Results
National interest is essential for states. All states are very committed to fulfilling the
goals of their national interests (Interviewee 1, 2019; Interviewee 2, 2019; Intervie-
wee 3, 2019; Interviewee 4, 2019; Interviewee 5, 2019). It is obligatory for every
state to protect and secure its national interests. Thus, the state’s behavior is con-
stantly influenced by its national interests. Generally, national interest is the interest
of a nation in promoting what is in its best interest. In regard to the transboundary
haze issue, Malaysia’s interests are economics (Interviewee 1, 2019; Interviewee
2, 2019; Interviewee 3, 2019; Interviewee 4, 2019; Interviewee 5, 2019), human
(Interviewee 1, 2019; Interviewee 2, 2019; Interviewee 4, 2019), and environment
(Interviewee 2, 2019; Interviewee 4, 2019; Interviewee 5, 2019). The economic inter-
est that is of main focus in the case of transboundary pollution is palm oil plantations
in which the “success” expansion of palm oil sector in Indonesia is also driven by
Malaysian and Singaporean investors (Quah 2002; Varkkey 2012). As one of the
interviewees observed, “Malaysians and Singaporeans own and operate some of the
largest plantations in Indonesia. Malaysia is the second-largest producer of palm oil
after Indonesia. Malaysia has limited space to expand. Indonesia is perfect, having
similar language, culture and climate” (Interviewee 5, 2019). Meanwhile, one inter-
viewee expressed, “Malaysia’s national interest is to ensure the safety and well-being
of the people but at the same time the national interest is also very tied up with the
elite interest which are these companies who are very closely related to government
which are very profitable for Malaysia as well in terms of Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) and all that. So, the national interest involving the haze is not straight-forward
because it involves industries that are benefiting from the haze actually” (Interviewee
1, 2019).
In this paper, regional interests are defined as the common national interests shared
by the member states of ASEAN. Most of interviewees agreed that the regional inter-
ests focus on human and environmental security (Interviewee I, 2019; Interviewee
2, 2019; Interviewee 4, 2019; Interviewee 5, 2019) in which the haze has become
a threat to both securities in the Southeast Asian region. For example, interviewees
said, “Basically the regional interest is to have nice and good clear sky” (Interviewee
2, 2019) and “The loss of productivity due to health issues due to haze, Indonesia still
has large forests that can be used as plantation land, but at what environmental cost?”
(Interviewee 5, 2019). Furthermore, according to Interviewee 1 (2019), “ASEAN’s
interest would be sort of regional stability, prosperity and a good environment to
build up the regional economy.”
Also, haze affects human health, productivity, quality of life, and environment.
These effects of haze on an individual can also be associated with basic human rights
(Jakarta Post 2015; Masghati 2016; News Straits Times 2016). Everyone is equally
entitled to human rights without any discrimination and that includes the right to life
and liberty, freedom, safe environment, and many more. According to (Interviewee
2, 2019; Interviewee 4, 2019; Interviewee 5, 2019) transboundary, haze pollution
did violate human rights. As mentioned by the president of the environmental NGO,
“Polluting the air is a human right issue because environment is a human right, you
have the right to free air, to breathe clean air, to be free from pollution and all that.
So, having a transboundary haze that affecting my human right, right to a healthy
environment, to clean air, to fresh air, I agree it violates the human right” (Interviewee
2, 2019). Also, another interviewee from different environmental NGO supported by
saying that “Clean air to breathe is a basic human right. Yes, transboundary haze does
violate human rights” (Interviewee 5, 2019). However, according to Interviewee 3
(2019), haze did not violate the human right, but it did affect people’s quality of life.
It can be said that majority of the interviewees agreed that national interest usu-
ally takes precedence over regional interests (Interviewee 2, 2019; Interviewee 3,
2019; Interviewee 4, 2019; Interviewee 5, 2019). According to Interviewee 3 (2019),
“There is not much ‘attention’ being given on this particular matter as there are other
vital issues that requires more attention. National interest depends on the individual
state on how it interprets it. States are often prioritizing things such as economic.”
Meanwhile, Interviewee 2 (2019) shared his view as, “National interest for instance
even though Indonesia was causing the problem, burning forest in Sumatera and
Kalimantan at that time, you find that they still reluctant to act because the first and
foremost is to show that you are defending your country. Second, comes regional.
The sovereignty even if you are doing wrong you do not admit it, and then you blame
somebody else like for example blaming Malaysian and Singaporean companies, it
is not our fault, so the national interest is like being like having politicians repre-
sent Malaysia and being a part of ASEAN. So, when they go to ASEAN they say
the regional cooperation is very good, very important, and when they come back to
Malaysia, and they go like Malaysia first, we just talked there, we are not going to
do anything. It is only talk shop where they go there, they say regional integration is
very important and they come back and say if anything regional affects sovereignty
there is no way, you know so the same kind of thing, so that is why you found that
even though we have the transboundary haze agreement the last country to sign was
Indonesia. So, national will always takes place over regional.” On the other note, “I
am not sure whether it conflicts or not, perhaps it might because I mean it is very
difficult to say whether it conflicts because ASEAN would like to solve the haze so to
maintain peace and cooperative atmosphere and a good atmosphere, but at the same
time national interest or national priorities can be expressed in ASEAN very easily
in the sense that especially in Malaysia and Indonesia we have a lot of influence
in ASEAN. Malaysia and Indonesia’s interests are often respected by ASEAN, and
then ASEAN would like for example ASEAN is trying to address the haze but not
doing it in such strict manner is because they want to respect Malaysia and Indone-
sia’s interests. So, whether or not in conflicts is that. The bigger picture is, of course,
ASEAN prosperity and peace but then at the same time, ASEAN needs to respect the
interests of their members as well. So, it is complicated in that way” (Interviewee 1,
2019).
12.4 Discussions
States are always motivated by self-interest rather than inspired by “norms” or

“ASEAN Way” in a wide range of security issues. The reluctance to “Forgo national
interest consideration in favor of broader regional interest” (Kurus 1995) leads mem-
ber states to only choose and abide the ASEAN Way where their interests are pro-
tected or affected (Khoo 2004; Nesadurai 2008; Kim 2011). Otherwise, member
states tend to “ignore” the practices. Thus, the freedom to choose is up to the mem-
ber states. As to the haze problem, the economic interest is fundamental to several
states—Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore were dominant by the patronage of palm
oil (Aggarwal and Chow 2010; Varkkey 2013). Indonesia is currently the world’s
biggest producer of palm oil (McCarthy 2010), followed by Malaysia (Purt 2014;
Interviewee 1, 2019). The rapid growth in Indonesia’s palm oil was not dependent
solely on herself as Indonesia opened up the sector to foreign investors (McCarthy
and Cramb 2009).
Consequently, Malaysian and Singaporean investors control more than two-thirds
of the Indonesian palm oil plantation sector, and they have been implicated in the
fires alongside local plantations (Walhi 2009). The patronage politics is a common
business culture in Southeast Asia. All the errant companies are known to have close
patronage relationships with their respective governments, Indonesia, Malaysia, and
Singapore; thus, they have easily inserted themselves into existing patronage net-
works in Indonesia (Quah 2002; Enderwick 2005). Therefore, it has added to the
bigger comprehension of why these business manors in Indonesia have possessed
the capacity to complete the unlawful practices with such exemption. These compa-
nies are privileged to have such protections from the Indonesian patrons during their
operations, and this explains why Malaysian and Singaporean investors are still using
fires to clear lands even though this has resulted in their home countries suffering
from destructive haze effects (Varkkey 2012). The influence of such national inter-
ests of sub-state actors; government-linked companies; and foreign policy actors in
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore (Rajenthran 2002) has defeated effective regional
initiatives in addressing this problem. Hence, these combined key issues contributed
to the development of haze in the Southeast Asian region. The development of the
palm oil industry has been a major goal of the Indonesian government, which aims
to double the output from 2011 to 2020 (United Nations Development Programme
2019). This makes the prediction that palm oil will continue to flourish and haze
pollution will keep blanketing the region.
The national interest in economics has always received more “spotlight.” How-
ever, there are other national interests of the countries that are affected: environment,
human health, productivity, and other social aspects. According to McKirdy (2015),
the world’s largest manufacturer of palm oil, Indonesia, is frequently being criti-
cized for the environmental impacts that they have contributed. There are almost
100,000 active fires that have been detected in Indonesia so far, and the carbon emis-
sion released has been estimated to have surpassed the United States’s daily carbon
emissions (World Bank 2015; Harris et al. 2019). The burning of peatland caused
the fires to stay for a long period as it is carbon-rich and this contributed to climate
change. It is not only Indonesia and her neighbors who have suffered, but it also
gave global consequences. In terms of global impact, forest and peat fires are major
sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (World Bank 2015). If the situation
prolongs, Indonesia can not meet its stated target to reduce GHG emissions by 29%
by the year 2030 (Goldenberg 2019); hence, there is no haze-free region.
Additionally, in terms of human health, according to Emmanuel’s (2000) findings,
there was a 30% increase in outpatient attendance for haze-related conditions in
Singapore. Also, it can be observed that there was an inclination of percentage in
health-related problems such as increase by 12% of upper respiratory tract illness,
19% asthma, and 26% rhinitis. The health effects from 1997 Singapore’s haze event
were found to be moderately intense. Even though the impact is mild, it is still
affecting one’s health. A more recent study by Haliza (2013) has directly focused
on the impacts of haze on human’s health in Malaysia. According to her article,
human health is at risk due to prolonged exposure to high concentrations of harmful
particulates. Generally, the research showed that the number of cases of physical
health problems, allergies, cancer, and pre-term delivery are increased due to air
pollution.
Furthermore, a report by World Bank (2015) stated that the toxic smoke con-
tains harmful elements, namely carbon dioxide, cyanide, and ammonium, that cause
widespread respiratory, eye, and skin ailments and are especially hazardous for the
very young and the elderly. The impacts of long-term health remain unknown but
are predicted to be very substantial. Moreover, according to Shahwahid (2016), it
is found that haze affected people’s productivity in Malaysia. For example, there
was a drop in outdoor recreational activities among Malaysian. This also includes
“The haze has forced schools to close intermittently, disrupting classes and exam
schedules. And many outdoor programmes have also had to be curtailed or cancelled
altogether and its negative impact on health and well-being certainly is significant”
(The Star 2015). Besides, there are few important events that had to be postponed and
canceled such as Standard Chartered KL Marathon 2015, 2015 Malaysian motorcy-
cle Grand Prix, 2015 Singapore Grand Prix, and some of the 2015 FINA Swimming
World Cup’s events due to the haze threat (Straits Times 2015; New Straits Times
2015). As discussed above, even though there are significant effects on the inter-
ests of environment, humans’ health and productivity, and social life, it received
“insufficient attention” compared to the economics interest.
There are many international documents that discussed human rights. First and
foremost, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a founding docu-
ment in the human rights history which was adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly in 1948. It consists of 30 articles and states the basic fundamental rights
that every human being is entitled. Article 3 of UDHR enshrines that “Everyone has
the right to life, liberty and security of person” (United Nations 2019). Apart from
that, as ASEAN was also inspired and influenced by UDHR, the ASEAN Human
Rights Declaration (AHRD) was drafted and adopted unanimously by the member
states in 2012. The declaration has 40 paragraphs under six headings that set out the
commitment of ASEAN nations to human rights for their 600 million people. Article
28 signifies, “Every person has the right to an adequate standard of living for himself
or herself and his and her family” and further explains in the (f) that “the right to a
safe, clean and sustainable environment” (ASEAN Human Rights Declaration 2013).
It is clearly stated that every person is not entitled to any threat or the dangerous envi-
ronment to maintain the well-being of the people at every level. Human rights are
also frequently related to the concept of quality of life (QOL). QOL is a multidimen-
sional factor that involves physical health, family, safety, security to freedom, and the
environment. Also, all these are parallel to the SDGs by the UN that aim for a better
and sustainable future for everyone. The goals are broad and interdependent that deal
with global challenges. Specifically, goal 3 indicates the good health and well-being
for people (United Nations 2015). Attention to health and well-being also includes
targets related to hazardous chemicals, air, water, and soil pollution and contamina-
tion. It is seen that the human rights, the right to live in a safe, clean environment,
and good quality of life, have been the objectives in various important documents.
No one’s rights should be deprived. As referring to the case of transboundary haze,
Indonesia’s industries to materialize, utilize, and commercialize the plantations have
severely impacted the people’s well-being in its states and neighboring countries.
This is because the slash-and-burn technique has resulted in blanketing this region
with dirty smoke. The haze contains many dangerous substances which are harmful
to many, especially the people and the environment.
Furthermore, one can conclude that in this globalized world, economy is no longer
the backdrop to world events but rather appears and gains paramount importance
in international relations. In other words, it contributes significantly to the nation’s
growth. Many previous studies discussed economic interest rather than other national
interests such as human rights, quality of life, and environmental security in the case
of transboundary haze pollution. All these combined interests are not only focused
at one country but rather countries in the Southeast Asian region, also known as
regional interest. As a result, this paper argues that regional interests such as the
human and environmental security have been sacrificed for the sake of patronage
palm oil sector, specifically between Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. Hence,
this economic interest can not be seen as a mutual interest for other ASEAN member
states. Indeed, ASEAN acts as an institution centered on the promotion of economic
cooperation and prosperity among its members, but human and environmental objec-
tives are often overlooked in the pursuance of these economic goals. Hence, it raises
a question, is it “worth” or “fair” to the millions of people within the region? Did the
member states forget the AHRD? The answer is that it is just not well practiced.
12.5 Conclusion
The public might not pay much attention to the transboundary haze pollution as this
issue is viewed as “seasonal pollution.” This is because, throughout the year, the
smoke would blanket the region only for a few days, weeks, or months. When the
sky is clear again, people tend to forget the problem, without thinking that the haze
will continue to “haunt” them in the following years to come. As haze affected one’s
life, everyone should take a firm stand in addressing the haze issue. People should
initiate efforts to make sure their voices are heard. The increasing public outcry can
add value in combating the transboundary haze (Forsyth 2014; De Pretto et al. 2015).
Therefore, mobilizing the mass efforts will be fruitful. At least, it is better to act rather
than ignore the issue at hand with regard to the transboundary haze pollution.
Even though there have been long discussions, meetings, action plans, agreement,
and other efforts by ASEAN, up to this date, it failed to mitigate the transboundary
haze pollution. This can be linked to the national interest, mainly economics between
states involved—Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore (Varkkey 2012, 2013). Mean-
while, it is unfair and also an act of injustice to other member states that do not
contribute to this pollution. Apart from not benefiting from the outcome, they also
need to bear the “unreasonable” consequences they did not cause. Hence, there is an
urgent need for an effective solution to this underlying problem, even achieving an
ambitious goal such as tackling the issue of transboundary haze is not an easy task
and it remains a great challenge for ASEAN. Countries are free to exploit their nat-
ural resources no matter what their business is. However, it should never “hamper”
the negative spillover to other neighboring countries. The key to doing the right thing
is to do the thing right. If we do it with sustainability, there will be minimum to no
haze and other bad impacts. In conclusion, states need to give their full commitment
to achieve the SDGs for a better future.
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World Bank (2015) https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/01/indonesias-fire-and-
haze-crisis. Last accessed 14 July 2019
Chapter 13
Examining Off-campus Students’
Housing Preferences between Public
and Private University Students
Nor Ain Mohd Mustafa Kamal, Thuraiya Mohd and Norhayati Baharun
Abstract The rising number of tertiary students in recent years, especially in public
and private universities, is causing these institutions to have difficulties in provid-
ing adequate on-campus accommodation. Thus, students opt for off-campus living.
However, in Malaysia, off-campus students are renting private rented units that do
not suit their preferences. In some cases, students are living in multiple occupations
just to save cost on rental and willing to forgo comfort and security. This situation
may result in students having difficulties to perform in their academics. This research
aims to examine off-campus student housing preferences associated with those who
are studying in public or private universities. A survey was carried out in Selangor
involving selected public and private universities. A total of 735 questionnaires were
distributed among students in both public and private universities. Data gathered are
analysed using Chi-square test. There are five aspects of housing preferences which
were considered in this research, namely aspect of location, type of house and cost of
rental, housing quality, housing accommodation and housing environment. Findings
from this research are essential to serve as a benchmark to related parties, especially
those in housing sector, e.g. local authority and developer to come out with student
housing concept that is not only about accommodation, but also able to meet the
preferences of off-campus students.
Keywords Off-campus students · Student housing · Housing preferences · Public

universities · Private universities
N. A. Mohd Mustafa Kamal (B)

e-mail: norainmustafakamal@gmail.com
T. Mohd · N. Baharun
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

134 N. A. Mohd Mustafa Kamal et al.
13.1 Introduction
Higher educational institutions (HEIs) have recorded high number of student enrol-
ment every year which is in line with the National Mission in year 2010 to raise
the capacity for knowledge and innovation as well as nurture ‘first class mentality’
by producing universities of international standing and ensuring that tertiary insti-
tutions meet the need of employers. Following the National Mission 2010, in the
Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015–2025, the Ministry aims to expand higher edu-
cation enrolment over the course of next decade. Ministry of Education has projected
level of 53% tertiary enrolment with estimated students of 2.5 million including inter-
national students, and approximately 70% is from higher education by year 2025.
Statistics recorded in 2017 shows that the number of students’ enrolment in public
universities has been increasing from 506,225 students in the year 2016 to 510,789
students in the year 2017 (Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia 2017b). Mean-
while, private universities and colleges also recorded a large number of enrolments
with 565,852 students in 2017 (Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia 2017a). A
total of 1.07 million students were Malaysians as in 2017, and this statistic has yet to
include international students. However, one issue surfaces from this phenomenon:
as student enrolment escalates each year, the number goes far beyond the capacity
of accommodation prepared by the institutions, i.e. students hostel offered by the
universities (Khozaei et al. 2012; Muslim et al. 2012) [13]. One of the consider-
ations made by students when choosing a university is the availability of student
accommodation (Khozaei et al. 2012).
Realistically, chances of living on-campus are relatively low. The idea of living
on-campus is almost impossible nowadays. For University of New Mexico in Albu-
querque and the University of Nevada in Las Vegas, the percentage of students living
on-campus is less than 10%. Meanwhile, Boise State University in Idaho has greater
number of enrolled students to bed ratio (Marino 2006). Thus, the inability of univer-
sities to provide student accommodation may result in students opting for housing
off-campus (Khozaei et al. 2012) [14]. In Malaysia, students have no other options
than relying on private rented units outside the campus (Muslim et al. 2012). On the
other hand, in countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom (UK), their local
authorities have cooperated with universities and local government to provide the
students with students lounges, namely PBSA (Purpose Built Student Accommoda-
tion) in Canada and House of Multiple Occupations (HMOs) in the UK. Meanwhile,
in Malaysia, the development of off-campus student housing has not been sought in
partnership among developers, universities and the local government (Khozaei et al.
2012) [11]. Students in our country are renting private units which are not under
the management of the universities. These private rented units have not been able
to cater to the students’ needs, especially in terms of student housing preferences.
Besides, students are categorized as economically challenged group of people. Thus,
they shall require different types of accommodation to suit their preferences. In some
cases, due to financial constraint, our students are willing to forgo comfort and pri-
vacy by living with multiple occupations to reduce the rental rate imposed. This
13 Examining Off-campus Students’ Housing Preferences … 135
scenario has led to negative effects, i.e. improper disposal, nuisance and congestion
within the local neighbourhood [20]. Though rental may be an issue to some stu-
dents, there are other groups of students who are intrigued to look for off-campus
housing that is comfortable and features a home-like attribute (Khozaei et al. 2012;
La Roche et al. 2010). Therefore, the question is, do all off-campus students have
similar housing preferences or otherwise? Thus, this research aims to identify the
off-campus student housing preferences and to examine off-campus student housing
preferences between those who study in public and private universities.
13.2.1 Public and Private University
The provision of higher education used to be exclusive to the public sector in Malaysia
with only one public university available in 1949, namely University of Malaya.
Back in 1996, private institutions were officially recognized with the establishment
of Private Higher Education Institutions Act 1996. The growing number of private
institutions was driven by high demand for tertiary education in public institution;
however, due to limited allocations from the government, the public institutions were
having difficulties to meet the demand. Consequently, this led to encouragement
from the government for private institutions to actively play their role in the higher
education sector (Da 2007). Private institutions act as complementary education
providers in offering an alternative for higher education (Da 2007) [12].
13.2.2 Student Housing Preferences
Location. Students have clear thoughts on how and where they are going to reside.
Central locations in university cities are normally the most preferable [19]. Li et al.
[17] have listed six significant positive reasons for students deciding to reside off-
campus, and one of them is within the proximity to campus or near to town. Also,
students are willing to pay more for better location [18]. Chatterton [18] opines that
location is a supporting element in a student’s life, and students are likely to prefer
location that provides social amenities.
Type of House and Cost of Rental. Students mostly aim to reside on-campus in
order to minimize spending while staying away from home. However, the inability of
universities to provide student accommodation may cause pressure on students, and
the absence of affordable off-campus housing has become one of the major issues of
student housing. Despite affordability being one of the crucial elements for student
housing, some students are keen to look for comfort and home-like attributes instead.
Nowadays, students have higher expectations of student housing compared to their
parents when they were students. These students are willing to pay for the amenities
provided (Khozaei et al. 2012; La Roche et al. 2010). Rugg and Rhodes [13] opined
that type, tenure, cost and allocation of the local housing supply are among the factors
that contribute to the quality of a student’s life.
Housing Quality. Over the past decade, the needs and desire of students together
with their families have evolved. Comparing traditional dorm with hall bathrooms,
students now have high interest in the amenities provided by the universities rather
than the basic one historically provided (La Roche et al. 2010). The utmost consid-
erations made by students are security and cost. However, millennial students are
willing to fork out money for the following amenities such as private bedroom, onsite
parking, double beds, onsite laundry facilities, Internet access, proximity to campus,
fitness centre, private bathroom, cable tv and satellite dining (La Roche et al. 2010).
Housing Accommodation. Inadequacy of students housing occurs globally, and it
leads students to live off-campus instead (Muslim et al. 2012) [19]. While most on-
campus beds are reserved for first year students, the upper class students are forced
to reside among the local communities (Muslim et al. 2012). Other than that, the
outdated belief that most students live on-campus is no longer an attainable idea
since most universities are unable to provide accommodation for students, resulting
in students residing off-campus (Korevaar 2004). Though Murray (Korevaar 2004)
perceives students as a transient and economically marginalized group and require
different types of accommodation, in contrast, Fisher in (Korevaar 2004) indicated
that the student housing preferences have also changed over the last few decades.
Nowadays, students no longer want to share their rooms, bathroom facilities or dwell
in an institution-like building. Students have a higher expectation for student housing
than their parents and are willing to pay an additional amount for the amenities (La
Roche et al. 2010). Amenities which off-campus students find essential are fitness
and recreation centre, wireless networking capabilities, kitchen and single bedroom
with private bathrooms (Muslim et al. 2012).
Housing Environment. There are several factors to consider when it comes to hous-
ing environment, such as the architectural, economic, social and cultural perspectives.
Student housing created distinctive opportunity for the student affairs administrator
to contribute to and eventually support the students in achieving better learning expe-
rience (Muslim et al. 2012). Strange and Banning in (Crimmin 2008) opined that
productive learning environment should include a sense of security and inclusion,
mechanism for involvement and experience of community. Studies by scholars have
emphasized on how essential student housing is to the success of university students,
and it is the responsibility of the universities to ensure that the environment created
is comfortable and meets the needs of the students (Crimmin 2008; Muslim et al.
2012). However, students seem to be less satisfied with the on-campus living envi-
ronment since there is limited spaces, lack of privacy, lack of freedom and poorly
maintained facilities (Muslim et al. 2012). Other than that, visitation restrictions,
rules and noise are among the negative elements experienced by students who live
on-campus. In addition, traditional dormitories provided by the university have yet
to fulfil the highly desired amenities that students as well as their parents see as
important for better learning experience (Muslim et al. 2012). Thus, to enjoy better
housing environment, students opt for living off-campus. The main reasons behind
this choice are the ability to cook meals, length/lease of contract, proximity to cam-
pus/town, ability to live with or near friends, parking accommodation and private
bathroom [17].
13.3 Methodology
This research is a quantitative research that employs cross-sectional research design

as this design is suitable to investigate the occurrence of a phenomenon, situation,
problem, attitude or issue by taking a cross-section of the population (Kumar 2014).
A survey method was employed which aimed to examine the off-campus students
housing preferences between those studying in public and private universities. A
total of 735 structured questionnaires were distributed among students in public and
private universities within the vicinity of Selangor State. A combination of cluster
and stratified sampling was used to determine the sample. Respondents selected are
among full-time undergraduate students who reside off-campus. Data gathered were
analysed using SPSS software through a chi-square test for independence.
A chi-square test for independence is used to explore the relationship between two
categorical variables, and each of these variables can have two or more categories.
In order to be significant at the 5% level, the Sig. value (p-value) should be less than
0.05 [15]. Thus, in Tables 13.1 and 13.2, variables that are significant are marked in
bold writing.
From Table 13.1, there is no significant relationship between type of university
student and overall aspect of location and aspect of environment since the p-value
is greater than 0.05. There is a significant relationship between type of university
student and subcategory of type of house and cost of rental; the subcategory of type
of accommodation, namely single-storey terrace, apartment/flat and hostel, is sig-
nificant with a p-value smaller than 0.05. The next subcategory is the number of
housemates preferred, 6–8 people and 9 and above are significant with p-value of
0.013 and 0.014, respectively. Then, for subcategory of amount of rental willing to
be paid per month per person, p-values are smaller than 0.05 for rental price ranges
between RM151–RM200, RM200–RM250 and RM251 and above. Meanwhile, for
the inclusion of furniture in the accommodation, fully furnished, partly furnished
and unfurnished are significant with a p-value of 0.032, 0.017 and 0.05, respectively.
There is no significant relationship between type of university student and overall
housing quality; however, under this category, subcategory of secured and lockable
windows and door completed with grill and operable dead bolt locks or, in other
words, housing security is significant with a p-value of 0.015. Finally, there is no
Table 13.1 Test of association between off-campus students’ housing preferences of those who
study in private or public university
Housing preferences Sample Chi-square P-value Result (5% level
size value of significance)
Aspect of location
• Near to university/campus, 375 8.512 0.075 Insignificant
within walking distance
• Near to public 375 3.264 0.515 Insignificant
transportation (bus station,
rail station)
• Near to facilities and 375 4.774 0.311 Insignificant
amenities, shops,
restaurants, banks
• Near to main accessibility 375 3.303 0.508 Insignificant
such as highway,
expressway
• Near to city centre 375 7.297 0.121 Insignificant
Aspect of type of house and cost of rental
• Type of accommodation preferred:
a. Single-storey terrace 375 15.549 0.004 Significant
b. Double-storey terrace 375 1.175 0.882 Insignificant
c. Semi-detached/detached 375 1.417 0.841 Insignificant
d. Apartment/Flat 375 18.631 0.001 Significant
e. Hostel 375 22.139 0.000 Significant
• Number of housemates preferred:
a. 1–2 people 375 7.539 0.110 Insignificant
b. 3–5 people 375 9.189 0.057 Insignificant
c. 6–8 people 375 12.669 0.013 Significant
d. 9 and above 375 12.583 0.014 Significant
e. I don’t mind 375 1.290 0.863 Insignificant
• Amount of rental willing to be paid per month per person:
a. RM50–RM100 375 1.158 0.885 Insignificant
b. RM101–RM150 375 3.617 0.460 Insignificant
c. RM151–RM200 375 22.278 0.000 Significant
d. RM201–RM250 375 29.212 0.000 Significant
e. RM251 and above 375 13.840 0.008 Significant
• Preferred furniture to be included in the accommodation:
a. Fully furnished (all 375 10.569 0.032 Significant
furniture and appliances
provided)
(continued)

b. Partly furnished (basic 374 12.080 0.017 Significant
appliances and furniture)
c. Unfurnished 375 9.472 0.050 Significant
• Role of cost of rental in 373 3.281 0.512 Insignificant
housing preferences among
students is important
Aspect of housing quality
• The exterior wall and paints 375 2.428 0.488 Insignificant
(external quality)
• All appliances, fixtures and 375 2.458 0.483 Insignificant
wall (internal quality)
• An electric system, 375 4.182 0.242 Insignificant
including lighting, wiring
and equipment (wiring and
electrical quality)
• Sufficient electrical sources 375 4.441 0.218 Insignificant
as to use essential electrical
appliances (number of
sockets)
• Secured and lockable 374 12.367 0.015 Significant
windows and door
completed with grill and
operable dead bolt locks
(housing security)
• The size and functionality 375 4.006 0.261 Insignificant
of the house is suitable with
the number of renters at
one time (housing space)
• Effective waterproofing and 375 1.278 0.865 Insignificant
weather protection (roof
quality)
• Adequate air circulation, 375 0.882 0.830 Insignificant
natural lighting and
ventilation (ventilation and
air quality)
• Adequate and operate in 375 2.490 0.477 Insignificant
manner (sanitary facilities)
• Served by an approved 375 2.221 0.528 Insignificant
water supply and free from
contamination, leaks and
threats to health and safety
(water supply quality)
(continued)

Aspect of housing accommodation
• Room with attached 375 6.333 0.176 Insignificant
bathroom and hot water
• Room with air-conditioning 375 2.945 0.567 Insignificant
• House with kitchen 375 4.499 0.343 Insignificant
facilities
• House with laundry 375 4.429 0.351 Insignificant
facilities
• Availability of Internet 375 7.711 0.103 Insignificant
access
• Availability of TV cable 374 12.324 0.015 Significant
(Astro, Unifi, etc.)
Aspect of housing environment
• Neighbourhood mainly 374 4.997 0.288 Insignificant
family or adult workers
• Neighbourhood mainly 374 6.361 0.174 Insignificant
students
• Availability of parking 374 4.732 0.316 Insignificant
spaces
• Availability of facilities and 373 5.408 0.144 Insignificant
amenities nearby (banks,
health institutes, post
office, police station, etc.)
• Safety and security 374 3.254 0.516 Insignificant
• Not crowded 374 0.748 0.945 Insignificant
significant relationship between type of university student and housing accommo-

dation except for subcategory of availability of TV cable such as Astro and Unifi,
which is significant with a p-value of 0.015.
Based on Table 13.2, in subcategory of type of accommodation, the results indicate
both public and private university students agree on three types of accommodations,
namely single-storey terrace, apartment/flat and hostel. Meanwhile, for subcategory
number of housemates preferred, public and private university students agree on 6–8
people, and in contrast, both disagree for 9 and above people accommodating in
a house. As for rental expenses, both public and private university students agree
on rental expenses that range between RM151 and RM200 per person and disagree
on any amount higher than this. Other than that, both public and private university
students agree on their accommodation to be either fully furnished or partly furnished
and do not agree for an unfurnished accommodation. In terms of aspects of housing
quality, public and private university students have similar standpoint when it comes
to housing security. Finally, the agreement is achieved from both public and private
Table 13.2 Results from the test of association between off-campus students’ housing preferences
of those who study in private or public university
Housing preferences (5% Sample size Majority responded %
significance level) Public Private Public Private
Aspect of type of house and cost of rental
• Type of accommodation preferred:
a. Single-storey terrace 282 93 54.6 (agree) 39.8 (agree)
b. Apartment/flat 282 93 46.8 (agree) 38.7 (agree)
c. Hostel 282 93 36.2 (agree) 44.1 (agree)
• Number of housemates preferred:
a. 6–8 people 282 93 47.5 (agree and 39.8 (agree and
above) above)
b. 9 and above 282 93 43.3 (disagree) 46.2 (disagree)
• Amount of rental willing to be paid per month per person:
a. RM151–RM200 282 93 45.7 (mixed 43.0 (agree and
feeling) above)
b. RM201–RM250 282 93 53.9 (disagree) 54.9 (disagree
and below)
c. RM251 and above 282 93 57.4 (strongly 40.9 (strongly
disagree) disagree)
• Preferred furniture to be included in the accommodation:
a. Fully furnished (all 282 93 67.4 (strongly 76.3 (strongly
furniture and appliances agree) agree)
provided)
b. Partly furnished (basic 282 93 48.2 (agree) 48.9 (agree)
appliances and furniture)
c. Unfurnished 282 93 45.0 (strongly 65.6 (disagree
disagree) and below)
Aspect of housing quality
• Secured and lockable 282 92 59.9 (strongly 59.8 (strongly
windows and door agree) agree)
completed with grill
and operable dead bolt
locks (Housing
Security)
Aspect of housing accommodation
• Availability of TV cable 282 92 64.2 (agree and 68.5 (agree and
(Astro, Unifi, etc.) above) above)
university students in the aspect of accommodation in terms of the availability of TV

cable such as Astro and Unifi.
13.5 Conclusion
This research has examined the relationship between types of university students and
off-campus student housing preferences. The aim is to develop insight into the hous-
ing preferences of off-campus students between those who study in public and private
universities. Based on the results from the research, it was found that there was no
relationship between the type of university students and aspect of location. This was
indeed surprising as location should be one of the most important aspects to consider
when residing off-campus. Yet, it is assumed that most students, be it in public or
private university, do own cars belonging to their parents or at least own motorcycles
and are able to move from one point to another conveniently. In the aspect of type of
house and cost of rental, both public and private students agree on residing in either
a single-storey terrace, apartment/flat or a hostel. Then, both students disagree that
the number of housemates should be more than 9 people and above. Realistically, the
three types of accommodations mentioned earlier have smaller built up space. Thus,
it does make sense that this type of accommodations should probably accommodate
a maximum of 6–8 people only. The number of housemates also plays an impor-
tant role with the amount of rental willing to be paid. Both students agree that the
amount of rental paid per person shall not cost them more than RM200 each. Thus,
students are living in multiple occupations to help reduce the amount of rental paid
per person. Furthermore, both public and private university students agreed that the
dwelling they choose to reside should be either fully or partly furnished. Based on
the literature from previous studies, students who stayed away from home to further
their studies tend to look for a home-alike dwelling instead. The dormitory design
building is less preferred especially among those who decide to reside off-campus.
Meanwhile, this research found that there was no relationship between type of
university students and housing environment. It has come to no surprise since this
research was carried out in Selangor and among the urban areas. Thus, most univer-
sities are located within the vicinity of equipped facilities and amenities. Therefore,
students have no issue related to housing environment. In the aspect of housing qual-
ity, both public and private university students are more concerned with the housing
security as both agree to having secured and lockable windows, door completed with
grill and operable dead bolt locks. Housing security should be the main concern of
anyone living in the city and not just students. Plus, students who live in multiple
occupations should take extra precautions since they may live with individuals that
they might not know well. Finally, in the aspect of housing accommodation, both
public and private university students agree to the availability of TV cable (Astro,
Unifi). This is probably the least entertainment that they could find after a long tiring
day at classes. Conclusively, these findings should be a benchmark for stakeholder,
developer, the government and every party related to housing sector. All related par-
ties should put more focus onto student housing since student housing does not just
satisfy students. It is undeniably a good investment in real estate (Marino 2006). This
research suggests that further studies can be done on the differences of student hous-
ing preferences between those who study in public and private universities. Further
studies may also be carried out on off-campus housing preferences in sub-urban area
or in other states.
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Chapter 14
Quality Education for Sustainable
Development in Indonesia
Sr Yuliani and Dicki Hartanto
Abstract World Bank declared that the quality of education in Indonesia currently
is relatively minimum, although the expansion of educational access for community
has significantly increased. One of the reasons is the uneven access to education or,
in other words, there are still inequalities. The Johannesburg World Summit’s role in
2002 on sustainability development in promoting Education and Sustainable Devel-
opment (ESD) was very important to develop as a key concept in its implementation
plan. This study was carried out through literature review and interviews with related
parties. The study concludes that education is often explained as a big expectation
to create a more sustainable future, and institutions of teacher training are consid-
ered as main agents of change in transforming education as well as its society. It is
necessary to note that the content of sustainable development is not the focus here,
but how sustainable development is supported and promoted in culture and society
through education supported by government and related parties. Quality education
for sustainable development contains key issues about sustainability development
into teaching and learning which include knowledge, systems of thought, emotions,
ethics and values and actions. From these five domains, we can develop how quality
education for sustainable development is applied in Indonesia.
Keywords Quality · Education · Sustainable development
14.1 Introduction
The background of sustainability development began in the early 1960s about social
debate related to the environment. During the 1960s, the community felt the need to
do something about existing environmental problems. In 1972, the first conference
of international environment was organized by United Nations in Stockholm, where
Sr Yuliani (B)
Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia
e-mail: sriyuliani@edu.uir.ac.id
D. Hartanto
Universitas Islam Negeri Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia
e-mail: dicki.hartanto@uin-suska.ac.id
146 S. Yuliani and D. Hartanto
the environmental issues in the Western world were discussed. The conclusion is that
scientists, experts, and technology will solve this problem. Economical aspects are
introduced at this time. The concept of sustainability development actually began
in 1980 as a response to the need in realization of the balance between progresses
of economic and social with regard to the management of environment and natural
resources.
In 1987, this concept became increasingly widespread with “Our Common Future”
publication by the World Commission for Environment and Development. In this
publication, the Commission defined sustainability development as a development
that meets the present needs without reducing future capabilities. In other words,
although development may be needed to meet human requirements and improve
their life quality, the natural capacity of environment to meet current need and needs
for future is not disrupted.
The understanding in sustainability development has been translated and inter-
preted differently in different contexts. After the Stockholm conference, the United
Nations again raised environmental questions, this time on the global stage and with
a focus on the twenty-first century. The United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro produced Agenda 21, with guidance
on how world governments, important councils, and social groups must introduce
the development of twenty-first century without destroying the environment. The
message that arose from the Rio Conference was both rich and poor countries face
different environmental problems.
The Johannesburg 2002 World Summit’s role on sustainability development to
promote ESD is so important here because it also promotes Education for Sus-
tainability development (ESD) as a key concept in its implementation plan. The
Education Decade for the United Nations Sustainability Development (2005–2014)
was decided the same year by the UN General Assembly. This decade was moni-
tored by UNESCO, has a global vision, and aims toward a world, and each one gets
the benefit opportunity from quality education and finds the values, behaviors, and
lifestyles needed for a sustainable future and a positive transformation in society
(UNESCO/PAPPITEK LIPI 2006).
The aim of this decade is to ensure that “education for sustainability development
is practiced in schools and other educational settings to highlight the center of the role
played by education and learning in the pursuit of Sustainability development and that
quality education is a precondition for education for improvement at all levels and in
all education aspect.” In a wide sense, sustainable future education includes improv-
ing the basic education quality, re-education to overcome sustainability, increasing
public awareness, and having training to various sectors (UNESCO/PAPPITEK LIPI
2006). Education is commonly described as a great expectation for designing better
sustainable future, and the institutions of teacher training are expected as agents of key
changes to transform education as well as society in order to create the possibilities
of such future.
The United Nations General Assembly in December 2002 declared an Education
Decade for Sustainable Development (DESD) for 2005–2014 with UNESCO as the
principal agency in promoting this decade. Its main vision is a world where each one
14 Quality Education for Sustainable Development in Indonesia 147
has a right to learn values, behavior as well as lifestyles required for a sustainable
future and for positive transformation of society. Then, DESD challenges all kinds
of educational provision for adopting practices and approaches that can speed up the
values of sustainable development (UNESCO 2005).
Dannenberg (2016) stated that since 2005, ESD has developed positively. The
DESD influence which could not be underestimated is the potential of ESD which
can be integrated in to overall sectors of education. Therefore, in Germany, a DESD
central element was to give awards to the projects, initiatives, and municipalities. On
the one hand, this made the commitment of ESD stakeholders visible. Besides, the
ESD concept could be made acceptable through the example of awarded partners
from any classical educational institutions such as nursery schools, schools, and
higher educations via providers of service and other kinds of enterprises, NGOs as
well as local projects (Dannenberg 2016).
Human development, according to the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) standards, consists of four criteria, namely HDI > 80 categories are very
high, HDI 70–79 categories are high, and HDI 60–79 are medium categories.1 The
Central Statistics Agency (BPS) released HDI data. In 2018, HDI is reported to
increase. In 2018, Indonesia’s HDI reached 71.39. This figure increased by 0.58
points or grew by 0.82% compared to that in 2017. It means, human development in
Indonesia continues to experience progress. For that, the Indonesian HDI 2018 above
70 indicates that Indonesia’s human development is in the high category. There are
as many as seven provinces whose HDI status was upgraded to moderate in 2018.
And now there are no provinces in the low category (Depkes 2018).
However, the intended transformation depends on sustainable education and
researches. In this case, therefore, higher educations play a central role in promoting
both research and education. More than that, there is no worry that the social and
innovations in technologies need to develop and disseminate, needing broad-based
scientific supports (WGBU 2011). Universities play an important role in develop-
ing future’s decision-makers, problem-solvers, and agents of change. Therefore, it
is important to ensure the implementation of training and development of teachers,
lecturers, and administrative staff as initiated in the projects such as University Edu-
cators for Sustainable Development continuously (UE4SD 2014; UNESCO 2014a).
In the similar time, public worker absenteeism including education workers is a key
obstacle to delivering services to the poor in developing countries. It is widespread
(Chaudhury et al. 2005). According to Ihsan (2013), education is a human activity
and effort to improve his personality by fostering his personal potentials, i.e., spiritual
(thought, intention, taste, creativity, and conscience) (Ihsan 2013).
According to Handayani (2019; 48), sustainability principles need to be integrated
into the education curriculum, including higher education which has a strategic role
in shaping the younger generation, agent of changes. Integration of ESD into the
higher education curriculum is the latest trend and an important issue in the devel-
opment of higher education curriculum in various countries. Many universities have
1 UNDP (segera terbit). Indonesia: debt strategies to meet the millennium development goals. UNDP,
Jakarta.
implemented ESD in implementing curriculum and learning practices with different

approaches.
The connection of education and sustainable development is so related to each
other. The future theory for sustainable development is not able to get or achieve the
development in implementation and widespread support, if the people are not edu-
cated and do not have adequate information. The strategies in implementation for
sustainable development are developmental result of educational curricula. More-
over, presently there are great efforts to integrate sustainable development theory in
education, not only in theoretical concepts but also in practical applications (Zenelaj
2013).
Based on the above phenomenon and previous studies, there are some problems
which need our serious attention to promote quality education for sustainable devel-
opment, particularly in Indonesia. Therefore, in line with the spirits of SDGs and
the education for sustainable development, this study is proposed, which focuses
not only on the content of sustainable development, but also on how sustainable
development is covered and promoted in culture and community through education
in Indonesia to promote quality education in the future.
14.2 Methods
The descriptive method was used in this study, where the method of research tries
to explain and interpret the research objects into a real description. The descriptive
method is applied since the data analysis is descriptively presented. The instruments
of the study included interviews and documentations. School principals and education
services in four provinces (Riau, North Sumatera, Jambi, and West Java) in Indonesia
were interviewed. Some documentations were collected from Indonesian Education
Ministry and UNESCO websites.
According to Endraswara (2011), one of the important features of qualitative
research is the role of researcher as the key instrument who understands the phe-
nomenon more deeply. Besides that, the research findings are reported descriptively
in pictures and numbers and the process is more important than the results.
Some projects of research on teacher education show clearly that teaching which
has become the core task of the teacher often gets limited attention than domain
knowledge such as biology, geography, and others. Often teaching materials are
strongly influenced by lecturers, preferences, and do not have to be oriented toward
students’ future praxis (Oelkers and Oser 2000; Oser 2002; Terhard 2002). In the
latest discourse on research in education, it is often reported that the message of
professionalism about education was not achieved. However, there is a growing
consensus about the meaning of learning competencies as a requirement for the

quality of education, the integration of shared responsibility for the development of
schools, and other professionalism developments.
Krainer (2003) had introduced four dimensions for professionalism, namely inter-
action and reflection, autonomy and networking, with this expected to help parent
involvement and the school environment, and even collaborative actions more with
partner institutions and professional communication.
Stern and Streissler (2006) got the professional development in the domain of
science and stated that very different competencies are needed in their empirical
research project among Austrian teachers.
Times have changed and teachers have changed too. Yunus (2018) stated that all,
as in Malaysia, the preliminary changes started in their classroom itself where new
technologies like projectors, computers, and Internet have introduced the classroom
to the outside world. Teachers who once used a textbook, a tape recorder, and a
blackboard are presently using PowerPoint to present grammar, playing podcasts
to practise listening skills, and pulling texts off the World Wide Web to introduce
reading skills to mention some. Perhaps, the most important of all is that the teachers
support all students by giving access to a wide range of web-based tools that make
it possible for them to publish work and engage with live audiences in real contexts
(Yunus 2018).
The Indonesian government has implemented a program for achieving basic edu-
cation for all and has provided affordable and high-quality basic education, which has
been carried out, among others, through the School Operational Assistance (BOS)
program which was implemented in 2005 and reached 42.1 million people in 2011.
However, viewed from the world of education in Indonesia, it has several obsta-
cles related to the education quality, including the limited access to education, some
teachers who are not well distributed, and the quality of the teachers is considered
still lacking. The limited access to education in the regions has become the center
of the flow of urbanization, which is a problem now. Inadvertently, Indonesians are
encouraged to urbanize education because of the limited facilities in the region. At
an international level, the education quality in Indonesia ranks 64th from total of 120
countries around the world based on the annual report of UNESCO Education For
All Global Monitoring Report 2012 (UNESCO 2005), whereas based on the Educa-
tion Development Index (IDI), Indonesia ranked 69th of 127 countries in 2011. In
the most recent report on 2013 UN development program, Indonesia ranked number
121 out of 185 countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) with a score of
0.629. With this figure, Indonesia lags behind two neighboring ASEAN countries,
namely Malaysia (ranking 64) and Singapore (ranking 18), while HDI in the Asia
Pacific region is 0.683.
The social development perspective of the quality of SDGs education in Indonesia
ensures quality education that is inclusive and equitable and promotes opportunities
of lifelong learning for humans, regulated in Law number 20 of 2003 concerning
the national education system. In Nawacita (Indonesian Government Program), it
entered into nawacita number 3, namely to build Indonesia from the periphery by
strengthening the regions and villages in the framework of a unitary state, and in
RPJM by strengthening regions and villages within the framework unitary state,
laid the foundations for the beginning of asymmetric decentralization, equalizing
development between regions, especially eastern Indonesia and overcoming poverty.
2016 was the starting point for achieving the quality education target implemented
by the Indonesian Education Ministry for Early Childhood Education (PAUD). The
Ministry of Education, implements Pre-SD or PAUD programs for all boys and girls
in gaining access to quality pre-primary development, care and education (PAUD) to
ensure readiness to enter primary education. Until 2016 there were 72.29% or 58,174
villages throughout Indonesia having PAUD. Currently, based on the 2016 PAUD
Dapodik, the number of PAUD throughout Indonesia reaches 190,225 schools. The
Ministry of Education and Culture seeks to realize the SDGs by starting to provide
Special Allocation Funds (DAK) of BOPs in the amount of Rp. 600 thousand per
year for 190,225 schools. This assistance is prioritized for PAUD education for 4
to 6-year-olds. Fauziati (2018) declared that as a system, quality education must
continuously evaluate and improve all dimensions of the system which includes
the quality of learners and educators, learning environment, content, processes, and
outcomes (outcomes). Quality education can be seen through several elements, such
as health, early childhood experiences, and family support (Fauziati 2018).
To ensure that SDGs are implemented within the Indonesian development frame-
work at both national and regional levels, the role of a coalition of civil society is
needed. These social institutions can urge the Indonesian government to prepare a
variety of things in terms of both processes and substance. The Indonesian gov-
ernment must be pro-active in its efforts to achieve the SDGs, as a follow-up to
Indonesia’s pro-active initiatives in the process of preparing the SDGs agenda and
implementing the SGDs agreement. Even though the SDGs are not legally binding,
they are the result of a state leadership agreement that is morally binding for each
country to be responsible and is obliged to ensure that the goals and targets in the
SDGs can be implemented and achieved by 2030. Indonesia needs robust prepara-
tion towards SDGs adoption efforts, especially action plans on priority and strategic
objectives in the 2016/2017 Indicative RKP and Ceiling as well as a comprehen-
sive legal framework. The medium-term financing mobilization requires institutions
which reflect the involvement of all interests and supervisory framework to improve
data collection methods.
Furthermore, based on the Leuven concept (2017), a dynamic model for ESD
competence in teacher education was developed, where the connections of profes-
sional dimensions and overall competence refer to all combinations. The functions of
the five competency domains are knowledge, systems of thought, emotions, values
and ethics and actions that must be implemented in every professional dimension
and related to all competencies as a whole. Finally, the content of education for
sustainable development must be related to future and national and international
developments. The description of the five competency domains is as follows:
(a) Knowledge. Specific knowledge for sustainable development education is

defined as conceptual, factual, and action able. Knowledge must be related to
time (past–present–future) and also space (local–global) and must be plural or
cross-disciplinary. Knowledge is built by every individual and has been devel-
oped with overall experiences of each life and thus must include the structure
of social knowledge. Our knowledge viability determines its quality. Viability
today must be attributed responsibility for nature will not be exploited again.
(b) Thinking System. Critical thinking is very necessary. The complexity and rele-
vance of the world today require thinking in the system. There is an additional
open view; analytical thinking and thinking of reductionist are not enough to
imagine a sustainable future or to solve present problems. Different system types
included biological, ecological, geographical, political, social, and economical,
as well as the relationship in space and time.
(c) Emotional Thinking. Reflecing, assessing, making decisions, and acting are not
separated with emotions. Therefore, emotional competence is needed for the
commitment of education to sustainable development and the process. Empathy
and affection play an important role. Feeling the interrelationship with this world
is the basis of motivation intrinsically in ESD.
(d) Ethics and Values. Norms, attitudes, values, beliefs, and assumptions guide our
perceptions, thoughts, decisions, and also actions. They also affect our feelings.
The important guiding principle of education for sustainable development is jus-
tice (social, intergenerational, gender, and community). The similarity between
humans and nature is included only explicitly in several sustainable development
concepts.
(e) Actions. Action is a process, in which all competencies from the other four
domains are combined with creation, participation, and networking, which
means in elementary school, special attention should be paid to practical skills,
abilities, and competencies in the management of project and cooperation. Four
action levels must be considered for ESD success: individuals, classes/schools,
regional, and global. This will allow experience in matters of conflicts of inter-
est, change, involvement (participation), learning from mistakes, synergy and
success (Sleurs 2007).
All of the above are able to increase the motivation to learn more and continue the
action if it is indeed wisely chosen. The act of enabling the application of solidarity
develops through empathy and compassion. From each of the five domains, we
develop the competencies at three levels with different approaches:
(a) Teachers as individuals—related to reflection and vision,

(b) Teachers in educational institutions—related to teaching and communication,
and
(c) Teachers in community—related to cooperation and networking.
The table can be a reference for the steps in the education process for sustainable
development. The perspective seen is the initial identification of what is happening
so that teachers and schools can take the steps planned in education for sustainable
development.
In its application in Indonesia, quality education is one of the 17 SDG programs
that aims to ensure quality education which is inclusive and equitable, as well as
support opportunities of lifelong learning for all. This goal was strengthened in the
Republic of Indonesia Law 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system,
and then SDGs were formulated together at the global level, and in some aspects, it
could be adapted to the situation and conditions of Indonesia. The achievement of
the SDG goals is largely on the shoulders of the provincial and district governments.
The regency has steadily begun to take over more routine government expenditures.
So the local government should be able to play its role.
The findings of Bayu and Victor study (2014) stated that the role of government
is better allocated for expenditures to fund teacher salaries, and the cost to improve
the quality of teachers and the education level of secondary schools in Indonesia are
resources that have common characteristics, rivalry and non-excludable (Bayu and
Victor 2014).
Based on the interviews done with school principals and education services in
the provinces in Indonesia, finally it is recommended that the role of government in
Indonesia is to create policies that include the following chart:
The details of Fig. 14.1 can be explained in below descriptions:
(1) To improve the accessibility and expand learning opportunities for all students
in primary and secondary schools with the main target for the poor, remote, and
isolated area schools.
(2) To enhance the quality of basic educations.
Fig. 14.1 Recommended

policies of Indonesian Improve
government related to Accessibility
quality education for and Learning
sustainable development
RealizaƟon of Enhance basic

EducaƟon educaƟon
Budget quality
Encourage
regional
autonomy
(3) To encourage the implementation of regional autonomy, decentralization of

management of sustainable education to enhance community participation, and
local government involvement.
(4) To ensure that the realization of education budget for education up to 20% from
national and local budget (APBN and APBD).
The call for quality education is a big step toward ensuring that all children, who-
ever they is, get quality education. There is an opinion which states that the threshold
level of quality education is literacy and numeracy. However, SDGs realize that this
definition is inadequate and out of date. Education is a system designed to help all
children reach their full potential and be able to become full and productive citizens in
society. There is consensus around the basic dimensions of quality education today.
Quality education refers to the education system through the process of program-
ming, structure, and content that enable the creation of healthy learners, a healthy
environment, content that is reflected in the curriculum, relevant teaching materi-
als, child-centered learning processes, and outcomes (outcomes) that include knowl-
edge, skills, and attitudes, which are relevant to national education goals and positive
participation in the society.
The main purpose of education for sustainable development is that every stu-
dent must acquire the relevant knowledge and practice the knowledge acquired in a
sustainable manner. Education for sustainable development can be seen as an over-
all perspective and a sustainable process in a volatile world. The long-term goal
is that students can see nature and surroundings not only for the present but also
for the future and must be sustainable, so that education for sustainability develop-
ment makes each human to acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes as well as values
needed to form a period sustainable front. Education for sustainability development
contains key issues about sustainability development in teaching and learning in five
domains, including integrating knowledge, systems of thinking, emotions, ethics and
values, as well as actions. From these five domains, education can be developed for
sustainable development.
14.4 Conclusion
Quality education is a program of 17 SDGs that aim to ensure quality education

which is inclusive and equitable and support opportunities of lifelong learning for
everyone. Residents of a village can agree to choose what SDG goals are their priority,
including monitoring and accelerating their achievements. Quality education refers
to the education system through a process of programming, structure, and content
that enables the creation of healthy students, a healthy environment, content that is
reflected in relevant curriculum and teaching materials, and child-centered learning
processes, results that include knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which are relevant to
the objectives of national education and positive participation in society.
In each system, quality education must continuously evaluate and improve all
dimensions of the system that include the quality of students (learning), the learn-
ing environment, content, processes, and results (outcomes). The government can
greatly support the quality of education development by ensuring that the budget for
education both for national and local regions in Indonesia is adequate. However, the
quality implementation in teaching can be seen through several elements, such as
health, early childhood experience, and family support.
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Chapter 15
Sport Participation Motivation
among Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Athletes
Nor Nandinie Mohd Nizam Edros and Tajul Arifin Muhamad
Abstract Every human being has a different motive within themselves when engag-
ing or conducting a behavior or activity. Perhaps, two people who are doing a similar
activity have different motives of engagement that encourage them to do the activity.
Motivation is the cause and reason why an individual is doing something or more to
the tendency toward an action taken. Motivation in the study is based on the purpose
and the desire of athletes’ involvement in sports. This pilot study explores the rela-
tionship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation toward sports involvement among
athletes at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia by using Participation Motivation Ques-
tionnaire (PMQ), specifically on the constructs of fitness, fun, skill development, and
free energy for the internal factors that influence the involvement in sports, while
the external factors include achievement and status, situation factor, team spirit,
and friendship. Self-administered questionnaires were distributed to a total of 30
respondents randomly selected among sport and recreation student athletes. Find-
ings revealed that sport and recreation student athletes highly perceived achievement
and status as their participation motivation in sports. However, it should be noted that
constructs such as fitness, fun, skill development, free energy, situation, team spirit,
and friendship are also forming the participation motivation in sports involvement
among the athletes. Future research should consider a bigger sample size involving
all student athletes from every faculty in the institution and also the veteran athletes
who still get involved in sporting activities as researchers should study on the reason
for long-term participation motivation among the veteran athletes.
Keywords Motivation · Athlete · Sport involvement · Intrinsic motivation ·

Extrinsic motivation
N. N. Mohd Nizam Edros (B) · T. A. Muhamad

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: dinieedros93@yahoo.com
T. A. Muhamad
e-mail: tajul.a@ukm.edu.my

158 N. N. Binti Mohd Nizam Edros and T. A. Bin Muhamad
15.1 Introduction
Every human being has a different motive within themselves when engaging or
conducting a behavior or activity. Perhaps, two people who are doing a similar
activity have different motives of engagement to encourage them to do the activity.
Motivation is the cause and reason why an individual is doing something or more to
the tendency toward an action taken. Indirectly it can be understood that the motive
for an individual’s involvement is abstract and difficult to see unless the individual
can interpret it.
Motivation in the study carried out refers to the purpose of the movement and
the desire for personal involvement in sport. The objective of this study was to iden-
tify and study the relationship between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation
toward sports involvement among Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia athletes. The con-
structs assessed in this study based on intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation
were fitness, fun, skill development, and free energy for internal factors influencing
sports participation, while four other constructs were by external factors, namely
achievement and status, situation, team, and friendship.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations play an important role in measuring the factors
that influence an athlete to engage in sports. Athletes who have experience in the
sport themselves will engage in physical activity without being influenced by external
factors. For athletes who participate in sports solely for rewards or hobbies, they are
categorized as extrinsic motivation-oriented athletes, in contrast to those who engage
in sports solely for their interest in the sport involved without expecting any reward
for their involvement. According to past researchers, motivational factors can also
affect the athletes’ self-esteem by maintaining psychological and sociological levels
(Bin Omar Fauzee 2003). The importance of psychology in sports is also undeniable.
Psychology is one of the key components in ensuring an athlete’s success (Krane and
Williams 2006). According to Schacter (2011) in his study on motives of engagement
of college students and adults, motivation is a psychological form of shaping the
individual toward the desired goal and is regarded as a psychological force that can
reinforce that individual’s action. All individuals participate in sports activities, but
each has their own goals to achieve through their involvement.
Therefore, it is important to study the motive of an individual’s involvement in
sports activities whether it depends on one of the motivations that is instructive or
extrinsic or based on a combination of both motivational factors. This study is based
on a study using the Participation Motivation Questionnaire (PMQ) developed by
Gill (2000).
15.2 Problem Statement
Engagement motivation is closely related to the reason why an athlete engages in,
or withdraws from, sports participation (Horn 2002). All of the above reasons are
15 Sport Participation Motivation Among Universiti Kebangsaan … 159
closely related to motivating factors or causes of losing the motivation of the athlete
to engage in sports. Motivation of an athlete’s self-esteem is considered important
because it can influence the performance displayed in a sport. If there is no motivation
in an individual’s sports participation, especially an athlete, then he or she will not
be able to perform the best and will not achieve the desired goal.
Each action taken by an individual is closely related to a specific motive and pur-
pose. In this study, the researcher wanted to determine whether athlete involvement
in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia is influenced by motivational factors. Hamzah
and Joy (2009) in their study also stated that individuals have their own motivations
as an impetus for doing something to meet their needs and desires. Studies on the
involvement of school and university athletes have been conducted, but studies on the
motives of sports participation are still lacking. According to the Director of Sport
Centre Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (2018), the percentage of students partici-
pating as athletes in 2018 is less than 10%. What is the reason for the lack of student
involvement as an athlete at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia?
Therefore, in this study, the researcher will further explore what is the motivation
for participation in sports among Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia athletes. Whether
constructs in intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are factors in athlete involvement in
sports.
15.2.1 Purpose of the Study
This study was conducted to determine the motives of participation in sports among
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia athletes.
15.2.2 Research Objective
Identify and study the relationship between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic
motivation toward sports involvement among Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
athletes.
15.2.3 Conceptual Framework
As shown in Fig. 15.1, the motivation factors that can be studied are intrinsic and
extrinsic which include eight constructs such as fitness, fun, skill development, energy
release, achievement and status, situation factor, team spirit, and friendship.
PARTICIPATION
MOTIVATION
(Gill, 2000)
ATHLETE INTRINSIC
• Gender Fitness, fun, skill

development, energy SPORT
• Age
release INVOLVEMENT
• Years of
involvement
EXTRINSIC
Achievement and status,

situation factor, team
spirit, friendship
Fig. 15.1 Conceptual framework on motivation of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia athletes’

participation in sports
15.3 Methodology
This research is a descriptive study because researchers used questionnaires to obtain

data to study the relationship between motivations toward participation in sports
among Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia athletes. The data obtained will be ana-
lyzed through descriptive and inferential analysis. Data collection is based on a
questionnaire distributed to Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia athletes (Table 15.1).
Engagement motivation questionnaire or better known as the Participation Motiva-
tion Questionnaire (PMQ) was adapted from Gill (2000) based on intrinsic motivation
and extrinsic motivation and has eight constructs based on four intrinsic motivations
(fitness, fun, skill development, and energy release), while four more constructs
were based on extrinsic motivation (achievement and status, situation factor, team
spirit, and friendship). The five-point Likert scale was applied. The scale begins from
1 to 5, the values being classified as “strongly disagree,” “disagree,” “undecided,”
“agree,” and “strongly agree.” Each value represents the respondents’ motivation
toward sports participation. The questionnaire has two sections. Section A identifies
the respondent’s background such as gender, age, and years of involvement, while
Table 15.1 Procedural analysis on sport participation motivation among Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia athletes
Research design Research instrument Sample Type of data
Survey Self-administered questionnaires UKM athlete • Descriptive
• Inferential
Section B focuses on the involvement motive perceived by the respondent toward

sports participation.
15.3.1 Research Design
The study was conducted using the survey method by distributing a questionnaire
consisting of 30 questions, 15 questions related to intrinsic motivation and another
15 questions related to extrinsic motivation. This method was selected because it is
appropriate to meet the needs of researchers to gather the required information from
students who are participating as athletes at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Based
on the questionnaire distributed, the researcher can identify the motive of student
involvement as a university athlete and also find out whether intrinsic or extrinsic
motivation is more influential in the athlete’s involvement.
15.3.2 Research Instrument
Items in the self-administered questionnaire were adopted from studies by Gill

(2000). The questionnaire has two sections. Section A identified gender, age, and
years on involvement in sport status of the respondent, while Section B focused on
the respondent participation motivation toward sport involvement which consists of
intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external) motivations.
15.3.3 Population and Sample
The study sample consisted of students who participated as athletes at Universiti

Kebangsaan Malaysia. A total of 30 students were selected as respondents consisting
of 15 male and 15 female students.
15.3.4 Data Processes and Analysis
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 22.0 was used to analyze the
data collected using the descriptive statistics, factor analysis, reliability analysis,
independent t-test, and correlation.
15.4 Findings of Pilot Study
The pilot study was a preliminary study conducted by the researcher to ensure that
respondents understood the items found by the researcher to carry out the study
and to ensure the validity and reliability of the items. In addition, a pilot study was
conducted to ensure the content of the questionnaire such as the words used in the
research question. Respondents’ responses and understanding of the pilot study indi-
cate whether the question is understood by the respondents or not. Cronbach’s alpha
was used to measure the validity and reliability of the studied construct. Cronbach’s
alpha for the eight constructs studied was greater than 0.60, indicating that all con-
structs were applicable in the study conducted because of their validity and reliability
(Tables 15.2 and 15.3; Fig. 15.2).
Table 15.2 Percentage of

Frequency Percent Cumulative percent
respondents classified by
gender (N = 30) Male 15 15 15
Female 15 15 30
Total 30 30
Table 15.3 Item-total

Construct No. of items Sample Cronbach’s
statistics on sport
alpha
participation motivation
among Universiti Kebangsaan Fitness 3 30 0.880
Malaysia athletes (N=30) Fun 5 30 0.863
Skill 4 30 0.870
development
Energy release 3 30 0.811
Achievement 5 30 0.883
and status
Situation factor 4 30 0.717
Team spirit 3 30 0.844
Friendship 3 30 0.815
Gender
15
10
0
Male Female
Fig. 15.2 Percentage of respondents in relation to gender
15.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, this pilot study was conducted using Participation Motivation Ques-
tionnaire (PMQ) by Gill (2000). This study was conducted based on intrinsic and
extrinsic motivations through eight constructs, namely, fitness, fun, skill devel-
opment, energy release, achievement and status, situation factor, team spirit, and
friendship.
Based on the pilot study, researcher discovered that student athletes of Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia perceived achievement and status as their motivation toward
sport participation. It should be noted that constructs such as fitness, fun, skill devel-
opment, free energy, situation, team spirit, and friendship also form the participation
motivation in sports among the athletes.
Future research should consider a bigger sample size involving all student ath-
letes from every faculty in the institution and also the veteran athletes who still get
involved in sporting activities as researchers should study the reasons for long-term
participation motivation among the veteran athletes.
References
Bin Omar Fauzee MS (2003) Sosiologi – Psikologi Sukan dan Kegiatan Fizikal. Karisma
Publications Sdn. Bhd., Shah Alam
Gill DL (2000) Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL
Hamzah H, Joy N (2009) Siri Pendidikan Guru. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd., Shah Alam, p 43
Horn T (2002) Advances in sport psychology, Ed. ke-2. Miami University, Humsn Kinetics
Krane V, Williams JM (2006) Psychological characteristics of peak performance. In: Williams JM
(ed) Applied sport psychology: personal growth to peak performance
Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2011) Introducing psychology. New York. Retrieved from
https://www.worthpublishers.com/Catalog/product/introducingpsychology-fir
Chapter 16
Walking Environment: Silhouettes
Versus Shades
Ruwaidah Borhan, Siti Syamimi Omar, and Atikah Fukaihah Amir
Abstract A society will enjoy the benefits of walkability when people want to
walk and its environment allows people to walk. This requires two conditions to
be met: people having the motivation to walk and an environment that provides the
facilities to walk. Thus, the aim of this paper is to discuss which condition of the
environment provides and leads people to walk and gives a pleasant and comfortable
ambience. The conditions that are focused in this study are the comfortable walking
under the silhouettes of building or the combination of building silhouette and shades
provided by trees. Quantitative and qualitative data collections were conducted on
the pedestrian network of Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia. This research is very important
as it carries a distinct perspective on thermal comfort in the presence of greenery
toward creating a sustainable and comfortable ambience of walking. However, the
result of this study has proved the green elements are not solely needed in context
of improving the quality of walking, especially in rapid growth of urbanization. The
supporting activities have been found as one of the factors in motivating people to
stroll around the city. Therefore, in this study, it can be concluded that to create a
walking environment that is more comfortable, environmental should be integrated
with social and economic factors as well. Thus, it can create a walking environment
in a sustainable city ecosystem.
Keywords Walkability · Silhouettes · Tree shades
R. Borhan (B) · S. S. Omar · A. F. Amir

e-mail: aidah866@uitm.edu.my
S. S. Omar
e-mail: sitisyamimi@uitm.edu.my
A. F. Amir
e-mail: atika250@uitm.edu.my

166 R. Borhan et al.
16.1 Introduction
In the past two decades, walkable city approaches were widely spread in most of
the growing cities around the world. A city is walkable if the entire system of pub-
lic corridors is walkable and people can live without dependency on the automobile.
The provision of well-connected pedestrian network and accessible public transit can
increase opportunities for tourism activities where visitors can have enjoyable walk-
ing experience, strolling through the places within the city (Zakaria and Ujang 2015).
However, the walkable approach also is to give an awareness to the societies about
having a healthy life in the cities, which contain more carbon dioxide from vehicles
and industry rather than oxygen from living organisms. Furthermore, walkability
has been identified as a necessary component for livable and sustainable societies.
Walkability is being considered to gain advantage of physical health by the avoidance
of various diseases (Banerjee and Loukaitou-Sideris 2011). A few years back, most
scholars were considering the increased walkability in built environment, possible
aspects in improving physical activities, and social interaction within the society.
According to Leslie et al. (2005), physical activity such as walking is the most usual
form adults consider as the basic element for an active, healthy, and sociable lifestyle.
In this study, conditions of environment, through walking experience are the factors
that are needed to be considered for improved walking environment where there has
been a very tangible impact on increasing both the walkability and sociability. For
instance, double active frontage at the street is found to be an encouragement to
explore and stroll around (Brower 1988).
In fact, this is a dynamic relationship where people and ambience act on each other
(Cohen et al. 2008), and it has been agreed by other scholars where different places
have been reacted with a differently behavior (Nasar 2011). For instance, a person
behaves differently in a library and a grocery store. In the context of environmental
qualities of walking, facilitating walking and other activities influences a person’s
level of comfort (Alfonzo 2005). Comfort is quite subjective because different indi-
viduals perceive it differently, and how the people respond toward the surrounding
can be identified (Zakaria and Ujang 2015). In this study, the comfort is focused
on the response of people’s behavior toward space that has some different thermal
effect due to elements that support a walking environment and physical attributes.
Most of the scholars, through their studies are discussing the physical aspects that
affect people’s satisfaction of comfort while walking mainly along the streets, and
they are rarely discussing on the correlation between environmental aspect and social
aspects. The study aims to demonstrate the comfort ambience that will give an impor-
tant impact on appropriate walkability, sociability, and environment. Moreover, the
comfort ambience is narrowly focusing on the thermal comfort that is provided by
silhouettes of building and the shades of trees. Thus, this paper establishes a strong
link among elements in the environment.
16 Walking Environment: Silhouettes Versus Shades 167
16.2 Definitions
16.2.1 Walkability
Walkability is the secondary mode of transportation in the city in most of the devel-
oping countries. Education or awareness that has been exposed to the society about
the benefits through campaign or policy by the government is a good and consistent
approach in having a good healthy lifestyle. Moreover, walkability plays a key role
in building self-confidence, providing opportunities for social interaction and self-
expression, along with countless health benefits (Aneela 2017). Walkability relates
to the ability of the places to connect people from various destinations within a
reasonable amount of time and effort and to offer visual interest in journeys through-
out the network (Southworth 2005). Another scholar refers to walkability as built
environment that is friendly with the presence of diverse activities (Abley 2005).
16.2.2 Silhouette
Significant building silhouettes and city skylines are an important part of urban
composition and contribute to a city’s identity. In this study, silhouette refers to the
building that gives a shade and good thermal comfort for people walking around
the city. Silhouette and tree shades can be referred to do the same function but in
different contexts. Silhouette usually comes in the form of shadow from the building,
yet shades are derived from the canopy of trees, and moreover gives an additional
pleasant ambience with oxygen and breeze from the wind.
16.3 Research Methodology
16.3.1 Study Site Selection
There are differences in the quality of environment and elements along Concubine
Lane and Panglima Lane, which are both separated by Jalan Bandar Timah (see
Fig. 16.1). Concubine Lane is one of the active lanes because of its function and
physical attractions. There is a double active frontage by the building facade and
business that make the Concubine Lane interactive. Therefore, the silhouette of the
building provides shade along the lane. Panglima Lane (see Fig. 16.2) is located
opposite to the Concubine Lane (see Fig. 16.3) which is beside the Kong Heng
Restaurant. Along the Panglima Lane, there are trees providing shades that involve
in the ambiance of walking where the conception that trees were structures along the
walkway as a column to pleaching and an architectural layout of planting. These two
Fig. 16.1 Site study plan at Panglima Lane and Concubine Lane in Ipoh Old Town City, Perak
Fig. 16.2 Panglima Lane
areas are connected to each other by pedestrian walkway and are easily accessible
either by walk or a vehicle.
Fig. 16.3 Concubine Lane
16.3.2 Conceptual Framework
This research used a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed

methods) which have applied the basic mixed method design that is convergent
parallel mixed method model (see Fig. 16.4). This method was used in collecting
data. Furthermore, each result underwent comparison to verify all data. The evalu-
ations include thermal comfort, lane’s quality, accessibilities, facilities, and safety.
Percentage was used to analyze the level of comfort by the subjects.
Based on convergent parallel mixed method model (Creswell 2014), this study
is acceptable because it involves the collection of both quantitative (questionnaire
Fig. 16.4 Convergent

parallel mixed method model
(Creswell 2014)
Fig. 16.5 Conceptual framework of Mix Model_Walking Environment
and instrument tools) and qualitative (field observation) data in response to research
questions or earlier hypothesis. This conceptual framework (see Fig. 16.5) is an ideal
approach to access both quantitative and qualitative data which are given more under-
standing in comparing different perspectives drawn from questionnaire of people’s
satisfaction of walking and from field observation. Using tools such as velometer to
evaluate the thermal comfort is one of the methods in developing better measurement
instruments and having an accurate argument in the studies.
16.3.3 Questionnaire
The questionnaire was distributed to subjects who have access to the lane and who are
having social interaction in the site. A total of 75 sets have been distributed to each of
the lanes, which sum up to 150 sets of questionnaires. The questions were designed in
two sections which are personal attributes and comfort of walking which that focused
on satisfying the users in the context of safety, sidewalk facilities, thermal comfort,
and pleasurability. The questionnaire was designed using the five-point Likert scale
format to evaluate the subjects’ level of comfort and pleasant environment while
having a social interaction in the area. The subject refers to a person who is either a
visitor or a local doing a business in the area.
16.3.4 Velometer
The instruments that have been used in this study is a velometer-thermal anemometer
for indicating thermal comfort and a rolling tape to measure lane width. Moreover,
velometer-thermal anemometer was used to measure the air temperature (°C). The
data collection from the index will be compared with the subject’s response toward
the environment through the questionnaire.
16.3.5 Field Observation
Qualitative data was collected by field observation and capturing image of the site.
Field observers spent about 10 h evaluating the social interaction and behavior;
in addition to the paper-and-pencil audit measures, each observer took about a
2-hour pedestrian count and indicated the social behavior through observation toward
response to environment for both lanes. The observation is by two observers on
two lanes, Panglima Lane (see Fig. 16.6) and Concubine Lane (see Fig. 16.7). The
observers will generate the data of people behavior and interaction along the lane.
The images of the site have been captured to identify the elements that contribute to
social behavior patterns of the subjects.
Fig. 16.6 People behavior and social interaction at Panglima Lane

Fig. 16.7 People behavior and social interaction at Concubine Lane
16.4.1 Survey Questions
Walking in a heritage city and strolling around the attractive places is one of the
satisfying walking experiences. The condition of the environment is the aim in the
this study to evaluate a subject’s response toward the environment while walking
in the city. Hence, respondents’ satisfaction levels on comfort were calculated and
compared for both sites to determine the current walking environment conditions.
According to the results (see Fig. 16.8), after comparing the satisfying factors that
respondents identify, most of the respondents are satisfied with the business along
the lane which is 100.0% satisfying with the social interaction in Concubine Lane
(CL). Meanwhile, the most satisfying factor that gives a comfort of walking at
Panglima Lane (PL) is thermal comfort (73.0%) because of the absence of living
organism at the sidewalk setting. However, the second most satisfying at Concu-
bine Lane (CL) is enjoyment and pedestrian facilities which are 97.0% and 92.0%,
respectively, compared with Panglima Lane (PL) where the second most satisfy-
ing factors are enjoyment and aesthetic which are 62.0% and 50.0%, respectively.
Minimum percentage of satisfaction for Concubine Lane (CL) was facilities for dis-
abled people (3.0%) and for Panglima Lane (PL) (23.0%) was identifying on the
satisfaction of the business that was held along the lane. Through this survey and
the statistic that has been found, it shows that most of the respondents react toward
the social interaction rather than comfort or the ambience of walking along the lane.
Are you satisfied with the pedestrian facilities? 67 25 8

53 32 15
I low do you find the facilities of disabilities? 3 63 23 11

10 67 23
Are you satisfied with all the business along the lane? 83 17
23 30 47
Have you enjoy walking along the lane? 90 7 3

12 50 23 15
Do you find this lane very attractive with 47 39 10 4

the color and setting of amenities? 50 31 19
Are you satisfied with the sidewalks quality? 70 23 7

(material, condition, and width) 42 45 13
Do you feel safe walking along this lane? 45 40 15

37 49 14
Are you satisfied with the thermal 18 30 43 9

comfort along the lane? 35 38 19 8
Are you satisfied with the air quality around here? 29 44 20 7

15 35 25 17 8
0 20 40 60 80 100
Very satisfiyed % Satisfiyed % Not Sure % Dis satisfiyed % Not satisfiyed at all %
Top : Concubine Lane (CL)
Bottom : Panglima Lane (PL)
Fig. 16.8 People behavior and social interaction at Concubine Lane
This statistic shows activity support or social interaction also plays a significant role
in giving a motivation and comfortable walking environment, leads people to walk,
and gives a pleasant enjoyment of walking.
16.4.2 Thermal Comfort
People may have different thermal preferences in different contexts despite the ther-
mal comfort indices indicating thermal parity. This study seeks to clarify whether peo-
ple’s thermal preferences can be completely interpreted in terms of thermal indices
or whether their preferences are determined by the combination of physical sidewalk
settings and environmental factors. Moreover, in this study, the plot is just focusing
on the data of air temperature (°C) (see Fig. 16.9). The energy reaching the earth’s
surface in the form of direct or scattered radiation determines the temperature of
both the surface of the earth and the lower atmosphere of the earth which, in turn,
determines the evaporation capacity and climatic features (Baróti 1993).
From the data above, it is shown that the thermal comfort in Panglima Lane
is cooler and comfortable during daytime from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m., and the average
temperature is 29.8 °C. Meanwhile, in Concubine Lane, the temperature is a bit
higher, and the average temperature is 31.8 °C. Through this tool measuring, it has
been observed that Panglima Lane is having more thermal comfort than Concubine
Air Temperature (oC) Data

40
35 33.9 33.2 32.8
32.4 33 33.6 31.8
Temperature (oC)
30 30.1 29.8 30.6 31.4 31.6
30.8 30.2 29.5
28.1 28.7
27.2 27.9 28.6
25
20
15
10
5
0
0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Panglima Lane 27.2 27.9 28.6 29.8 30.6 31.4 31.8 30.8 30.2 29.5
Concubine Lane 28.1 28.7 30.1 32.4 33 33.6 33.9 33.2 32.8 31.6
Time (Hours)
Fig. 16.9 Comparison data of air temperature at Panglima Lane and Concubine Lane
Lane. Therefore, the data is in correlation and parallel with the finding from the
questionnaire earlier regarding thermal satisfaction.
16.4.3 Social Behavior Pattern
Observing behavior means systematically watching people use their environment,

individuals, pair of people, small groups, and large groups (Zeisel 1984). Through
this method, the data about people’s activities and relationship needed to sustain
them is generated. However, in this study, the action and reaction of observations are
controlled. Thus, through this field observation, behavior can be described in terms
of actor, act, significant others, relationships, context, and setting. The following
illustrations are verbally annotated to show the relationship of people’s behavior and
environment in actual situation (Fig. 16.10). The illustration shows the difference
between peoples’ social behavior toward two different lanes (walking environment).
The three colors represent people’s interaction for each duration, either morning,
afternoon, or evening in each lane.
From the illustration above, it shows that Panglima Lane has less social interaction
and people’s movement except in the morning. It is also observed that, the increased
social behavior at the junction Jalan Bandar Timah in the morning is because of
the supporting activity which occurs from Kong Heng Restaurant at the junction.
Meanwhile, along Concubine Lane, from the morning until the late evening, the social
interaction and people movement are continuous. From Fig. 16.1 earlier, it can be
concluded through the observation that the lane is active due to the business or social
interaction that is held along the lane even when the comfort of the ambience is lower
than that of Panglima Lane. The silhouette from the building (see Fig. 16.11) enables
Fig. 16.10 Observed behavior pattern on site
Fig. 16.11 Walking

environment at Concubine
Lane
the people to walk through the lane, providing walking environment. Silhouette gives
shade and reduces the direct solar radiation effect on the users.
16.5 Conclusion
In the context of comfortable ambience with a good thermal comfort that gives a
pleasant ambience to the user, Panglima Lane can be categorized as the comfortable
walking environment lane rather than Concubine Lane due to the placement of tree
shades and silhouette of the building that give a protection from the solar radiation
and increase the heat along the lane. From the comparison of quantitative data in this
study, it was strongly agreed that shades from the trees along the lane together with the
silhouettes of building give a cooler temperature and pleasant walking environment
to the users. However, in the context of social interaction or people behavior, from
the results, it is shown that Concubine Lane is more successful in attracting people
and motivating them to walk through the lane. The social interaction, mostly 90%,
happens in Concubine Lane. Although the ambience and the temperature are not
quite pleasant for the people to walk, the supporting activities along the lane really
lead people to walk under the silhouette of the building.
This study concludes that silhouette or shades is not solely the main point that
leads people to participate in a walking environment. This study has proved that the
cooler temperature with pleasant ambience for walking is not solid enough to lead
and motivate people to walk. Therefore, the condition of environment that can lead
people to walk and give a pleasant and comfortable ambience is not solely focusing
on the intangible elements such as comfort but must be parallel with the activity
support that can attract people through the senses.
For instance, people are more attractive to the sidewalks where they can smell
the tasty food and where they can hear the noise from the seller and see the visual
from color of the signage or building rather than sidewalks that are quiet, windy,
and monotonous in color. Silhouette or shade is just a minor element that contributes
to a walking environment, and it is not the main factor for motivating people to
walk. Thus this situation shows that people have the tendency to walk where there
are facilities and need to stroll around the area and not just focus on the thermal
ambience. Furthermore, this study can contribute to the findings for further research
through the walking environment context for the implementation of sustainable city
ecosystem assessment.
References
Abley S (2005) Walkability scoping paper. Chartered Traffic and Transportation Engineering,
Christchurch
Alfonzo MA (2005) To walk or not to walk? The hierarchy of walking needs. Environ Behav
37:808–836
Aneela Y (2017) Inclusive aspects of urban design: sociability, walkability and overall ambience.
Chin J Urban Environ Stud 5(1):1–17
Banerjee T, Loukaitou-Sideris A (ed) (2011) Companion to urban design, 1st edn. Routledge, New
York
Baróti I (1993) Energiafelhasználói Kézikönyv [Manual of energy utilization]. Környezettechnika

Szolgáltató Kft., Budapest
Brower SN (1988) Design in familiar places: what makes home environments look good. Praeger
Publishers, Michigan
Cohen DA, Inagami S, Finch S (2008) The built environment and collective efficacy. Health & Place
14(2):198–208
Creswell JW (2014) Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches, 4th
edn. Sage, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Leslie E, Saelens B, Frank L, Owen N, Bauman A, Coffee N, Hugo G (2005) Residents’ perceptions
of walkability attributes in objectively different neighbourhoods: a pilot study. Health & Place
11(3):227–236
Nasar JL (2011) Environmental psychology and urban design. In: Banerjee T, Loukaitou-Sideris A
(eds) Companion to urban design. Routledge, London, pp 162–170
Southworth M (2005) Designing the walkable city. J Urban Plan Dev 131:246–257
Zakaria J, Ujang N (2015) Comfort of walking in the city center of Kuala Lumpur. Procedia Soc
Behav Sci 170(2015):642–652
Zeisel J (1984) Inquiry by design; tools for environment—behavior Research. Cambridge University
Press, Harvard University
Chapter 17
Perceived Sensory Dimension for Mental
Health and Well-Being: A Review
Azi Izwani Nor Hamzah, Lee Chia Kuang, Zetty Ain Kamaruzzaman,
and Nubli Abdul Wahab
Abstract The World Health Organisation (WHO) stated that by the year 2020 mental
health is expected to be the world’s major concern. It is well known that stress may
cause mental health problems such as anxiety and depression. Research shows that
stress can be reduced by having or experiencing a green environment. This will
stimulate the sensory neurons to have a restorative effect. Therefore, any activity
related with a green environment will contribute to maximising sensory effects and
optimising positive benefits to health. Having an activity in a green environment
will contribute to one’s mental health and well-being. For example, by just viewing
greeneries which is a sense of sight, it can contribute to a reduction in the stress
level. However, it is best to activate other senses as well. This will definitely affect the
quality of life. There are eight perceived sensory dimensions as stated in the literature.
Thus, this study aims to critically review the Perceived Sensory Dimensions (PSDs)
and green environment, particularly with regard to mental health and well-being. This
study is vital to explore the understanding and importance of green environments
through the perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) for mental health and well-being.
This study will also contribute to the sustainability of mental health and well-being,
especially for ASEAN societies.
Keywords ASEAN · Green environment · Health · Perceived sensory

dimensions · Sustainability · Well-being · Restorative · Healing · Therapeutic ·
Green
17.1 Introduction
The aim of this study has been to explore the understanding and importance of a green
environment through the perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) for mental health and
well-being based on previous researches. The review was based on 15 research works
A. I. Nor Hamzah (B) · L. C. Kuang · Z. A. Kamaruzzaman · N. A. Wahab

Faculty of Industrial Management, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300
Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
e-mail: aziizwaninorhamzah@gmail.com

180 A. I. Nor Hamzah et al.
that were retrieved on 3 April 2019 at 3:00 p.m. by using the search string ‘perceived
sensory dimension’ in the Scopus database.
This paper starts with the background of the study which consists of a brief
discussion on sensory and the theories underlying the research. Next, this paper
continues with the literature which discusses the history of the development, elements
and implementation of the PSDs and their benefits. The implementation items have
been described based on the place tested and purpose, research process and research
result. Table 17.1 shows the list of the reviewed research. Later, the authors can be
referred to by the number from the table.
An extensive amount of research shows that human stress and burnout symptoms
can be reduced with the impacts of nature (Plambech et al. 2015; Grahn and Stigsdot-
ter 2010). Previous research shows that there is a relationship between the sensory
perception of natural environments and human health (Plambech et al. 2015).
Therefore, as for the goals at the end of this review, researchers will have an
overview of the PSDs in order to optimise the benefits of a green environment. In
addition, the knowledge will improve human well-being and also contribute to a
sustainable design and lifestyle.
17.2 Background of the Study
The natural environment has a positive effect on health, especially mental health.
Natural elements, such as trees, leaves and vegetation, have an exclusive benefit for
mental refreshment. Moreover, their research hypothesised that seeing a vegetated
environment would result in a positive mood and reduce perceived effort.
Previous research also supports that interacting with natural environments has a
positive effect in relation to mental and physical health healing (Lottrup et al. 2013).
A number of studies have also related a natural environment with stress reduction
(Lottrup et al. 2013; Staats et al. 2003).
17.2.1 Sensory
Sensory information will be transferred and registered by the sensory cells or organ,
and it will be interpreted by the brain using coding. In order to interpret the sen-
sory effects, there are three different processes involved, which are sub-symbolic,
symbolic imagery and symbolic verbal. In some way, with an unstable condition,
when people are feeling poor, it will affect the process. In this situation, sensation or
images from the environment will mediate the information from these three systems.
The integration process will act as a catalyst, sparking creative processes that are
important to mental restoration (Grahn and Stigsdotter 2010).
A green environment is one which contains many perceived elements that con-
tribute to the process of restoration. There are many sources of the perceived elements
17 Perceived Sensory Dimension for Mental Health … 181
Table 17.1 List of reviewed research

No. Author(s) Title
1 Qiu (2015) Are perceived sensory dimensions a reliable
tool for urban green space assessment and
planning?
2 Chen et al. (2018) Application of the eight perceived sensory
dimensions as a tool for urban green space
assessment and planning in China
3 Memari et al. (2017) Relationship between perceived sensory
dimensions and stress reduction in care
settings
4 Maikov (2013) Landscape characteristics in Tartu City Parks:
user influences through design
5 Lottrup et al. (2013) Associations between use, activities, and
characteristics of the outdoor environment at
workplaces
6 Lottrup et al. (2012) Associations between use, activities, and
characteristics of the outdoor environment at
workplaces
7 Plambech et al. (2015) The impact of nature on creativity—a study
amongst Danish creative professionals
8 Jong et al. (2012) Perceived green qualities were associated with
neighborhood satisfaction, physical activity,
and general health: results from a
cross-sectional study in suburban and rural
Scania, southern Sweden
9 Mytton et al. (2012) Green space and physical activity: an
observational study using a health survey for
England’s data
10 Pazhouhanfar et al. (2013) Effect of the characteristics of urban natural
landscapes in increasing the perceived
restorative potential of urban environments
11 Grahn and Stigsdotter (2010) The relation between the perceived sensory
dimensions of urban green space and stress
reduction
12 Karlsson et al. (2017) Forest design for mental health
promotion—using perceived sensory
dimensions to elicit restorative responses
13 Peschardt and Stigsdotter (2013) Stressed individuals’ preferences for activities
and environmental characteristics in green
spaces
14 Lottrup et al. (2012) The qualities of natural environments that
support the rehabilitation process of
individuals with stress-related mental
disorders in nature-based rehabilitation
15 Lottrup et al. (2013) Workplace greenery and perceived level of
stress: benefits of access to a green outdoor
environment at the workplace
Table 17.2 The four factors that are important for a restorative feeling (adapted from Kaplan et al.
1998)
Attention Restoration Theory (ART)
Fascination Nature is full of objects of fascination in flora, fauna,
water and the endless play of light. Humans also tend to
be fascinated with natural processes, such as growth,
succession, predation and even survival itself
Being away Settings that differ from the normal surroundings,
making it possible to obtain a distance to the mental
routines in your normal surroundings
Restorative
Extent Restorative settings are often described as being in a
whole different world. It is about being in a large
enough setting that its boundaries are not evident
Nature
Compatibility It is about compatibility between one’s inclinations and
environmental circumstances
that are needed to be organised in a hierarchy order to show which is the most pre-
ferred in order to restore mental health. Therefore, the Gestalt theory has been used
to categorise the perceived signals.
17.2.2 Theories of Human–Nature Interactions
In a hectic lifestyle, nowadays, mental health is also affected and support is needed to
heal the effects of this chaotic lifestyle. As mentioned by Peschardt and Stigsdotter
(2013), restorative environments allow the brain to recover. In addition, Peschardt
and Stigsdotter (2013) and Kaplan characterised four psychological components that
support a restorative environment under the attention restoration theory (ART). The
components are Fascination, Being away, Extent and Compatibility, as shown in
Table 17.2.
17.3 Literature
17.3.1 History of Development
Over the last 30 years, as stated by Chen et al. (2018), there are several classifications
to evaluate parks and green space. However, eight perceived sensory dimensions is
the latest version and it has been developed and tested at a Nordic or Scandinavian
country. Perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) are based on a questionnaire survey
of respondents who reported their preferences from a long list of natural qualities
(Grahn and Stigsdotter 2010).
17.3.2 Elements
Research indicates that people perceive green spaces in terms of eight sensory dimen-
sions, which are nature, space, prospect, rich in species, culture, refuge, social and
serene. Generally, people prefer the dimension of serene, followed by space, nature,
rich in species, refuge, culture, prospect and social. However, the preference may
change due to various factors, such as mental condition; a combination of refuge,
nature and rich in species and a low or no presence of social could be the sequence
of preferences for a restorative effect (Plambech et al. 2015; Grahn and Stigsdotter
2010). Support by previous research shows that people who reported facing high
levels of stress had preferences of certain characteristics, which were refuge, nature
and rich in species. However, they did not enjoy social.
The definition of each element is consistent with each research work, but the differ-
ences are at the examples due to the implementation area. Therefore, the researcher
has only shown one source of description on the PSD elements in Table 17.3 for
reference purposes of this paper only.
Table 17.3 The eight perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) (Grahn and Stigsdotter 2010)
No. Elements of the PSDs Descriptions
1 Serene Sensation of being in an undisturbed, calm and safe
environment, e.g. silent and peaceful, not too many people, no
noise and no litter
2 Nature Sensation of the inherent force and power of nature, designed
and manifested on nature’s own terms, e.g. wild and untouched
3 Rich in species Sensation of finding a wide range of expressions of life, e.g.
many animals and flowers
4 Space Sensation of spaciousness and freedom, and having a certain
amount of connectedness, e.g. space and free, and not disturbed
by too many roads and paths
5 Prospect Sensation of open and plain view, e.g. flat and well-cut lawns
with scattered trees
6 Refuge Sensation of an enclosed and safe environment where people
can play or watch other people being active, e.g. safe, benches
and play equipment
7 Social Sensation of an environment that is equipped for social
activities, e.g. entertainment and exhibition
8 Culture Sensation of cultivated, man-made surroundings shaped by
history and/or culture, e.g. decorated with fountains, statues and
ornamental plants
17.3.3 Implementation of the PSDs
This section will discuss how previous researchers implemented the PSDs in their
research works. Therefore, it consists of several tables that simplify the point under
each theme, which are the place tested and purpose, research process and research
result.
Based on this limited number of papers, it shows that numerous studies have
been carried out in Western countries, especially Scandinavian countries, which are
the origin of the PSDs. However, limited studies have been carried out in ASEAN
countries. In addition, most of the research was conducted for urban green areas.
Nevertheless, workplace green areas have also been tested by previous researchers.
Moreover, as for the purpose of the studies that are related with the PSDs, it is
common to study the effect or relationship of a green environment on/with humans.
However, the differences are at the target respondents or the area of green. As an
example, some of the studies focused the stress or mental restorative effect. Other
than focusing on mental health, some researchers examined the green effect with
activities at the green environment. The details of the place tested and purpose have
been shown in Table 17.4.
Most of the research works used questionnaires, and some of them added photos
to get the feedback. Interviews and expert assessments have been used to get the
feedback. Generally, it depends on the purpose of the study to suit the data collection
process. Table 17.5 shows the instrument and respondent for each of the previous
research works.
The result shows that the preferences of the elements are different based on several
factors. As an example, in normal human situations, the social element might have a
higher preference. However, it may differ if the respondent is in a stressed condition.
Moreover, other psychological effects, such as creativity, also have relationships with
green environments as proved by the previous research. Table 17.6 shows the detailed
results for the 15 previous research works.
17.3.4 Benefits
The recreational experience of the green space is perceived as a very important

contribution to people’s well-being. Therefore, the results can be applied in urban
green space planning and management in a diversified way to enhance people’s
well-being and can also help decision-makers to formulate relevant strategies in tune
with public needs and expectations. For instance, the recreational quality could be
enriched by changing the design and management of urban green spaces based on
the eight sensory dimensions.
Table 17.4 Place tested and purpose

Author Place Purpose
1 Urban green space in Helsingborg, Urban green spaces experienced by lay
Southern Sweden people and their relationships with green
space attributes
2 Hefei, China Examined the representations of the
eight sensory dimensions as perceived by
Chinese people in different types of
green spaces, and to identify the
relationship between the eight sensory
dimensions and preference
3 Golestan, Iran To identify the environmental
characteristics of restorative natural
environments by determining the PSDs
with restorative potential in order to
provide evidence-based design
recommendations for care settings
4 92 urban green spaces (UGS) of the To prove statistically how the parks are
Estonian city Tartu influenced by landscape elements
5 9 (nine) small public urban green spaces To see whether park characteristics are
(SPUGS) in the dense city of associated with the perceived restorative
Copenhagen, Denmark effects
6 Companies in Denmark Effect of physical activity and reduced
stress levels at outdoor environment
workplace
7 Denmark Relation to nature as well as their
experiences of nature’s ability to
stimulate their creativity
8 Suburban and rural Scania, Sweden Associated with three self-reported
indicators of well-being: neighbourhood
satisfaction, physical activity and general
health
9 United Kingdom To increase the levels of physical activity
of individuals living in areas with more
green space
10 Students from Universiti Putra Malaysia To examine the role of the visual
characteristics of urban natural
landscapes in increasing the restorative
potential of urban environments that led
to reducing mental fatigue and moving
towards public health
11 Swedish cities (representative) The research indicated that there was a
relationship between the sensory
perception of natural environments and
human health
(continued)

Author Place Purpose
12 University students Denmark To identify which qualities and perceived
sensory dimensions (PSDs) of a forest
environment are psychologically
restorative
13 Sweden Outdoor activities in urban green spaces
might be a promising means to lower
levels of stress
14 Sweden The aim of this study was to identify
specific locations (compatible supportive
environments) and their qualities, which
clients undergoing nature-based
rehabilitation experienced as support for
their rehabilitation process
15 Sweden The aim of this study was to investigate
whether access to a green outdoor
environment at work is related to
employees’ perceived levels of stress and
attitudes towards the workplace
Table 17.5 Research process

Author Instrument Respondent
1 Questionnaire Green space visitors
2 Questionnaire Users
3 Questionnaire visual assessment Students of Golestan university in
(photo-questionnaire) Gorgan, Iran
4 Expert group
5 On-site questionnaire survey Users of small public urban green spaces
(SPUGS)
6 Web-based questionnaire Companies
7 Semi-structured interviews with images Companies
8 Questionnaire was mailed Randomly selected from the population
registry
9 Survey of interviews English population
10 Image 120 undergraduate students (43 males, 77
females) from University Putra Malaysia
11 Postal questionnaire with pre-coded Nine Swedish cities (representative of
questions the Swedish population) answered
12 Interviewed about their experiences 48 female university students in Denmark
(continued)

Author Instrument Respondent
13 Postal questionnaire Randomly selected informants,
representative of the Swedish population
14 Interviews and location mapping All being treated for stress-related
mental illnesses
15 Questionnaire Randomly selected individuals in
Sweden
Table 17.6 Research results

Author Results
1 (1) prospect, then serene and space were the most common, and culture and social the
least; (2) the experience of the sensory dimensions varied across the six study sites
and was related to their diversity of biotopes and overall size; (3) respondents’
experiences of the sensory dimensions were consistent across gender, age, frequency
and type of recreational use
2 Social was common, whilst culture and rich in species were the least common
3 Serene, nature and refuge were identified as the three most important PSDs resulting
in stress reduction, with a negative impact of rich in species and social on restoration.
Therefore, the combination of serene, nature and refuge together with the absence of
rich in species and social create an environment offering stress reduction. Result
found that there is a positive and strong relationship between PSDs and restoration
4 Tartu is a healing city based on greeneries
5 ‘Social’ and ‘serene’ were significantly associated with the average users’ perceived
‘Restorativeness nature’ becomes important for the most stressed individuals
6 Significant relationships between the outdoor activities and perceived sensory
dimensions (PSDs) of the outdoor environment were found, indicating that the
presence of the dimension ‘serene’ increased the odds for respondents going outdoors
and that five of the eight activities would be performed
7 ‘Nature’, ‘Space’ and ‘Serene’ seemed to be of particular importance for the creative
professionals
8 More satisfied, more involved in physical activity and more good impacts on health
9 Positive association was found between green space and physical activity levels. No
association was found between green space and types of physical activity normally
associated with a green space. An association was found with other types of physical
activities (gardening and do-it-yourself, and occupational physical activity)
10 The result of this study showed the role of predictors of visual preference as
characteristic of urban natural landscapes in increasing the PRP of urban
environments
(continued)

Author Results
11 People, in general, prefer the dimension of serene, followed by space, nature, rich in
species, refuge, culture, prospect and social. The dimensions of refuge and nature are
most strongly correlated with stress, indicating a need to find the most restorative
environments. A combination of refuge, nature rich in species and a low or no
presence of social could be interpreted as the most restorative environment for
stressed individuals
12 Serene, rich in species, refuge and nature were the dominant factors rated the highest
with regard to restoration
13 The most preferred activity type amongst the most stressed informants was ‘rest
activities’ followed by ‘animal activities’ and ‘walking activities’. For activity
sensory, ‘rich in species’, ‘animal activities’ in the PSD ‘refuge’ and ‘rest activities’
in the PSD ‘nature’
14 Garden
15 Significant relationships were found between physical and visual access to workplace
greenery, a positive workplace attitude and decreased level of stress for male
respondents. For female respondents, a significant relationship was found between the
physical and visual aspects
17.4 Conclusion
Extensive research has been carried out in Western countries of which the green
environment might be similar to that of the origin country of the PSDs. Therefore,
the results might also be consistent when compared to each other. Geographical
factors such as weather may contribute to the landscape of green and the effect of
the perception of nature to the humans. Hence, research could be conducted with
different environmental contexts and with different green space users (Qiu 2015)
to be recognised widely as a tool to measure green effects. The result from this
measurement can be a piece of strong evidence, and a valid recommendation can be
given to policy-makers concerning the application of the eight sensory dimensions
in urban green space planning, design and management.
Moreover, currently, many buildings have been incorporating green areas or gar-
dens at the organisation’s building, especially to obtain the Green Building Index cer-
tification. However, in the assessment are not included the occupants’ needs for green;
it is more focused on energy efficiency. As supported by a recent review of studies,
it shows that the environment has an influence on the health, including the mental
and physical aspects. However, sometimes these two elements have been looked
at individually, such as under the term of ‘Environment and Health’ and ‘Energy
in Building’. Moreover, controlling the energy consumption will contribute to the
occupants’ comfort and healthy environment which may positively affect health. As
reinforced by Ortiz et al., the lack of interaction between the environmental aspects
in a building could have a strong impact on health.
In the near future, researchers will use the PSDs to measure the green effect in
Malaysia which is under the Southeast Asian countries category, to see the result.
Furthermore, it will be related with the green environment and mental health in
buildings that have incorporated green areas in their building design. The result would
contribute to the improvement of health and well-being, and also to the sustainability
effect.
References
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urban green space assessment and planning in China. Urban For Urban Greening. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ufug.2018.10.001
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suburban and rural Scania, southern Sweden. Health & Place 18:1374–1380. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.healthplace.2012.07.001
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green space and stress restoration. Landscape Urban Plann 94:264–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.landurbplan.2009.10.012
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.11.012
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characteristics of the outdoor environment at workplaces. Urban For Urban Greening 11(2):159–
168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2011.12.006
Lottrup L, Grahn P, Stigsdotter UK (2013) Workplace greenery and perceived level of stress: benefits
of access to a green outdoor environment at the workplace. Landscape Urban Plann 110:5–11.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.09.002
Maikov K (2013) Landscape characteristics in Tartu city parks: user influences through design.
WIT Trans Ecol Environ 179:353–364. https://doi.org/10.2495/SC130301
Memari S, Pazhouhanfar M, Nourtaghani A (2017) Relationship between perceived sensory dimen-
sions and stress restoration in care settings. Urban For Urban Greening https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ufug.2017.06.003
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1016/j.healthplace.2012.06.003
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in increasing perceived restorative potential of urban environments. Sci Res Essays 8(21):885–
889. https://doi.org/10.5897/SRE11.1866
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doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.12.013
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among Danish creative professionals. Urban For Urban Greening 14(2):255–263. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ufug.2015.02.006
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van der Wulp 2003)
Chapter 18
Students’ Perceptions of Education
for Sustainable Development (ESD)
to Achieve SDG 4 in Indonesia: A Case
Study of Universitas Islam Riau
Prima Wahyu Titisari, Elfis, Irina Safitri Zen, Yani Hendrayani,

Indry Chahyana, Khairani, Nadiatul Janna, Nunut Suharni
and Tika Permata Sari
Abstract Sustainable development at higher education level plays an important role

in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Higher education holds a
great responsibility to increase the awareness and knowledge of students who will
manage and develop resources. For the purpose of the sustainability of resources,
awareness and knowledge of sustainable development are needed. This knowledge
can be conveyed through Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) to achieve
high education quality and equal access to education for women and men. Perception
P. W. Titisari (B) · Elfis · I. Chahyana · Khairani · N. Janna · N. Suharni · T. P. Sari

Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia
e-mail: pw.titisari@edu.uir.ac.id
Elfis
e-mail: email.elfis@gmail.com
I. Chahyana
e-mail: indrycahyana@gmail.com
Khairani
e-mail: khairani0498@gmail.com
N. Janna
e-mail: nadiatuljanna@gmail.com
N. Suharni
e-mail: nunutsuhari@gmail.com
T. P. Sari
e-mail: tikapermatasari1998@gmail.com
I. S. Zen
International Islamic University Malaysia, Gombak, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: irinazen@iium.edu.my
Y. Hendrayani
Universitas Pembangunan Nasional Veteran Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
e-mail: yanihendrayani@upnvj.ac.id

192 P. W. Titisari et al.
of ESD must be studied to gather information about the facts, problems and challenges
faced by Universitas Islam Riau (UIR) to achieve SDGs, especially SDG 4 (Quality
Education). This study aims to identify the perception students of both genders at
Universitas Islam Riau (UIR) hold about Education for Sustainable Development
(ESD). This research is a descriptive survey research conducted using a quantitative
approach. There were 99 respondents in this study, consisting of 43 men and 56
women. Data was collected by distributing questionnaires containing 70 statements,
while processing of questionnaire data was done through the frequency analysis
formula. Generally, the results of social, environmental and economic aspects in the
‘Good’ category are between 71.08 and 78.75%. Based on gender, both female and
male students scored a higher percentage in economic aspect than other aspects,
whereby female students scored 77.76%, whereas it was 76.50% for male students.
Based on this study, it can be concluded that the students of Universitas Islam Riau
have a good perception of Education for Sustainable Development. Therefore, the
University must begin to apply the concept of sustainable development in every
aspect in order to contribute to achieving SDG 4.
Keywords Education for sustainable development · Students’ perception ·

Sustainable development goals · Quality education
18.1 Introduction
To ensure planet sustainability, in September 2015, UN member states agreed to

establish 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which include social, envi-
ronmental and economic dimensions (Sustainable Development Solutions Network
(SDSN) 2015). To achieve these goals, ESD is expected to empower all levels of
society to be able to plan, overcome and find solutions to problems that threaten
the sustainability of our planet (UNESCO 2005, 2015). Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD) is the main media for achieving sustainable development goals,
especially SDG 4 (Quality Education); point 4.7 strives to ensure that all learn-
ers obtain the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development
through education for sustainable development and practicing a sustainable lifestyle
(UNESCO 2017, 2018a).
SDG 4 proposes equal and inclusive education related to the implementation of
the other 16 SDGs, which focus on promoting peaceful and inclusive communities,
to build effective and responsible institutions at all levels. SDG 4 advocates to ensure
education that is inclusive, is equitable and promotes lifelong learning opportunities
for all. It is targeted that by 2030, all boys and girls will have access to free, fair
and quality primary and secondary education, thus leading to relevant and effective
learning outcomes. This is also to ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge
and skills needed to promote sustainable development through sustainable lifestyles,
human rights, gender equality and global citizenship, promoting a culture of peace
and brotherhood (Nazar et al. 2018; UNESCO 2018b; Webb et al. 2017).
18 Students’ Perception of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) … 193
According to Kanyimba et al. (2014), the goal of ESD is to transform environ-

mental, social and economic aspects of society to sustainable levels. Mogren et al.
(2019) stated a specific goal of ESD is to improve learning that helps students to
become responsible individuals, thereby fostering sustainability in hopes of main-
taining world equity and conservation of natural resources at local and global levels.
Quality education in the area of SDGs increases the ability of students to overcome
various global sustainability crises. Specifically, there are two pedagogical inter-
pretations in ESD. The first is ESD as a means to transfer concepts of knowledge,
attitudes and values that are appropriate to students. The second develops people
who have pro-sustainability thinking so that they can apply that mindset in everyday
life (UNESCO 2009). Therefore, quality education that integrates ESD perspec-
tives includes measurable learning targets of the Global Action Program on ESD
and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 as a pathway for reform and
improvement of global education (Ofei-Manu and Didham 2014).
A university campus is defined as an institutional space designed to be used
for education (Matloob 2018). It is an area that has unique features that enable it
to assist a country in solving many challenges within the context of sustainable
development implementation. A university, either directly or indirectly, performs
various operations and activities that have the potential to impact the environment
either positively or negatively. ESD has been widely implemented at university level
in countries such as Japan, South Korea, China, Australia, Sweden, Ireland, South
America, Namibia, Philippines and Malaysia (Abas et al. 2018; Anyolo 2015; Choi
et al. 2008; Hassan 2017; Isa 2016; Kanyimba et al. 2014; Komatsu and Rappleye
2018; Laurie et al. 2016; Mogren et al. 2019; Mohanty and Dash 2018; Parello-marin
et al. 2018; Pauw et al. 2015; Razak et al. 2011; Valencia 2018). In continuing to
focus on developing countries, SDGs maintain the emphasis set by the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), and consequently they are as likely to have the same
partial success as MDGs (Pogge and Sengupta 2015; Webb et al. 2017), whereas
in Indonesia, the development of ESD is carried out by each policyholder based
on the interpretation of the concepts and directions outlined by UNESCO. Up to
now, there has been no specific concept developed by various policyholders related
to ESD development in Indonesia. Center for Education and Culture Policy and
Innovation Research Center Ministry of Education and Culture in 2009 produced
an ESD guide to education in Indonesia. Even so, based on the experience of many
non-governmental organisations that assist a number of schools in various regions
in Indonesia, socialisation from the authorities is still very minimal. Even in some
regions a number of related officials still appear to have not mastered the concept of
sustainable development and ESD.
The successful delivery of a higher education ESD strategy depends on the univer-
sities’ understanding of sustainable development. The concepts of SD should be inte-
grated into the policies, approaches and learning of all members of university stake-
holders (administrators, faculty and students) (Filho et al. 2017). However, at the level
of higher education in Indonesia, ESD is implemented through a sustainable campus
or green campus programme. In the Voluntary National Reviews ((VNR) 2019), there
are several universities that are incorporated into the centre for implementing SDGs
in Indonesia, such as Universitas Indonesia, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Universitas

Padjajaran, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Universitas Hassanuddin, Universitas Jember,
Universitas Mataram and Universitas Bengkulu. Meanwhile, based on the Interna-
tional NGO Forum on Indonesia Development ((INFID) 2016), Universitas Islam
Negeri Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Universitas Katolik
Soegija Pranata, Universitas Hassanudin, Universitas Negeri Sebelas Maret and Uni-
versitas Katolik Widya Mandira explained the roles they played in achieving SDGs,
starting from village community service programmes to conducting research on the
development of development models for a sustainable city.
However, Universitas Islam Riau (UIR) as one of the universities located in Riau
has not taken up the role to meet SDGs explicitly. Factors like lack of commitment of
university management towards sustainable campus and the lack of awareness about
ESD are considered to affect the mindset and attitude of UIR students in leading
a sustainable lifestyle. To achieve the goal of a sustainable campus, it is neces-
sary to conduct research related to student perceptions of Education for Sustainable
Development, which will be the first step to establish the starting point of the ESD
integration journey at this university.
18.2 Method
This study uses a quantitative descriptive survey approach. The survey was con-
ducted by distributing questionnaires to respondents. Determination of the number
of samples was done using the Slovin formula, resulting in 99 students from 10
different faculties selected as respondents. Because this study also investigates per-
ceptions of ESD by gender, the respondent pool consisted of 43 male students and
56 female students. Data was obtained by distributing questionnaires containing 70
statements to students directly by visiting each faculty in the UIR. The questionnaire
was developed from three aspects of sustainable development, namely social, envi-
ronmental and economic. Processing of data was done using a frequency analysis
formula (Sudijono 2011) as shown below:
F
P% = × 100 (18.1)
N
Explanation:
P Percentage,
F Frequency,
N Number of respondents.
To determine the extent of students’ perceptions of the ESD concept, the percent-
age figure obtained was adjusted to the set criteria (Riduwan 2016), presented in
Table 18.1.
Table 18.1 Score

Number (%) Category
interpretation criteria
0–20 Not good
21–40 Less good
41–60 Enough good
61–80 Good
81–100 Very good
Based on the results of the survey conducted, the perceptions of Universitas Islam
Riau students about Education for Sustainable Development fit in the ‘Very good’
category with an average percentage of 83.13%. The results of the study focused
on aspects of sustainable development (sociocultural, environmental and economic
aspects). The results obtained from each aspect of sustainable development are
presented in Table 18.2 and Fig. 18.1.
Table 18.1 shows that the results of frequency analysis obtained an average per-
centage of 74.71%, meaning that students already have a good understanding of the
concept of ESD based on sustainability aspects. Previous studies show that student
Table 18.2 The results of the

No. Indicator Percentage (%) Category
analysis of each indicator
1 Social 74.3 Good
2 Environmental 71.08 Good
3 Economic 78.75 Good
Total 224.13
Average (%) 74.71
Category Good
78.75
74.3 71.08
80
70
60
Percentage (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
Social Environmental Economic
Fig. 18.1 Percentage results from each indicator

perceptions of sustainable development are also positive (Kagawa 2007; Sharma

and Kelly 2014; Zeegers and Clark 2014). For example, Zeegers and Clark (2014)
through the analysis of students’ views on environmental aspects showed that stu-
dents can develop more balanced perspectives of sustainability, highlighting their
existing good understanding of the subject matter. Furthermore, Kagawa’s (2007)
study of students’ understanding and perceptions of sustainable development at the
University of Plymouth found that the majority of respondents thought sustainability
was ‘a good thing’. Similarly, Sharma and Kelly (2014) explored the perspectives and
students’ understanding of ESD at Delta Business School (DBS) in New Zealand,
whereby it found that most students considered ESD to be ‘a good thing’. Students
support the sustainable business learning experience offered at DBS.
Figure 18.1 depicts that economic aspect scored the highest percentage at 78.75%.
Based on the responses to the questionnaire items relating to economic aspects, it
shows that students have a good perception of the concept of ESD. Economic aspects
are considered important by students to be applied in learning to achieve a sustainable
life. Analysis of economic processes in various countries shows that rapid economic
growth has caused serious problems from the point of view of sustainable develop-
ment, such as social and regional inequality, the dramatic loss of rural infrastruc-
ture and environment (Kruja 2013) depletion of natural resources and deteriorating
environmental services (Kurniawan and Managi 2018). Indirectly, current economic
growth will hinder the achievement of SDGs. According to UNESCO (2017), special
learning objectives (ESD) must be seen in tandem with cross-sectoral sustainability
competencies. For example, one specific learning goal for SDG 1 (No Poverty) can
be defined as students knowing about the causes and effects of poverty. This knowl-
edge can be obtained by conducting case studies of poverty in certain countries. At
the same time, this learning activity will affect one’s thoughts or perceptions that
many factors influence poverty, so students are expected to be able to understand the
complex interrelationships with other SDGs.
The environmental aspect scored the lowest percentage at 71.08%, but still placed
within the ‘Good’ category. Based on the response to the questionnaire items relating
to environmental aspects, it portrays the perspective held by students of the current
state of the environment which is threatened by sustainability. Diminishing natu-
ral resources are influenced by human attitudes and behaviour in managing them.
The Convention on Biological Diversity ((CBD) 2006) states that understanding the
impact of biodiversity on human welfare needs to be included in basic education pro-
grammes and promoted through mainstream media. This is important to develop the
potential of students so that they can face global challenges in environmental sustain-
ability (UNESCO 2013). For this purpose, natural systems including environmental
issues relating to water, energy, waste, transport, climate change and biodiversity need
to be integrated into subjects of higher education, teaching resources, knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values of lecturers in universities (Kanyimba et al. 2014).
Based on gender, the results found that the economic aspect scored a higher
percentage than other aspects. Female students have a higher perception than male
students in economic aspects. While the average percentage of all indicators is based
on gender, male students (74.84%) obtained a higher percentage than female students
Table 18.3 The results of the

Indicator Male (%) Female (%) Category
percentage analysis of each
indicator based on gender Social 74.79 74.57 Good
Environmental 73.24 71.31 Good
Economic 76.50 77.76 Good
Average 74.84 73.21 Good
100
90
74.79 74.57 76.50 77.76 74.84 73.21
80 73.24 71.31
70 Male
Percentage (%)
60
50 Female
40
30
20
10
0
Social Environmental Economic Average
Fig. 18.2 The results of the percentage analysis of each indicator based on gender
(73.21%), but both groups sill fall within the ‘Good’ category. The results obtained
from each aspect of sustainable development based on gender are presented in Table
18.3 and Fig. 18.2.
Table 18.3 and Fig. 18.2 show that the average percentage of male students is
higher than female students. The results of the frequency analysis of male students
obtained an average percentage of 74.84%, while for the female students, it was
73.21%. This is because men better understand the concept of sustainable develop-
ment based on the reasons given compared to women. However, this is in contrast
with the results of research conducted by Tuncer (2008) on the perception of Middle
East Technical University students (METU) towards sustainable development, which
found that male and female students have perceptions at the same percentage. Like-
wise, research conducted by Al-naqbi and Alshanag (2017) showed that the attitudes
of female students towards SD/ESD were similar to those of male students.
This particular research is crucial to help reflect the extent of ESD integration
currently at Universitas Islam Riau. Student perceptions are considered important to
identify and design the most appropriate strategies for ESD integration at the higher
education level because implementation of ESD requires contributions by students.
Figure 18.3 is ESD integration framework, based on ESD indicators (UNESCO
2018c). ESD integration is determined based on relevant content and the use of meth-
ods, which are determined through the curriculum. For successful ESD integration,
Fig. 18.3 ESD integration framework
institutions and policies that are relevant to the concept of sustainable development
and society are required. In higher education institutions, factors of leadership, teach-
ing staff and students are crucial in applying the concept of sustainable development
through sustainable campuses. Students are future decision-makers and act as agents
of change. They must develop a thinking and acting pattern in accordance with
the concept of sustainable development, which will encourage them to contribute,
support and manage a successful campus and even create a more sustainable city
(Abubakar et al. 2016; Mcmillin and Dyball 2009). Efforts can be made by provid-
ing complete access to education to male and female students for them to develop
their potential in various fields of knowledge. Knowledge of sustainability is needed
to treat sustainability as an environmental problem related to ecosystems or natu-
ral resources. Knowledge of cognitive elements related to mental actions such as
perception, memory, learning and prediction of information will influence student
behaviour to contribute to the achievement of SDGs (Salas-Zapata et al. 2018).
Challenges for universities in realising SDGs include devising action plans to deal
with climate change, improve health and well-being, provide equal education for all
and other global problems that require student involvement (Chelliah et al. 2017;
Shahrullah et al. 2014). On the other hand, universities should not solely assume
responsibility to promote economic, environmental and sociocultural growth for the
community.
There are several criteria representing education in sustainability. Husaini and
Jusoh (2017) highlighted five educational indicators for sustainable university rank-
ing table which are the ratio of student to staff, percentage of graduated students,
number of international students, online presence and the percentage of graduate

employment. Apart from that, curriculum is one of the important elements in edu-
cation sustainability. Qian and Yang (2018) stated three basic principles of a green
campus design, whereby it should be constructed to reduce environmental load in
terms of facilities, operation process and prioritise environmental education. Krizek
et al. (2011) stated that there are four phases in the effort to adopt sustainability mea-
sures, namely grassroots, executive acceptance case for sustainability, the visionary
campus leader and fully self-actualised and integrated campus community. In the
grassroots phase, efforts are made to advocate for various services and policies related
to campus sustainability such as recycling, introducing environment-themed courses,
improving pesticide applications, and boycotting sales of plastic bottled water. If it
fails to advocate for programmes in this phase, it will be difficult to implement and
coordinate other programmes for further progress. At the second stage, the leader-
ship begins to assess the effectiveness of sustainability programmes by considering
efficiency that reduces costs and enhances the reputation of the campus, for example,
energy efficiency, water conservation and green branding/public relation events. The
third phase sees the campus leadership openly promoting sustainability by including
it in the university’s vision and strategic plan. The fourth phase includes efforts by
the university to encourage others to include sustainability in all areas of life on
campus. This phase begins to apply and integrate the concept of sustainability in all
components of the university, for example, in campus management, student life, staff
and activities involving the community. According to Too and Bajracharya (2015),
framework for community engagement includes factors such as psychological needs,
physical facilities, personal motivations, public perception, price mechanisms and
policies which are needed to mobilise and motivate community members to take
practical steps towards building a sustainable campus. An observation by Husaini
and Jusoh (2017) found that community participation in sustainability programmes
is dynamic and intergenerational. The study suggested that it would require multi-
ple components such as education, action, trust, inclusion and strong governance to
develop effective community engagement.
Therefore, researchers consider several effective strategies for implementing ESD
at the university level. First, a university directs the researchers or lecturers and stu-
dents towards the global issue of development to support ideas and perspectives for
achieving the SDGs. Secondly, policies are made to lead students, lecturers and staff
to adopt an eco-lifestyle. Thirdly, efforts are made to create a green campus envi-
ronment that can be adopted from an existing green campus or sustainable campus
model.
18.4 Conclusion
The conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that students of Universitas
Islam Riau have a good perception of Education for Sustainable Development. In
order to achieve the goal of a sustainable campus, there needs to be a team effort
from both students and the university, whereby the actions and voices of students
need to be accounted for. However, the implementation of sustainable development

must begin with an awareness of the need to implement sustainability principles and
practices, particularly among the stakeholders. Universities play a role in sustainable
development through the processes of management, planning, development, educa-
tion, research, operations, community service, purchases, transportation, design and
construction of new buildings, renovations as well as retrofits. These are aspects that
require support from the campus community to ensure effective implementation of
a sustainable campus.
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Chapter 19
The Impact of Nearpod Interactive
Learning Platform in Quality Accounting
Education for Sustainable Development
Azrul Abdullah, Mohamad Fadhili Yahaya, and Norshamshina Mat Isa
Abstract This study believes that teaching an accounting course at a university level
requires alternative as well as innovative methodologies to allow greater dynamic in
the learning processes and to foster a better understanding of the accounting topics.
In this sense, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of online teaching tool
as one of the platforms to enhance the learning process in accounting education.
This study was conducted on the students of the Faculty of Accountancy, Univer-
siti Teknologi MARA, Perlis Branch (UiTM Perlis). One hundred and two (102)
accounting students participated in this study and answered the questionnaires at the
end of the course. The analysis showed that online teaching tools (i.e., Nearpod) used
in teaching accounting subjects have some influence on the attitudes and academic
performance of the students. This study perceives that embracing technology as one
of the teaching methods through a virtual mediator like Nearpod can equip students
with more practical processes of learning and discerning of the subject matter.
Keywords Interactive classroom · Accounting education · Nearpod
19.1 Introduction
The twenty-first-century education has transformed the dimension of teaching

approaches and practices to a new paradigm where the traditional approach of “chalk
and talk” has been viewed not only as outdated but also somewhat irrelevant. This
has led to the use of a more contemporary approach in line with the advent of infor-
mation technology. Consequently, the process of teaching and learning has also been
significantly affected. The teaching and learning of subject matters have also gone
A. Abdullah · M. F. Yahaya (B) · N. Mat Isa

e-mail: mohdfadhili@uitm.edu.my
A. Abdullah
e-mail: azrul229@uitm.edu.my
N. Mat Isa
e-mail: norshamshina@uitm.edu.my

204 A. Abdullah et al.
through a number of transformations. Similarly, the teaching of the subject matter

like accountancy has not been left unturned. The use of information technology in
teaching has been a blessing to many educators who keep abreast with the change.
However, it can be observed that there are still some who remain ignorant about the
use of information technology in the teaching and learning processes (see Mahoney
and Welch 2002; Selwyn 2007).
With the Revolution of Industry 4.0 (IR 4.0), previous studies (e.g., see Edmunds
et al. 2012; Gaviria et al. 2015) have highlighted subject matters like accounting
should be taught using the best available tools to bring out the best outcomes regard-
less of the educational contexts. According to Gaviria et al. (2015), the use of other
non-traditional forms of education can create better teachers and make significant
impacts on teaching. She claimed that teaching accounting should use different per-
spectives and methodological approaches such as the social and educational con-
structivism, and philosophical and epistemological pragmatism in accounting. This
is because the new generation of Internet savvy students (i.e., Gen Z) students often
find traditional methods, of course, delivery through lectures and heavy assignment
load which is difficult to be adjusted can result in poor educational outcomes and high
attrition rates. This notion is supported by many publications which deal with prob-
lems related to the quality of the educational process and new approaches that aim to
improve the effectiveness of accounting education (see Baepler et al. 2014; Beránek
et al. 2016a, b; Jonsdottir and Stefansson 2014; Maqableh et al. 2015; Rotellar and
Cain 2016; Zainuddin and Halili 2016). With the emergence of mobile devices and
software applications, this study perceives that accounting education and its teaching
processes can be enhanced using various educational technology tools in delivering
information. It is also believed that interactively rich multimedia course contents that
include audio, animation, web page, 3D, video, and assessment through e-learning
platforms can make learning accounting topics more practical compared to the tradi-
tional lecture/discussion and assignments. Indeed, this approach can expose students
to contemporary knowledge and pragmatic accounting.
Generally, accounting students of Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Perlis
Branch, Arau Campus have been learning accounting conservatively. Lecturing and
teaching using PowerPoint application, whiteboards, and textbooks have been the
normal practice in a classroom despite being given the rights to choose materials
for the class. With the availability of technology, this study urged that teaching
accounting lessons should consist and allow more options for lecturers in present-
ing their course content. This can lead students to greater understanding as well
as the applicability of the accounting discipline. In this regard, this study focuses
on whether teaching accounting through technological resources (i.e., interactive
classroom using Nearpod) can enhance UiTM Perlis Branch accounting students’
performance. Therefore, this study examines the impact of implementing interac-
tive learning on students’ learning outcomes. Besides, this study also evaluates the
effectiveness of interactive learning using Nearpod as perceived by the students of
UiTM Perlis Branch, Arau Campus. In the following section (i.e., Sect. 19.2), related
literature is reviewed. In Sect. 19.3, the implementation of an interactive classroom
19 The Impact of Nearpod Interactive Learning Platform … 205
application in UiTM Perlis Branch is discussed, while in Sect. 19.4, the results of
the student survey are unveiled. Finally, in Sect. 19.5, the conclusions are presented.
Information and communication technology (ICT) can be defined as a set of infor-

mation, electronics, and telematics technologies, using modern microelectronics,
telecommunications, and computing to develop all kinds of devices, techniques, and
processes that impact different areas of human life. In this regard, several previous
studies, especially in the United States of America (U.S.), have shown that ICTs
can improve learning by providing instant feedback and creating a more interac-
tive classroom environment. It was found that an early study by Anderson et al.
(2005) using a PC-based tablet system in learning environment showed that students
were very active and collaborative to the system. There was also an increasing rate of
engagement in the classroom. Consistent with Anderson et al.’s (2005) study, a study
by Beuckman et al. (2007) also verified that an interactive system using web-based
classroom can increase the learning outcomes of the introductory physical classroom.
The study also claimed that web-based classroom can facilitate real-time two-way
interactions between students and the instructors using personal digital assistants
(PDAs). In another study, Jonsdottir and Stefansson (2014) have discovered a sys-
tem for network-assisted education that can improve students’ knowledge while
practising the system. Using online drilled questions, this system allows students to
continue requesting the questions and learn continuously until they understand the
topic.
A study by Jamwal in 2012 also reported using interactive learning modules
in classroom lectures was found to be more preferred. Online quiz activities were
found to be helpful in improving and correcting student’s faults. This finding was
also supported in Baepler et al.’s (2014) study, whereby the authors revealed that
learners’ outcomes in active learning classroom have improved students understand-
ing as compared to the traditional classroom approach. They reported the effects
of “seat time” in a large chemistry lecture class were significantly reduced by two-
thirds during an active learning classroom. Moreover, it was also found that several
fields have also highlighted other useful approaches being utilized during the inter-
active classroom. A recent study by Beránek et al. (2016a, b) exhibited several new
effective techniques that can be used to load and improve learning environments in
university education. The study claimed the learning techniques that include Inter-
active Textbooks, Podcasts, Nearpod software applications, and the use of Ozobot in
programming classes can make the learning experience more rewarding to both the
students and the teachers. Several studies such as those of Swamidurai and Umphress
(2016), Tucker (2012), and Shankaranarayanan and Amaldas (2016) also supported
these suggestions and claim that those learning techniques can lead to better scores as
well as develop cognitive capabilities and practical skills. In another study, Beránek
et al. (2016a, b) in their study on the effects of interactive classroom applications
on student learning outcomes also supported the notions. They found that the use
of Nearpod platform has significantly improved learning outcomes in the Program-
ming course (Programming 1) and in the Introduction to Accounting course, but only
minor improvements in the Business Economics course.
Consequently, as this study perceived that an ICT support approach can boost the
students’ development, it is necessary to employ new teaching tools that teachers and
students can stimulate the processes of learning accounting. Nevertheless, this study
realized the dynamic limitations of accounting education which include the lack of
expertise, inadequate training, unwarranted roles of the lecturers, and unsupportive
facilities. This means that ICT, in accounting education in higher institutions like
UiTM Perlis, should be part of pedagogical and didactic scenarios where teachers
function as facilitators. This shows the needs to combine different tools, materi-
als, and elements along with new educational policies that encourage ICT-powered
interactive accounting education. In this respect, engaging students in the learning
process, particularly in Accounting, is a current topic of interest. Our main motivation
for the implementation of the advanced interactive learning methods was triggered
by the fluctuating attitudes on traditional learning methods and techniques among
students. The change is the result of extensive exposure to various types of appli-
cations, services, and new technologies. The use of advanced learning techniques
such as Nearpod application is believed to be able to develop students’ interest in
the taught subjects as well as improve their engagement in the learning process and
ultimately lead to significant improvements in their academic performance.
19.2.1 Nearpod Software Application
Nearpod1 (please go to www.nearpod.com) is an application accessible via Internet

which can improve students’ engagement during lectures and allow lecturers to have
continuous and instant insights into the students’ learning progress through formative
assessments. Nearpod offers several online instruction tools that have an interactive
and intuitive user interface, formative assessment platform in the form of quizzes
and assignments as well as reference materials in the forms of study notes, video,
audio, etc. The instructor can run Nearpod application with prepared quizzes and
assignments during the session and administer exercises on specific topics. Nearpod
generates a unique identifier for the session that enables students to be connected
to a Nearpod session via a browser using various devices, e.g., tablets and laptops.
On this basis, Nearpod is deemed to be a more favorable test platform over a tradi-
tional written test. Using Nearpod, lecturers can administer instant quizzes during
lectures and save students’ immediate responses for remedial purposes. Since the lec-
turer receives the responses instantly, immediate feedback can be provided to clarify
1 Nearpod is a software tool which enhances student engagement with interactive content, enables
the collection and sharing of student responses, and tracks student understanding of the material in
real time (www.nearpod.com).
some misunderstanding on the topics discussed during the session. Nevertheless, the
development of revision questions, material, or assignments using Nearpod before
the seminar or lecture class is required.
19.3 Methodology
In order to meet the objectives of this study, an online interactive classroom project
was designed using Nearpod for students of two different accounting courses, par-
ticularly in the subject of Introduction to Accounting (ACC106) and Accounting
information system (AIS235) in semester September 2018–January 2019. The rea-
son for the selection of these two courses is to reflect the impact and usefulness of
Nearpod technology on pure accounting subjects (i.e., ACC106) and computer-based
accounting subject (AIS235). This study selected Nearpod as a proxy to engage and
design interactive classroom because of its ability to support interactive sharing of
contents as well as effective control of the online learning process. Besides, it also
includes continuous feedback to students on their level of knowledge of the subject
matter compared to other learning management system (I-Learn V3) currently pre-
scribed by UiTM Perlis. During the session, students can interact with lecturers and
submit responses through a range of mobile devices (e.g., iPads, iPhones, etc.) or
using their own computer. Moreover, during the session, interactive learning in the
form of overhead slides, audio, 3D visual, video, and live Twitter streams including
assessment such as open-ended questions, polls, and quizzes can be used. Lectur-
ers can also monitor and measure students’ responses in an individual or collective
form. More importantly, Nearpod allows the import of teaching materials from exist-
ing PDF and PowerPoint slides, thus minimizing the needs to redevelop new teaching
materials.
This study used students’ entrance and exit survey response from 102 students
and the distribution of the final grades attained by the students at the end of the
semester in order to examine the impact of implementing interactive classroom on
learning outcomes in UiTM Perlis Branch, Arau Campus. Furthermore, this study
also highlighted the impact of interactive classroom by comparing the entrance and
exit survey data from other lecturers who taught the same course but did not use
Nearpod technology in their class. In measuring the effectiveness of an interactive
classroom using Nearpod among students in the courses, this study employed an
online survey using Google Forms platform (apps.google.com). The survey form was
divided into two parts. The first part included questions on the students’ demographic
(i.e., gender, age, and level of technology savvy) and the devices that the students used
to access the Internet (i.e., desktop computers, laptops, tablets, and smartphones), and
the second part consisted of a set of 13 questions on their assessment of the Nearpod
application. A total of 100 from 102 students who attended the course completed the
questionnaire.
19.4.1 Impact of Implementing Interactive Classroom

on Learning Outcomes
To investigate the impact of interactive learning (i.e., using the Nearpod application),
this study analyzed the learning outcomes attained during the semester of 2018/2019.
As mentioned earlier, this study used three separate measurements to observe the
impacts of using Nearpod on the learning outcomes.
Panel A, Table 19.1, presents the summary of learning outcomes based on the
entrance and exit survey. An improvement in the learning outcomes can be observed
before and after they completed the course. In general, this showed the Nearpod
application can improve students’ understanding. Consistent with several previous
studies (see Beránek et al. 2016a, b; Tucker 2012), these results supported the notions
that alternative tools and teaching approaches can further improve the learning pro-
cess using Nearpod interactive learning platform. Moreover, this study also compared
the success rate of each course between lecturers who used Nearpod and those who
Table 19.1 Summary of the impact of interactive classroom and learning outcomes
Panel A: summary of the entrance and exit survey results for the semester (using Nearpod)
Courses No. of Entrance (average score) Exit (average score)
students
ACC106 26 2.5 4.5
AIS235 76 4 4.7
Panel B: comparison of success rates for the courses
Courses Using Nearpod Not using Nearpod
ACC106 95% 70%
AIS235 100% 100%
Panel C: summary of grades attained by students
No. of Excellent Good Pass Failed
students
Using Nearpod
ACC106 26 10 10 5 1
AIS235 76 13 60 3 0
Not using Nearpod
ACC106 27 7 8 5 7
AIS 235 67 9 52 6 0
Note
Using Nearpod = ACC106 (26 students), AIS235 (76 students), not using Nearpod = ACC106 (27
students), AIS235 (67 students)
Excellent = 75–100, Good = 60–74, Pass = 50–59, Failed = 0–49
did not use Nearpod. Panel B, Table 19.1, exhibits lecturers who used Nearpod had
higher (i.e., 95%) passing rates compared to lecturers who did not use Nearpod (i.e.,
75%). This, to a certain extent, explains the differences in the use of the Nearpod
application in the courses as noted in Beránek et al. (2016a, b). Although there is no
significant difference to the passing rate for AIS235 course, the analysis of aggregate
score (see Panel C) showed a slight improvement among students who achieved the
highest grades. These findings are expected since this course involves various com-
puter hands-on activities. As an alternative measure to the impact on student learning
outcomes, this study also analyzed the grades that students scored in their final exam.
Panel C, Table 19.1, presents the analysis of the final exam grades of the two courses.
It can be noted that teaching using Nearpod improved the student grades compared
to traditional lecture class. Only 3 percent (i.e., 1 person) of students failed, while 38
percent (i.e., 10 persons) attained the highest grade (excellent) for ACC106 course.
Although there is no difference between students who failed AIS235 course, there
was an improvement of students who attained excellent grades (i.e., 13 persons). In
this respect, this study perceived that students have gained from interactive learning
using Nearpod application.
19.4.2 Students’ Reactions and Comments
Table 19.2 shows the results of responses on interactive learning using Nearpod
as perceived by the students of UiTM Perlis Branch, Arau Campus. Out of 102
students, only 100 students who finished the two accounting courses (i.e., ACC106
and AIS235) for September 2018–January 2019 semester have completed the given
questionnaire. It can be observed that student responses were extremely positive
with regard to the interactive learning using Nearpod. Ninety-six percent (96%) of
the students reported that they enjoyed learning using Nearpod at “Definitely yes” or
“possibly yes.” This was consistent when eighty-four percent (84%) of the students
described the use of the Nearpod as “very useful.” However, only sixty-eight percent
(68%) of the students expressed that Nearpod enabled them to interact and learn with
other students without attending classes. The instant feedback provided by Nearpod
application scored positively at ninety percent (90%) by the students, which indirectly
proved its effectiveness. This also suggested that teachers used Nearpod’s real-time
assessment tools to check the understanding during instruction in order to facilitate
individual perception of the material. Only seven percent (7%) of students disagreed
with this statement. Moreover, eighty percent (80%) of the students agreed to the
statement that the use of Nearpod as a teaching tool really helped them to become
active participants in the class while eighty-eight percent (88%) of them claimed
that they were able to pay more attention during lectures. Meanwhile, seventy-seven
percent (77%) of the students felt that the use of Nearpod assisted them to identify
problem areas that required additional attention.
This study also found that sixty-two percent (62%) of the students claimed that
they were more interested in the topics they learned using Nearpod. These results
Table 19.2 Student responses to the use of Nearpod

Question Responses (N = 102)
Definitely yes Possibly yes N Possibly Definitely
not not
Nearpod helped 52 46 4 0 0
me to enjoy the
course
The main benefit 90 5 5 2 0
of Nearpod was
instant feedback
me to be more
active in the class
me to maintain
attention during
class
me to understand
the area that I
needed to study
Nearpod made 1 51 40 10 0
me feel that
lecturer would
see my work
during class
With Nearpod, I 5 45 40 12 0
felt that my
teacher would
know my
performance
with the material
While using 10 74 10 8 0
Nearpod, I felt
that I was able to
express myself
creatively
Often Sometime N Rarely Never
me to interact
with other
students and
learned with
them without
attending classes
(continued)

Question Responses (N = 102)
I was personally 12 50 30 10 0
interested in the
topics I learned
when using
Nearpod
I reviewed 4 20 50 20 8
material from
earlier lessons
using Nearpod
Too easy Easy N Just right To hard
How challenging 0 22 7 72 1
are Nearpod
activities and the
questions that are
asked?
Very useful Somewhat N Not useful Not useful at
useful all
The use of 86 14 2 0 0
Nearpod
was__________?
showed that students were able to develop an understanding of the Nearpod materials
provided by lecturers during lectures. However, only twenty-four percent (24%) of
these students reviewed all materials provided from previous lessons using Near-
pod. This may be due to the poor Internet connections in some areas of their living
quarters. On the other hand, this study found that only fifty percent (50%) of the
students showed that they participated more and felt that lecturers would monitor
their work during class. In addition, the survey indicated that (82%) of the students
claimed that Nearpod helped them to express creatively in accounting subject. This
might be the result of Nearpod features that allow users to draw, take pictures, and
remix media. Furthermore, on the challenges posed by Nearpod learning interactive
platform activities, nearly seventy-one (71%) responded as “just right.” Indeed, this
suggested that students were able to develop relationships with the materials that
work for them.
19.5 Conclusion
This study presented evidence that interactive classroom for accounting courses
in UiTM Perlis can make the learning experience more rewarding for students in
Arau campus and at the same time lead to the improvement in the learning out-
comes in accounting education. Although this study was an interactive learning
program (i.e., Nearpod), the findings indicated that the effectiveness of using inter-
active learning can improve the learning outcomes in the Introduction to Accounting
(ACC106) course, but only minor improvements in the Accounting Information Sys-
tem (AIS235) course can be observed. It was found that students tended to benefit
from interactive learning, by significantly reducing the failure rates of more than
twenty percent (20%). In this respect, this study perceived that such finding, to a
certain extent, can explain the differences and impacts in the teaching and learning
styles at higher education level, generally in Malaysia. We also found that account-
ing students enjoyed, learned more, be motivated, paid more attention during lec-
tures, and had a better understanding of the lecture sessions. However, some of them
still felt that they would have learned more without Nearpod application software.
Based on these findings, this study also perceived that universities, particularly UiTM
Perlis, should not limit the usefulness of interactive learning using Nearpod in their
structured learning environment, especially toward the student attendance policy.
Although Mohd Isa and Abdullah (2009) found that student learned independently
and the attendance of accounting students at UiTM Perlis mainly received credits
to sit in their final exam, our findings proved that by using Nearpod, lecturers can
improve the monitoring of the students’ attendance and participation. However, we
believed that more extensive study is required to establish the effectiveness of inter-
active learning for different types of courses to achieve a greater impact. It is good if
further study can be explored on the use of Nearpod interactive learning with other
courses in UiTM Perlis or other UiTM campuses. This would be even better if the
effectiveness of interactive learning based on the individual course is measured.
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Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 17(3)
Chapter 20
ASEAN as an Inclusive Community:
Identifying and Overcoming
the Challenges
Muhammad Anwar Mohd Nor, Mohd Nor Mamat,

Siti Fatahiyah Mahamood, and Muhammad Munir Mohd Nor
Abstract With the success stories of the establishment of ASEAN and a few
episodes of failures by countries while playing their roles effectively in achiev-
ing their objectives mentioned by some, this paper aims to identify the challenges
and opportunities for ASEAN to become an inclusive community in the region. The
foundation of the establishment of ASEAN is quite promising in making ASEAN an
inclusive community in the region. Many components and aspects of the establish-
ment have been tackled and catered successfully, such as the agreement for economic
development, political stability, mutual diplomatic approach, the establishment of an
agreed legal framework and maintenance of peace in the region. The 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development published by United Nations reflects three dimensions
of sustainable development, which are the economic, social and ecological aspects
with 17 sustainable development goals accompanied by 169 associated targets which
are integrated and indivisible. However, some challenges remain in the region and
should be put into focus and tackled effectively for the objective to be achieved
successfully. This paper analyses current documents and recent events pertaining to
ASEAN to conclude on the real challenges and potential future of ASEAN.
Keywords ASEAN · Sustainable · Challenges · Solutions · Community
M. A. Mohd Nor · M. M. Mohd Nor

International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
e-mail: munir.iium@yahoo.com
M. N. Mamat (B) · S. F. Mahamood
e-mail: mohdnoor@uitm.edu.my; anwarmohdnor.iium@gmail.com
S. F. Mahamood
e-mail: sitif006@uitm.edu.my

216 M. A. Mohd Nor et al.
20.1 Introduction
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, also known as ASEAN, was founded
in August 1967 in Bangkok after signing of the ASEAN Declaration by the found-
ing fathers, namely Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. The
association was later joined by Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and
Cambodia. Currently, ASEAN is home to 630 million people. The establishment of
ASEAN was done on the basis of mutual cooperation, respect, understanding and
promotion of peace among the countries in the region. There are specific princi-
ples which the members should abide by, such as effective cooperation among the
ASEAN members and rejection of the use of threat or force. Other principles include
settlement of disputes or differences between countries in a peaceful manner and
non-interference in the internal affairs of one another. An additional principle that
underpins the establishment of this association is the rights of every state to lead
its national affairs free from any external interference, subversion or coercion. This
is stated in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) of 1976
(About ASEAN 2019). The fundamental principles point to a promising future for
the members of the association. Numerous events and meetings have been organised
to promote further effective discussion and decision-making among the members by
adhering to the above-mentioned principles. However, some of these principles seem
to contradict each other.
The establishment of the ASEAN Community was the result of the resolution
agreed to by ASEAN leaders in the 9th ASEAN Summit in 2003. Next, in the 12th
ASEAN Summit in January 2007, the leaders unanimously agreed to accelerate the
establishment of this community by 2015. The Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration
of the Establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015 was signed as an agree-
ment by the ASEAN leaders. At its very fundamental level, the ASEAN Community
comprises three pillars: ASEAN Political-Security Community (APC), ASEAN Eco-
nomic Community (AEC) and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASC), with each
pillar having its own blueprint. With the combination of the Initiative for ASEAN
Integration (IAI) Strategic Framework and IAI Work Plan Phase II (2009–2015), they
form the Roadmap for an ASEAN Community 2009–2015. The ASEAN Political-
Security Community (APSC) aims to ensure that countries in the ASEAN region live
in peace with one another in an environment that is just, democratic and harmonious.
The components include stable political development, shaping and sharing of norms,
conflict prevention, conflict resolution, post-conflict peacebuilding and implemen-
tation of mechanisms to the success of these crucial components. This is important
as the members share a common vision and objectives in constructing a peaceful
and stable region (ASEAN Political 2019). This is a very good opportunity as the
shared values among ASEAN leaders are indicators of a successful and inclusive
community.
In understanding the establishment of the ASEAN Community, the firm foun-
dation of the establishment, being the ASEAN Charter, must be fully and clearly
20 ASEAN as an Inclusive Community: Identifying and Overcoming … 217
understood. The ASEAN Charter was put into effect on 15 December 2008 during
the ASEAN foreign ministers meeting in Jakarta. This Charter is significant as it
provides the legal status and institutional framework for ASEAN countries to oper-
ate by as it is a legal agreement between the 10 countries. Also there is a plan to
be registered with the United Nations in pursuant to the Article 102, Paragraph 1
of the Charter of the United Nations. According to ASEAN, this Charter is of great
importance as it signals new political commitment at the top level, a new legal frame-
work which means a new legal personality for ASEAN, more ASEAN meetings, an
improved role of ASEAN foreign ministers and the Secretary-General of ASEAN,
as well as many other changes and initiatives which are necessary for the framework
(Charter of the Association 2019). With the firm foundation laid down through this
Charter, the establishment of the ASEAN Community is made possible and looks
very promising in the near future.
Sustainable development refers to ‘development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’
which requires priority to be given to maintaining the value of renewable resources
and ecosystems as a whole (Prizzia 2017). Synergising the overall objectives of
ASEAN integration with those of the future SDGs would be relevant for three main
reasons (Olsen et al. 2015). First, in theory, sustainable development should be pur-
sued in a coherent manner at global, regional, national and sub-national levels, with
nested objectives based on the subsidiarity principle coordinated vertically (top-
down and bottom-up). Global goals such as SDGs can play a big role in galvanis-
ing support and guiding actions at lower levels, that is, at the regional level (via
ASEAN), in addition to the national and local levels in each ASEAN member state.
ASEAN regional integration can contribute positively to SDG implementation—
both at regional and country levels—as long as it is organised properly. Second,
many sustainability issues such as ecosystem management, biodiversity protection,
migration, demographics and population change, climate change as well as disaster
risk reduction are often determined by factors beyond national borders and could be
best addressed through regional frameworks and by raising the importance of bodies
like ASEAN. Third, sustainability of the AEC will depend to a large extent on the
health of the region’s ecosystems, its ability to produce clean energy and the overall
health of the environment.
20.2 The Need of an Inclusive Community
Before further discussion and analysis into the status quo of ASEAN, the concept
of inclusive community must be understood. An inclusive community is defined as
a community that feels safe, protected and comfortable in being themselves and all
aspects of themselves can be safely expressed. It is a place where all members of the
community can share a sense of belonging. It is also based on ideas of integration,
specifically among ASEAN members. Some key aspects to successful integration
can be the indicators of an inclusive community. First, the ability of the commu-
nity to contribute, free of any barrier, and where everybody feels safe and trust is
present. Mistakes are also seen as acceptable and as learning opportunities. Next
is the presence of a sense of belonging, feeling of acceptance, the sense of give
and take among community members and recognition of the contributions made by
individuals. Moreover, cultural identity remains strong and is seen as an asset to
the community. Another indicator of an inclusive community is that the voice of
community members is taken into account and considered seriously to forge a sense
of belonging (‘What is a Welcoming and Inclusive Community?’, 2019). After these
indicators are achieved by ASEAN members, the inclusiveness of the ASEAN com-
munity as a whole would be achieved. All stakeholders in the community have to
play their roles effectively in order to achieve this goal.
There are many success stories of ASEAN which can be seen in the scroll of
history. It is said that the decision-making process and approach in ASEAN are better
than those in the European Union. This signifies the inclusive community especially
among the top leaders in the countries. It also highlights that the concept of mutual
understanding between the countries is fully understood. ASEAN has been successful
in preventing wars between the countries. This also includes Vietnam and Laos which
later joined as countries who believe in communism. The annual conference of Asia-
Pacific security forum which also involved world force countries has been hailed as
a catalyst to regional economic cooperation and reducing the geopolitical tension
in the region. As mentioned by an analyst of the Faculty of International Studies in
Singapore, Hiro Katsumata, without the effective roles played by ASEAN, the region
would still stick to a backward country like the 1960s, which is too dependent on a
bilateral agreement. The controversial issues such as security aspects in the region still
rise. However, security among the 10 countries is maintained. This can be observed
through the mapping of Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality, or also known as
ZOPFAN. The main objectives of ZOPFAN are to make Southeast Asia a region
of peace, freedom and neutral. In 30th ASEAN Summit, it was reported that the 10
countries bought vaccines in bulk as a mechanism and solution to address the situation
of inadequacy of affordable medications in the region (Ahmad, n.d.). In addition,
through cooperation, high economic growth is also produced. With the enhanced
cooperation focused on services, investment and labour, ASEAN has contributed
greatly to the regional harmony and prosperity (Hill and Menon 2010). These success
stories are opportunities for ASEAN to become an inclusive community. These also
show the potential of ASEAN as an effective platform for mutual understanding
and concern between top leaders and their people in hopes of creating an inclusive
community in the region.
20.3 Challenges and Solutions towards ASEAN Inclusivity
Some challenges and obstacles must be recognised and put into focus to achieve the
goal of becoming an inclusive community in the region. Among the frequently men-
tioned issues regarding ASEAN Community is the commitment of ASEAN countries
in handling issues of human rights. According to U.S. Human Rights Reports, every
Southeast Asian country has its own damaged record. Some sources state that the
issues of human rights are seldom of major concern and discussion among ASEAN
countries except for cases in Myanmar (Ahmad, n.d.). It is said that ASEAN lacks
legal frameworks in handling issues relating to refugees. The stateless refugees of
Rohingya has been an international issue for many years, yet the issue has not been
resolved effectively in the region. However, it is also important to note that Malaysia
and Indonesia have taken several approaches including the acceptance of refugees
into their own borders. Therefore, ASEAN’s framework should be improved in deal-
ing with this issue. Regardless of race, religion and nationality, human rights should
be upheld in the name of justice. The acts of violence towards refugees should be
recognised as criminal actions to human rights in the region. This view is consistent
with the general principles of the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration and the Phnom
Penh Statement on the Adoption of AHRD (ASEAN 1967). According to Al Jazeera,
many human rights groups have urged ASEAN leaders to rethink their approach of
repatriation of the refugees. The ASEAN report, titled Emergency Response and
Assessment Team, by the Government of Myanmar has also been condemned by
many groups. In the report, refugees are denied of their own identity and are labelled
as Bengalis. Eva Sundari, an Indonesian legislator and a board member of the ASEAN
Parliamentarians for Human Rights, said in a statement that ASEAN needs to stop
turning a blind eye to Myanmar’s atrocities against the refugees. Brad Adams, Direc-
tor of the Asian division of Human Rights Watch, said it would be totally absurd
for ASEAN to support the return of the traumatised population to the hands of the
regime who have raped, robbed and killed their family members. He also said that it
seems as though ASEAN is acknowledging Myanmar’s military ethnic cleansing of
the Rohingya people. ASEAN was urged to have an effective discussion during the
recent ASEAN Bangkok summit (ASEAN must not 2019).
Other than that, the quality of distribution in economic growth among members
can still be improved. This can be seen through the unequal distribution of benefits
economically (Wood 2017). Therefore, more effective policies and acts should be
introduced to tackle this challenge. This action is crucial in order for ASEAN to
achieve the goal of becoming an inclusive community in the region. This challenge
is further supported by the statement from Global Risk Insights, which highlighted
that the unsustainable economic growth will be disturbed, even though it appears
to be skyrocketing, due to the oppression and violation of human rights by many
member states of ASEAN. The poor governance of ASEAN can be seen through the
use of law to silence activists along with the reports of the misuse of power among
the top leaders. This claim relates to recent charges made against prominent human
rights defender and activist blogger, Tran Thi Nga. This individual was sentenced to
prison due to claims of propaganda against the state in accordance with the contro-
versial Article 88 of the penal code. In ASEAN countries, due to failure of judicial
independence in the states, there exists significant support towards illegal activities
and ineffective protection of those parties who seek to conduct transparent opera-
tions, and these are some of the challenges faced by ASEAN in facing human rights
issues. Therefore, it can be concluded that the repression of the media and journalists
frequently goes hand in hand with unsustainable, unbalanced economic development
due to dependence on raw materials and revenue from energy resources, and thus
this challenge remains a significant obstacle for ASEAN to become an inclusive
community (Eva, n.d.). A very strong foundation with an effective mechanism and
framework should be introduced and put into force for ASEAN to effectively tackle
human rights issues. This framework needs the support and commitment from every
party to ensure the success of its objectives. Regional cooperation should also be
enhanced to improve the quality of human rights in the region.
According to Asher and Zen (2015), ASEAN need to collectively lessen its
reliance on foreign donors for funding and expertise. The specific initiatives sug-
gested for facilitating a more productive ageing community in ASEAN are: (i) creat-
ing an ASEAN-wide social protection forum for developing more robust databases,
encouraging communication and indigenous research, and rendering technical assis-
tance to members; (ii) pursuing measures to reduce expenditure of the elderly, includ-
ing well-designed discount systems for public amenities and basic needs; (iii) giving
greater priority to cross-border worker agreements to improve their living condi-
tions, and encourage totalization agreements and (iv) enhancing professionalism
and systemic perspectives.
In engaging this global issue, it would be best for the region to consider the multi-
diplomacy approach effectively taken by the Government of Indonesia in managing
the issue of Rohingya refugees from the very beginning. This is interesting as the
country has its own philosophical foundation called Pancasila which is in line with
the objectives of ASEAN in becoming an inclusive community in tackling the issues
of human rights, whereby the first paragraph of the Preamble of the 1945 Constitution
of the Republic of Indonesia states ‘Whereas freedom is the inalienable right of all
nations, colonialism must be abolished in this world as it is not in conformity with
humanity and justice’, while the fourth paragraph reads ‘…and to participate toward
the establishment of a world order based on freedom, perpetual peace and social
justice…’ in view of cases of violence occurring in Myanmar. Indonesia has also
taken a democratic approach in dealing with the Government of Myanmar regarding
this humanitarian issue, by adhering to non-interference approach in the domestic
affairs of fellow member states. This is done without alienating the Government of
Myanmar as an ASEAN member state even when relations with Aung San Suu Kyi
soured in 2017.
Subsequently, humanitarian action was made more visible when Indonesia
decided to offer humanitarian relief as part of its diplomacy with the Government of
Myanmar. In early 2017, the Foreign Minister of Indonesia, Retno Marsudi invited
representatives of several humanitarian communities to engage in a proper and
effective discussion on the joint effort between the Government of Indonesia and
the civil society in providing aid to the Rakhine State. As a result, the meeting con-
cluded with the establishment of Indonesia Humanitarian Alliance (IHA). Humani-
tarian Assistance fund has also raised USD 2 million for ‘Sustainable Community’
which focuses on the development of traditional markets, learning institutions and
medical assistance for the Rakhine State. The Foreign Ministry further funded the
visa application of IHA staff and made regular visits to the programme sites which
signals that the alliance is essential for diplomacy approach. This was done under the
leadership of President Joko Widodo (Jokowi) (Shafira, n.d.). Therefore, it can also
be said that the issue of human rights in the region, which is a challenge for ASEAN
in becoming an inclusive community, can be seen as an opportunity for ASEAN
leaders to benefit from.
Malaysia, on the other hand, was vocal in condemning the violence done by the
Government of Myanmar. Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak, the former Prime Minis-
ter of Malaysia, told a rally in Kuala Lumpur that the silence of the world should
stop and the violent acts of genocide towards the population of Rohingya must be
acknowledged. A few diplomatic approaches have been taken by the Government
of Malaysia to tackle this issue at the global level. The Organization of Islamic
Cooperation’s emergency ministerial meeting was held in Kuala Lumpur in January
2017 to discuss the situation, and this was done at the request of the Government of
Malaysia. Malaysia also followed the steps taken by Indonesia in emphasising that
the issue of Rohingya Muslims is a regional concern and has called upon ASEAN to
coordinate an effective humanitarian aid and investigation team to study the violent
actions committed against the Rohingya refugees. This international pressure and
criticism resulted in a positive outcome. At Malaysia’s request, Aung San Suu Kyi
called for a special informal meeting with ASEAN Foreign Ministers and leaders in
Yangon in December 2016 to discuss the international concerns over the situation.
As a result of the meeting, the Government of Myanmar agreed that regular
updates on the humanitarian crisis would be provided to fellow ASEAN members
and cooperation and coordination on humanitarian aid and efforts will be done. The
Government of Myanmar also allowed several media members to visit the conflict
sites, with one of the main sites allowed for entry being Maungdaw (Shivakoti,
n.d.). The action of cooperation, mutual understanding and concern, and diplomatic
approach taken by ASEAN countries signify the readiness of ASEAN in becoming
an inclusive community in the region. However, some effective improvements must
be undertaken to reach that promising objective.
Health has also become a major concern for ASEAN, although the association’s
frameworks and market opportunities look quite promising in improving health issues
in a region that hosts two of the world’s largest exporters of healthcare workers. In
addition, several ASEAN countries have become a popular destination for ‘health
tourism’ services, namely Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. This situation looks
promising for ASEAN members to provide benefits to the community in the region
in terms of better economic sectors and healthcare industry. In terms of ASEAN
becoming a hub in grooming healthcare workers, Philippines and Indonesia send a

large number of nurses and midwives to countries around the world. ASEAN coun-
tries benefit from this trade and demand because of a growing supply of well-educated
professionals in these two countries and shortages of healthcare workers in richer
economies. However, the trade, market and policy can still be improved in assisting
ASEAN to become an inclusive community. This is due to limited foreign investment
in ASEAN’s healthcare industry. For instance, in Thailand, foreign investment is esti-
mated to account for only 3% of total investment in private hospitals (Arunanondchai
and Fink 2007). In overcoming this challenge, ASEAN should take a closer look at
the healthcare industry and investments needed to improve its chances of becoming
an inclusive community in the region as well as to reduce the cost of healthcare.
Furthermore, English language competency in Asian countries is very important in
order to make conversations and communication easier. However, many Asian coun-
tries do not use English as their official language, thereby leading to lack of English
language proficiency. According to Onyusheva, Thammashote and Kot (2018), in
some countries, factors such as lack of experience and foreign language skills hinder
them from achieving their full potential, while the issue of language barrier can lead
to a bigger problem. Different degrees of experience and different skill levels have
great impact on the integration process. While integration attracts foreign investors
from outside the region, the lack of abovementioned required skills slows down the
investment. For instance, Vietnam is one of the most attractive locations for for-
eign investment due to its sizeable and cheaper workforce, but its people still lack
experience and the country is in deficit of skilled labour in terms of skill shortages
in the labour force (particularly professional and technical qualifications) and basic
capabilities in the manufacturing and service sectors (Montague 2013). As compared
to Thailand, even with higher labour cost and with the availability of infrastructure
and facilities for manufacturing, it has a sufficient skilled workforce in manufac-
turing. However, in foreign language proficiency (Mallissa and Kusuma 2017), the
people of Thailand still lack foreign language skills compared to Singaporeans or
Filipinos. English proficiency skills have become more important than ever. It is vital
to improve this skill in order to meet the AEC market needs and to become a hub for
international education among ASEAN countries (Sinhaneti and Fu, n.d.). It cannot
be denied that the status of English as a global language has played a significant role
in contemporary language education policies across the world (Wang and Lin 2013).
It leads to proper business negotiation or strategic planning, levels up education and
job opportunities, as well as provides a better platform for diplomatic discussions.
Therefore, proper and professional teaching and training should be given to ASEAN
English learners for better communication and discussions.
20.4 Conclusion
In a nutshell, it is important for all parties in ASEAN to play their roles effectively.
This includes proper policy-making, good governance, proper commitment and coor-
dination, as well as establishment of effective legal frameworks. Another solution to
these challenges and an opportunity for ASEAN to benefit from is to organise fre-
quent and effective discussions among ASEAN leaders through a proper medium.
These discussions may lead to a wider opportunity in overcoming challenges as time
progresses. Some challenges may arise as the globalisation era moves forward, and
therefore it is important for ASEAN leaders to maintain mutual respect, understand-
ing and concern regarding the region in order for ASEAN to become an inclusive
community. Thus, this can eliminate all obstacles which may arise in the future. It
is suggested that future research looks into solid evidence showing the effectiveness
of the solutions proposed and creation of a model to overcome all those challenges.
References
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charter-of-the-association-of-southeast-asian-nations/. Accessed 21 June 2019
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and some plausible solutions. Asia Pac J Hum Resour 5(2):208–227
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39(36):2
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practice. Academia.edu.
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Shinawatra University, Thailand, pp 1–9
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Chapter 21
Halal Cosmetics Adoption among Young
Muslim Consumers: A Case Study
in Kulim, Kedah
Nurul Atikah Kamarudin, Wan Mohd Farid Wan Zakaria,

Wan Muhd Faez Wan Ibrahim, Syed Khusairi Tuan Azam,
and Mohd Hafizan Musa
Abstract Cosmetic industry has been growing rapidly over the years. New products
were introduced in the market, and Malaysia is one of the countries that successfully
produces Halal cosmetics. According to the Future of World Religions: Populations
Growth Projections 2010–2050, it is expected that the global Muslim population
would increase by 80% in 2050, compared to 2010 which is 1.5 billion. It indicates
that there is an increment of demand for Halal products across the globe. The use of
Muslim micro-influencers to endorse Halal cosmetics facilitates firms in attracting
the young Muslim consumers as these micro-influencers are known to engage better
young consumers through their social media postings. This provides great business
opportunities for manufacturers to invest in Halal cosmetics. In order for a product to
be certified Halal, it must undergo Halal inspection and testing of rigorous manufac-
turing facilities based on Malaysian standard MS2200: 2008 and Halal certification
procedure manual. False information on Halal status of products in the market cre-
ated doubt and anxiety among Muslim consumers to buy Halal products. This study
tries to discover the factors that could influence Halal cosmetics adoption among
young Muslim consumers in Kulim, Kedah. Primary data were used in this study,
and 300 sets of questionnaires were distributed to respondents who live in the desig-
nated research area. The study found that product characteristics and religious beliefs
were significant in Halal cosmetics adoption, whilst social influence and consumer
innovative have least influence on the dependent variable.
Keywords Cosmetics · Halal cosmetics · Innovativeness · Religious beliefs ·

Product characteristics
N. A. Kamarudin · W. M. F. Wan Zakaria (B) · W. M. F. Wan Ibrahim · S. K. Tuan Azam ·

M. H. Musa
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Johor Branch, Segamat, Johor, Malaysia
e-mail: wmfwz@uitm.edu.my

226 N. A. Kamarudin et al.
21.1 Introduction
Cosmetic industry has been rapidly growing year by year. The spark of expansion
also triggers the growth of Halal cosmetic industry around the globe. Cosmetic is
used for beauty purposes without affecting the body to make it look attractive and
covers a wide range of products, including cleaning body parts, enhancing features
and changing skin tones and colours such as makeup, perfume, toothpaste, shampoo
and deodorant (Kumar et al. 2006). In Malaysia, Halal certification is issued and gov-
erned by Malaysia Islamic Development Department (JAKIM). Datuk Dr. Sirajuddin
Suhaimee, Director of the Halal Hub JAKIM, said that applications by local and for-
eign cosmetic brands seeking Halal certification keep increasing. Halal cosmetic
products are those that do not contain any human parts or materials derived from it,
are being free of ingredients derived from animals that are prohibited for Muslims by
Islamic law or from animals that are not slaughtered in the Halal way and being free
of any genetically modified organisms (GMO) materials that have been declared as
unclean (najis) according to Islamic practice. According to Dr. Sirajuddin, Halal cer-
tification complies with the MS2200: 2008 Consumer Good—Sect. 1: Cosmetic and
Personal Care—General Guidelines, the decision of the National Fatwa Council for
Islamic Affairs and other related guidelines and regulations. He added that there must
also be compliance with the NPCB’s Guidelines for Control of Cosmetic Products
in Malaysia and Guidelines on Cosmetic Good Manufacturing Practice. Referring
to the Halal Directory by Halal Industry Development Corporation (HDC), to date,
26 companies are listed under the cosmetics business category, 124 under the beauty
category and 3 under the skincare category. Among the top homegrown brands in
Halal cosmetics and skincare are SimplySiti, Pretty Suci, So.Lek, Nurraysa, dUCk
Cosmetics and Elhajj Halal Skincare. This shows that Halal cosmetic industry keeps
growing and the skeptical belief of the products will be washed away.
21.1.1 Issues on Halal Cosmetic Products
The quests to find the best beauty products seem to keep escalating nowadays. The
State of the Global Islamic Economy Report 2018/19 stated that “the halal pharma-
ceuticals and cosmetics sectors continue to expand as more products are produced
and ingredients are increasingly halal-certified”. It stated that Muslims’ spending
on cosmetics was estimated at US$61 billion (RM255 billion) in 2017, which will
increase to US$90 billion by 2023. Department of Islamic Development Malaysia
(JAKIM) stated that Halal means allowed or permissible. When a product is described
as Halal, it means that it uses ingredients, contents, storing, manufacturing, packag-
ing and distribution processes that are in accordance with the Shariah law and fatwa.
Halal cosmetic products mean that they are free from animal-derived ingredients as
21 Halal Cosmetics Adoption among Young Muslim Consumers … 227
well as contents that might be harmful to health. The products are also safe to con-
sume, clean and also cruelty-free. Halal cosmetic products are meant for everyone
but some consumers, especially non-Muslims, are skeptical when it comes to Halal
labelling. They think that the products are only meant for Muslims. Halal label is not
only about religion, it is an industry standard that is relevant to all consumers. Halal
certification means all ingredients used are of premium quality; they have undergone
hygienic manufacturing and processing facilities and high-quality logistics. Hence,
this research explores the factors that lead consumers to adopt and consume Halal
cosmetic products. There are several factors such as product characteristics, social
influence, consumer innovativeness and religious belief.
21.2.1 Halal Cosmetic Adoption
A study was conducted to evaluate the adoption of Halal cosmetics among Malaysian
consumers through the implication of DOI theory. The findings indicate that aware-
ness and understanding, perceived attributes of innovation and social influence had a
significant positive impact, whereas financial cost has a significant negative impact
on the adoption. Additionally, religiosity appeared to be a significant mediator as it
also had a significant positive influence on awareness and understanding, perceived
attributes of innovation, financial cost and social influence which directly influence
the adoption. Mohezar et al. (2016) said that Promoting Halal goods such as Halal
cosmetics and personal care products is considered an innovation as it introduces
new procedures of producing, handling and managing products. It illustrates DOI
theory as a valid model of prediction. The study also found consumer innovativeness,
social influence and product characteristics to be congruent with existing study.
21.2.2 Product Characteristics
Halal Cosmetics-General Requirements (First Version) (2018) recommends Halal

logo for Muslim consumers to identify whether the product is Halal. Halal logo is
one of the elements of product characteristics where Muslim consumers will search
for it first before they decide and make the final choice. The absence of Halal logo
may influence the consumers’ decision-making process difficult, because they have
to identify the ingredients of the product and must conform that the products do
not contain or use any prohibited items in it, including the process to manufacture
it. Mohezar et al. (2016) found out that product characteristics, social influence and
consumer innovativeness influence young Muslim consumers to adopt Halal cosmetic

products.
21.2.3 Social Influence
The concept of social influence is incorporated from psychological studies; it explains

the changes in thoughts or emotions of an individual represented in their particular
behaviour against the association with other (Pavalou and Chai 2002; Woolthuis
et al. 2005). Moreover, in many developing countries, social influence and cultural
values prevail to gain an access to opportunities ranging from adoption of business
opportunities to products and services (Salman and Jamil 2017). It is suggested that
despite the lack of positive interest in an individual towards Halal cosmetics, the
connection with individuals’ attitude and family or friends’ expectations can shape
positive behaviour. Due to the social influence, a consumer may switch purchasing
behaviour from conventional cosmetics to Halal cosmetics. Hajipour et al. (2017)
studied the reasons for Halal cosmetics consumption among Dubai consumers and
found that the religious values are the leading cause of using Halal cosmetics instead
of influence from friends and family. A few consumers may not opt Halal cosmetics
as they have concerns over the Halalness of certain products as these products are
mostly imported from non-Muslim countries which do not fully comply with the
Halal standards (Hajipour et al. 2017). The cultural background, country of origin
and religiosity can play a significant role in promoting the Halal cosmetics brand
(Nasution et al. 2017).
21.2.4 Consumer Innovativeness
Consumer innovativeness can be defined as the willingness of consumers to accept

new product (Tellis et al. 2009). According to Jaiyeoba and Opeda (2013), cognitive
innovators may put more concentration on utilitarian products and sensory focus
on aesthetic features of a product. Within the Halal industry, cognitive consumers
may have little trouble to change their daily routine from non-Halal product to Halal
product. This is because they are more willing to take more time, money and risks
to try out different products.
21.2.5 Religious Belief
Moschis and Ong (2011) define religion as an individual’s inherited utter beliefs about
certain scripted religious teachings. Religion is a basic tool to determine people’s
behaviour (Alam et al. 2011; Berger 1961; Mukhtar and Butt 2012; Schneider et al.
2011) and influence consumer’s attitude and behaviour (Delener 1990, 1994; Mullen
et al. 2000; Pettinger et al. 2004; Wilkes et al. 1986). The dynamic findings of past
studies, especially on Halal cosmetics, have positively linked religiosity with attitude
(Rahman et al. 2015), product quality (Hashim and Musa 2014) and country of origin
(Patton 2009). Religiosity directly impacts the awareness of Halal cosmetics which
means a religiously aware customer will always seek to strictly use Halal products
(Nasution et al. 2017). Another study on Halal cosmetics adoption in Malaysia found
that social influence, product attributes and consumer innovativeness influence the
adoption process and are mediated by religiosity (Mohezar et al. 2016). However,
awareness and understanding of Halal cosmetics are insufficient to ensure complete
adoption. There are other elements which contribute to cosmetics adoption, such
as behaviour and attitude. Ahmad et al. (2015) found that religiosity has substantial
influence on individuals’ behaviour as compared to knowledge pertaining to the Halal
matters and there is a significant difference between consumers’ behaviour on Halal
foods and Halal cosmetics.
21.2.6 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework developed based on literature reviews is as follows

(Fig. 21.1):
Product Characteristics
Social Influence
Halal Cosmetic Adoption
Consumer Innovativeness
Religious Belief
Fig. 21.1 Theoretical framework. Adapted from Mohezar et al. (2016)
21.2.7 Research Hypothesis
Based on the theoretical framework constructed, the hypotheses of the study are as
follows:
Hypothesis 1 (H1) There is significant relationship between product characteristics

and the adoption of Halal cosmetic products among young Muslim consumers.
Hypothesis 2 (H2) There is significant relationship between social influence and

the adoption of Halal cosmetic products among young Muslim consumers.
Hypothesis 3 (H3) There is significant relationship between consumer inno-

vativeness and the adoption of Halal cosmetic products among young Muslim
consumers.
Hypothesis 4 (H4) There is significant relationship between religious belief and the
adoption of Halal cosmetic products among young Muslim consumers.
21.3 Methods
This study was constructed based on primary data in which the data were collected
via self-administered questionnaires. The questionnaire was divided into five (5)
sections. The first section covered demographic factors, and other four (4) sections
represent the variables of the study (dependent variable and independent variables).
The scales used for the answer are Category Scale for obtaining personal data and
Likert Scale (ranging from; 1 = “Strongly Disagree” to 5 = “Strongly Agree”) for
other questions. The piloting questionnaires were piloted to a group of 30 respondents
randomly to assess its reliability and validity. Then the questionnaire was reviewed
and revised, before being distributed out to target respondents. A total of 350 ques-
tionnaires were randomly distributed to prospective respondents by using intercept
technique that was conducted in a number of malls that are accessible in Kulim,
Kedah.
21.4 Results and Discussions
21.4.1 Response Rate
Out of 350 questionnaires distributed, only 330 were returned which represented a
response rate of 94.28%. Ten questionnaires were discarded as respondents answered
“no” in the screening question—“have you ever purchased cosmetics?” and another
20 were also discarded because age was more than 30. Thus, only 300 questionnaires
were usable in this study for further data analysis. This made the final response rate
of this study equivalent to 85.71%.
21.4.1.1 Demographic Characteristics
Table 21.1 shows that the majority of the respondents were female (74.30%), and
the ratio of the female participants to the male participants was 7:3. According
Table 21.1 Demographic factors

Factors Category Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender Female 213 71
Male 87 29
Education level SPM or less 34 11.3
Diploma or equivalents 151 50.3
First degree 109 36.3
Master degree/Ph.D. 6 2
Income level Below RM2,000 274 91.3
RM2,001–RM4,000 13 4.3
RM4,001–RM5,000 2 0.7
Above RM5,000 11 3.7
to education level, 50.30% of respondents were Diploma holders or equivalents,

followed by First degree holders (36.30%). The minority were Master’s degree or
Ph.D. holders that accounted for 2.0%.
Meanwhile, for income level, majority income earned is below RM2,000 that
accounted for 91.30% followed by those between RM2,001 and RM4,000 (4.30%),
above RM5,000 (3.70%) and between RM4,001 and RM5,000 (0.70%).
21.4.1.2 Descriptive Analysis
As illustrated in Table 21.2, the highest mean score for this study is 4.31 (±0.83),
while the lowest mean score is 3.68 (±0.10). The average score of Religious belief is
4.31 which demonstrates that respondents strongly agreed to the variable. Standard
deviation 0.70 shows that the respondents were not much dispersed around their
mean score. The lowest mean score of Consumer innovativeness is 3.68 (±0.10),
indicating that this variable was the least factor that influences their adoption of
Halal cosmetics. Product characteristics can be considered as the second important
factor that influences adoption of Halal cosmetics as the mean score is 4.13 (±0.90)—
showing that majority of the respondents agreed with this construct. Social influence
placed third has mean score of 3.83 (±0.10), indicating that respondents moderately
agreed that this construct influences the adoption of Halal cosmetics.
Table 21.2 Descriptive

Mean Std. deviation
analysis
Product characteristics 4.1300 0.90091
Social influence 3.8317 0.99728
Consumer innovativeness 3.6808 0.99875
Religious belief 4.3050 0.83499
21.4.1.3 Regression Analysis
The results of regression analysis indicated that predictors explained 71.60% of the
variance. Meanwhile, remaining is explained by other factors (Table 21.3a).
The results shown in Table 21.3b indicate that the model was a significant predictor
of adoption of Halal cosmetics, F (4,295) = 185.653, p = 0.000.
As illustrated in Table 21.3c, Product characteristics has a significant relationship
on adoption of Halal cosmetics (β = 0.720, p < 0.05). Thus, Hypothesis 1 is accepted,
which theorized that as Product characteristics increase by one unit, adoption of Halal
cosmetics increases by 0.720 units. However, Social influence was found to have no
significant relationship on adoption of Halal cosmetics (β = 0.094, p > 0.05). This
finding thereupon suggests that Hypothesis 2 is rejected.
Similarly, Consumer innovativeness, in this study, does not have sufficient evi-
dence to support Hypothesis 3 as (β = −0.045, p > 0.05), which suggests that there
is no significant relationship on adoption of Halal cosmetics. Evidently, Religious
belief indeed exhibits a significant relationship on adoption of Halal cosmetics (β =
0.193, p < 0.05). Thus, the last hypothesis is supported and accepted (Table 21.4).
In short, the results of this study revealed that Product characteristics and Religious
belief have significant relationship on adoption of Halal cosmetics. Thus, Hypotheses
1 and 4 are accepted. Meanwhile, this study doesn’t have sufficient evidences to
support Hypotheses 2 and 3; hence, both hypotheses are rejected which indicates
that there is no significant relationship on the dependent variable.
Table 21.3a Model

R R-square Adjusted R-square Std. error of the
summary
estimate
0.846a 0.716 0.712 0.50840
a Predictors: (Constant), RB, CI, PC, SI
b Dependent variable: HC
Table 21.3b ANOVAa

Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Significant
Regression 191.946 4 47.987 185.653 0.000b
Residual 76.250 295 0.258
Total 268.197 299
a Dependent variable: HC
b Predictors: (Constant), RB, CI, PC, SI
Table 21.3c Regression analysis

Model Unst. coefficients St. Coeff t Sig.
β Std. error Beta
Constant 0.154 0.168 0.913 0.362
Product characteristics 0.720 0.048 0.685 15.049 0.000
Social influence 0.094 0.052 0.099 1.790 0.074
Consumer −0.045 0.042 −0.047 −1.075 0.283
innovativeness
Religious belief 0.193 0.046 0.170 4.206 0.000
Table 21.4 Summary of

Hypothesis Results
hypotheses results
Hypothesis 1 Accept
Hypothesis 2 Reject
Hypothesis 3 Reject
Hypothesis 4 Accept
21.5 Conclusion
Time has changed where Halal cosmetic and personal care products emerge as the
rapid growing consumer segment in Malaysia. Halal products offer high-quality
Halal makeup and are at par with natural and organic products. Even though some
consumers especially non-Muslims are skeptical on Halal products at the beginning
of appearance, the demand for the product seems to keep escalating due to premium
ingredients, hygienic manufacturing and processing facilities and high-quality logis-
tic that been practiced for Halal certification. It is clear from the findings that the
needs of Halal traceability systems are towards distribution of the Halal cosmetic
products. This system can be used to check the origin of the products and also ingre-
dients used for the product alongside the genuine Halal logo (issued by JAKIM or
equivalent) on packaging. Moreover, industry players should play important roles
in increasing the awareness of Muslim consumers in adopting Halal cosmetic prod-
ucts. Consumers often value product attributes prior to purchase; this is to determine
the products’ quality, safety and health values. Thus, manufacturers need to con-
centrate and continuously provide added value to each product they produce. They
should also be able to link the product attributes with the benefits of purchasing and
consuming the products. Halal cosmetic products should not only conform with the
Islamic law but also must be in harmony with ethical and animal welfare. Lastly,
to have Halal certification is a must as this can assure the consumers’ confidence in
purchasing Halal cosmetics. This also reduces the consumers’ cognitive efforts to
browse for information on the ingredients in the cosmetic products that do not have
Halal-certified logo in order to be assured of the Halalness of the cosmetic products.
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Chapter 22
An Analytical Study of Mosques
and Public Spaces: Integration Space
for Spiritual and Community Bonding
Wan Noor Anira Wan Ali, Norasikin Hassan, Marina Abdullah,

Masthurhah Ismail and Noraini Johari
Abstract A mosque plays a significant function as the centre of knowledge in

spreading Islamic civilization and building up positive social traits of the ummah.
Nevertheless, some mosques place a good deal of priority on architecture and inte-
rior design without considering the aspect of community space or gathering point.
The design and integration of public and open spaces of the mosques are important
vital elements for the spiritual development of a community. The objectives of this
research are to analyse the existence of open space at selected mosques, to identify the
vital elements in planning for public space and to design utility open spaces around
mosques. This research progresses through site visits at four mosques. It conducts a
detailed observation of space using a checklist inventory and analyses the integration
space of the mosques. This research found that open space and integration of space
hold special significance to the community.
Keywords Analytical · Public/open space · Integration space · Community

bonding
W. N. A. Wan Ali (B) · N. Hassan · M. Abdullah · M. Ismail · N. Johari

e-mail: wannoor367@uitm.edu.my
N. Hassan
e-mail: noras403@uitm.edu.my
M. Abdullah
e-mail: marina84@uitm.edu.my
M. Ismail
e-mail: masth080@uitm.edu.my
N. Johari
e-mail: norai127@uitm.edu.my

238 W. N. A. Wan Ali et al.
22.1 Introduction
Open space or landscape space is an important area for community bonding among
different genders, age groups and life backgrounds. These spaces are formal dimen-
sions for social interactions and can create opportunities towards community involve-
ment in the social activities at the mosques. The shaping of public space at mosque
where different people can easily communicate with each other offers endless possi-
bilities for them to tolerate each other for a longer period of time. This situation can
create a good ummah in the Islamic community. Open or public spaces are related
to the outdoor areas of the mosques. They embody the physical setting (the environ-
ment and nature), activities and the meaning of place attachment (Najafi and Mustafa
Kamal 2012). These open spaces around the mosques are significant and important
physical elements that serve as an attraction for the congregation to prosper or to
frequent the mosques (Wan Ali @ Yaacob et al. 2017). In Malaysia, public or open
spaces at mosques need to provide a good environment and the required facilities
to fulfil the various needs. It is also revealed that the design of the public spaces
at mosques follows the concept of ‘Hablum minnallah’ where the placement of the
mosques, other buildings and the gardens are actually a macro cosmos union (the
world, humans and the galaxy in the outer space) that manifests in a micro cosmos
(mosque and gardens) environment (Joga and Antar 2007). The integration between
the mosque and the open spaces creates function and adds to the aesthetics and values
of the mosque for community bonding. Hence, the design and location of open or
public spaces at a mosque need to consider the vital elements of the landscape as
attractions. The central role of open spaces is to provide a conducive environment
for the spiritual and social development of the Muslims.
22.1.1 The Role of the Mosque as a Hub of the Islamic World
The mosque (masjid) is the Islamic house of worship. The word ‘masjid’ is men-
tioned in 26 Quranic verses consisting of 27 as the word ‘mosque’ whereby 15 of
them mention specifically the sacred mosque in Makkah, which is Masjidil Haram
(Purwanto 2010). The verses containing the word mosque are shown in Table 22.1.
Among the Quranic verses that talk about the construction of mosques as the place
to solve problems faced by the people is where Allah S.W.T. decrees:
And so we made them (the unbelievers) stumble upon them, so that they might know that
the promise of Allah is true and that there is no doubt about the Hour. They argued among
themselves over their affair, then (the unbelievers) say: ‘Build a building over them (their
remains). Their Lord knows best who they were. ‘But those who prevailed over the matter
said; ‘We will build around them a Mosque’. (QS. Al-Kahfi: 21) (Translation by Qaribullah
& Darwish)
In Islam, the mosque is not merely the Muslim’s place of worship but there are
multiple functions of a mosque. This is what sets apart the place of worship of the
22 An Analytical Study of Mosques and Public Spaces: Integration … 239
Table 22.1 The following 26 Quranic verses mention the word ‘masjid’:
No. Chapter and verse Phrase Function
1 Al-Baqarah:114 Allah’s mosques The role of Muslims to defend
the mosque as their place of
worship
2 Al-Baqarah:144 Masjidil Haram Prayer direction
3 Al-Baqarah:149 Masjidil Haram The only prayer direction
4 Al-Baqarah:150 Masjidil Haram The only prayer direction
5 Al-Baqarah:187 Mosque A place to live as an ascetic
6 Al-Baqarah:191 Masjidil Haram A place to battle in defense of
Islam
7 Al-Baqarah:196 Masjidil Haram A place for the Hajj and Umrah
religious rituals
8 Al-Baqarah: 217 Masjidil Haram A place to battle encroaching
enemies
9 5:2 Masjidil Haram A place to close ranks in kinship
10 7:29 Mosque An administrative place to
implement justice
11 7:31 Mosque A place of ornament, eating and
drinking/welfare
12 8:34 Masjidil Haram A place of worship for all
Muslims
13 9:7 Masjidil Haram A place to manage political
treaties
14 9:17 Masajid A place for multiple activities of
the faithful
15 9:19 Masjidil Haram A place to strengthen faith
16 9:28 Masjidil Haram For Muslims only
17 9:107 Mosque A place where disunity is
prohibited and a place of unity
18 9:108 Mosque It is built on the basis of piety,
not merely as a place of
worship/standing for eternity
19 17:1 Masjidil Haram and Masjidil The mosque as a sign of Allah’s
Aqsa powers
20 17:7 Mosque Prohibition to enter the mosque
if it is to bring harm to others
21 18:21 Mosque A place to solve people’s
problems
22 22:25 Masjidil Haram You cannot prevent a person
from going to the mosque
23 22:40 Mosque A place of worship for Muslims
(continued)

No. Chapter and verse Phrase Function
24 48:25 Masjidil Haram A place where Muslims worship
25 48:27 Masjidil Haram A place where Muslims worship
26 72:18 Allah’s Mosque A place to preach
Muslims from that of the non-Muslims. The construction of the mosque is not lim-
ited to only one form. In fact, one can find mosques in various architectural forms in
accordance with the local culture and community’s creativity. There are six typologies
and aesthetics of mosques all around the world. They are Arabic, Iranian, Turkish,
Indian, Chinese and South East Asian. The mosque’s early form was a cubic building
made of mud with two roofs facing each other (Mohd. Tajuddin Mohd. Rasdi 2016,
p. 72). In Malaysia, there are seven identifiable mosque forms, namely traditional
vernacular, Sino-eclectic, classic colonial, North Indian, modern vernacular, expres-
sionism modernistic and revivalism, and postmodern (Mohd. Tajuddin Mohd. Rasdi
2016, p. 73). In Rasulullah S.A.W.’s era, the mosque serves various functions. These
functions include a hub for worship and sociology, a hub for the spread of Islam, a
centre for governance and administration, a hub for knowledge, and as a centre for
moral and behavioural formation. The mosque acts as a hub that benefits the Mus-
lims, where even Rasulullah S.A.W.’s abode connects to the mosque (Ab. Rahman
et al. 1996, pp. 8–9). The earliest function of the mosque in Rasulullah S.A.W.’s
era did not differ much from its functions during the Rashidun Caliphate. During
Saidina (Lord) Uthman’s rule, he added to the function of the mosque as a place to
clarify the truth and provide explanations on the slanders and wild allegations hurled
at Rasulullah S.A.W. Meanwhile, the mosque acts as a decision-making place to
declare war on the apostates and those who refuse to pay tithe during Saidina (Lord)
Abu Bakar’s government (Ab. Rahman et al. 1996, p. 11).
Nowadays, the functions and roles of the mosque are not limited to merely as a
place to establish prayers but there are at least 50 roles of the mosque. These roles
include the mosque as a hub for Islamic development, a symbol of Islamic glory, a
centre for dissemination of knowledge, a centre for Islamic civilization, a hub for
thought proliferation, a holy place, a hub for the protection of the holy verses and
a centre for Quranic recital and interpretation. The mosque may also act as a hub
for education, a centre for problem-solving, a welfare hub, a centre for research,
a centre for information, a place for marriage and as an Islamic health centre. In
the community spirit, the mosque is also a place for a kindergarten and nursery,
an economic centre, a hub for tithe (zakat) activities and various other functions
of mosques in Islam (Ab. Rahman et al. 1996, pp. 12–23). The traditional mosque
architecture in the Malay Peninsula exists since Islam was proselytized to the Malay
Peninsula in the thirteenth century (Mursib 2016, p. 8). The indigenous mosque
was borne out of the adaptation to its new habitat in South East Asia that maintains
the Islamic principle of the dome form and is of timber construction. The earliest
mosques did not see the need for a minaret as the locals use the beating of drums and
hollowed bamboo to call for prayer. These characteristics inadvertently immortalized

the moderate features preached in Islam that is not to focus too much on aesthetics.
However, by the nineteenth century, this mosque typology became extinct due to the
trend shift of embracing Middle Eastern and Indian Moghul styles (Mursib 2016,
p. 9). The mosque is among the main Islamic architectural building typologies besides
madrassa, palaces, crypts and hospitals, where it is difficult to differentiate between
the mosque and the madrassa from the early Islamic glorious era. This is because
their roles and functions are similar to the hubs for the pursuit of Islamic knowledge
as well as the place of worship for Muslims (Ibrahim 2017, p. 37). The roles of
mosques reflect the beauty of Islam itself where the mosque is the embodiment of
the unique and universal Islamic architecture. Moreover, the mosque encompasses
multiple functions, mainly as a hub for a country’s governance and administration,
as well as a centre for unity.
22.1.2 The Significance of Green Spaces in the Mosques

on the Community
Religious houses are symbols of holiness, strength and unity of a nation. For mosques,
its relationship with Muslims is very dominant. Muslims use this holy place to pray,
conduct passive recreational activities such as talks and motivation for self-reflection
with God, study religious knowledge, conduct charity sales and so on. These spaces in
the mosque are very important because they affect the emotional, physical, mental and
social relationships among the congregation. Therefore, these spaces need to be user-
friendly and be able to provide comfort to their users. One part or space in the rites of
the hajj pilgrimage is the green space. One may find this space either inside a mosque
or in a room outside the mosque. Green space is very important for a mosque and
contains elements such as hard landscape, soft landscape and water features. Research
shows that green spaces foster improved mental and physical health, and well-being
of the users. For example, a study in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, under the American
Medical Association finds that cleaning the green space area can improve one’s
mental health, sociology and physical health. It suggests that green spaces provide
relief to people who are bombarded by over-stimulating environments that affect their
ability to pay attention. Green space increases social connection because it attracts
people to spend time outdoors where they will interact more with their neighbours
and develop closer relationships. This space also attracts visitors to come to mosques,
especially children, as this space can be a location for them to enjoy activities with
friends, thus strengthening friendship ties. Green space in the mosque creates an
environment that provides close-to-nature experiences for children. Regular physical
activities during youth also enhance physiological health, improve self-esteem and
reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression (Barton and Bragg 2016).
Fig. 22.1 Entrance of the Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah Mosque
Masjid Bandar Diraja, Klang Selangor, is an example of a mosque that provides

space for children. Furthermore, green space in mosques helps create environmen-
tal benefits by conserving energy through providing shades and cooling effects for
the mosque. Articles from the Project Evergreen in Canada state that trees, shrubs
and turf remove smoke, dust and other pollutants from the air. These are evident
whereby one tree can remove 26 lb of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere annually,
equaling 11,000 miles of car emissions. This shows the positive impacts of green on
the environment and the people. One of the best mosques in Malaysia that provides
ample green spaces is the Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah Mosque in Cyberjaya, Sepang,
Selangor. It did not only become the first mosque in Malaysia to receive a Green
Building Index (GBI) certificate with a platinum rating, but was able to attract inter-
national ranking visitors to come to see Malaysia with its architectural and green
space values. According to Asia Web Direct, 2019, this mosque design includes
using energy-efficient LED lights, natural air ventilation, rooftop solar panels and
rainwater harvesting system to cater to cover 5000 worshippers. The images are
shown in Fig. 22.1.
22.2 Precedent Studies and Methodology
This study attempts to analyse the influence of the integration of mosque layouts
and outdoor spaces in a few selected districts in Selangor. Generally, urban mosques
bear close functional similarities to one another, even though they are never identical
(Kahera et al. 2009). Each mosque metaphorically embodies a particular sense of
architectural expression and identity, and their respective characteristic. Random
selection based on factors contributing to good mosque design involves three mosques
in Selangor and the Federal Territory Kuala Lumpur. They are:
1. Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah, Cyberjaya,
2. Masjid As-Salam, Puchong Perdana, Taman Puchong Perdana, and
3. Masjid Saidina Abu Bakar As-Siddiq, Bangsar.
The case study analysis consists of two parts. The first part is a theoretical study
of the relationship between indoor spatial characteristics and outdoor functional effi-
ciency of mosque layouts. The second part is an analytical comparative description of
the mosque’s indoor and outdoor spaces within the four case studies. The architectural
styles comprise several types according to layout designs. To provide comparative
results, analyses are done on the main benchmarks and indicators in measuring the
functional efficiency of mosque layouts using inventory checklists and photos of the
mosques taken during site observations or field studies.
22.2.1 Case Study 1: Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah,

Cyberjaya
The Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah Mosque or Cyberjaya Mosque is located in Sepang,

Selangor, Malaysia. Construction of this mosque was on 5 April 2013 and com-
pletion on 24 February 2015. Another name for this mosque is the Green Mosque
because of its surroundings comprising high-quality landscapes and environment
with natural air ventilation and children’s playground space. This is the first mosque
to win the Green Building Index (GBI) award in Malaysia for using energy-efficient
LED lights, rooftop solar panels and rainwater harvesting system to cater to over
5000 worshippers.
Based on site observation and inventory, the Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah Mosque has
several elements of public space complementary to water and green features. It
provides ample green spaces for users, comprising a courtyard inside the mosque,
an indoor playground area and seating areas, open space outside the women’s prayer
hall complete with seating and water features and water cascades in the mosque
compound (Figs. 22.2 and 22.3).
The findings reveal that the design of the Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah Mosque has good
planning for landscaping and public spaces. The integration of indoor and outdoor
spaces of the mosque is significant to cater to all user needs. The users utilize the
outdoor or public space to create their activities and as a centre for social bonding.
Fig. 22.2 Water cascades and courtyard in the Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah, Cyberjaya
Fig. 22.3 View of car park provided for the congregation
These spaces are useful for various purposes that benefit the Islamic community. The
main attraction of the Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah Mosque is the availability of open spaces
that fulfils the needs of the congregation spiritually, physically and mentally. The open
spaces reflect meticulous planning and designing of the surrounding landscape that
is inimitable and secure (Figs. 22.4, 22.5 and 22.6).
Fig. 22.4 Seating area outside the multipurpose hall

Fig. 22.5 Kids’ playing area outside the main prayer hall
Fig. 22.6 Open space complete with seating and water features
22.2.2 Case Study 2: Masjid As-Salam, Puchong Perdana,

Taman Puchong Perdana
Masjid As-Salam, Puchong Perdana, Taman Puchong Perdana, was opened on 5

January 2006 with a total construction cost of nearly RM10 million. It holds 4000
people, serves as a place for prayer and as well a centre for information and knowl-
edge to the Puchong Perdana’s residents. This is a unique mosque because it is an
integration of land and water, whereby it appears as if it is floating on water due to

its location on the banks of the Puchong Perdana Lake (Figs. 22.7, 22.8 and 22.9).
Masjid As-Salam, Puchong Perdana provides a public space for the congregation
with green attractive plants and gazebo (wakaf ), walkways and shaded trees. There
is a Local Bazaar at the mosque’s open space every Friday. The lively bazaar attracts
the surrounding communities to use the mosque’s amenities. The integration of space
for community bonding at Masjid As-Salam, Puchong Perdana, functions effectively
and fulfils the community needs (Figs. 22.10 and 22.11).
Fig. 22.7 The mosque was built on one of the many ex-tin mines in Puchong and gives a panoramic
and beautiful landscape from afar
Fig. 22.8 Multipurpose hall for memorable events such as ‘Solemnization’ at Masjid As-Salam,
Puchong
Fig. 22.9 Clear demarcation of women and men’s spaces
Fig. 22.10 Recreational areas and facilities for the congregation

Fig. 22.11 The Local Bazaar on Friday afternoons transforms the open space into a lively hub of
activities during Friday prayers at Masjid As-Salam, Puchong
22.2.3 Case Study 3: Masjid Saidina Abu Bakar As-Siddiq,

Bangsar
The history of the Masjid Saidina Abu Bakar As-Siddiq, Bangsar’s construction
began in 1976, when the people of Bangsar requested for a mosque. The government
took over the project and placed it under the Third Malaysia 5-Year Plan. Planning
for the construction of the mosque began in 1979, and completion was in March
1982. The Masjid Saidina Abu Bakar As-Siddiq, Bangsar qiblat determination was
officiated by the Mufti of the Federal Territories, S.S. Datuk Sheikh Abdul Mohsein
bin Haji Salleh on 24 August 1980 (Figs. 22.12 and 22.13).
At the Masjid Saidina Abu Bakar As-Siddiq, Bangsar, the main component of pub-
lic space for community bonding is the academic or education centre. The mosque
provides a classroom for KAFA (religious) classes and a library for the congrega-
tion and the surrounding communities. The library stocks religious as well as other
Fig. 22.12 The main entrance and recreational space of the mosque
Fig. 22.13 The library for

the nearby communities
books. According to the mosque management, the local people and the congregation
regularly frequent the open space and the facilities at the mosque’s library.
22.3 Data Analysis and Findings
In identifying the sustainable and vital elements in the planning of open or pub-
lic space around mosques, this research investigates the list of design elements in
mosques, and mosque’s uses and functions (indoors and outdoors). Site observation
finds that three of the mosques display elements of Mihrab (sermon niche), Dome,
Mussolla (prayer area) and minaret; except for Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah which
has no minaret element. This research also considers the interior or exterior courtyard
spaces around the mosque. The result shows that only Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah
provides a courtyard as a centre space (Table 22.2).
The findings also prove that to function effectively and to attract people from
all walks of life to frequent the mosques, the design and construction of a mosque
to demonstrate the integration of open spaces and the surrounding areas (design
elements) must be according to the current needs.
Table 22.3 shows the integration of public space for community, and spiritual
bonding is only significant at Masjid Saidina Abu Bakar As-Siddiq, Bangsar. The
Masjid Saidina Abu Bakar As-Siddiq, Bangsar, provides complementary facilities
(food court, shops, playground, hall, hostels (funduq)), recreational and open spaces,
and KAFA (religious school) for all ages and needs. Findings reveal that Malaysian
mosques not only function as places of worship, but also as centres of knowledge
and education, sites for community bonding and also as recreational centres for
kids and teenagers. The integration of public space at Masjid Saidina Abu Bakar
As-Siddiq, Bangsar, enables the surrounding communities to utilize the indoor and
outdoor facilities of the mosque as sites to foster kinship or ‘silaturahmi’. These
spaces are also places for children to play, locales for communal activities such as
Table 22.2 Checklist site study for the inventory of design elements in a Mosque
Design elements of a Mosque
Mosque Mihrab Dome Mussolla Minaret Interior/exterior Others/remarks
Courtyard
1. Masjid / / / / × ×
As-Salam
Puchong
2. Masjid / / / / × ×
Sayidina
Abu Bakar
Bangsar
3. Masjid / / / × / Landmarks
Raja Haji
Fi
Sabilillah
Cyberjaya
religious classes, Quran recitals, ‘istighotsah’, ‘haul’ or for the exchange of vows
in marriage or ‘akad nikah.’ The findings from the research show that the roles
and applications of the integration spaces at mosques give positive impacts to the
community or congregational bonding.
22.4 Conclusion
Results from inventory in Tables 22.2 and 22.3, as well as from observation, show
that all three of the case study mosques exhibit clear and good spatial integration
and function according to mosque layouts which promote community bonding. The
overall study findings also revealed that the research objectives have been fulfilled.
Besides, the study shows that in line with the current development of urban areas,
the case study mosques offer adequate indoor spaces including vibrant landscapes
such as a courtyard. The mosques display diverse layouts and clear accessibilities
and are efficient and flexible in terms of function due to their distinct syntactical
and morphological spatial structures. In addition to the main building or the main
prayer hall, these mosques also incorporate multipurpose halls, banquet halls and
schools (KAFA) for the surrounding communities. In other words, the designs of
these mosques accommodate more than places of worship; they also act as local
centres for Islamic activities. Even though some areas of the mosques may not be fully
utilized, the mosque management is taking mitigated actions to ensure the functions
suit the current users and are able to portray Islam as a progressive religion. These
are alongside a vision of keeping the image of modern Malaysian mosques simple
and pure. Irrefutably, the overall design of the mosques places great emphasis on
capturing the spiritual essence of contemporary Islamic buildings.
Table 22.3 Inventory on Mosque use and functions (Indoor and outdoor)
Mosque Management Food Playground Hall/Banquet Hostels/Quarters Library Recreation/multipurpose School/Kindergarten
Office court/Café,
Bazaar/Shops
1. Masjid / / / / × × / ×
As-Salam
Puchong
2. Masjid / / / / / / / /
Sayidina
Abu
Bakar
As-Siddiq
Bangsar
3. Masjid / × / / / / / /
Raja Haji
Fi
22 An Analytical Study of Mosques and Public Spaces: Integration …
Sabilillah
Cyberjaya
251
In essence, the planning and designing of open spaces of mosques should consider
user comfort and provide facilities for the various communities frequenting them.
Present-day mosque management often receives suggestions to revive the roles of
mosques and their surroundings back to the era of the Prophet Muhammad SAW,
where mosques were not only places of worship but also the centres for spiritual and
social developments of Muslims. To function effectively and to attract people from
all occupations to frequent the mosques, the design and construction of the open
spaces and the surrounding areas of mosques must be according to the current needs.
This is achievable by considering the vital elements of the landscape as the main
attractions.
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well-being. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, London & New York
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Joga N, Antar Y (2007) Komedi lenong: Satire ruang terbuka hijau. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama
Kahera AI, Anz C, Abdulmalik L (2009) Design criteria for Mosques and Islamic Centres.
Architectural Press, June
Mohd. Tajuddin Mohd. Rasdi (2016) Dunia Senibina Sekilas Fakta. DBP, KL
Mursib G et al (2016) Regionalisme dalam SeniBina Malaysia Era Moden, Pasca Moden dan Global.
Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
Najafi M, Mustafa Kamal MS (2012) Place attachment to contemporary Public-Funded Mosques
in Malaysia. Alam Cipta 5(2) (Universiti Putra Malaysia)
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Publication)
Chapter 23
ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025:
Mainstreaming the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities: Lessons for Malaysia
Ikmal Hisham Md Tah and Muhamad Nadhir Abdul Nasir
Abstract The promotion and protection of human rights, strengthening democracy,

good governance and the rule of law are the main principles of Association of South-
East Asian Nations (ASEAN). It includes the protection of the rights of marginalised
group, such as people with disabilities. ASEAN’s policy framework towards advanc-
ing the rights of disabled people started from Bali Declaration on the Enhancement
of the Role and Participation of Persons with Disabilities in 2011 and continued with
the recent ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025: Mainstreaming the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities which materialised in 2018. This is included in the 2030 Sustainable
Development Goals, which aims to reduce inequalities and promote inclusion in soci-
ety. At the world stage, the human rights treaty of the United Nations Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has strengthened the recognition of
rights of this marginalised group under the law. Most of the ASEAN State Members
have ratified the CRPD, including Malaysia. Therefore, it is crucial for Malaysia to
take serious action in implementing the CRPD, together with Bali Declaration 2011
and ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025 to strengthen the legal and policy frame-
work, and promoting and protecting the rights of PWD. This paper would address
the importance of realisation of the recent Enabling Masterplan 2025 into policy and
law related to persons with disabilities in Malaysia. It would benefit the protection
of human rights and inclusiveness of society in dealing with various issues related
to the disabled community.
Keywords ASEAN Enabling Masterplan · Persons with disabilities · Malaysia
I. H. Md Tah (B)
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Pahang Branch, Raub, Pahang, Malaysia
e-mail: ikmal@uitm.edu.my
M. N. Abdul Nasir
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
e-mail: anndh91@gmail.com

254 I. H. Md Tah and M. N. A. Nasir
23.1 Introduction
On 30 November 2018, the ten member countries of the Association of South-

East Asian Nations (ASEAN) adopted a medium-term regional framework which
is known as the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025: Mainstreaming the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities. This monumental, yet ambitious regional, action plan was
adopted in the 33rd ASEAN Summit in Singapore. The masterplan was then offi-
cially launched on 3 December 2018 in Thailand in conjunction with the regional
dialogue organised by the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission of Human Rights
(AICHR). As of today, the masterplan has been translated into all languages of
ASEAN member countries. The process of drafting, negotiating, and finalising the
masterplan is a long and complicated one. However, before we discuss further
the masterplan, we shall review the roles played by ASEAN and its members in
promoting and protecting the rights of disabled people in the region.
One notable document relating to the rights and participation of disabled persons is
the Bali Declaration on the Enhancement of the Role and Participation of the Persons
with Disabilities in ASEAN Community. If we look at the archive of ASEAN, it
was reported that ASEAN through ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Social Welfare
and Development, or known as AMMSWD, organised some programmes relating to
persons with disabilities (ASEAN 2012). The programmes were carried out as part of
the social welfare and development work programme (2003–2006). Unfortunately,
no substantive information was found on the impact of those programmes at the
writing of this manuscript. Hence, we referred to the well-known earliest regional
instrument relating to the affairs of disabled persons, which was the Bali Declaration.
The Bali Declaration was adopted by ASEAN member countries in 2011. The
Declaration contained 20 general statements that outlined the goal and actions taken
by each government in the region to ensure inclusivity of disabled people on various
aspects. The Declaration called all ASEAN member countries to sign and ratify the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). Today, all members of
ASEAN have signed and ratified the convention. Besides, the Declaration also recog-
nises and supports the establishment and roles of the ASEAN Disability Forum. This
theoretically signalled potential collaboration and partnership between government
and disabled people’s organisations, both at national and regional settings.
The Declaration was accompanied by the Mobilisation Framework of the ASEAN
Decade for Persons with Disabilities 2011–2020. The ASEAN Decade for Per-
sons with Disabilities 2011–2020 was developed based on the following principles
(ASEAN Secretaria 2013):
1. Respect in the identity and unique characteristics of the ASEAN Community,
particularly for established sectoral bodies, mechanisms and protocol.
2. The realisation of disability as a cross-sectoral issue embedded within three pillars
of the ASEAN Community: ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC),
ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community
(ASCC).
23 ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025: Mainstreaming the Rights … 255
3. Encouragement for the ASEAN Member States and ASEAN Secretariat to share
the ownership of “the ASEAN Decade of Persons with Disabilities (2011–2020)”
and related initiatives to fully promote rights and equal opportunity of PWDs at
the national and regional levels.
4. Respect in the joint effort of multi-stakeholders, including PWDs and their fam-
ilies, Disabled Persons Organisations (DPOs), CSOs, and international organi-
sations, academic institutions, business sector, and other related entities towards
empowerment and quality of life development of PWDs.
5. Promotion of people-oriented mechanisms and policies and inclusion of PWDs
in the policy formulation process, including recognition of the ASEAN Disability
Forum (ADF) as the voice from the disability community, providing the platform
of action for mainstreaming disability perspectives in the ASEAN community.
The priority areas and the target programmes in the ASEAN Decade for Persons
with Disabilities 2011–2020 were designed to link with the three ASEAN com-
munity pillars: ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC), ASEAN Economic
Community (AEC) and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC). Unfortunately,
it seemed that the ASEAN Decade for Persons with Disabilities 2011–2020 received
an incredibly dull response, either from the government or the disabled people’s
organisations. This was when the idea of a new regional agenda came about.
23.2 ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025
The development and the launching of the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025: Main-
streaming the Rights of Persons with Disabilities can be considered as the revitalisa-
tion and enhancement of the previous ASEAN Decade for Persons with Disabilities.
The process of developing the masterplan was championed by the AICHR with active
presence from disabled people’s organisations in the region. The development of its
target programmes also took into account various commitments made by ASEAN
previously, other international and regional instruments such as the Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the Incheon Strategy to “Make Right
Real” for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific.
The effort started in 2016 took 3 years before the final version of the masterplan
was adopted by all ASEAN member countries. The process was rigorous with a series
of meetings being held, both at national and regional levels besides other lobbying
efforts and dialogues organised by AICHR. The task force which was in charge of the
drafting of the masterplan met eight times, where the representatives of governments
and disabled people’s organisations in the region were also present. Furthermore,
few technical issues were also raised during the drafting process, such as the period
of masterplan, the usage of word and the amount of key actions for each pillar.
In the introduction to the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025, mainstreaming the
rights of persons with disabilities (PWD) requires the promotion and protection of
human rights, fundamental freedoms, strengthening democracy, enhancing good gov-

ernance and adherence to the rule of law which become key principles and purposes
of ASEAN Charter. Besides the Charter, the reference to the ASEAN Human Rights
Declaration (ADHR) 2012 and Phnom Penh Statement on Adoption of the ADHR
has stipulated the commitment of ASEAN Member States to become signatory and
ratified the CRPD. Historically, the promotion and protection of PWDs have stated
several declarations, beginning with the Hanoi Declaration on the Enhancement of
the Welfare and Development of ASEAN Woman and Children (2010) to supporting
the education of child with disabilities, then followed by the Kuala Lumpur Declara-
tion on a People-Oriented, People-Centred ASEAN (2015) to strengthen the rights
of PWDs in ASEAN, The ASEAN Declaration on Strengthening Education for Out-
of-School Children and Youth (OOCSY), The Declaration on the Elimination of
Violence Against Women and Elimination of Violence Against Children in ASEAN
(2013), The ASEAN Declaration on Strengthening Social Protection (2013) which
stated the importance of PWDs getting better social protection service.
The ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025 also indicated the importance of the
advancement of rights of PWDs to the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) which has now become global development programme promoted
by the United Nations on the importance of sustainable development goals. The
existence of The Incheon Strategy has become the main policy document that calls for
promotion and protection on the rights of PWDs including improving accessibilities
and promoting multi-sectoral and cross-sectoral approach. In addition, the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction has called for disability-inclusive response
to recover from disaster and build resilience for PWDs with the existence of risk of
disaster. All these documents including Agenda of Sustainable Development have
been considered as giving influence and shape the policy landscape in promoting
and protecting the rights of PWDs in ASEAN (ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025,
2018).
The ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025, in response to the Bali Declaration on the
Enhancement of the Role and Participation of Persons with Disabilities in the ASEAN
Community and Mobilisation Framework of the ASEAN Decade of Persons with
Disabilities (2011–2020), is based on the principles of relevance, complementary and
interrelatedness as stated in the Clause 2.3 of the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025.
Relevance refers to the ability to put the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025 to make
disability rights towards realising inclusive community. Complementary requires
ASEAN Community Vision 2025 to create and sustain the inclusive environment
for PWDs, while interrelatedness includes coordination amongst sectoral bodies
and participation of disabled organisations as key factor to the ASEAN Enabling
Masterplan.
The inclusion of CRPD in the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025 is crucial due to
its nature as first human rights treaty specifically addressed for the rights of persons
with disabilities at the global stage. It has become common human rights instru-
ments in every ASEAN Member State, where all are signatories and ratified the
CRPD (“Chapter IV Human Rights 15. CRPD” 2019). The ASEAN Enabling Mas-
terplan 2025 itself under Clause 2.8 relies on the importance to adhere to the eight
main principles of CRPD, which include respect for (1) inherent dignity, individual
autonomy including freedom to make one’s own choices, and independent persons,
(2) non-discriminations, (3) full and effective participation and inclusion in soci-
ety, (4) respect for difference and acceptance of persons with disabilities as part
of human diversity and humanity, (5) equality of opportunity, (6) accessibility, (7)
equality between men and women and (8) respect for the evolving capacities of
children with disabilities and respect for the rights of children with disabilities to
preserve identities.
The main priority areas or key action points in the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan
2025 have been stated in Clause 3.1, where the reference been made to the Bali
Declaration and Mobilisation Framework together with the CRPD. It included the
recognition of the importance of inclusion of PWDs in political, legal, economic,
social, cultural environment and full realisation of their rights. Instead of dividing its
target programme according to themes or issues, the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan
2025 is designed as sector-based programmes linked directly to the three ASEAN
community pillars: ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC), ASEAN Eco-
nomic Community (AEC) and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) (Nasir
and Wong 2019). Upon further analysis, the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025 also
addressed usual issues such as education, accessibility, awareness-raising, health-
care, employment, entrepreneurship and so forth. The masterplan also outlined sev-
eral optimistic and often-overlooked issues such as climate change, food security
and smart city development.
Looking further into the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025, the key action point
is divided into three ASEAN community pillars with specific key actions points
which are given in Table 23.1.
23.3 How Malaysia Can Take the Opportunity

of the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025
It is the responsibility of ASEAN countries, including Malaysia, to implement the

masterplan into their laws, policy and action plan related to persons with disabilities.
Malaysia has proper legal, policy and action plan frameworks for the PWD group
that provide protection within the legal system (Tah and Mokhtar 2017). The Persons
with Disabilities Act 2008 is a legal framework that governs and recognises the issues
of people with disabilities in Malaysia, while National Policy and Action Plan has
two stages between 2007–2012 and 2016–2022 which has become central policy
to implement the rights of this marginalised group. As State Parties to the CRPD,
Malaysia has its obligation to fulfil under international commitment in strengthening
the rights of people with disabilities in the country (Tah and Mokhtar 2016).
Furthermore, Article 4(1)(a) and (b) of CRPD requires each State Party to take
appropriate measures in legislative and administrative levels in implementing the
CRPD, together with modifying the framework stipulated. Besides the frameworks,
Table 23.1 ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025 (summarised by author)
258
ASEAN Key action points Main agenda

community
pillars
ASEAN • APSC 1—Taking appropriate legislative and administrative measures to protect the rights of PWD A. Rule-based,
political-security • APSC 2—Encouraging access to information for public and private sector websites on reasonable accommodation for court people-oriented,
(APSC) services, elections, universal design polling systems people-centred
blueprint 2025 • APSC 3—Establish accessible networks for legal aid professionals and organisations specialised in disability and human community
rights to provide legal assistance to PWD (APSC 1–7)
• APSC 4—Conduct training and capacity-building activities on disability and human rights B. Peaceful,
• APSC 5—Raise awareness within judiciary, political bodies, election commission on rights of PWD secure, stable
• APSC 6—Engagement with UN committee on CRPD by ASEAN member states region (APSC
• APSC 7—Strengthen network between government sector and disabled people organisations (DPO) including developing 8–16)
pool of expert on disability rights, capacity-building activities, inclusive dialogue and partnership between DPO and C. ASEAN
government, ASEAN Foundation and other appropriate bodies within ASEAN stakeholders centrality in a
• APSC 8—Strengthen national and local policies to provide reasonable accommodation to children, youth, woman and dynamic and
elderly with disabilities outward-looking
• APSC 9—Cooperation with DPO and sectoral bodies on implementation of work programme of the ASEAN Plan of Action region (APSC
to Combat Transnational Crimes 17–20)
• APSC 10—Intensify effort towards drug-free ASEAN by providing accessible information to PWD D. Strengthen
• APSC 11—Protection for refugees and asylum seekers with disability ASEAN
• APSC 12—Harmonising between organisations related to disaster management in ASEAN institutional
• APSC 13—Develop disability-inclusive disaster plan with consultation from DPO capacity and
• APSC 14—Establish network on disability emergency responses and preparedness presence (APSC
• APSC 15—Promoting sharing of innovation, good practice and lessons on disability-inclusive disaster management plans 21–24)
• APSC 16—Supporting statistics and coordinate effective mechanism on disaster preparation resources
• APSC 17—Encourage regular meetings with senior officials of DPO on strategic direction upholding rights of PWD
• APSC 18—Facilitate capacity-building effort promoting rights of PWD within ASEAN community
• APSC 19—Encourage information sharing on disability inclusion in ASEAN
• APSC 20—Encourage new partnership to support ASEAN as disabled-friendly and inclusive society
• APSC 21—Promote relevance units in ASEAN Secretariat in promoting rights of PWD
• APSC 22—Further amplify ASEAN value as disability-inclusive society
• APSC 23—Ensuring ASEAN awareness activities, gender-sensitive and accessible to include PWD
• APSC 24—Include CRPD in report of their disability inclusion activities
I. H. Md Tah and M. N. A. Nasir
(continued)
community
pillars
ASEAN • AEC 1—Develop and harmonising CRPD to include removal obstacle in employment and business opportunity to be A. Highly
economic disabled-inclusive integrated and
community • AEC 2—Enhance equal opportunity market and entrepreneurship for PWD cohesive
• AEC 3—Enhance financial inclusion and accessible for PWD economy (AEC
• AEC 4—Promote one-stop centre for PWD 1–4)
• AEC 5—Promote ASEAN consumer protection framework B. A
• AEC 6—Protection of intellectual property of PWD competitive,
• AEC 7—Promote ratification of Marrakesh Treaty innovative and
• AEC 8—Support system and enabling environment for PWD dynamic
• AEC 9—Reasonable tax exemption for PWD ASEAN (AEC
• AEC 10—Utilisation of technology 5–10)
• AEC 11—Accessible transport C. Enhanced
• AEC 12—Accessible smart city connectivity and
• AEC 13—Inclusivity of ICT sectoral
• AEC 14—Inclusive economic integration cooperation
• AEC 15—Accessibility food security (AEC 11–18)
• AEC 16—Promote sustainable and accessible tourism development D. A resilient,
• AEC 17—Promote strong healthcare industry inclusive,
• AEC 18—Incentive system for woman and youth with disabilities people-oriented
• AEC 19—Promoting CSR for disability-inclusive and
23 ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025: Mainstreaming the Rights …
• AEC 20—Promote MSME productivity to be disability-inclusive people-centred

• AEC 21—Support for PWD to start business ASEAN (AEC
• AEC 22—Encourage entrepreneurship 19–24)
• AEC 23—Support for issues impact entrepreneur with disability E. A global
• AEC 24—Creation of inclusive business opportunities ASEAN (AEC
• AEC 25—Inclusive and non-discrimination for economic integration 25)
(continued)
259
260

community
pillars
ASEAN • ASCC 1—Promote full, equal and effective participation of PWD in all aspect of life in ASEAN A. Engages and
socio-cultural • ASCC 2—Social protection and economic opportunities benefits the
community • ASCC 3—Capacity-building activities for PWD & family members people (ASCC
(ASCC) • ASCC 4—Involvement of PWD in decision-making process 1–5)
• ASCC 5—Accessibility on website B. Inclusive
• ASCC 6—Upstream health and welfare policy for PWD (ASCC 6–15)
• ASCC 7—Recognise community life by respecting PWD as individual C. Sustainable
• ASCC 8—Harmonising laws related to employment (ASCC 16–19)
• ASCC 9—Equitable marketplace D. Resilient
• ASCC 10—Wider market demands (ASCC 20–224)
• ASCC 11—Rights of PWD as ASEAN community value E. Dynamic
• ASCC 12—Inclusive education system (ASCC 25–27)
• ASCC 13—Rights to life with dignity for PWD
• ASCC 14—Development of cultural resources
• ASCC 15—Universal access to build environment
• ASCC 16—Creating equitable and sustainable development
• ASCC 17—Integrate universal design for PWD in planning
• ASCC 18—Promote participation in climate change, GHG inventory and vulnerable assessment
• ASCC 19—Climate change risk, waste management
• ASCC 20—Local disaster plan and resilient framework improvement
• ASCC 21—Disability-inclusive plan
• ASCC 22—Good practice for disaster risk reduction
• ASCC 23—PWD have access to emergency plan situation
• ASCC 24—Mechanism for safety feedback
• ASCC 25—Promote inclusive skill-training entrepreneurship
• ASCC 26—Awareness of financial institutions and human resources
• ASCC 27—One-stop centre for PWD on entrepreneurship
I. H. Md Tah and M. N. A. Nasir
the CRPD under Article 33 also requires each State Party to set up focal points within
the government sector, National Human Rights Institutions (NHRI) and monitor-
ing mechanism from civil society organisations (CSO) implementing the obligation
under the CRPD. The existence of Enabling Masterplan 2025 has become another
substantial contribution to mainstreaming the rights of people with disabilities in
the ASEAN region (Wong 2018). Below are some lessons that can be undertaken
by Malaysia in implementing the Enabling Mansterplan 2025 as legal and policy
frameworks related to people with disabilities.
1. Develop a multi-pronged strategy to advocate the rights of PWD and its
implementation
The existence of Enabling Masterplan 2025 allows the government to strategise their
main priorities in mainstreaming the disability rights through building capacities
and enhancing their understanding of the human rights principle and its application.
Clause 4.1 Masterplan requires the Enabling Masterplan 2025 to operate within the
relevant sectoral bodies according to their main priorities in mainstreaming the dis-
ability rights into specific actions, including programmes, projects and activities.
These actions must be reported in relevant conferences, which allow every stake-
holder to access its success. The report will be presented to the three Communities
in the Join Consultative Meetings (JCM).
The report would allow ASEAN Organisation and Bodies to create networking and
involvement with civil society organisations stipulated under Clause 4.5 including
public–private-people partnership (PPP) conference, social entrepreneurship and cor-
porate social responsibility (CSR) for inclusive and sustainable development. With
such involvement, the Enabling Masterplan requires monitoring and evaluation of
each programme and activities which include set up targets, indicator and evaluation
criteria. It includes qualitative and quantitative data collection from early mid-term
(2018–2021) to (2021–2025) for evaluation of the effectiveness of the Enabling
Masterplan 2025. This requires conducting impact studies on the effectiveness of
each programme and activities, with the involvement of CSO related to people with
disabilities.
One of the recurring messages in the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025 is the
emphasis on harmonisation process of local laws, policies and action plans with
the regional and international instruments (Nasir and Wong 2019). The Government
of Malaysia must take proactive initiatives to review and enhance all related laws,
policies and action plans regarding disabled persons, particularly the Action Plan for
Persons with Disabilities 2016–2022.
2. Provide mobilisation of sources for capacity building
Under Clause 6.1, the capacity building includes allowing the transfer of knowl-
edge, experience and skills from international commitment into community level in
improving the inclusion of people with disabilities. It includes enabling the equal and
equitable opportunity for social and economic inclusion, including the areas of health,
education, employment, civil service, technological innovation, financial inclusion,
entrepreneurship, reasonable accommodation on various services, and creating an
inclusive environment for judicial and political processes, social events and leisure
activities. The disability-inclusive development also includes sharing information
such as publications, research and statistical data which are widely available and
within the accessible form. With relevant dialogue between ASEAN members, espe-
cially three ASEAN community pillars, the inclusion would become sooner relevant
in developing a more comprehensive plan in mainstreaming disability rights.
Therefore, the government must have a systematic plan and provide appropriate
resources in order to realise this aspiration. Different ministries must work in tandem
with each other to create a seamless environment for the fulfilment of each key action
underlined in the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025. The mobilisation of resources
for capacity building not only limited to government, but local non-governmental
organisations, especially disabled people’s organisation, should do the same. This
requires transformative leadership in both the public and non-governmental sectors.
3. Strategic partnership: Between government and civil society
The local disabled people’s organisations should also take the opportunity to
strengthen its advocacy effort in ensuring the full implementation and integration of
the ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025. Currently, disabled people’s organisations
in each ASEAN member country are tasked with the promotion of the masterplan. In
Malaysia, the National Council for the Blind, Malaysia (NCBM) took the initiative
to conduct a project entitled “Promoting and Protecting the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities in Malaysia Through ASEAN Enabling Masterplan 2025”. The project
began in early 2019 and to be expected to finish at the end of this year. As part
of the project, NCBM conducted a series of awareness workshops on the ASEAN
Enabling Masterplan 2025 in two states and one federal territory: Sabah, Sarawak
and Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. Besides that, the Malaysian Confederation
of the Disabled (MCD) also conducted another series of awareness workshops in
three other states: Pulau Pinang, Kelantan and Melaka, as part of a coherent effort
by disabled people’s organisations in Malaysia to promote this regional masterplan.
We firmly believe that the disabled people’s organisations have a considerable
responsibility to pressure the government to be accountable for the pledge made
in the previous ASEAN Summit. From the key actions either under APSC, AEC or
ASCC, we can observe the importance of involving disabled persons and their organ-
isations at all stages or process of development. The ASEAN Enabling Masterplan
2025 brought us an opportunity to strengthen strategic partnership between the Gov-
ernment of Malaysia and the disabled community, as well as the private sector. The
strategic partnership not only limited between federal government and the community
but can also be expanded between state governments and local authorities.
To begin with, several initial strategic partnerships in the form of co-
implementation of catalytic projects can be carried out by key stakeholders (i.e.
government agencies and disabled people’s organisations). For instance, both gov-
ernment and disabled people’s organisations can collaborate in organising capacity-
building activities for public servants, law reinforcement officers, emergency aid
officers, business owners and the community. Private sector, in this case, can be
partial funders to enable continuous implementation of such activities. Another way
of forming strategic partnership between key stakeholders is through facilitation of
inclusive economic ecosystem development to achieve a number of key actions under

AEC. The government can use its ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ power to establish, re-organise
and match different actors to different policies and platforms to build a market which
is open and inclusive for disabled employees, entrepreneurs, inventors, professionals
and so forth.
23.4 Conclusion
With three lessons as stipulated above, it shows that the Enabling Masterplan 2025
has become another milestone in improving and mainstreaming the rights of people
with disabilities in ASEAN, especially Malaysia. The comprehensive Enable Master-
plan 2025 has shown the commitment made by regional organisation, like ASEAN,
in enhancing and provided specific key action points in political, economic and social
aspects with the noble intention in promoting and protecting rights of disabled com-
munity within the regions. It has been accepted that this plan shall become another
substantial support document in the National Policy and Action Plan (2016–2022) to
improve the rights of the disabled community. The government and all relevant stake-
holders including the CSO (The National Council for the Blind Malaysia (NCBM)),
should cooperate together in mainstreaming the rights of disabled into a higher stage.
References
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new-horizon-for-persons-with-disabilities.html
ASEAN Secretariat (2013) The Bali declaration on the enhancement of the role and participation
of the persons with disabilities and mobilization framework of the ASEAN decade for persons
with disabilities (2011–2020). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta
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meeting-on-social-welfare-and-development-ammswd/overview/
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org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-15&chapter=4&clang=_en
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Persons with Disabilities Act 2008
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Chapter 24
A Literature Review on Housing Supply
Price Elasticity for Kuala Lumpur
Apartments/Condominiums
Noryanto Asroun Mohamad Asroun, Mohd Hasrol Haffiz Aliasak,

and Mohd Afandi Abu Bakar
Abstract The issue of house price dynamics had encouraged many studies on hous-
ing supply price elasticity. Past empirical studies around the world had established
different sets of determinants of housing supply. However, studies on housing supply
price elasticity in Malaysia are very scarce and has not thoroughly reviewed the possi-
ble determinants influencing housing supply. The aims of this paper are to review the
determinants of housing supply used in the past studies and to recommend suitable
determinants for Kuala Lumpur apartments/condominiums. This review highlights
the coefficient size and the significant level of determinants to show their suitability
for a new empirical study. This paper found that house price, financing costs, con-
struction costs and government regulation are suitable and recommended to be used
for the new empirical study. However, the government regulation determinant should
be represented by a measurable proxy to ease the regression analysis. The findings
provide a better understanding of the influence of each determinant to housing supply
before the new study could be started.
Keywords House price dynamics · Price elasticity · Housing supply
24.1 Introduction
Housing sector is an important sector in all countries. This sector contributes to

the booming economy as well as to meet the basic needs of the people. However,
the house price dynamics in major cities has slowed down homeownership among
people. Lately, the house price dynamics issue critically happened in two ASEAN
N. A. Mohamad Asroun (B) · M. H. H. Aliasak · M. A. Abu Bakar

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Perak, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
e-mail: norya069@uitm.edu.my
M. H. H. Aliasak
e-mail: haffiz677@uitm.edu.my
M. A. Abu Bakar
e-mail: mohda254@uitm.edu.my

266 N. A. Mohamad Asroun et al.
countries, the Philippines and Malaysia (CEIC 2018) (see Table 24.1). The house
prices in Malaysia has been rising since 2009 and recorded the highest in 2013 (Yin
et al. 2017). House price in Kuala Lumpur increased at an annual average of 10.4%
between 2009 and 2016. Median house price in Kuala Lumpur city in 2016 was
at RM620,000, which is above the estimated maximum affordable house price of
RM454,000 (Bank Negara Malaysia 2018).
The house price dynamics in major cities has caused relative inaccessibility to
housing among middle-income earners, given that low-income housing needs are
addressed by the government (Aziz and Hanif 2009). This situation was against the
targets spelled out in Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 11, “make cities and
human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” while the global urban
population outnumbered the rural population since 2008. The target for 2030 is to
ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and
upgrade slums (United Nations 2019).
This issue has opened many discussions towards the theory of supply and demand
in determining the house prices. There were some earlier studies aimed to identify
the characteristics of Malaysia house price movement and the factors affecting house
prices. A study by (Yin et al. 2017) found that Malaysia housing market from 2009 to
2016 was not facing housing bubble but only a severe house price cycle because the
house price in that period did not spiral up sharply for two consecutive years and fall
sharply in the next two consecutive years. Meanwhile, empirical studies on house
prices have identified population (Mariadas et al. 2016; Ong 2013), construction cost,
housing speculation (Mariadas et al. 2016), gross domestic product (GDP) and real
property gains tax (RPGT) (Ong 2013) as the factors influencing the house prices in
Malaysia. These studies show the impact of demand determinants on house prices
in Malaysia rather supply determinants.
Many studies around the world have evaluated the impact of supply determinants
on house prices using housing supply price elasticity analysis. However, studies
on housing supply price elasticity in Malaysia were very limited, and they did not
thoroughly review the possible determinants influencing housing supply. Two earlier
studies examined housing supply price elasticity in Malaysia; those were carried out
by Mayo and Sheppard (1996) and Mayo and Malpezzi (1997). Nevertheless, the
Table 24.1 House price index of selected ASEAN countries

Country Nominal residential property price index
Mar 2019 Dec 2018 2010
Indonesia 154 153.24 100
Malaysia 191.73 191.63 100
Philippines 242.89 228.06 100
Singapore 111.83 112.59 100
Thailand 138.57 136.62 100
Source CEIC
24 A Literature Review on Housing Supply Price Elasticity … 267
studies were limited to analysis of government regulation as a factor influencing

Malaysia housing supply. Until now, there is lack of literature reviews proposed for
supply determinants of major cities of Malaysia to be tested in a new empirical study.
Therefore, the aims of this paper are to review the determinants of housing supply
used in the past studies and to recommend suitable determinants for Kuala Lumpur
apartments/condominiums.
24.2.1 House Price Dynamics
House price dynamics are house price movements during an economic boom and
bust, which can give effect to the households and the economy at large (Granziera
and Kozicki 2015). House price movement is significantly related to demand and
supply of housing in the market. Large fluctuation in house price can cause problems
in the housing market. When house prices increase rapidly, it creates a critical issue
of housing affordability among homebuyers. The rapid increase in house price can
turn to decline in the house price, which resulted in capital losses to the households
(Reen and Razali 2016).
Demand determinants of housing among others include the household disposable
income, shift in demographic, tax system and interest rate, while supply determinants
include the availability and cost of land and the construction and investment cost.
There is a significant heterogeneity in the house price dynamics across different
market segments of Netherlands housing defined by geographical location, degree
of urbanization and type of housing (Galati and Teppa 2017). An empirical study
by Tsatsaronis and Zhu (2004) found that inflation is the main driver in house price
dynamics followed by bank credit, short-term interest rate and term spread.
24.2.2 Price Dynamics of Kuala Lumpur

Apartments/condominiums
Kuala Lumpur, or officially known as the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, is

the national capital and largest city in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur covers an area of
243 km2 with a high-density population of 1.73 million as of 2016. Kuala Lumpur is
part of Greater Kuala Lumpur (or Klang Valley) which is among the fastest growing
metropolitan regions in Southeast Asia, in both population and economic develop-
ments. Kuala Lumpur has a comprehensive road system supported by an extensive
range of public transport networks, such as the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), Light
Rapid Transit (LRT), Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), monorail, commuter rail and an air-
port rail link, which encourage intercity connectivity. Kuala Lumpur has witnessed
remarkable expansion and growth of development activities, resulting in its sharp

dynamic change of land use since its establishment (Asnawi et al. 2018). Kuala
Lumpur Structure Plan 2020 has shown the residential land use as the largest land
use component in the city. Residential land use increased from 3822 hectares in the
year 1984 to 5490 hectares in the year 2000. However, residential land use in the
city centre has declined significantly between 1984 and 2000 and now accounts only
for 26.4% of the total residential land use in 1984 (City Hall Kuala Lumpur 2004).
The structure plan had shaped the residential land use of Kuala Lumpur accord-
ing to the highest and best use principle. Therefore, housing in Kuala Lumpur is
dominated by high-rise type of apartments/condominiums with the share of apart-
ments/condominium of total housing increased from 33 to 39% between 2007 and
2016 (NAPIC 2007, 2016a) (see Table 24.2).
Kuala Lumpur faced sharp increases in price of apartments/condominiums,
besides Penang. Median price of apartments/condominiums in Kuala Lumpur
increased by 88% from RM300,000 to RM565,000 between 2007 and 2016 (NAPIC
2007, 2016b). Within the same period, Kuala Lumpur has the highest price of
apartments/condominiums most of the time as compared with other major states
in Malaysia (see Fig. 24.1).
Kuala Lumpur also dominated the new launched apartments/condominiums in
the country although share of total new launches drops from 42.6 to 29.6% between
2014 and 2016. Composition of new launches also changed with houses priced
below RM300,000, which are mostly launched in 2016 as compared to previous
years that mostly of houses between RM500,001 until RM1 million launched in the
market. Market for Kuala Lumpur new apartments/condominiums between 2014
and 2016 has been facing the problem of property overhang and unsold due to
price dynamics among new houses. Within the same period, Kuala Lumpur leads
Table 24.2 Share of apartments/condominiums to all housing in Kuala Lumpur, 2007–2016

Year Stock of Stock of all housing Share of
apartments/condominiums apartments/condominiums to
all housing (%)
2007 119,460 366,929 33
2008 131,085 389,122 34
2009 135,273 397,412 34
2010 142,059 415,860 34
2011 142,730 414,565 34
2012 147,394 421,574 35
2013 148,455 424,324 35
2014 153,332 434,484 35
2015 158,381 447,080 35
2016 164,419 424,434 39
Source NAPIC
600
RM '000
500
400
Kuala Lumpur
Price
300
Penang
200 Selangor
Johor
100
-
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year
Fig. 24.1 Price of apartments/condominiums in Malaysia major states, 2007–2016. Source NAPIC
other states with property overhang recorded at 746 units in 2014 and 428 units in
2015. Kuala Lumpur also holds the highest volume of unsold under-construction
apartments/condominiums in 2014 with 4393 units and had the highest number of
unsold not constructed apartments/condominiums of 2966 units and 3164 units in
2015 and 2016, respectively (NAPIC 2016c).
24.2.3 Determinants of Housing Supply
Supply-side analysis of the housing market using price elasticity of supply is sig-
nificant in explaining the house price dynamics. Price elasticity of supply is defined
as the responsiveness of quantity supplied to its price in relative terms at a given
period, ceteris paribus (Fortune et al. 2008). It measures the responsiveness of quan-
tity supplied due to a rate change in the price of a product and services. An inelastic
supply is when a percentage change in the price is larger than the percentage change
of quantity supplied (elasticity coefficient is less than 1). An elastic supply is when
the percentage change in price will lead to a larger percentage change in quantity
supplied (elasticity coefficient is greater than 1). Hypothetically, the housing supply
price elasticity of the major Malaysian cities is expected to be inelastic because of
the scarcity of land, high population size and lag in construction of houses (Asroun
et al. 2018). Federal Territory Kuala Lumpur should be selected as the study area
of Malaysia when the house price dynamics in this state has seriously affected the
affordability of the first-time homebuyers.
Earlier studies using different sets of determinants had grown substantially in the
recent years. A supply elasticity model is usually established to test the correlation
between housing completion (a dependent variable) and a set of determinants (inde-
pendent variables). An example of supply elasticity model is shown in Eq. (24.1)
(Huang et al. 2015). Note: This model is a corrected version as suggested by the
study to avoid multicollinearity.
N ew completion t = α + β1 ∗ CCt−1 + β2 ∗ H Pt−1 + β3 ∗ I nter estt−1

+ β4 ∗ W aget−1 + β5 ∗ L Pt−1
+ λ ∗ N ew completion t−1 + μt (24.1)
Earlier studies that involved Malaysia lack application of determinants. Coefficient

analysis on house price, household income, population, price of building materials
and price of other goods data was used to further analyse the price elasticity of sup-
ply. Results of elasticity analysis and belief that Malaysia exercises more restrictive
regulation were used to prove that Malaysian housing supply was inelastic (Mayo
and Sheppard 1996; Mayo and Malpezzi 1997).
24.3 Methodology
In conducting this literature review, a total of 23 academic papers comprising 20

journal articles, 2 working papers and 1 research report were selected through a
multi-step filtering process with independent validation in each step. The search
criteria were based on both initial and expanded through exclusion of papers with
titles that were not related to the topic of study. After the search and filtering process,
overlapping and duplicate papers acquired from other sources were manually sorted
out. The full text papers were further checked and validated by manual cross-checking
of the text analysis to select only full text papers relevant to the purposes of the paper.
At the end of this stage, the selected papers were synthesized for use in this study.
24.4 Discussion
Literature review on few empirical studies had found the determinants influencing
housing supply. The literature review starts with listing of set of determinants or
independent variables used by the authors for data analysis (see Table 24.3).
The other part of the literature review is to identify the significant determinants
influencing housing supply based on findings of the empirical studies. Effect of
each determinant is measured using coefficient size and significant level as applied
in the past empirical studies. The significant level of the determinants is classified
into positive and statistically significant impact, negative and statistically significant
impact and not statistically significant (Garces et al. 2011). Table 24.4 shows the
coefficient size and the significant level of determinants that resulted from the recent
past empirical studies (see Table 24.4).
The literature review shows that the recent empirical studies are dominated by
major industrialized countries like the United States and China. Nevertheless, empir-
ical studies of other countries also contribute to the current knowledge of housing
supply price elasticity, i.e. Australia, Finland and Hong Kong. The literature review
Table 24.3 Set of determinants used in the past studies

Dependent variable Set of determinants Country & period Authors
(independent
variables)
Supply elasticity Zoning, land policy, Finland 1987–2011 Oikarinen et al.
geography, (2015)
population,
population growth,
population density,
housing price and
water bodies
New completion Construction cost, Hong Kong 1992–2014 Huang et al. (2015)
housing price,
interest, wages and
land price
Housing Land supply, China 2004–2013 Gu et al. (2015)
completion construction cost,
housing price,
housing construction,
housing sales,
housing investment
and gross domestic
product (GDP)
Supply elasticity Undeveloped land, United States 1990–2010 Ihlanfeldt and
minimum lot size, Mayock (2014)
planning
expenditures, average
housing value and
millage
Supply elasticity Developable land China 1998–2009 Wang et al. (2012)
ratio, Eastern
sub-group cities,
urban built-up area,
growth rate of urban
built-up area,
population,
population growth
rate, population
density, housing
price, green ratio,
growth of
government revenue
and violation ratio
Dwelling approvals House price, Australia 1983–2010 Mclaughlin (2012)
construction costs
and interest rate
(continued)

Dependent variable Set of determinants Country & period Authors
(independent
variables)
Number of building Housing price, United States 1987–1999 Hwang and
permits issued vacancy, material Quigley (2006)
cost, labour cost,
prime interest rate,
stringency of
regulation, per capita
income and
employment
Supply elasticity Unavailable land United States 1970–2010 Saiz (2010)
share (geographic
constraint), coastal,
land use regulations
also shows that 10 determinants are proven significant in the past empirical studies.
Few determinants are commonly selected in the past studies and proven as highly
significant at 1% level in few empirical studies that include house price, financing
costs, construction costs, land availability and government regulation.
However, the results of the past empirical studies are inconclusive, either lean or
against the theory. For example, government regulation can reduce the housing supply
found in the studies by Ihlanfeldt and Mayock (2014), Wang et al. (2012) and Hwang
and Quigley (2006), but the regulation can increase the supply was found in the
studies by Oikarinen et al. (2015) and Saiz (2010). Three studies in the United States
by Ihlanfeldt and Mayock (2014), Hwang and Quigley (2006) and Saiz (2010) show
different effects of government regulation towards housing supply. These results may
be influenced by the length of study, number of observations, selected determinants
and methods of estimation. In other aspects, certain determinant has been represented
by specific indices, for example, zoning, green ratio, planning expenditures and
minimum lot size to ease the analysis.
The suitability of the above determinants for a housing supply price elasticity anal-
ysis of Kuala Lumpur apartments/condominiums should be based on data availabil-
ity for the study. Data on house price especially prices of apartments/condominium
in Kuala Lumpur can be obtained from the National Property Information Centre
(NAPIC) website. Secondly, financing costs data like base lending rate and average
lending rate are also available for public through Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM)
website. The financing cost data represents one of the expenditures borne by devel-
opers in carrying out housing development. Thirdly, construction cost data is also
possible to be gained for a new study. The construction cost data related to apart-
ments/condominiums in Kuala Lumpur is made available by Construction Industry
Development Board (CIDB) through its National Construction Cost Centre. Next,
land availability data is limited in government agencies as well as land use studies.
The limitation of data made land use study in Kuala Lumpur not to be more specific
Table 24.4 Housing supply determinants coefficient of selected studies

Determinants Country & β coefficient Method of data Authors
period analysis
House price China 0.721** (std Multiple linear Gu et al. (2015)
2004–2013 error 0.017) regression
models (static
and dynamic
models), OLS
Australia 1.13*** Feasible Mclaughlin
1983–2010 (p-value 0.00) generalized least (2012)
squares
estimators
(FGLS)
Financing costs United States −0.054 (t-ratio Two-stage least Hwang and
1987–1999 2.65) squares (2SLS) Quigley (2006)
Construction United States Material costs − Two-stage least Hwang and
costs 1987–1999 0.00003 (t-ratio squares (2SLS) Quigley (2006)
0.10)
China 0.430*** (std Multiple linear Gu et al. 2015)
models (static
and dynamic
models), OLS
Land price Hong Kong −4904.329** OLS, Granger’s Huang et al.
1992–2014 causality test (2015)
Land United States 0.560*** (std Two-stage least Saiz (2010)
availability 1970–2000 error 0.118) squares (2SLS)
United States 2.46e−05*** Stock Ihlanfeldt and
1990–2010 (std error adjustment Mayock (2014)
8.93e−06) model, OLS
China 16.81** (t-stats Stock Wang et al.
1998–2009 2.09) adjustment (2012)
model
China −0.553*** (std Multiple linear Gu et al. (2015)
models (static
and dynamic
models), OLS
Finland Geography Structural Oikarinen et al.
1987–2011 0.175*** (std estimation (2015)
deviation 0.051) approach,
Water bodies − Vector Error
1.11* (std Correction
deviation 0.571) Model (VECM),
OLS
Government United States 0.268*** (std Two-stage least Saiz (2010)
regulation 1970–2000 error 0.068) squares (2SLS)
(continued)

Determinants Country & β coefficient Method of data Authors
period analysis
United States −0.015 (t-ratio Two-stage least Hwang and
1987–1999 1.63) squares (2SLS) Quigley (2006)
Finland Zoning 0.196* Structural Oikarinen et al.
1987–2011 (std deviation estimation (2015)
0.095) approach,
Vector Error
Correction
Model (VECM),
OLS
China Green ratio − Stock Wang et al.
1998–2009 30.78* (t-stats adjustment (2012)
1.90) model
United States Planning Stock Ihlanfeldt and
1990–2010 expenditures − adjustment Mayock (2014)
1.52e−07*** model, OLS
(std error
5.61e−08)
Minimum lot
size −0.876***
(std error 0.321)
Population Finland Population − Structural Oikarinen et al.
1987–2011 0.143*** (std estimation (2015)
deviation 0.019) approach,
Population Vector Error
growth 21.4* Correction
(std deviation Model (VECM),
10.9) OLS
China Population Stock Wang et al.
1998–2009 growth 83.28* adjustment (2012)
(t-stats 1.75) model
Millage United States 0.210* (t-stats Stock Ihlanfeldt and
1990–2010 0.111) adjustment Mayock (2014)
model, OLS
Housing value United States −1.88e−05** Stock Ihlanfeldt and
1990–2010 (t-stats adjustment Mayock (2014)
8.06e−06) model, OLS
Urban built-up China −2.74** (t-stats Stock Wang et al.
area 1998–2009 −2.39) adjustment (2012)
model
(Asnawi et al. 2018). Then, government regulation on data is possible to be met when
nowadays many authorities start improving their database and knowledge sharing as
a result of effective IT-based systems. Some regulation on data could be applied
for the new study that includes duration for subdivision approval, development fee,
planning expenditures, zoning, green ratio and minimum lot size to show the cost
and benefit of housing development to the developers. Therefore, after considering
data availability of every determinants the researcher found that four determinants
including house price, financing costs, construction costs and government regula-
tion are suitable and recommended to be used in the new empirical study. The land
availability determinant is rejected from the list due to data limitation factor.
24.5 Conclusion
In general, there are many significant determinants that can influence housing sup-
ply price elasticity. However, few determinants are commonly selected and proven
as highly significant in the past studies that include house price, financing costs,
construction costs, land availability and government regulation. The results of the
past empirical studies are also inconclusive that may be influenced by the period
of study, number of observations, selected determinants and methods of estimation.
The researcher found that four determinants including house price, financing costs,
construction costs and government regulation are suitable and recommended to be
used in the new empirical study. The land availability determinant is rejected from
the list due to data limitation factor.
Acknowledgements This study is funded through a research grant of Perak Special Grants
for Supervisory Incentives (Geran Khas Insentif Penyeliaan Perak) under UiTM Perak Branch;
900-KPK(PJI/GKIPP/01(0025/2018) entitled House Price Dynamics of Housing in Klang Valley,
Malaysia: A Supply Elasticity Analysis.
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Chapter 25
Employees’ Performance and Working
Environment at a Workplace
in Terengganu, Malaysia
Suzila Mat Salleh, Norchahaya Johar, Siti Fatimah Mardiah Hamzah,

Noor Hafiza Mohammed, Hani Sakina Mohamad Yusof,
Ahmad Suffian Mohd Zahari, and Ferozah Haini Mohamed Ahmad
Abstract The aim of this paper is to study employees’ performance of a private engi-
neering company in Kemaman, Terengganu. There are several working environment
factors that may affect the employees’ performance in this study, which include
working conditions, occupational safety and health, and office design and layout.
Therefore, the main objective of this study is to identify the relationship between
working environment and employees’ performance of the private engineering com-
pany. There are 110 employees in this organisation, and a sample of 86 respondents
has been obtained for this study. The questionnaire is divided into five sections, and
the data have been analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS).
The result of the analysis indicates a positive relationship between all the factors
and the employees’ performance. Thus, the working condition is the most influential
working environment factor that affects the employees’ performance of the private
engineering company.
Keywords Occupational safety and health · Office design and layout · Working
condition · Employees’ performance
25.1 Introduction
It is indisputable that employees are vital and represent the only intelligent assets
that contribute to the success, performance and sustainability of an organisation.
Therefore, an exemplary working environment, the very spot that employees are
working in or the milieus around the employees, is considered as an important place
for the employees to be motivated and productive.
S. Mat Salleh (B) · N. Johar · S. F. M. Hamzah · N. H. Mohammed · H. S. Mohamad Yusof ·

A. S. Mohd Zahari · F. H. Mohamed Ahmad
e-mail: suzilamsalleh@uitm.edu.my

278 S. M. Salleh et al.
Employers must invest and provide a comfortable and suitable working envi-
ronment for employees to work. This is because a suitable working environ-
ment increases employees’ performance and productivity level. A suitable work-
ing environment can be classified as facilities- and materials-related and human
factors-related (employers-related and peer-to-peer-related).
An organisation needs to have a conducive environment for employees to per-
form their work effectively and efficiently. Gunaseelan and Ollukkaran (2012) have
explained that a working environment has a significant impact on employees’ per-
formance and productivity. Besides, it involves the execution and profitability of the
workplace itself. On the other hand, a poor environment and working condition may
result in a low productivity level and job performance which will, in turn, affect the
financial condition of a company (Quible 2001). A workplace environment gives an
impact to employees through their morale and productivity and includes positive and
negative engagements (Chandrasekar 2011).
A workplace environment is one of the most significant elements that affects the
motivation level of employees and guarantees a viable execution of tasks assigned
to employees. A good quality workplace environment will influence the level of
employees’ motivation and performance. Amir (2010) has found that when employ-
ees are provided with a better working status and enjoy their work, they can execute
well, which will benefit the most to the organisation. Another study by Nanzushi
(2015) has indicated that employees’ performance is improved by the satisfaction of
their physical work. Therefore, there is an indication that relevant facilities and tools
provided may affect employees’ performance.
Human factors related to a working environment are superior–subordinate rela-
tionships and peer-to-peer relationships. They are complex relationships where supe-
riors must be able to exhibit a leadership quality whilst, at the same time, be able
to work together as a team. On the other hand, there is a set of rules that must be
observed among peers to maintain a harmonious working environment.
Employees always face various challenges in retaining their motivation level. This
includes mobility at workplace, working hours and environment in the office. In order
to achieve a high-level organisational performance, companies must create a positive
working environment where their employees can give more to the organisations
(Nanzushi 2015).
Meanwhile, the attitude of employees is also essential for the performance of an
organisation. Attitude is a psychological awareness inside individuals which reflect
through their positive actions resulting in achieving a desired performance (Offerbike
et al. 2018). At workplace, employees will employ either a positive or negative atti-
tude towards their work, peers, employer and organisation. Besides, positive attitude
among employees also makes their work time pleasurable (Offerbike et al. 2018).
Attitude towards work refers to reactions that employees adapt to their working con-
dition (Susanty and Miradipta 2013). Some components that influence the attitude
towards work are personality, person–environment fit, job characteristics, psycho-
logical contracts, organisational justice, work relationships and stress (Carpeter et al.
2009).
Previous studies have supported that a positive attitude towards work is related to
employees’ performance as it can be a motivation for them to perform in their career
25 Employees’ Performance and Working Environment at a Workplace … 279
(Judge et al. 2001; Wei and Chu 2008; Riketta 2009; Velnampy 2007). Pushpakumari
(2008) has stated that an employee’s effort is an element to job accomplishment. Exer-
tion is an internal control that makes employees work enthusiastically and perform
better at workplace (Pushpakumari 2008).
25.1.1 Employees’ Performance
The number of complaints and absenteeism among employees may be reduced, and
the productivity of work may increase if an organisation improves its working envi-
ronment (Roelofsen 2002). A research by Kuusela et al. (1997) has found that there
is a positive relationship between productivity and working environment, and an
increase in productivity has a positive impact on a working environment. Besides,
they have also found that when safety in an organisation improves, the volume of
production and quality also increases. Thus, it is evident that a quality working
environment contributes to the greatest impact on the productivity of an organisa-
tion (Haynes 2008), and the relationship between the tools of work and workplace
becomes an integral part of work (Chandrasekar 2011).
According to Eluka and Okafor (2014), employees are willing to commute to
distant places to find decent facilities; however, most of them develop stress over
time due to loss of time and energy. The commitment and intention of employees
to stay with an organisation are of the effects of adequate equipment and working
conditions (Weiss 1999). Therefore, a working environment can affect employees’
performance and their ability to be productive (Kopelman et al. 1990; Fawcett et al.
2008). However, Bakotić (2016) found a positive relationship between job satisfac-
tion and organisational performance, and there were positive associations between
the demographic variables and employees’ performance (Pradhan and Jena 2016).
25.1.2 Occupational Safety and Health
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) has become a focal issue in many organisa-
tions globally since the 1990s (Grabowski et al. 2007). During that time, the issues
focused more on preventive strategies to avoid workplace accidents. Organisations’
efforts to preserve and protect employees and assets involving the monitoring and
advising of the employees on the mechanism to prevent and minimise organisational
losses have also been part of the focus (Friend and Kohn 2018). Occupational safety
and health are related to the maintenance of work environment, promotion, physi-
cal, emotional and well-being of employees that are free from potential hazards that
might physically hurt employees (Nyirenda et al. 2015). However, accident analysis
can be categorised by causal model of accidents, economic cost of accidents and
statistical analysis of accidents (Sanchez et al. 2017).
Similarly, OSH issues experienced a positive development in Malaysia in the
1990s. This development was evident with the enactment of Occupational Safety
and Health Act (OSHA) in 1994, carrying the philosophy of legislating safety and
health at workplace supported by regulations, codes of practices and guidelines to
further clarify the provisions in the Act (Rampal and Nizam 2006). The OSHA
1994 Act has authorised the Minister of Human Resources to make regulations to
prescribe the standards in relation to the use of and the standards of exposure to
physical, biological, chemical or psychological hazards (Rampal and Nizam 2006).
However, the responsibility in ensuring safety and health of Malaysian workforce has
not rested solely on the ministry but has been distributed among other governmental
agencies, particularly those involved in enforcing legislations related to safety and
health.
The development of OSHA issues has created awareness of the important role
OSH has played in the prevention of occupational injuries and diseases. In relation
to this, various programmes have been implemented by different agencies to increase
the awareness and knowledge of OSH at workplace since the enactment of the 1994
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) (Rampal and Nizam 2006).
Previous research has also found that occupational safety and health issues have
a significant relation with employees’ job satisfaction. Management concerns for
employees’ well-being will result in positive outcomes on employees (Michael et al.
2005) and influence employees’ performance. The result is also supported by the
finding of a study conducted by Haslam et al. (2016), which has indicated that there
is a correlation between the good practices of OSH management and job satisfaction,
and the latter significantly influences employees’ performance.
25.1.3 Office Design and Layout
Organisations usually provide space for employees to perform their work, and the
workspace allocated for them affects their performance and well-being (Zerella et al.
2017). A workspace design layout can be either private or shared, or open-plan layout,
depending on the number of space occupancies, physical features (Hongisto et al.
2016) and the way objects within it are arranged (Lee 2010).
Samani (2015) has referred office layout as the arrangement, design and type of
boundaries within an office. Office layout plays a significant role because it affects
employees’ information channels, interpersonal interactions and the availability of
knowledge and equipment. Open office is described as having fewer physical barriers
and internal walls where employees are arranged in a closer distance with each other
(Zerella et al. 2017). In the meantime, office layout influences the behaviour of office
occupants (Al Horr et al. 2016) because there is evidence supporting that distraction
is a component that has the most negative impact on perceived productivity while
interaction has the most positive effect on it. This has been supported by Al Horr et al.
(2016) in their study which has revealed that office layout is significant for achieving
productivity in an office environment (Al Horr et al. 2016). The satisfaction on
office environment may contribute to the productivity of employees and organisation,
and it was found that there is a relationship between office design and employees’
productivity (Hansika and Amarathunga 2016).
Office layout is a crucial factor as it is proven that a layout design, which com-
plements the work process of an organisation, can help the workflow to efficiently
stream through the office, which may reduce time and improve productivity. In addi-
tion, a good office design reduces tension between organisational working processes
and an office environment (Al Horr et al. 2016). Not only that, a physical office
environment has also been found to be associated with the indicators of both health
and performance (Seddigh et al. 2015).
Office design and layout create an office environment that influences employees’
satisfaction and productivity (Dole and Schroeder 2001a, b). This finding has been
supported by Al Horr et al. (2016) who have stated that office layout is one of the
physical factors that affects employees’ satisfaction and productivity. Thus, research
done by Raziq and Maulabakhsha (2015) also indicated that there is a positive rela-
tionship between job satisfaction and working environment of employees working in
the banking, university and telecommunication sectors. Furthermore, employees who
are satisfied with the physical environment produce better work productivity (Dole
and Schroeder 2001a, b). Thus, majority of employees believe that office design
contributes to superior overall performance and organisational competitiveness (El-
Zeiny 2012). He further stated in his research that overall productivity will increase
if office design problems are solved.
25.1.4 Working Condition
Some studies have acknowledged working condition as a physical working condition.

Previous studies have revealed that there are three factors that lead to a physical
working condition, namely working-environmental exposures, physical workloads
and working with computers and mouses (Piirainen et al. 2003). According to Irimie
et al. (2015), working environment is related to temperature, security, equipment,
salary, decency, music, drinks, conversation language, nice staff, contented, shift
work, understanding boss, hygiene and privacy. Regardless of personal shortcomings,
employees with specific criteria, such as age, sex, capabilities, well-being, physical
and mental conditions, and psycho-physiological and mental abilities, are known to
be able to cope with difficult working conditions (Black and Steers 1994). Meanwhile,
difficult working conditions can be classified into three factors, namely atmospheres,
subjective variables and association of creation (Gahan et al. 2014).
Therefore, it is important to have a healthy working condition as one of the crucial
factors that leads to employees’ performance in an organisation. Previous studies have
discovered that the improvement in a working condition positively impacts employ-
ees’ performance (Eluka and Okafor 2014; Chandrasekar 2011). When an organi-
sation improves its convenient access to job-related facilities, it helps its employees
to remain working, reduce absenteeism and turnover, decrease work injuries and
avoid stress disorders among employees (Eluka and Okafor 2014). Meanwhile, a
study by Temessek (2009) has supported that a healthy working condition influences
employees’ commitment and turnover in an organisation. In addition, a better work-
ing condition may lower complaints and absenteeism among employees and, at the
same time, increase their performance (Roelofsen 2002). Working environment also
influences employees’ attitudes, satisfaction and working performance. With a com-
fortable working environment, employees are not only able to focus on their job but
also ensure that their performance and quality of life at work is better (Kamarulza-
man et al. 2011). Furthermore, if the employees are comfortable with the working
environment, they will be happy and their work will meet the expectations (Irimie
et al. 2015).
This is a quantitative research focusing on the employees in one of the private engi-
neering companies in Kerteh, district of Kemaman, Terengganu, one of the east coast
states in the Peninsula of Malaysia. The study involves 86 respondents from a total of
110 employees in the organisation. The respondents have been required to answer a
set of questionnaires which have been adopted from previous research and distributed
to the relevant respondents face to face. This research has used the five-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The questionnaires
given to the respondents consist of five parts, which include demographic profile,
employees’ performance and working environment (occupational safety and health,
office layout and design, and working condition). All the data collected have been
analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), and Pearson’s cor-
relation coefficient analysis has been done to examine the correlations between the
variables.
The survey instrument for this study has been adapted from a previous study that
has included three independent variables and one dependent variable. Each variable
has seven items to be tested. A pilot study had been conducted before the actual
study. Table 25.1 shows the reliability results of both the pilot and actual studies. As
a result, every variable used in this study is reliable and exceeds 0.70.
This research has been conducted to identify the relationship between employees’
performance and working environment (occupational safety and health, office layout
and design, and working condition). According to the research, most of the respon-
dents’ ages range from 21 to 30 years (53.5%), 31–40 years (43.0%) and 41–50 years
(3.5%). It has also been found that 23.3% of the respondents have a less-than-a-year
working experience, 51.2% have 1–4 years of working experience and 25.6% have
5–7 years of experience in this organisation.
Table 25.1 Reliability

Pilot study Cronbach’s Number of
analysis
alpha items
Occupational 0.815 0.833 7
health and
safety
Office layout 0.788 0.836 7
and design
Working 0.853 0.877 7
condition
Employees’ 0.863 0.894 7
performance
Research shows that the highest mean score for the occupational safety and health
question is “The working environment does not affect my health” with the score
of 4.62. Another highest mean score is for “My office is open enough to see my
colleagues working” with the score of 4.59. The highest mean score is for employees’
performance with the score of 4.76 for the question “Overall, I like working in this
company”.
Table 25.2 explains the relationship between employees’ performance and office
design and layout. The result obtained using Pearson’s Correlation coefficient shows
that there is a positive, strong relationship between office design and layout and
employees’ performance, which is (r = 0.631**, p < 0.05).
The table further demonstrates that there is a positive, moderate relationship
between occupational safety and health and employees’ performance, which is (r
= 0.448*, p < 0.05). The result of Pearson’s correlation on working condition and
employees’ performance shows that there is a positive, strong relationship between
working condition and employees’ performance, which is (r = 0.641**, p < 0.05). As
a result, working condition can be considered the most influential factor that affects
employees’ performance in this study.
Table 25.2 Pearson’s

Variable Correlation
correlation analysis
r Sig. (2-tailed)
Office design and layout 0.631** 0.000
Occupational health and safety 0.448* 0.000
Working condition 0.641** 0.000
Note *Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
25.4 Conclusion
To conclude, working environment is deemed very important in any organisation as

it may influence the performance and credibility of their employees. The findings of
this research indicate that there is a strong relationship between working condition
and office design and layout towards employees’ performance in an organisation.
This is in line with what has been explained by Hameed and Amjad (2009) and
Haynes (2008) about an office design as an important factor in job satisfaction as it
contributes to the increase in employees’ performance. Meanwhile, Ali et al. (2013)
have also suggested that a working condition created from physical interactions
within an organisational climate causes psychological effects. This may be due to
the fact that most employees spend their precious time in an indoor environment.
Without doubt, it is a reality that most employees spend about fifty percent of their
lives living in the indoor environment, which greatly influences their mental statuses,
actions, abilities and performances (Sundstrom et al. 1994).
A conducive working environment is a place where employees can contribute to
the success of an organisation. A combination of facilities, material factors and human
factors boost employees’ morale, instill positive attitude, motivate them and reduce
absenteeism. Therefore, it may alleviate their performance and the productivity of
their organisation.
In the meantime, the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), established in
1994, has created awareness on the importance of occupational safety and health. It
is meant to protect employees and organisational assets and ensure a safe and healthy
working environment in order to prevent injuries due to occupational accidents. In
addition, a management team that is concerned about the well-being of employees
will result in an increase in employees’ job satisfaction and consequently influence
employees’ performance.
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Chapter 26
Manufacturing SMEs Sustainable
Practices: Operationalization
of Sustainable Value Framework
Peter Yacob, Suresh Nodeson, Chew Fong Yee, and Mei Ling Sai
Abstract Traditionally, companies and the environment have continuously become

two conflicting aspects, where business becomes an environmental risk and envi-
ronmental concern becomes threats to business expansion. In view of the fact that
sustainability research on green practices is still in its infancy in Malaysia, the aim
of this study is to provide a stronger, more integrative, systematic and thorough
knowledge of the environmental advantages as well as the operationalization of sus-
tainable green practices among manufacturing SMEs. This study used an exploratory
case study approach based on semi-structured expert interviews with five manufac-
turing SMEs owners/managers in Malaysia. The findings reveal that manufacturing
SMEs are challenged to strike a balance between the components of sustainable
value framework (SVF) and status quo concerning firm’s current sustainable prac-
tices. In addition, creating a long-term sustainable value from the implementation of
sustainable practices challenges manufacturing SMEs to successfully operationalize
considerations relative to the four quadrants of the SVF. This study is expected to
help both researchers and practitioners in manufacturing and other industries who are
serious towards environmental sustainable practices implementation and are looking
for an appropriate mechanism to implement. It offers a generalized environmental
sustainability implementation linking manufacturing SMEs owners/managers, green
practices, green technology policy and supply chain management.
Keywords Sustainable value framework · Manufacturing SME · Sustainable

practices
26.1 Introduction
Malaysia is one of the developing countries whose economy mainly depends on the
small–medium enterprises (SMEs) sector (Ho et al. 2016; Jomo 2019). In recent
years, sustainable practices are among the vital management issues encountered
by SMEs, specifically in the manufacturing sector, due to the growing awareness
P. Yacob (B) · S. Nodeson · C. F. Yee · M. L. Sai

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
e-mail: petery@utar.edu.my
288 P. Yacob et al.
about environmental issues among primary and secondary stakeholders, such as

owners/managers, employees, consumers, governments and social groups. Broadly,
environmental sustainability and their outcomes have been addressed from various
perspectives, ranging from the application of green technologies as a means to gain
competitive advantage (Leonidou et al. 2013) to the perception of environmental
regulation as a driver for innovation (Ball et al. 2018) and improvement of the com-
petitive position (Porter and Van der Linde 1995; Mkrttchian et al. 2019). In support,
some studies on the development of green issues over time focused on specific
industrial sectors (Aldrich and Wiedenmayer 2019) or multi-sectorial large compa-
nies (Dahlmann and Brammer 2011), addressing the advancement of environmental
proactivity. Despite this, attention has been devoted to large firms and disregarding
the development in manufacturing SMEs, which, after all, constitute the backbone
of many economies. On account of this, the impact of manufacturing SMEs on the
natural environment remains significant, and therefore there is a gap that needs to be
filled up to overcome the environmental issues. Therefore, the sustainable practices
of manufacturing SMEs in Malaysia warrant investigation as this sector is predicted
to have a collective impact on the environment and could outweigh the combined
environmental impact of large companies (Yacob et al. 2019).
By definition, there are very limited operations of SMEs individually, which have
minimum impact on the environment as compared to large businesses (Gadenne
et al. 2009). On the contrary, there has been an increasing concern in relation to the
impact of manufacturing SMEs on the environment, and numerous reasons are high-
lighted on why manufacturing SMEs cause many environmental problems (Hillary
2000; Yacob et al. 2019). Despite this, Crespi et al. (2018) stated that manufactur-
ing SMEs are facing scarcity in resources, knowledge, technical capabilities and
natural resource inefficiencies in dealing with environmental pollution and ecolog-
ical modernization due to their smaller capacities. Another essential point is that
the small-scale and spread in geographical location of manufacturing SMEs has
led to the shortening of regulation control and enforcement by the state authori-
ties. Additionally, it is noted that environmental NGOs or concerned citizens have
power to pressurize larger industrial polluters on ecological transformation, but not
manufacturing SMEs.
Even so, there is a general agreement that precise data concerning environmen-
tal impact by manufacturing SMEs are very limited (Parker et al. 2009). However,
there is still considerable pressure on manufacturing SMEs that they are the immense
polluters, and there are undeniably significant impacts on ecological systems due to
infinite number of manufacturing SMEs and their spread in terms of geographical
location. On the other hand, studies on environmental sustainability of manufacturing
SMEs are still at an infancy level, although there has been vast literature in relation
to how and to what extent the production processes and products in manufactur-
ing industries of developed countries are being re-oriented to include sustainability
requirements and conditions. Pertaining to the aforementioned statement, it can be
concluded that manufacturing SMEs may not understand fully the environmental
impact that they may face (Chowdhury et al. 2019), and to date, there has been
very limited study on the current understanding of trends surrounding environmental
26 Manufacturing SMEs Sustainable Practices: Operationalization … 289
sustainability practices and performance (Battisti and Perry 2011). Therefore, this
paper aims to explore the two main issues related to these questions. First, how
manufacturing SMEs are able to create stakeholder value by implementing sustain-
able practices in their operations, and second, what potential hazards of going green
must manufacturing SMEs take into account when pursuing sustainable practices
undertakings?
26.1.1 Sustainable Value Framework
This paper proposes sustainable value framework (SVF) presented by Hart (1997)
which is a generic framework through which firms are able to convert their sustain-
able undertakings into sustainable value. SVF offers the basic considerations that
businesses must take into account to successfully implement sustainable practices
and create sustainable value over time. Although the SVF was developed for firms
looking to serve the four billion poorest people who are at the bottom of the eco-
nomic pyramid (Si et al. 2019), this paper extends this knowledge by identifying
the generic considerations which are applicable to manufacturing SMEs in general
and in the process of successfully creating sustainable value. By the same token,
manufacturing SMEs are challenged to translate the generic considerations of SVF
into firm-specific actions in order to be sustainable and successful. The SVF presents
short-term and long-term considerations of organizational planning when it comes
to booking short-term results in light of future growth. Placed alongside, these two
dimensions produce a matrix with four distinct dimensions of firm performance
crucial to generating shareholder value and understanding sustainability in terms
relevant to the business (Hart 1997). The elements of this framework include an
analysis of the underlying processes which determine firm performance internally
(directly) and considerations related to the key stakeholders which influence firm
performance externally (indirectly). A graphical representation of the dimensions of
(Hart 1997) SVF is presented in Fig. 26.1, followed by the elaboration of each axis.
26.1.2 Initial Considerations
The vertical axis (Today/Tomorrow) regards striking a balance between adapting the
firm’s current practices in the short term whilst developing competencies to solve
social and environmental problems in the future. Firms need to manage today’s
business whilst simultaneously creating tomorrow’s technology and markets. This
dimension captures the tension created by the need to realize short-term results whilst
simultaneously fulfilling the expectations for future growth (Hart 1997). On the other
hand, the horizontal axis (Internal/External) entails properly integrating stakeholders
views through the products’ entire life cycle and communicating these undertakings
effectively (product stewardship) whilst creating a shared roadmap for meeting unmet
290 P. Yacob et al.
Fig. 26.1 Sustainable value framework (adapted from Hart 1997)
needs and developing new markets on the long run (crystallizing growth). Indeed,
this dimension reflects the tension created by the need to buffer the technical core
so that it can operate without distraction whilst at the same time remaining open to
fresh perspectives and new disruptive models and technologies (Hart 1997). Each
of the four dimensions or quadrants of the SVF is discussed in detail in the next
sub-sections.
26.1.2.1 Quadrant 1—Internal/Short-Term: Pollution Prevention
Preventing pollution by process or product redesign can save the firm’s valuable
financial resources, lower on-the-job risk and improve firm’s overall performance
(Hart 1997). Thus, the focus of Quadrant 1 is on developing practices that lower
pollution, consumption and waste from current operations. Comparatively, this end
can be achieved by means of implementing environmental best practices.
26.1.2.2 Quadrant 2—Internal/Long-Term: Clean Technology
Today, the goal of Quadrant 2 is on acquiring and/or developing proper competen-

cies that facilitate the firm’s adoption of clean technologies in the long run. Clean
technologies include renewable energy (wind power, solar power, hydropower and
biofuels), information technology, green transportation, electric motors, green chem-
istry, lighting and many other appliances that are now more energy-efficient. It is a
means to create electricity and fuels with a smaller environmental footprint. Clean
technologies go beyond the incremental improvements associated with pollution pre-

vention and end-of-the-pipe approaches which only enable a firm to do ‘less bad’ as
opposed to ‘more good’. Harvesting the competencies necessary to adopt sustainable
technologies is a long-term process which challenges firms to reconsider the distri-
bution of their internal resources in order to reposition their internal competencies
around more sustainable technologies (Hart 1997).
26.1.2.3 Quadrant 3—External/Short-Term: Product Stewardship
Once the internal balance has been achieved, only then the firms are able to commu-
nicate their sustainable undertakings to the external audience. The focus in Quadrant
3 is on building legitimacy and reputation by engaging key external constituents
throughout the products’ entire life cycle. Product stewardship integrates the voice
of the stakeholder into business processes by allowing the firm to interact with exter-
nal parties across the firm’s value chain (Hart 1997). In doing so, firms were able to
reap the benefits of more efficient operations across the value chain whilst increas-
ing perceptions of legitimacy and overall loyalty from stakeholders. The perspec-
tives of these constituents can mean the difference between failure and success in
a firm’s undertakings. Therefore, it is important for firms to carefully consider the
communication of sustainable practices undertakings to stakeholders.
26.1.2.4 Quadrant 4—External/Long-Term: Sustainability Vision
Having established pollution prevention measures in operations by harvesting the

complementary resources necessary to adopt clean technologies, firms were granted
with the ability to communicate their sustainable undertakings to external stake-
holders confidently. Under this circumstance, firms must avoid potential pitfalls of
erroneous implementation as sustainable practices are a prerequisite of achieving
long-term success. Therefore, this quadrant can only be considered if answers to the
questions relative to the other three quadrants have been stated. Reaping long-term
benefits from this development challenges the firms to identify the needs that will
define the growth markets of the future. In order to grow successfully, a firm can
either offer new products to existing customers or venture into previously untapped
markets (Hart 1997). Incremental improvements to production systems and processes
only slow the rate of environmental damage, and they enable a firm to do less bad.
However, capitalizing on the opportunities of tomorrow’s markets and establishing
a firm’s sustainable growth trajectory challenge a firm to set a corporate vision, with
a focus on coherence between a firm’s financial aspirations, social influence and
environmental impact, and they need to do more good. Therefore, to succeed, it is
crucial to develop a vision not only for what needs the company is trying to address
and how they relate to sustainability, but also where the most appropriate markets
can be found (Hart 1997).
292 P. Yacob et al.
26.1.3 Practical Implications of the SVF
Firms are challenged to strike a balance between the components of the SVF, or
risk succumbing to the woes of erroneously carrying out sustainable practices. For
example, a strong focus on reaping the short-term benefits of going green without
proper long-term planning by firms can lead to missed opportunities and vulnera-
bility in the future. On the other hand, a strong focus on tomorrow without proper
short-term planning can lead to plans of action lacking the operational and analyt-
ical skills needed for implementation (Hart 1997). The same is true for dilemmas
associated with managing the internal/external aspects of sustainability vision for-
mulation. A strong internal focus might mean firms are ignoring the perspectives of
key external constituencies, whilst a portfolio with a strong external focus can lead to
transparent public campaigns labelled as “greenwashing” because the firms’ internal
operations still cause significant harm (Hart 1997). In order to achieve this balance,
an assessment of the firms’ capabilities in each of the four quadrants is due. In fact,
the capabilities in each quadrant can be rated on a scale ranging from non-existent,
emerging, established to institutionalized.
26.1.4 Operationalizing the SVF
Putting theory into practice (operationalizing), the SVF challenges firms to pay spe-
cial attention to the sequence of events that lead to successful planning and execut-
ing SVF activities entailed. Whilst planning their sustainable practices undertakings,
firms must first consider their internal capabilities (Q1 & Q2), before being able to
communicate and integrate the external audience (Q3 & Q4) in these undertakings.
Adherence to this pathology in planning SVF activities is crucial to avoid mistakes in
executing activities. Whilst executing sustainable undertakings, activities from dif-
ferent quadrants can overlap in the process. For example, efforts to minimize waste
from current operations by agents within a firm goes hand-in-hand with the com-
petence development of said agent. Also, technological innovations conjured up in
Q2 during planning are used for the execution of environmental best practices in
Q1. Therefore, activities identified during the planning phase can be executed simul-
taneously. Successful integration of external stakeholders into sustainable business
processes (Q3) requires firms to have first minimized waste from current opera-
tions (Q1) and then develop proper competencies for the future (Q2). Furthermore,
crystallizing the firm’s sustainable growth path and trajectory requires targets of
internal achievements to be properly communicated to stakeholders. Therefore, Q4
cannot preclude Q3 in execution. Thus there is a certain pathology in the reasoning
which the owners/managers must apply in operationalizing their sustainable practices
undertakings.
26.2 Materials and Methods
In view of the fact that sustainability research on sustainable practices is still in its
infancy stage in Malaysia, the basic aim of this study is to provide a stronger, more
integrative, systematic and thorough knowledge of the most common environmen-
tal advantages, as well as the difficulties of sustainable practices. Therefore, this
study uses a case study approach allowing manufacturing SMEs to investigate and
interpret the subject in its context and obtain a fuller and holistic view of the con-
sequences of sustainable practices from a sustainability perspective (Abdul-Rashid
et al. 2017). More importantly, this study relies on numerous instances instead of one
case, improving the findings robustness and generalizability (Eisenhardt and Graeb-
ner 2007) and comparatively new, developing and modern phenomenon in its real,
social and organizational context (Yin 2017).
Since qualitative research is mostly based on interviews (Crouch and McKenzie
2006), this study chose semi-structured specialist interviews with skilled and expe-
rienced owners/managers as the primary source of empirical information. Addition-
ally, they promote a structured information collection and offer the necessary level
of openness to allow unexpected and novel information to arise (Yin 2017), which
corresponds to this study’s exploratory nature. Between September and December
2018, the interview was performed with five manufacturing SMEs from the Electri-
cal and Electronics (E&E) industry. The E&E industry was selected as it contributes
most to the Malaysian gross domestic product. The interviews lasted 45–60 min, and
all discussions were performed in English language. Detailed case study information
is confidential and anonymized. Table 26.1 illustrated the sample data of the study,
and all chosen manufacturing SMEs have over 150 staff. The manufacturing SMEs
examined are usually known to be extremely innovative and lead to a multitude
of mature and emerging E&E industry. The interviewees are in the top leadership
place and are best able to report on the most appropriate sustainable practices-related
advantages and difficulties and ensure their understanding of incorporating environ-
mental aspect for sustainability purposes. The design of the interview guide was
adopted from the literature, and it followed the principle of openness and flexibility
to allow unexpected and different subjects to arise (Kasabov 2015). In the interview
sessions, a series of questions related to sustainable practices in operations and the
Table 26.1 Detailed list of sample characteristics

Expert Company Management Tenure in No. of Sales
interview years position years employees (EUR)
SME-A >10 years Owner/manager 12 230 10–50 K
SME-B >10 years Manager 15 245 10–50 K
SME-C 5–10 years Owner/manager 6 210 5–10 K
SME-D 5–10 years Owner/manager 8 237 10–50 K
SME-E >10 years Manager 16 242 10–50 K
294 P. Yacob et al.
potential hazards of environment were used as guides, and follow-up questions were
asked to allow interviewees to develop ideas and elaborate points of interest.
The transcription of the five audio-recorded interviews was directed in almost
60 pages of texts. Palinkas et al. (2015) suggest a qualitative content analysis to
define and interpret prevalent trends, topics and categories. Since sustainable prac-
tices research is still in its infancy stage in Malaysia, this study introduced an inductive
coding procedure (Gioia et al. 2013) to promote the development of new information
rather than limited to particular hypotheses testing (Graebner and Eisenhardt 2004).
To further boost methodological rigour, this study followed Gioia et al.’s widely
and academically valued procedure and created first-order (informant-centric) ideas.
Secondly, these ideas were synthesized into second-order topics inspired by past
experiences from the scarce body of present studies on sustainable practices. Finally,
and wherever necessary, this study distilled them into SVF dimensions. The entire
coding method was performed to obtain a well-off interpretation and deep compre-
hension as possible (Aagaard 2019). After coding all interviews, Holsti’s implemen-
tation of frequency analysis (as cited in Mustapha and Ebomoyi 2019) facilitated
the identification of the most common possibilities and difficulties associated with
sustainable activities. To account for routine criticism of qualitative research based
on specialist interviews (Schüßler et al. 2014), this study improved the validity and
robustness of the results by scientifically defined triangulation of secondary informa-
tion from business websites to check the statements of the interviewees (Eisenhardt
and Graebner 2007; Yin 2017).
26.3 Results
This section presents the findings according to the key themes of the interviews.
In Table 26.1, the five manufacturing SMEs interviewed are labelled as SME-A to
SME-E and referred to throughout the text to provide additional insight into the
source from which the findings discussed are extracted. For the purpose of this
study, the interviews were examined based on related research propositions. These
assertions serve to facilitate the acquisition of insight from the interviews; therefore,
the findings of the interviews are discussed in light of each research proposition
stated successively. As a result, insight is granted into the current sustainability
of the manufacturing SMEs businesses’ operations. Once a status quo concerning
manufacturing SME’s current practices has been established, the analysis provides
an exploration of what steps manufacturing SMEs can undertake to successfully
implement sustainable practices. This is achieved by first rating the manufacturing
SME’s capabilities in each quadrant of the SVF. Importantly, the goal of this analysis
is to facilitate the establishment of the next steps that manufacturing SMEs can take
in order to successfully implement sustainable practices.
Proposition 1 Manufacturing SMEs currently have processes in place geared

towards controlling their impact on the environment.
Most manufacturing SMEs do have some practices in place specifically geared

towards lowering consumption of waste from current operations (SME-A, SME-
C and SME-D) with the exception of some manufacturing SMEs that are yet to
integrate any consumption restriction practices into operations (SME-B and SME-
E). However, the focus of these practices is not necessarily as much on lowering the
pollution streaming from operations as it is on keeping operating costs low amongst
manufacturing SMEs. Due to small-scale operations, it is much more important for
these manufacturing SMEs to lower their current operating costs in order to raise
their overall revenue. This means that most of the manufacturing SMEs are not nec-
essarily aimed at lowering their impact on the environment but to have some alterna-
tives in place which can be used to streamline the implementation of environmental
sustainable practices.
26.3.1 Water Management
All the manufacturing firms interviewed in this study documented the cost of their
firm’s water consumption (SME-A to SME-E). The source of water used by these
SMEs is from the local public network. Furthermore, two manufacturing SMEs
have implemented technologies into their operations which enable them to control
their water consumption (SME-C and SME-D). As these technologies require initial
investments to attain, the other three manufacturing SMEs (SME-A, SME-B and
SME-E) are yet to plan or implement these technologies in place for their operation
processes.
26.3.2 Energy Efficiency
Overall, all five manufacturing SMEs (SME-A, SME-B, SME-C, SME-D and SME-
E) keep record on how much their energy consumption is on a monthly basis. How-
ever, as manufacturing SME’s operations are relatively small, no record is kept on
how much energy is consumed by each specific area of operations (production,
warehouse, maintenance department tasks, etc.). By measuring and documenting
the energy consumption of each specific area of operations within the SME, more
targeted action can be taken to lower the energy consumption as a whole. Further-
more, none of the manufacturing SMEs interviewed are currently planning to use
renewable energy (SME-A, SME-B, SME-C, SME-D and SME-E). The primary
reason for not implementing renewable energy is the fact that this type of energy is
more expensive than regular energy usage even though the owners/managers know
the cost saving in long terms of operations.
296 P. Yacob et al.
26.3.3 Waste Management
Even though manufacturing SMEs have techniques in place to manage the waste from
current operations, most of the waste generated is not sorted properly before being
disposed of (SME-A, SME-C and SME-D). Though there are arguably exceptions
(SME-B), the improper disposal of waste represents a weakness in the sustainable
practices of manufacturing SME’s current practices. Even though all five manufac-
turing SMEs’ solid waste disposal system is in place (dispose through authorized
disposal contractors), SME-C and SME-E failed to document properly the amounts
of waste generated on-site and their respective volumes off-site. It is important to
record the on-site and off-site quantities of solid waste from current operations as
this control step can reduce the disposal cost.
Proposition 2 Manufacturing SMEs possess sufficient complementary resources to

successfully integrate sustainable practices into their operations.
Successful reaping of the benefits associated with implementing sustainable prac-

tices in the long run challenges the manufacturing firms to identify complementary
resources which they currently possess. From the interviews, it became apparent
that all manufacturing SMEs do have a number of these complementary resources
at present. The following sub-sections discuss in sequence the practical, structural,
human and financial complementary resources.
26.3.4 Practical
Manufacturing SME-A, SME-B, SME-D and SME-E do have some practices in place
which can be relatively easy to adjust to meet sustainable practices benchmarks (e.g.
water-saving measures, energy efficiency and air quality management). Yet, there
are some practices (waste management and sewage treatment) which merit special
attention because most manufacturing SMEs interviewed fail to sort their waste
properly and quantify their on-site and off-site volumes (SME-C and SME-E) with
the exception that small scale of operations facilitates proper sorting and disposal of
waste (SME-B).
26.3.5 Structural
All five manufacturing SMEs (SME-A, SME-B, SME-C, SME-D and SME-E) did
have the basic installations of electricity and water infrastructure which could facil-
itate the utilization of sustainable technologies. However, integrating sustainable
technologies into operations is a further challenge for some manufacturing firms
as these modern innovations could actually clash with the traditional atmosphere
these manufacturing firms are trying to create. According to SME-C, another fac-
tor in structural initiatives that need to be considered is the initial cost and routine
maintenance cost.
26.3.6 Human
Most of the basic tasks behind running the manufacturing SME’s current operations
are centralized and carried out by the operational managers (SME-A, SME-B, SME-
D and SME-E). Small-scale operations of these SMEs thus often defeat the necessity
for a larger team to carry out the tasks. The fact that a minimum level of employees
is employed in these SMEs can be considered as the complementary resource in the
process of going sustainable, as adapting current practices would require minimal
employee training.
26.3.7 Financial
The most noticeable absence of complementary resource was the allocation of a

portion of the yearly budget in order to develop sustainable competencies (SME-A,
SME-B and SME-D). SME-C and SME-E currently phase in sustainable technologies
into their operations as funds to acquire these technologies are necessarily based on
customers’ requirement.
Proposition 3 Manufacturing SMEs have sufficient access to technological innova-

tions available in the market.
Successful reaping of the benefits associated with implementing sustainable practices

in the long run challenges the manufacturing firms to identify the sufficient access
to technological innovations which they currently possess. From the interviews, it
became apparent that all five manufacturing SMEs (SME-A, SME-B, SME-C, SME-
D and SME-E) do have a number of access to technological innovations in their ven-
tures. These are discussed next in the sequence of clean technology and competency
development.
26.3.8 Clean Technology
Successful reaping of the benefits associated with implementing sustainable practices

in the long run requires manufacturing firms to reposition their internal competen-
cies around more sustainable technologies. Innovation poses a threat solely to SMEs
unable to adapt to a changing industrial environment. Therefore, it is crucial for
298 P. Yacob et al.
manufacturing SMEs to continuously keep an eye out for technologies available in

the market which could potentially advance their sustainable practices capabilities.
However, from the interviews, it became apparent that not all manufacturing SMEs
are at the same level when it comes to the technological sophistication in their respec-
tive ventures. Though there are some basic technological innovations available in the
market (e.g. LED light, centralized air-condition and water-efficiency technologies),
SME-C and SME-E do already make use of these technologies compared to SME-
A, SEM-B and SME-D as these SMEs lack the resources and budget allocation to
acquire and maintain these innovations in the long run.
26.3.9 Competency Development
Adopting clean technologies can only lead to long-term success for manufacturing
SMEs if the employees responsible for carrying out tasks received proper training
to develop the right competencies. However, as the SMEs’ operations are relatively
small scale, limited employees were employed to carry out the tasks. Therefore, man-
ufacturing SMEs require less investment in ensuring that their employees get proper
training when implementing sustainable practices. In addition, all five manufacturing
SMEs interviewed implemented flat organizational structures (top to bottom) with
the owner/managers or the operation manager functioning as an integral part of daily
tasks. As a result, these owners/managers are constantly in contact with their employ-
ees, which ultimately facilitates the transfer of information necessary to successfully
transform current practices. Furthermore, it is not the innovation itself but rather the
SME’s ability to create opportunities in which to engage the key stakeholders of
their sustainable practices undertakings which ultimately determines its successful
implementation.
26.4 Discussion
26.4.1 The Sustainable Value Creation Process
A cornerstone of this analysis is the supposition that the manufacturing SMEs are
able to create sustainable value from the implementation of sustainable practices by
operationalizing considerations relative to each of the four quadrants of the SVF
successively. Successfully operationalizing these considerations further challenges
manufacturing SMEs to find the right balance between the many elements of each
quadrant. This is in order to avoid the pitfalls of inaccurately going sustainable
practices. In contrast, the manufacturing SMEs are only able to establish tangible
steps in the process of going sustainable practices once a rating regarding their
current sustainable capabilities has been completed. Therefore, the primary focus
of this analysis is to rate the current capabilities of manufacturing SMEs in each

successive quadrant of the SVF. Capabilities in each quadrant are rated on a scale
ranging from non-existent, emerging, established to institutionalized. This rating is
important to get a better understanding of the status quo regarding manufacturing
SMEs’ sustainable practices capabilities. In fact, the ultimate goal of this analysis is
to help manufacturing firms to identify the next steps they can take to successfully
undergo sustainable practices. As the manufacturing SMEs’ current capabilities have
been discussed, the next course of action can be undertaken relative to each quadrant
of the SVF.
26.4.1.1 Quadrant 1—Pollution Prevention
Status Quo: The goal in Quadrant 1 is to adapt the manufacturing SMEs’ practices in
order to lower the emission streams from current operations. Manufacturing SMEs’
current pollution prevention capabilities can be rated as emerging at best. Even though
firms do have some practices in place and aimed at lowering the waste generated from
current operations, these practices are not specifically geared towards limiting their
operations’ environmental and sustainable impact. Transforming current practices
requires a commitment to the environment in which manufacturing SMEs’ operations
are embedded. Furthermore, manufacturing SMEs do have some complementary
resources in place which can greatly aid in the process of streamlining environmental
best practices. Even though their current practices represent a starting point as far as
manufacturing SMEs’ sustainable endeavours are concerned, they still have a long
way to go in developing their pollution prevention capabilities.
Next Steps: There are a number of sustainable best practices that manufacturing
SMEs can use in order to make their operations more sustainable (e.g. Zein et al.
2008). Yet even the longest of journeys begin with a first step, thus choosing to
embark on any sustainable journey is better than idly standing by for some manu-
facturing SMEs. More important than which sustainable strategies firms choose to
pursue is the manner in which they tackle these challenges, which will ultimately
determine their success and sustainability. Thus, successfully implementing sustain-
able practices into their operations requires manufacturing SMEs to first establish
a commitment to the natural environment in which they operate and the preserva-
tion of its resources. Furthermore, sustainable practices serve the purpose of helping
manufacturing SMEs reduce their waste and cost resulting from current operations.
As each SME represents a unique entity facing unique challenges when moving to
sustainability agenda, completing a checklist for sustainable practices is a solid next
step each manufacturing SME can take in order to successfully implement sustain-
able practices. By the insight generated from this firm-specific analysis, the com-
plementary resources firms currently possess in the process of going sustainable are
also revealed. Finally, the importance of properly documenting sustainable endeav-
ours must be emphasized thoroughly. Properly quantifying the impact that current
operations have on the environment and the influence that implementing sustainable
300 P. Yacob et al.
practices has on these operations is a means through which the manufacturing SMEs
can monitor the success or failure of their sustainable practices undertakings.
26.4.1.2 Quadrant 2—Clean Technologies
Status Quo: The focus of Quadrant 2 is on acquiring clean technologies and devel-
oping the proper competencies which facilitate manufacturing SMEs use in the long
run. Manufacturing SMEs’ current capabilities regarding the adoption of clean tech-
nologies can be rated emerging at best. Though some manufacturing SMEs have
integrated sustainable technologies into their operations to a certain extent, other
manufacturing SMEs are yet to invest in basic technologies which could help them
streamline the execution of sustainable practices in the long run. This highlights a
gap in resources available to manufacturing SMEs in the process of going sustain-
able practices and represents a major weakness in their ability to achieve long-term
growth and sustainability.
Next Steps: Adopting clean technologies enable manufacturing SMEs to play a
pro-active role in managing their environmental impact, yet each SME has unique
technological needs when it comes to their current levels of technological sophis-
tication. Therefore, manufacturing SMEs need to first identify which technological
innovations meet their current sustainable needs. Second, reaping long-term benefits
associated with clean technologies requires SMEs to manage the competencies devel-
oped by their employees as well. This can be achieved by establishing a roadmap
today for which competencies need to be developed in order to sustain clean tech-
nologies and successively to ensure that these competency development needs can
best be met in the sustainable practices endeavour. Finally, shifting manufacturing
SMEs’ technological capabilities towards more sustainable technologies can only be
considered if and when the current gap in their access to sustainable technologies is
bridged. Fact remains that the resources needed to acquire sustainable innovations
are only half the story. Maintaining them can lead to future costs which are cur-
rently unforeseen, potentially hindering the entire sustainable value creation process
if inadequately planned. Therefore, manufacturing SMEs should only invest in clean
technologies they can feasibly maintain in the long run.
26.4.1.3 Quadrant 3—Product Stewardship
Status Quo: The focus of Quadrant 3 is on integrating stakeholders’ views into busi-
ness processes. Manufacturing SMEs currently do not engage their key stakeholders
in their sustainable endeavours as they are yet to institutionalize sustainable prac-
tices. Therefore, their capabilities of engaging suppliers in their sustainable practices
can currently be rated non-existent.
Next Steps: Even though manufacturing SMEs are only able to engage suppliers
once sustainable practices have been institutionalized, manufacturing SMEs are able
to communicate their sustainable intentions to suppliers beforehand. Besides reap-

ing goodwill from supplier through these efforts, manufacturing SMEs are able to
engage this supplier by inquiring their creative solutions for sourcing more sustain-
able materials. Informing suppliers the sustainable intentions of the firms can also be
done online through the firm’s website. Furthermore, there are other simple measures
that manufacturing firms can integrate across the suppliers’ cycle to engage supplier
without having sustainable practices institutionalized, e.g. providing the supplier
with customers material data and include suppliers’ participation in R&D process
and value engineering process.
26.4.1.4 Quadrant 4—Sustainability Vision
Status Quo: The goal of Quadrant 4 is to enable manufacturing SMEs to capitalize

on future markets by strategically aligning with incumbent industry operators and the
government. Manufacturing SMEs are only able to positively contribute to a strate-
gic alliance with incumbent industry operators and the government if and when they
have successfully integrated sustainable practices into their own operations. Given
that manufacturing SMEs are yet to institutionalize these practices, their capabilities
for aligning with complementary partners in pursuit of sustainable value are cur-
rently also non-existent. However, most manufacturing SMEs interviewed realize
the growing importance of going sustainable practices in the development of future
markets, and they are challenged to prepare today for these future developments.
Next Steps: Crystallizing the sustainable growth of the entire industry challenges
incumbent industry operators and the government to unite in an effort to empower the
most fragile elements operating within the industry. Because manufacturing SMEs
share a common customer base with large manufacturing firms and their operations
ultimately impact the society for which the local government is responsible. These
three parties are able to translate their current shortcomings into sustainable value for
the entire industry. By aligning their sustainable practices undertakings with those
of large manufacturing firms, manufacturing SMEs are also empowered through the
technological resources and social legitimacy that large manufacturing firms con-
tribute to such a strategic alliance. In the same token, the cost–benefit manufacturing
SMEs can reap by developing sustainable practices competencies at the group level
with complementary partners can play a key role in their long-term growth. Fur-
thermore, the government is able to pro-actively meet their societal obligations by
providing tax incentives for manufacturing firms willing to go sustainable practices,
freeing up funds to invest in clean technologies. Therefore, it is important for man-
ufacturing SMEs to establish communication channels today with incumbent indus-
try operators about the many benefits all parties can reap by strategically aligning
their sustainable practices efforts. These efforts could foster the reciprocal behaviour
necessary for the formation of a partnership in the future. The next concrete steps
manufacturing SMEs can undertake to create sustainable value over time, along with
the practical implications that operationalizing considerations relative to each of the
four quadrants, are discussed in the following sub-section.
302 P. Yacob et al.
Fig. 26.2 Perpetual path manufacturing firms
26.4.2 Creation of Sustainable Value
The bold line in Fig. 26.2 represents that the perpetual path manufacturing firms must
travel in order to successfully implement sustainable practices into their operations
over time. The horizontal axis represents the time that manufacturing firms should
dedicate to correctly plan sustainable activities and the vertical axis represents the
actual execution of planned activities.
Creating long-term sustainable value from the implementation of sustainable prac-
tices challenges manufacturing SMEs to successfully operationalize considerations
relative to each of the four quadrants of the SVF. Successfully operationalizing
activities over time enables manufacturing SMEs to generate sustainable value in
their operations. However, successfully operationalizing these four quadrants chal-
lenges manufacturing SMEs to take into consideration not only what actions they
can undertake, but also how these practices are undertaken. More specifically, man-
ufacturing SMEs are challenged to find a balance between the operationalization of
the four quadrants, and this is achieved by taking a number of considerations regard-
ing first planning and successively executing each quadrant into account. In order to
achieve the SVF perpetual path, manufacturing SMEs must plan (identify, allocate,
include and develop) sustainable activities. Table 26.2 describes the planning stages
of sustainable activities to optimize the contents of SVF.
Table 26.2 Planning sustainable activities

Planning Descriptions
Identify Complementary resources and resource gaps. It is essential for manufacturing
SMEs to develop an understanding of where they currently reside on the path
towards sustainability before deciding to embark on sustainable practices. This can
be achieved by identifying the resources they dispose of and those they are lacking
in this process
Allocate Resources available based on resource mobilization necessary to adjust current
methods. The best practices ultimately are those which firms are able to tailor
specifically to their operating needs and require minimal resource mobilization in
order to adapt from the status quo
Include The costs of maintaining sustainable innovations in the long term. Assuring that
manufacturing SMEs take into account not only the current investment costs but
also future maintenance costs of going sustainable is essential to achieving
long-term success
Develop Coherent trajectories in achieving sustainable milestones and establish feasible
definitions of what achieving success actually means. This further challenges the
manufacturing SMEs to establish feasible ways in which to measure their
sustainable achievements like the bridging of resource gaps and the development of
employees’ competencies in the long run
26.4.2.1 Planning
Once the sustainable activities are planned, the next stage is to execute (Prioritize,
activate, document and monitor) the sustainable practices at the firm level first. Table
26.3 illustrates executing the sustainable activities to optimize the contents of SVF.
26.4.2.2 Executing
See Table 26.3.
26.5 Implications for Theory and Practice
Even though the data gathered in this study was from the manufacturing SMEs, the
sample taken is not representative of the industry as a whole. To gather a better under-
standing of how incumbent industry operators are able to successfully implement
sustainable practices, additional insight regarding the undertakings of more manu-
facturing SMEs is necessary. In addition, manufacturing SMEs’ abilities to conduct
sustainable operations are partly determined by the input of other ventures within
the same industry (e.g. suppliers). Therefore, investigating further how manufactur-
ing SMEs can cooperate with operators across their value chain can also provide
valuable insight into the critical success factors of manufacturing SMEs sustainable
304 P. Yacob et al.
Table 26.3 Executing sustainable activities

Executing Descriptions
Prioritize Execution of activities based on paths established in the planning phase.
Manufacturing SMEs’ ability to follow planned paths is a direct determinant of
their ability to achieve milestones of planned success
Activate The actual execution of planned activities based on milestones achieved in
previous quadrants. Manufacturing SMEs should only start executing
considerations relative to successive quadrants if and when planned measures of
success have been accomplished in previous quadrants. It is the degree to which
success has been booked in previous quadrants which provides successive ones
with substance; starting with Quadrant 1
Document The results of sustainable practices undertakings as established during the
planning phase. This body of knowledge gathered from successes and mistakes
can facilitate the learning process in manufacturing SMEs. Monitor progress
periodically in order to ensure that manufacturing SMEs’ progress is on track.
Practices should continuously be adjusted to reflect the changing needs and wants
of the market. Therefore, manufacturing SMEs should also continuously
reconsider the complementary resources they possess and identify new resource
gaps as they become relevant
Monitor Progress periodically in order to ensure the manufacturing SMEs’ progress is on
track. Sustainable practices should continuously be adjusted to reflect the
changing needs and wants of the market. Therefore, manufacturing SMEs should
also continuously reconsider the complementary resources they possess and
identify new resource gaps as they become relevant
practices undertakings. Even though the focus of this study has been on empowering
the manufacturing SMEs, perspectives are assumed in establishing the next steps that
can be taken in order to successfully institutionalize sustainable practices through
SVF. Henceforth, the perspectives of large manufacturing firm operating in the E&E
manufacturing industry are not inquired and thus serve as a potential avenue for
future research. Also, the creative ways in which governments are able to play a pro-
active role in fostering the mutual behaviour necessary to successfully implement
sustainable practices need further attention. The applicability of operationalizing
considerations relative to the four quadrants in the manufacturing industry is tested
in this research. However, another potential avenue for future research is testing out
the applicability of this framework in other industries. Gaining insight into the chal-
lenges that translating these considerations in terms relative to other industries will
in turn contribute additional insight into the generic considerations which are true
for all industries.
26.6 Conclusion
This study presents the analysis leading up to answering the main research question.
The goal is to identify what steps manufacturing firms can take to successfully imple-
ment sustainable practices in their operations. In order to achieve this, the insight
gathered from interviews with the owners/managers of five manufacturing SMEs are
presented in light of each of the three research propositions stated. Manufacturing
SMEs’ capabilities in each quadrant are then rated on a scale ranging from non-
existent, emerging, established to institutionalize. As a result, the considerations that
manufacturing SMEs must take into account in each quadrant to successfully imple-
ment sustainable practices are identified. By integrating sustainable practices into
their current operations, manufacturing SMEs are able to save costs whilst reduc-
ing the impact of their operations have on the environment. Finally, successfully
streamlining sustainable practices into current operations challenges manufacturing
SMEs to identify the complementary resources they currently have to their dispo-
sition which could aid them in the process of implementing sustainable practices
through sustainable value. In doing so, the resource gaps in manufacturing SMEs’
access to clean technologies also become apparent. On the long term, however, it
is the manufacturing SMEs’ ability to bridge these resource gaps and develop the
proper competencies which moderate their capability to reap the benefits associated
with adopting clean technologies. Therefore, it is important for manufacturing SMEs
to establish coherent roadmaps to ensure that the proper competencies are developed
to sustain adopted technologies. Finally, it is not only about what actions manufactur-
ing SMEs undertake but how they go about sustainable endeavours which ultimately
determines their long-term growth and sustainability.
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Chapter 27
Adaptability of SMEs
Owners’/Managers’ Environmental
Attitude and Values
Peter Yacob, Mohamad Fared, Nurliyana Maludin, Nur Syaheeda,

Adi Wira, and Darren Peter
Abstract In the quest for a sustainable society, green management has taken the
forefront. Nevertheless, manufacturing small–medium enterprises (SMEs) have on
the whole fallen behind in attempts to reduce environmental impact and have been
noted to face particular challenges in undertaking and implementing environmen-
tal improvements in their operations. Furthermore, the global burden of sustainable
green practices had begun to tilt sharply toward the developing countries such as
Malaysia, and this will be a significant challenge to meet the United Nation’s Sus-
tainable Development Goals. For this reason, the aim of this study encompasses own-
ers’/managers’ environmental attitude and personal values toward sustainable green
practices in Malaysian manufacturing SMEs. Furthermore, to fulfill this gap, this
study was conducted to examine the interrelationship between owners’/managers’
environmental attitude and personal values on sustainable green practices and to
understand what motivates SMEs owners/managers to improve their environmental
performance and explore the challenges faced in the SMEs. Administrative question-
naires were used to collect data from 260 manufacturing SMEs. Results indicated that
environmental attitude has a significant positive effect on the firm’s sustainable green
practices, but such effects were not shown by environmental values. It offers a gen-
eralized sustainable green practices implementation linking SMEs owners/managers
with the integration of Sustainable Development Goals 9 and 12.
Keywords Sustainability · Small–medium enterprise · Owners’/managers’ ·

Environmental attitude · Environmental values
27.1 Introduction
SMEs are essential in practical and political terms to respond to environmental prob-
lems. While the environmental effects of individual enterprises are smaller than
P. Yacob (B) · M. Fared · N. Maludin · Nur Syaheeda · A. Wira · D. Peter

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
D. Peter
308 P. Yacob et al.
those of bigger ones, they have a significant combined impact (Hillary 2017) and
provide significant potential for eco-innovation and pro-environmental influence
(Kim et al. 2017). Governments and organizations supporting company continue
to encourage SMEs’ environmental participation, primarily based on a “win-win”
argument that will simultaneously decrease expenses or boost competitiveness in
pro-environmental investments (Revell et al. 2010). However, it is hard to secure the
commitment of manufacturing SMEs to manufacture as they are often struggling
to comply with or stay unacceptable to classic “win-win” arguments (Horn 2014).
There is proof that manufacturing SMEs are engaged in environmental issues which
often arise from their owners’/ managers’ environmental behaviors (Brammer et al.
2012). It should be recognized that the role played by attitudes and values in the envi-
ronment of manufacturing SMEs is still under investigation (Schaefer et al. 2018). In
fact, the majority of research concentrate on big companies and either differentiate
between self-transcending values (Faller and zu Knyphausen-Aufseß 2018; Jansson
et al. 2017) or concentrate on a very small spectrum of values (Hillary 2017), and
the main subject of these research is big companies. In spite of this, the examina-
tion of individual attitudes and values in the context of SME is essential because
smaller companies are often formed out of personal beliefs instead of purely eco-
nomic reasons (Schaefer et al. 2018). Furthermore, the owners/managers in specific
tend to have broader strategic control rather than big firms’ managers (Faller and zu
Knyphausen-Aufseß 2018), and their attitude and personal values can impact their
general direction of the SMEs more directly (Schaefer et al. 2018). This study, there-
fore, attempts to undertake broad-based empirical investigations of manufacturing
SMEs owners’/managers’ environmental attitude and personal value in relation to
the context of sustainable green practices in Malaysia.
27.2.1 Owners’/Managers’ Awareness
With a growing understanding of environmental issues, the demand for the

environment-friendly product and services has grown. The previous study has shown
that environmental management procedures affected current and potential stake-
holder organizations in the form of internal pressures of politicians, environmental
organizations, economic institutions and customers (Jansson et al. 2017), and in-
house stress on the owners and managers of environmental expertise by employ-
ees (Gadenne et al. 2009). Despite the so-called “green” consciousness of a firm’s
owners/managers, their attitudes and personal value in sustainable green activities
remain insignificant (Williams and Schaefer 2013). Numerous studies, in compari-
son, focused on the barriers and drivers for manufacturing SMEs when considering
environmental improvements (Brammer et al. 2012), and many empirical studies
27 Adaptability of SMEs Owners’/Managers’ Environmental … 309
show that manufacturing SME owners/managers lack consciousness and engage-

ment to decrease their adverse effect on the environment (Revell et al. 2010; Bram-
mer et al. 2012; Gadenne et al. 2009). This is important to understand primarily
because the owners/managers feel that their environmental effect is minimal and
often they do not see any reason to improve their environment (Schlosberg 2019). At
the same time, this shows the trouble of attempting to make owners/managers aware
of this cohort. As such, this research aims to examine the contexts and mitigating
situations that sustainably adopt the green practice to owners/managers through their
environmental attitude and personal behavior.
27.2.2 Environmental Attitude
The personal approach of an owner/manager to the natural environment is, accord-

ing to Williams and Schaefer (2013), very significant in answering environmental
problems. In addition, Yacob et al. (2019) asserted that manufacturing SMEs with
owners/managers who are highly environmental in character implement a range of
environmental practices and guidelines for better environmental management. In
spite of this, Epstein (2018) stated that the dedication of top management affects envi-
ronmental management practices in companies considerably. Although the previous
study verified that managerial behaviors affect big companies directly (Brammer et al.
2012), very few research on small companies has asserted that this dependence is
unclear and further study needs to be done in order to verify the direction of manage-
rial attitudes toward the environment. Although this may be true, Cassells and Lewis
(2011) claimed that there is a lack of positive association of the owner’s/manager’s
position with the design of environmental and operating procedures for small com-
panies. Furthermore, Testa et al. (2016) emphasize the significance of evaluat-
ing the environmental impact of the owners’/manager’s attitudes of manufactur-
ing SMEs and implementing proactive environmental policies. While some surveys
of owners and management have shown an economic stance on company strategies
(Choudhury et al. 2019), none of them has stressed sustainable green practices among
manufacturing SMEs and how owners’/managers’ attitude will shape the decision-
makers understand sustainable green practices in SMEs. Therefore, this study aims
to examine the approach of the owners/managers on sustainable green practices in
SMEs.
27.2.3 Personal Values
Values are enduring, normative beliefs about adequate behavior norms, preferred
or desired outcomes (Rokeach 1979; Leung and Morris 2015). Fritzsche and Oz
(2007) discovered that altruistic or self-transcending values were favorably linked
to ethical decision-making by SMEs owners/managers, while Goebe et al. (2018)
310 P. Yacob et al.
claimed that self-enhancing values were negatively linked to ethical decision-making.

Unlike managers of big companies, small organization founders or owners/managers
often create companies that match their personal ambitions and philosophies. They
often have higher strategic and operational discretion over their company, and their
own vision of permeating organizational values and culture is generally within their
authority (Jamali et al. 2009; Cameron and Quinn 2011; Sleesman et al. 2018).
Personal ethics and business ethics can thus be closely aligned in SMEs than in
bigger companies (Kim et al. 2017; Williams et al. 2017). For these factors, Gadenne
et al. (2009) claim that ethics and religious values are the most coherent factors
behind SMEs’ sustainable green practices, and Madueño et al. (2016) indicate that
SMEs may be better positioned to embrace socially responsible practices than bigger
companies. These factors arose to some extent in empirical research connecting
values and environmental commitment (Revell et al. 2010; Schaefer et al. 2018; Rasi
et al. 2014). In specific, in environment-friendly SMEs like those belonging to a green
business network, owners’/managers’ private values seem to play a much greater role
in motivating pro-environmental behaviors than in other SMEs (Epstein 2018). In
summary, there is a lack of systematic, in-depth evidence on how owners’/managers’
value domains relate to their engagement with environmental issues and sustainable
green practices. Therefore, the present study seeks to examine owners’/managers’
personal value toward sustainable green practices in manufacturing SMEs.
27.3 Methodology
27.3.1 Respondents and Data Collection
The target population for this study is 768 manufacturing SMEs in Malaysia. Four
hundred manufacturing SMEs were contacted but only 272 manufacturing SMEs
returned the survey via conventional and electronic mail. The overall response rate
was 68.0%. However, nine respondents indicated that their firm is not adopting
any green initiatives approach toward sustainable green practices based on the 24
questions in the questionnaire form. In minimizing response bias that may disrupt the
interest of this research, this study excluded 13 responses, where 9 responses were
described above, and 3 additional exclusions were of a questionnaire which contained
more than 20% missing data. Therefore, the usable rate of return is 65.0%, and this
value is equivalent to 260 sets of data. Based on Babbie (2007) and Taherdoost (2017)
recommendation, this quantity is adequate for multivariate analyses and reporting as
they advocated for a minimum of 50% response rate.
27.3.2 Measurement Scale
A five-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” was used
for the questionnaire. To meet the study objectives, Section A of the questionnaire
titled “Demographic Profile” contains ten selected demographic questions of the
researcher. Section B titled “Environmental Attitude” contains six questions adapted
from Revell et al. (2010) and Gadenne et al. (2009). Section C titled “Personal Value”
contains six questions adapted from Dunlap et al. (2000). Finally, the dependent
variable titled “Sustainable Green Practices” in Section C and all six questions make-
up in this variable were adopted and translated from Cassells and Lewis (2011) study.
It is worth noting that a pre-test was performed by ten managers prior to proving
each questionnaire, helping to highlight questions which would not be clear or which
would lead to misunderstanding in response to each questionnaire. After the test has
been performed, we have produced changes to several issues so that the participants
can comprehend them completely.
27.4 Findings
The analysis of the research model and the hypothesis test was carried out using
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 23.0). The findings of this study
are divided into three sections. First section discloses the demographic result, whereas
the second section reveals the factor analysis result, followed by linear regression
analysis.
27.4.1 Demographic Results
The respondents to the survey consisted of 85.4% males and 14.6% females and
half of the respondents (53.8%) are in the age group of 41–50 years, followed by
30–40 years (27.3%), above 50 years (15.8%), and less than 30 years (3.1%). Most
of the respondents were a manager (37.7%), followed by owner (21.9%), director
(17.7%), head of the department (15.4%), and owner and manager (7.3%). The main
activities of responded SMEs are Electrical and Electronics (41.9%), followed by
apparel and textiles (20.8%), food and beverage (14.2%), rubber and plastics (18.1%),
and chemical products (5.0%). Almost half of the respondents have 6–10 years of
attachment in the organization (49.6%), followed by more than 10 years (25.8%), 2–5
years (23.8%), and less than 2 years (0.8%). Majority of the respondents have more
than 10 year’s attachment in the industry (80.4%), followed by 6–10 years (16.2%)
and 2–5 years (3.5%). Majority of the respondents were working in medium-sized
SME with 75–200 employees (75%), while another 25% working in small-sized SME
with 5–75 employees. Most of the company’s annual sales turnover was between
312 P. Yacob et al.
RM21 million and 40 million (66.5%), followed by between RM 11 million and RM

20 million (18.1%), and between RM 41 million and RM 50 million (15.4%).
27.4.2 Factor Analysis
To establish criteria ranking, factor analysis was conducted on 18 constructs using

the principal component analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation (Hair et al. 2010).
The result of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.921
with Bartlett’s test of sphericity significant at the value of 0.000, which indicated
the sample adequacy with statistical significance. The results shown in Table 27.1
demonstrate a degree of convergent validity for all 18 items as they had loadings
above 0.50 on their expected constructs. On the other hand, reliability analysis was
done to ensure that the measures of the variables are internally consistent across time
and across the various items measuring the same concept or variable (Sekaran and
Bougie 2016). The values of Cronbach’s alpha ranged between 0.864 and 0.942. As
these values exceed the minimum value of 0.70 (Nunnally 1978), it can be concluded
that the reliability level of the measures is acceptable.
27.4.3 Linear Regression Analysis
The purpose of linear regression analysis is to evaluate the relative impact of an

independent variable on a dependent variable (LeBreton and Tonidandel 2008). This
is different from a correlation analysis, where the purpose is to examine the strength
and direction of the relationship between two random variables (Zou et al. 2003). In
this study, the direct relationship between independent variables with the dependent
variable was tested. Table 27.2 provides the results related to the analysis of inde-
pendent variables of environmental attitude and personal value with the dependent
variable of sustainable green practices.
With reference to Table 27.2, H 1 was intended to predict sustainable green prac-
tices based on the environmental attitude of SMEs owners/managers. A significant
regression equation was found F(1, 258) = 152.535, p < 0.001, with an R2 of 0.372
and subsequently, environmental attitude accounted for 37.2% of variance in sus-
tainable green practices. It is predicted that sustainable green practices are equal to
unstandardized (B) coefficient of 4.018 + 0.392 unit when the environmental attitude
is measured. Therefore, sustainable green practices increased by 0.392 for each unit
of environmental attitude. With the above result, the regression model shows that
a positive relationship exists between environmental attitude and sustainable green
practices and H 1 is accepted.
Apart from H1 , Table 27.2 shows the result obtained for H2 in predicting sus-
tainable green practices based on the personal value of SMEs owners/managers.
A non-significant regression equation was found F(1, 258) = 12.843, p > 0.001,
Table 27.1 Factor loading and Cronbach alpha’s result
Variable Items Factor loading Cronbach’s alpha
Environmental attitude Environmental law 0.745 0.940
Environmental planning 0.830
Water pollution control 0.852
Energy efficiency 0.767
Air pollution control 0.839
Waste management 0.538
Personal value Human has the rights to modify the natural environment to suit their needs 0.631 0.864
When humans interfere with nature, it often produces disastrous consequences 0.824
Human severely abusing the environment 0.750
The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with the impacts of modern industrial 0.623
nations
Despite our special abilities, humans are still subject to the laws of nature 0.878
The so-called “ecological crisis” facing humankind has been greatly exaggerated 0.750
27 Adaptability of SMEs Owners’/Managers’ Environmental …
Sustainable green practices Products are designed in a way that minimizes adverse impact on the environment 0.560 0.942
Uses life cycle analysis to assess the environmental impact of the product 0.736
Carries out environmental audits at regular intervals 0.764
Requires all suppliers meet certain environmental criteria before sourcing materials 0.748
Our company hires external experts as a consultant in dealing with environmental issues 0.634
Has a clear vision of the importance of environmental policies 0.705
313
314 P. Yacob et al.
Table 27.2 Linear regression analysis

Hypothesis Variables R2 Unstandardized F Sig
coefficient B
H1 Environmental attitude 0.372 4.018 152.535 0.000
H2 Personal value 0.011 1.148 12.843 0.093
Note Dependent variable: Sustainable green practices. ***Correlation is significant at the 0.001
level (2-tailed)
Significant levels: ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05
with an R2 of 0.011. The R2 value indicates that nearly 0.11% of the variation in
owners’/managers’ personal value was predicted by sustainable green practices, and
according to Cohen (1988), this suggests a low effect. In addition, it is predicted
that sustainable green practices are equal to unstandardized (B) coefficient of 1.148
+ 0.103 unit when owners’/managers’ personal value is measured. Therefore, the
regression model Table 27.2 shows that a weak positive relationship exists between
owners’/managers’ personal values and sustainable green practices, and it is con-
cluded that even the levels of owners’/managers’ personal values increase, and then
it does not necessarily increase the levels of sustainable green practices. Therefore,
H2 is rejected.
27.5 Discussion
Based on the above result, the owners’/managers’ environmental attitude shows an

initial indicator that current manufacturing practices are investing managerial, tech-
nical, and financial resources in creating sustainable green practices in their man-
ufacturing SMEs. Furthermore, managerial attitudes are of critical importance in
relation to forming goals, as well as its impact on the subsequent action. Attitudes
are recognized as seriously influencing decisions and resource allocation to specific
actions in dealing with environmental issues (Colwell and Joshi 2013; Triguero
et al. 2016). This significant relationship was supported in studies by Gadenne
et al. (2009), Cassells and Lewis (2011) in which owners/managers expressed highly
positive attitudes through their environmental actions. Compared to other studies
(Schaefer et al. 2018; Rutherfoord et al. 2000), owners/managers were much more
inclined to emphasize their own role in solving environmental problems rather than
relying on the government to take lead. In addition to more sustainable practices
(Brammer et al. 2012), SME owners/managers and management staff who demon-
strated pro-environment behavior also demonstrated higher institutional participation
in those activities. In other words, the ecological view of owners/managers can affect
environmental strategies and results based on their cognitive significance (Jansson
et al. 2017; Yacob et al. 2019). In view of all the other forces influencing sustainable
green practice, such as the organizational resource and capacity, organizational struc-
ture and scheme, as well as the multiple stakeholders’ distinct concerns (Milfont and
Duckitt 2004), this correlation suggests that the attitude of owners/managers can be
among the most important variables affecting SMEs in sustainable green practice.
On the other hand, as perceived, SMEs owners’/managers’ personal values have
a relatively weak explanation power in the variance in sustainable green practices
aspects since there are a plethora of drivers that influence SMEs owners’/managers
behavior in SMEs (Rasi et al. 2014; Potocan et al. 2012). This confirms that own-
ers’/managers’ values are an important driver for SMEs owners’/managers’ percep-
tion toward sustainability (Nordlund and Garvill 2002). Considering actions that are
triggered by values, SMEs owners’/managers’ values emphasize personal success by
demonstrating competence in line with valid environmental standards. Furthermore,
the results for Malaysian SMEs owners/managers confirm that their heightened need
for achievements increased their personal values toward striving solely for envi-
ronmental results and sustainable green practices. Indeed, the determination of SME
owners/managers that their companies embrace sustainable green practices is largely
founded on rational choices (Nejati et al. 2014), which are the compensation between
expenses, advantages, and the risk to spread fresh technologies and apply them in
their business processes (Jain et al. 2016).
In conclusion, although the results show that owners’/manager’s personal val-
ues are weakly connected with sustainable green practices, SME’s owners/managers
still want to be environmentally friendly and want to positively affect sustainability
(Mitchell et al. 2011; Roxas and Chadee 2016). Any study designed to identify the
prospective drivers of environmental change must take into consideration the dis-
tinctive behavior, and connection, of SME owners/managers. Based on our results,
there are significant consequences for professionals and governments. The study’s
first implications relate to the business skills of SMEs. The entrepreneurial conduct
of owners/managers should be fostered through modifications of mind, procedures,
and decisions (Mukherji and Mukherji 2017; Serrano 2017). They must be proactive
in handling green issues, innovate and support fresh thoughts, and be prepared to take
risks in order to test fresh and uncertain products or services. They also need to be
more aggressive and compete with local and international players in a positive way.
The role of networking is the second implication. SME owners/managers need, in par-
ticular with appropriate public organizations and/or organizations, to develop and/or
reinforce their networking attempts. Luo et al. (2011) and Maltzie (2015) report
that higher level networking gives small- and medium-sized businesses preferential
access to use market data, a greater chance of monetary and non-monetary incen-
tives in governance, and help to decrease bureaucratic delays. SMEs must also make
use of networking possibilities, since they are crucial in achieving the achievement
of sustainable green practices, in terms of economic and non-financial assistance
(Garetti and Taisch 2012). The third implication is the preparation of the organiza-
tion. In order to be able to maintain their company in the long term, SMEs need
to create management skills and company skills. An SME leadership team should
be prepared not only to have diversity in technical and company abilities (Crane
et al. 2019), but also to work hard, be aware of any modifications in the environment
(Hillary 2017), be able to forecast behavior in the overseas market (Roxas and Chadee
2016), and take fast and precise choices (Choudhury et al. 2019). Owners/managers
316 P. Yacob et al.
should empower other executives to be more proactive and creative in their fields.
The coordination and integration with other SMEs, MNCs, and their suppliers and/or
subsidiaries could strengthen internal resources and strong competence.
In spite of the owners’/managers’ environmental attitude and personal values,
many variables can affect the long-term growth of manufacturing SMEs sustainable
green practices. However, we believe that, in the proactive interaction with envi-
ronmental sustainability, the degree of synergy between social and environmental
SDGs and the uniform geographic distribution of the technology will be crucial.
Although sustainable green practices have been argued to facilitate environmen-
tal sustainability when integrated with the SDG, the prospect of inclusion could
alter into a pessimistic situation. The pessimistic scenario shows an adverse effect
on environmental performance when combining certain elements such as unskilled
labor, high obsolescence, high customer demand, and low eco-efficiency (Ford and
Despeisse 2016). The starting point of the industrial structure is another factor that
can drive long-term responses because it might be influenced differently, and the
quality of modifications can differ among countries (Beier et al. 2017). To prevent
the pessimistic situation, new business models should be introduced in which social
media data can be used to encourage pro-environmental actions (Müller et al. 2018)
and select goods which are environmentally friendly. Customers and manufacturing
SMEs employees could also encourage feedback to co-create value (Aquilani et al.
2018).
27.6 Conclusion
Globalization has encouraged the emergence of customers who are environmentally

conscious and supportive of sustainable green practices. The results of this study
indicate the emergence of a valid and reliable sustainable green practices construct,
and the impact of this construct on business performance. The sustainable green
practices can be considered as a new, but the overlooked, capability of operations
management. It is considered overlooked because typically little is known about
these systems, despite several international standards and environmental systems
concerning environmental, health and safety which have been around for some time.
The focus of this study is to define and bring about a better understanding of the
impacts of green initiatives, owners’/managers’ intention toward green as well as the
green technology adoption in manufacturing SMEs.
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Chapter 28
An Overview of Real Estate Modelling
Techniques for House Price Prediction
Thuraiya Mohd, Nur Syafiqah Jamil, Noraini Johari, Lizawati Abdullah,

and Suraya Masrom
Abstract Housing price prediction in real estate industry is a very difficult task, and
it has piqued the interest of many researchers over the past years in the quest to look
for a suitable model to predict the price of property. For this reason, this paper aims to
review the literature on the application of modelling technique that is usually being
implemented to indicate the price prediction for properties. The modelling technique
includes the Artificial neural network (ANN), Hedonic price model (HPM), Fuzzy
logic system (FLS), Support vector machine (SVM), Linear regression (LR), Deci-
sion tree (DT), Random forest (RF), K-nearest neighbour (KNN), Partial least square
(PLS), Naïve bayes (NB), Multiple regression analysis (MRA), Spatial analysis (SA),
Gradient boosting (GB), Ridge regression, Lasso regression and Ensemble learning
model (ELM). All these models were reviewed, and the explanation of advantages
and disadvantages of each model was included. Hence, this paper reports the findings
of reviews made on models which deal with regression and classification problem.
Keywords Modelling technique · Real estate · Price prediction · House price

prediction · Programming · Regression · Classification
T. Mohd (B) · N. S. Jamil · N. Johari · L. Abdullah

e-mail: thura231@uitm.edu.my
N. S. Jamil
e-mail: shafiqahjamil1995@gmail.com
S. Masrom
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Tapah, Perak, Malaysia
e-mail: suray078@gmail.com

322 T. Mohd et al.
28.1 Introduction
Real estate has always had a high demand in every developing country and city.
Housing is one of the basic human needs, and property price is one of the criteria
for any purchaser to decide on purchasing a property (Ong 2013). Previous studies
have stated that property price is usually affected by a few factors that include eco-
nomics and physical characteristics such as location, environment, feature material
and branding (Mihaljek 2007; Burinskien 2011; Candas et al. 2015). In addition,
an other factor that makes property price become cumbersome to figure out is the
exact price of properties using conventional methods. The conventional methods are
inclusive of sales comparison, cost, rental, investment, profit and residual methods
that are used to predict the property price (Nejad and Lu 2017; Pagourtzi et al. 2003).
Currently, market data from real estate transactions show that the analysis of
property data over time causes the valuers to face difficulties in predicting housing
price (Sabina and Trojanek 2014). The problem is that accurate result in prediction of
real property price is crucial for developers, prospective owners, appraisers, investors,
tax assessors and other real estate market stakeholders. Hence, the industry may
require valuers to prepare a model in predicting the price of the property: the effort
would involve discussion and take into consideration various factors that can affect
the property price.
To achieve this requirement, some computing techniques that can handle big data
may become a suitable choice. These modelling techniques can simplify the research
on complicated data that contains relationship between independent variable (IV) like
a property price and dependent variable (DV) which means the feature. Due to these
matters, numerous researchers have utilized some modelling techniques like ANN,
HPM, FLS, SVM, LR, DT, RF, KNN, PLS, NB, MRA, SA, GB, ridge regression,
lasso regression and ensemble models. In relation to this study, researchers would go
through a few price prediction models and summarize those that are found to be suit-
able modelling techniques that are usually implemented in making price prediction
for properties.
28.2 Applications of Modelling Techniques in Property

Pricing: Review of the Literature
As stated earlier, there are several modelling techniques that are being implemented in
property price prediction. These modelling techniques are under econometrics which
means that modelling is more concerned with the use of statistical or mathematical
method.
An example of previous studies on real estate modelling technique is shown in
Table 28.1. They are put under the categorization of a regression or classification
modelling technique. Meanwhile, Sects. 28.2.1 to 28.2.16 discuss every modelling
technique that is listed in Table 28.1.
28 An Overview of Real Estate Modelling Techniques … 323
Table 28.1 Previous studies on real estate modelling technique

Author Modelling technique
Regression Classification
Ong (2013), Mihaljek (2007), Burinskien (2011) ANN
Candas et al. (2015), Nejad and Lu (2017), Pagourtzi et al. (2003) HPM
Sabina and Trojanek (2014), Chaphalkar and Sandbhor (2013), FLS
Rahman et al. (2019)
Núñez Tabales et al. (2013), Sasaki and Yamamoto (2018), Sarip SVM SVM
and Hafez (2015)
Kuşan et al. (2010), Giudice et al. (2017), Chen et al. (2017) LR
Lin and Chen (2011), Mu et al. (2014), Borde et al. (2017), DT DT
Dimopoulos et al. (2018)
Kuşan et al. (2010), Wezel and Potharst (2005a), Shinde and RF
Gawande (2018)
Wezel and Potharst (2005b), Ma et al. (2018), Baldominos et al. KNN
(2018)
Wezel and Potharst (2005b), Lee et al. (2018) PLS
Valle (2017) NB
Oladunni and Sharma (2016), Baldominos et al. (2018), MRA
García-Magariño et al. (2019)
Čeh et al. (2018), Yu and Wu (2016), Yusof and Ismail (2012), SA
Wu (2018)
Borde et al. (2017), Ozgur et al. (2016), Zhang et al. (2018) GB GB
Lin and Chen (2011), Yalpir and Unel (2017), Julia Zmolnig LASSO
(2015)
Yalpir and Unel (2017), Dejniak (2018) Ridge
Yang and Cao (2018), Neloy et al. (2019) Ensemble Ensemble
28.2.1 Use of ANN Model
The ANN is a machine learning (ML) model that is originally designed to replicate
the human brain’s learning (Soni and Sadiq 2015). ANN model has already been used
in property pricing matter (Chiarazzo et al. 2014) which is a study on classification
and forecast matters (Paireekreng and Choensawat 2015). ANN model is also being
widely implemented in other different research areas such as sciences and businesses
(Lee et al. 2018; Paliwal and Kumar 2009). This modelling technique is a highly
promising model and efficient for property pricing appraisal research (Chaphalkar
and Sandbhor 2013; Rahman et al. 2019; Núñez Tabales et al. 2013). ANN can be used
to predict the price of the properties price but only after one takes into consideration
both variable and independent variable involved (Chiarazzo et al. 2014). This review
shows that this model technique has been implemented for property price research
and it has also been widely utilized in other industries involving science and business.
324 T. Mohd et al.
28.2.2 Use of HPM Model
The HPM model is basically a regression equation that is estimated with the help
of regression analysis. This model works based on the assumption that goods are
heterogeneous, and each property is described as the sum of its individual properties:
this model was first applied by Lancaster (1966) (Fregonara et al. 2012). Furthermore,
the HPM model was studied by Bruce and Sundell (1977) (Touzani et al. 2018) who
claimed that the HPM was already used in real estate appraisal before 1954, between
1954 and 1964, as well as between 1964 and 1977. The demand during the study
duration of this model technique had seen it being practiced in a few classes of real
estate properties, such as urban bare land, rural bare land, multiple-family residences
and single-family residences. Together with other researches, this model is flexible
enough to be adapted in relationships among the IV and DV factors. It was noted that
most results generated by using this model were reliable and accurate (Lu et al. 2018).
Furthermore, a lot of previous research using HPM modelling technique compared
it with other models, which focused on properties pricing markets in America, the
West and Europe in particular. A few tests were conducted in the East, such as in
Japan (Candas et al. 2015), Hong Kong (Nejad and Lu 2017) and Taiwan (Pagourtzi
et al. 2003).
28.2.3 Use of FLS Model
The FLS is designed to mimic the function of human brain in making decision by
considering all quantitative and qualitative data to produce the best possible decision
(output) based on the given input factor. This model is already used in price prediction
of properties (Chaphalkar and Sandbhor 2013). FLS model can address the problem
of real estate price prediction since it is more accurate in modelling the relationship
between the IV and DV (Sabina and Trojanek 2014; Chaphalkar and Sandbhor 2013;
Rahman et al. 2019). In fact, this model is also widely being implemented in other
different researches too.
The FLS article was published between 1994 and 2014: it showed the review
made, which stated that majority of this technique was being implemented in the
management and business, engineering, science and technology, conflict resolution,
economic and planning, manufacturing, accounting and auditing, politics and envi-
ronment marketing and education, in their respective research fields (Xin and Khalid
2018; Manjula et al. 2017). To summarize, FLS modelling was widely used by
previous researchers by adopting this technique for variable selections of studies.
However, it was not widely implemented in real estate aspects compared to HPM
and ANN models.
28.2.4 SVM Model
SVM, also known as LSSVM model, is one of the models that can learn the input–
output functionality from existing samples and is able to map the special dynamic
into a high-dimensional feature space which can recognize pattern and analyse data.
SVM analyses data used for classification and regression analysis, and this model
is already being implemented in real estate price prediction cases (Núñez Tabales
et al. 2013; Sasaki and Yamamoto 2018; Sarip and Hafez 2015). The SVM model
can reduce the bias or problem in forecasting the property price, as it also provides
a better generalization in result after considering IV and DV like FLS model (Sarip
and Hafez 2015). Meanwhile, SVM also produces the best result in predicting the
real estate price compared to ANN, PLS and LSSVM models (Sasaki and Yamamoto
2018; Sarip and Hafez 2015).
To summarize, the SVM is one of the best machine learning algorithms, which was
proposed in 1990s and used mostly for pattern recognition. This model has also been
applied to many pattern classification problems such as image recognition, speech
recognition, text categorization, face detection and faulty card detection. Pattern
recognition aims to classify data based on either a prior knowledge or statistical
information extracted from raw data, which is a powerful tool in data separation in
many disciplines (Yang and Cao 2018).
28.2.5 Use of LR Model
The LR model is ML model. It is suitable to be implemented as a tool in real estate

modelling due to its less complex implementation. Nevertheless, the degree of error
is slightly above the average (Kuşan et al. 2010). LR is one of the well-known models
and is also known as ordinary least square (OLS) consisting of two types, namely
single linear regression (SLR) and multiple linear regression (MLR). The SLR model
is characterized by one IV; meanwhile, the MLR is characterized by more than one
IV. The LR model is used to estimate real estate value based on IV (property feature)
and DV (property price) (Kuşan et al. 2010; Giudice et al. 2017; Chen et al. 2017).
However, previous research shows that FR model is often found to produce less error
in result compared to LR when the study relates to price prediction in real estate
(Kuşan et al. 2010; Giudice et al. 2017; Chen et al. 2017). In actual fact, the LR
model can be implemented in predicting the value of real estate but the other models
like RF, DT and SVM models have performed better compared to the LR model.
326 T. Mohd et al.
28.2.6 Use of DT Model
A recent work established that DT is a type of supervised ML that has many analogies
in life. It turns out that it has influenced a wide area of studies including the real estate
industry. The DT models are trees that classify instances by sorting them based on
feature value. Each node in a decision tree represents a feature to be classified, and
each branch represents a value that a node can be assumed (Neloy et al. 2019).
This model enables the researcher to predict the output with most stability, accu-
racy and less error. It is used to predict any problems such as classification or regres-
sion, which produces a prediction model in the form of an ensemble of weak predic-
tion model (Soni and Sadiq 2015). In particular, the DT model is mostly being used
to indicate problems in predicting the price of a real estate modelling for decision-
making (Lin and Chen 2011; Mu et al. 2014; Borde et al. 2017; Dimopoulos et al.
2018).
Previous researches usually show the DT model dataset, and it has provided the
highest accuracy, which is beneficial for results, compared to the other models like
lasso, LR and SVM (Lin and Chen 2011), and the DT model has no problems
approximating linear relationships compared to the LR model (Mu et al. 2014; Borde
et al. 2017). In short, the DT model performed well when the matters are related to
prediction and the DT model does not have problems in approximating the linear
relationship based on IV and DV factors.
28.2.7 Use of RF Model
RF model is one of the most popular and powerful supervised MLs that can perform
both regression and classification tasks. It is also known as the regression forests,
and this model is usually being used to deal with the problems of predicting the
price of housing, price analysis and decision-making aspects of real estate (Kuşan
et al. 2010; Wezel and Potharst 2005a; Shinde and Gawande 2018). The RF model
can create forest with several decision trees. In general, the more the trees in the
forest, the more robust the prediction, and thus it provides higher accuracy to model
multiple decision trees to create the forest (Chiarazzo et al. 2014; Paireekreng and
Choensawat 2015). The RF model will create many decision trees on reboot training
samples and randomly select the feature and observation to build several decision
trees and choose the best average result (Lee et al. 2018).
In previous research, the findings show that RF model usually has better per-
formance than deep neural network model (DNN), and the RF model is found to
have less error than the other LR and KNN models when the matter is related with
property price prediction (Kuşan et al. 2010; Wezel and Potharst 2005a; Shinde
and Gawande 2018). To conclude, the RF model is efficient to be implemented in
predicting property price.
28.2.8 Use of KNN Model
The KNN model can be defined as a simple model that stores all available cases and
classifies the cases based on similarity measure (distance function): KNN has been
used in pattern recognition and statistical estimation in the beginning of 1970s as
a non-parametric technique (Paliwal and Kumar 2009). KNN usually performs the
classification tasks if they are related with real estate matters (Wezel and Potharst
2005b; Ma et al. 2018; Baldominos et al. 2018).
This model is already being implemented in dealing with the problem of econo-
metric concept to improve the pricing that will benefit buyers, banks and professional
real estate investor (Wezel and Potharst 2005b). Moreover, another problem is found
in the fluctuation of prices due to existing correlation with variables that cannot be
controlled or even unknown (opportunity for investment) (Ma et al. 2018). It is also
a model to use when facing problems that are related to estimation of missing prices
in real estate market using agent-based simulations (Baldominos et al. 2018).
The result from previous research stated that the KNN model can drive significant
variation in the performance, based on dataset provided (Ma et al. 2018). Some of
the studies showed that KNN model obtained higher performance compared to other
models such as LR, SVR and RF models (Baldominos et al. 2018). In addition, PCR
model performs slightly better than KNN when implementing the hedonic housing
theory (Wezel and Potharst 2005b). This model is suitable to solve the problem that
relates to classification.
28.2.9 Use of PLS Model
PLS is a statistical method that has some relation with principal component regression
(PCR) or principal component analysis (PCA), which responds between IV and DV.
It finds a linear regression model by analysing the x and y variables. The PLS model
is also known as bilinear factor model designed to deal with multiple regressions
when data has a small sample, multicollinearity or missing value (Gizem and Yesim
2018). This model is also being implemented in case studies that are related to price
prediction for apartment and real estate investment (Wezel and Potharst 2005b; Lee
et al. 2018). This model was very popular in hard science such as chemometrics and
chemistry which deal with a big problem with high number of correlated variable
and a limited number of observations (Gizem and Yesim 2018).
Previous researches show that PCR performs slightly better than KNN and SVR
models when the hedonic housing theory in investment of real estate is implemented
(Wezel and Potharst 2005b), and the researchers discovered a relatively high rate
of equivalent relationships under PCAs compared to RF model to predict price of
apartment (Lee et al. 2018). To emphasize, this model is suitable to be implemented
when faced with problems that are related to regression matter.
328 T. Mohd et al.
28.2.10 Use of NB Model
The NB model can be defined as a simple probabilistic classifier that describes the
probability of a set of outcomes based on knowledge of conditions that might be
related to the event (Abidoye and Chan 2017), and this model was introduced by
Pearl in 1988 (Sirmans 2005). An example of function is, if the age of building is
related to selling price of properties, then by using the NB model a building age can
be used to ensure the probability that price of building will increase based on age
factor. This can be compared with the assessment of building selling price probability
which is made without knowledge of building age.
Previous research shows that this model was implemented to predict the house
price after considering a few interests for both sellers and buyers. Result shows that
the NB model has significant improvement compared to the RF model. This is true
when it is related to the aspect of classification problem (Valle 2017). This model is
widely being implemented in other industries such as software industry (Wing et al.
2003), fault diagnosis (Chen and Rothschild 2010) and telecommunication sector
(Mardani et al. 2015) compared to real estate.
28.2.11 Use of MRA Model
The MRA model was introduced by Pearson in 1908. This model taught researchers
about the relationship between several IV and DV (Zahedi 1986). For example, estate
agent might prepare a record for each listing such as size of the property, age of the
building, number of bedrooms and a subjective rating of appeal of the property. When
this information is compiled for various properties, it would be interesting to see how
these IV (Feature of Property) is related to the DV (Selling Price) and to determine
which feature contributes to the sale of a property (Baldominos et al. 2018).
Previous research indicated that this model is widely being implemented in real
estate industry such as to make decision in real estate investment, find house prices
based on internet open access data and predict the price of real estate property
(Oladunni and Sharma 2016; Baldominos et al. 2018; García-Magariño et al. 2019).
The result stated that the MRA model is good for the application of mathematical
tool to aid analysis regarding decision-making in property investment and to predict
the price of property (Oladunni and Sharma 2016; García-Magariño et al. 2019). Even
though this model is suitable to be implemented in real estate industry, it functions
under conventional method. Today, the other models are more advanced compared
to MLR model.
28.2.12 Use of SA Model
The SA model is defined as an analytical technique to determine the spatial distri-

bution of variable. It refers to the relationship between the spatial distribution of
variable and the association of the variable of an area (Pradhan 2017). This model
usually refers to the analysis of phenomena distributed in space that has physical
dimension such as the proximity to and the location of area (Pradhan 2017).
Previous research about this model found that it has been already implemented
in real estate studies. However, for certain studies such as land appraisal under geo-
graphic information system (GIS)-based SA model (Čeh et al. 2018), it is suitable
for property price prediction (Yu and Wu 2016; Yusof and Ismail 2012; Wu 2018)
and GIS-based SA of housing price, as well as road density in proximity to urban
lake (Ikonomovska 2012).
In addition, majority of the results generated have shown that the SA model
was appropriate for the analyses of the spatial distribution of variable involved, in
predicting the property price (Yu and Wu 2016; Yusof and Ismail 2012; Wu 2018)
and also appropriate for studies that deal with the analyses involving GIS-based SA
model. A reviewer realized that this model was suitable for implementation in real
estate study but was useful only in certain studies that have a physical dimension.
28.2.13 Use of GB Model
The GB model is defined as one of the ML techniques for classification and regression
problem, and produces a prediction model by converting weak learners into strong
learners, typically as found in DT. This model was introduced by Friedman in 2001
(Ozgur et al. 2016). The GB model process is also known as stage wise. Stage wise
is defined at the point where in each new step the DT is added to the model at prior
steps that are not modified. It was only fitting DT to the residuals, and the model is
improved in the regions where it does not perform well. Furthermore, the GB model
is a powerful ML model that is gaining considerable traction in a wide range of
data-driven applications, such as biology, ecology and computer vision (Ozgur et al.
2016). This model is also being used in real estate industry.
Previous research shows that this model was being used for research in energy
consumption of commercial building, and the result stated that the GB model gen-
erated more accurate result compared to another model which is known as the time-
of-week-and-temperature (TOWT) (Ozgur et al. 2016). Meanwhile, the use of this
model in predicting the house market price has shown that house price market is being
measured accurately using GB model (Zhang et al. 2018). Another study regarding
the estimation of warehouse rental price using GB model stated that GB model has
provided better performance than the LR model. However, the RF model gave the
best performance in estimating rental (Borde et al. 2017). To summarize, the GB
model is suitable for both classification and regression problems.
330 T. Mohd et al.
28.2.14 Use of Lasso Regression Mode
Lasso model is an ML tool that is suitable to be implemented as a model in real

estate modelling technique. It was introduced by Robert Tibshirani in 1996 (Cutler
et al. 2014). The lasso model is known as least ‘absolute selection’ and ‘shrinkage
operator’. This regression analysis model can perform both regularizations and vari-
able selection in order to enhance the prediction in terms of more interpretability and
accuracy of the statistical model it produces. It can be implemented with the dataset
that has many features like real estate feature dataset. In order to avoid overfitting
during a model performance, lasso regression will perform L1 in regularization stated
in the formula. The consequence of L1 regularization is that when using the lasso
model, some coefficients are exactly zero. This means some features are entirely
ignored by the model. This is taken as a form of automatic feature selection. Having
some coefficients at exactly zero often makes a model easier to interpret and can
reveal the most important features of the model (Yalpir and Unel 2017).
Previous research indicated that this model was used for valuation of house price
prediction, and the result by lasso model gives the least accuracy, which is lower
than LR, DT and SVM models. This means the result is excellent (Lin and Chen
2011). Meanwhile, some researches show that the lasso model performed better than
ridge regression model when a matter is dealt with multicollinearity on modelling
house price prediction (Julia Zmolnig 2015). In another study regarding modelling
technique for property price prediction, the finding showed that the hybrid regression
(HR) model performed better than the lasso regression, ridge regression and GB
models (Yalpir and Unel 2017). Hence, the lasso model is very useful for feature
selection, and it has another benefit of removing useless features in this case study.
28.2.15 Use of Ridge Regression Model
Ridge model is an ML tool acknowledged as modifying the least squares method

(LSM) to enable it to have biased estimators of the regression coefficients in the
regression model. This means that it does not consider which independent variable
is more important than the others. This model is suitable to be implemented in case
studies with large number of features like real estate feature dataset. In order to
avoid overfitting, ridge regression performed L2 regularization stated in the formula
compared with lasso regression that used L1 regularization.
Previous research conducted by using this model in real estate industry showed
that the ridge regression model did not perform well as the lasso regression model
when a matter is dealt with multicollinearity on modelling house price (Julia Zmolnig
2015). Meanwhile, in a study of modelling technique for property price prediction,
the finding shows that the hybrid regression (HR) model performed better than the
ridge, lasso and GB models (Yalpir and Unel 2017). In another research regarding
real estate value prediction using multiple models, it is found that the lasso model
can overfit their model dataset using ridge model (Dejniak 2018). To summarize, a
ridge model is very useful for feature selection, and it has another benefit which is
to remove useless features in their dataset like lasso model (Yalpir and Unel 2017).
28.2.16 Use of Ensemble Model
The ensemble model typically refers to the model that generates several models by
combining it to make a prediction, either in regression or classification problem. This
means that this model was incorporated with various predictors (Gulati 2016). It is
defined as a process that uses a set of models: each of them is obtained by applying
a learning process to a given problem. This set of models is integrated in some way
to obtain the final prediction (Komagome-towne 2016).
Previous research in the study of house price prediction using ensemble model
stated that this model can improve the predicting stability and accuracy compared
to the RF, DT, gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) and XGBoost (XGBT) XGB
model (Gulati 2016). Meanwhile, a study on rental apartment prediction stated that
the ensemble model can produce more accurate prediction than SVM model when
the matter is in classification feature factor (Taneja et al. 2016). This model has been
the model of a significant amount of research in recent years, and usually it has
produced better results in its performance when it is related to classification problem
compared to the regression model.
28.3 Study on the Advantages and Disadvantages of Each

Model
Table 28.2 explained the advantages and disadvantages of every model that is
discussed in Sect. 28.2 after an analysis of each model in real estate aspect is
completed.
28.4 Recommendation on Suggested Modelling Technique

Used in Real Estate Modelling
The reviewer has done some studies based on findings by the other researchers. Anal-
ysis of the modelling technique was completed, and all information was gathered and
explained in Sect. 28.2. Advantages and disadvantages of these models are discussed
in Sect. 28.3. Based on the findings, the real estate modelling technique indicated
that the model technique is often implemented in cases related to regression and clas-
sification problem in real estate modelling. Therefore, the reviewer recommended
332 T. Mohd et al.
Table 28.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the model

Model Advantages Disadvantages
ANN Able to simulate the nonlinear function Low accuracy and convergence speed
and has strong expansibility and are not very ideal
evolutional ability
HPM The model is flexible enough to be Its ability to only capture consumers’
adapted to relationships among other willingness to pay for what they
market goods and external factor perceive as environmental differences
and their resulting consequences
FLS An alternative to the traditional It sets output but neglecting some
probability-based model for property relevant real estate risk factors
assessment and could reduce
uncertainty to a limited extent
SVM Mainly solving classification and SVM can find the global optimal
regression problems. Meanwhile, for solution. But when the samples are a
the linear undivided sample data, SVM lot, it leads to a higher complexity
mapped the samples to a
high-dimensional space to make them
linear separable. Also, good in solving
a high-dimensional problem due to the
SVM that does not need to use all of the
samples in dealing with problems and
only those support vectors are needed
LR Makes strong assumptions about the Hold single predictive formula over the
structure of the data and establishes a data and a regression tree breaks global
relationship between target output and model into local model using recursive
one or more input variables using a best partitioning and multiple regressions
fit straight line
DT Simple to understand, interpret and Can create over complex tree that do
visualize, decision trees implicitly not generalize the data well, this is also
perform variable screening or feature known as overfitting and that can lead
selection, it can handle both numerical to unstable result because small
and categorical data and can handle variation in the data might result in a
multi-output problem, decision trees completely different result
require relatively little effort from the
user for data preparation
RF Very good at handling tabular data with Data are randomly chosen to establish
numerical features. High accuracy each tree and features are randomly
among current algorithms, efficiency on selected in each split test as well
large data set and need for scaling or
other pre-processing. Have ability to
handle high-dimensional input
variables and missing data
KNN The measurement of attribute Need to consider assets like the one that
differences between a property and its researcher wants to predict. It can be
neighbours to arrive at a more precise problematic when dealing with
estimation of house value high-dimensional data with binary
attributes
(continued)

Model Advantages Disadvantages
PLS Good in solving the problem of Test statistics might be unreliable when
multiple variables, especially when all the data is not normally distributed (but
sample variables exhibit serious with many datapoints that problem gets
internal correlations mitigated), tendency to overfit data
NB Very easy for implementing the model Chance of loss of accuracy. NB model
and easy to understand. Meanwhile, in classifier cannot modify dependencies
estimating the parameters they only because dependencies exist between
need a very few amounts of training variables
data
MRA Makes possible the coefficient estimates No exact linear relationship between
and possible factor weightings using a independent variables. If more variables
large number of realized sales are correlated, the parameter
calculation could be problematic or
even impossible
SA Can represent rich geospatial attributes It is hard to run query on. Especially
in a condensed manner that’s certain join queries that require many
semantically easier to understand and geospatial measurement or operation
reason about for join condition
GB Can be used to solve almost all More sensitive to overfitting if the data
objective function that under the is noisy and the training generally takes
gradient out. This including things like longer because of the fact that trees are
ranking and position regression, which built sequentially
RF is harder to achieve
Lasso Good for eliminating trivial genes Not good for grouped selection
Ridge Multicollinearity, biased but smaller Shrink coefficient to zero but cannot
variance and smaller Mean Squared produce a parsimonious model, not
Error (MSE), Good for group selection, good for eliminating trivial genes
also explicit solution
Ensemble Respect to single model that has been Sensitive to noise and outliers
reported in terms of increasing
accuracy and robustness
some models that are suitable to be used in real estate based on relevant problems
which have arisen. The most frequently used model for regression problem is HPM,
FLS, SVM, LR, DT, RF, PLS, MRA, SA, GB, lasso, ridge and ensemble models.
Meanwhile, for classifications problem, models, namely the ANN, SVM, DT, KNN,
NB, GB and ensemble, are used.
In Sects. 28.4.1 and 28.4.2, the reviewer will offer advice on the modelling tech-
nique that can generate accurate result for problems identified under the regression
and classification categories.
334 T. Mohd et al.
28.4.1 The Modelling Technique for House Price Prediction

Using Regression
The reviewer acknowledged and recommended that the SVM, DT, RF, PCR, MRA,
GB, lasso, ridge and ensemble are highly promising models and efficient to use for
house price prediction study when a matter related with regressions problem was
placed between the IV (property feature) and DV (property price). Meanwhile, the
LR model can be implemented in predicting value of real estate. However, the other
model explained earlier has performed better compared to the LR model.
Furthermore, HPM is another famous model and it is already used in real estate
industry since 1954. Most of the results generated by this model are good—a tes-
timony of its performance. Nevertheless, one has to understand that this modelling
technique is from a conventional model and the reviewer would like to suggest the
other model that has advanced performance features. This is because other models
that can perform better produced accurate result. Moreover, even FLS model can also
address the problem of predicting real estate price in order to generate more accurate
result in the relationship between the IV (property feature) and the DV (property
price). However, most previous researches show that this model is widely being
implemented in other industries compared to the real estate industry. Subsequently,
the SA model is also being used in real estate study to predict the property price. This
model is more suitable in cases related to the analysis of phenomenon distributed in
space that has physical dimensions such as the proximity, location and matter that
required the use of GIS software. To conclude, the reviewer would like to suggest all
the models explained before, to be implemented in dealing with matters pertaining to
regression problem. Are the other researcher used all the models suggest they must
be aware of the objective of their case study and understand the function of model
before implementing the model suggested.
28.4.2 Modelling Technique for House Price Prediction

Using Classification Model
The reviewer acknowledges and recommends ANN, SVM, DT, NB and ELM models
as highly promising models and efficient for property price prediction study when
the issue is related with classification problem between the IV (property feature) and
the DV (property price), compared to KNN model. The KNN model would perform
efficiently when this model is combined with hedonic price theory. Moreover, it is
also suitable for cases related to econometric concepts like to improve the pricing
that will benefit buyer, banks, investor and real estate professional. To conclude,
the reviewer suggests all the models discussed can be implemented in solving the
classification problem. Nevertheless, researchers should be aware of the objective of
the case study if they want to implement the model suggested since every model has
its own advantages and disadvantages.
28.5 Conclusion and Recommendation on Model

Technique for Real Estate Price Prediction
This review highlights suitable modelling techniques for property price prediction
and factors that should be considered before implementing them in order to predict
the price of the house. Based on the review of previous research of the other models
that are already implemented in real estate case study, one must take the reports into
consideration. The way to choose suitable model must be based on the best result
performance from a modelling technique, the advantages and disadvantage of the
modelling technique, the objective of the case study and the matters that need to be
solved by the researcher. As recommendations, the models that are usually being
used for regression problem are HPM, FLS, SVM, LR, DT, RF, PLS, MRA, SA,
GB, lasso, ridge and ensemble models. Meanwhile, for classification problem, the
previous research applied ANN, SVM, DT, KNN, NB, GB and ensemble models.
This review will help the researcher, especially those who want to implement the
modelling technique in their research which is related to real estate modelling. This
is necessary to ensure that they can choose the most suitable model that can be
utilized in their case study.
Other recommendations for further research could be suggested from the
abstracted review. First, the machine model used in overall real estate study is divided
into two problems which are regression and classification: these could be used in
the invention of most modelling technique. Still, all model techniques need to be
considered based on the objective of the case study.
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Chapter 29
ASEAN’s Rohingya Dilemma: Limits
of Regional Co-operation
Rubiat Saimum
Abstract Since its foundation in 1967, the member states of ASEAN have estab-
lished co-operation mechanisms in a number of sectors, ranging from trade to envi-
ronmental protection. ASEAN has been highly successful in achieving co-operation
in trade and commercial issues. However, it has been unable to achieve similar level
of co-operation in political and humanitarian issues. For instance, the ASEAN has
failed to deliver a unified response against the human rights violations of Rohingya
people in Myanmar. Though the declaration of 34th ASEAN Summit in 2019 calls
for ‘safety and security for all communities in Rakhine state’ and facilitation of the
‘voluntary return of displaced persons in a safe, secure and dignified manner’, it failed
to mention a timeline of such repatriation process. Moreover, the declaration did not
criticize the actions of Myanmar’s military in the Rakhine state. This study offers a
critique of ASEAN’s traditional approach of diplomacy known as ‘ASEAN Way’.
Examining a set of relevant issues, the study seeks to outline the legal, institutional
and political factors which prevented a unified ASEAN response to the Rohingya
crisis. Through a qualitative analysis, it concludes with an observation that the failure
to develop an institutional mechanism to deal with political and human rights issues
in South-East Asia could hinder ASEAN’s objective of becoming a more integrated
‘European Union’-like community.
Keywords ASEAN · Myanmar · Rohingya crisis · Regional co-operation
29.1 Introduction
Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) is regarded as one of the most

important inter-governmental organizations in the global south. The organization was
formed in 1967 to support intra-regional co-operation among the South-East Asian
countries. Since formation, the organization has promoted co-operation in trade, secu-
rity, education, etc. The ASEAN states, despite disagreements on many issues, have
achieved a high degree of intra-regional economic integration. The intra-regional
R. Saimum (B)
University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
e-mail: rubiatduir48@gmail.com
340 R. Saimum
trade now stands at 24% of total ASEAN trade volume. Moreover, the organization
has successfully eliminated 99.6% of all intra-ASEAN tariffs and pledged to pur-
sue even greater regional integration under the purview of the ASEAN Economic
Community (AEC) blueprint 2025 (ASEAN 2017).
Though ASEAN has achieved an apparent success in the arena of economic co-
operation, its record on humanitarian and political issues are not so promising. In
regard to the Rohingya refugee crisis, it has failed to take effective measures to
prevent the ‘ethnic cleansing’ of the Rohingya minorities in Myanmar. Despite global
outrage and ‘urge for action’, ASEAN leadership did not hold Myanmar accountable
for its treatment of Rohingya people. Even though ASEAN has initiated dialogue
and co-operation with Myanmar on the issue of refugee influx, it did little to change
Naypyidaw’s policy towards the Rohingya people. Several ASEAN countries, such as
Malaysia and Indonesia, have pursued a more pro-active role in the crisis. However,
their efforts were unsuccessful due to the lack of consensus among the ASEAN
stakeholders.
Three factors need to be analysed to understand ASEAN’s apparent inability
to take strong measures against Myanmar. First, from a legal point of view, ‘non-
interference’ principle, enshrined in Article 2(e) of the ASEAN charter, has been a
core feature of intra-ASEAN relations. Hence, the centrality of ‘non-interference’
and ‘state sovereignty’ in ASEAN doctrine has made it legally difficult for ASEAN
leadership to take strong measures against Myanmar’s human rights abuses.
Second, ‘consensus building’ has been the core ‘modus operandi’ of ASEAN’s
diplomacy. The decision-making process of the organization is mainly driven by
consultation and dialogue. But such a process has made the organization’s ‘conflict
management’ mechanism slow and ineffective. In the context of the Rohingya crisis,
the member states have not been able to reach a consensus on how to approach the
Myanmar government on the issue.
Third, ASEAN has not been able to set up an ‘institutional framework’ to deal
with the issues of human rights violations and refugee rights. Historically, the orga-
nization has prioritized the economic issues over humanitarian ones. However, the
organization had addressed the human rights issue through the ASEAN Intergovern-
mental Commission on Human Rights (AICHR). But the commission lacks a legal
mandate to implement necessary measures.
By analysing the three aforementioned factors, the study seeks to explore the
legal, political and institutional limitations of ASEAN in dealing with the Rohingya
refugee crisis.
29.2 Background of the Rohingya Crisis
The Rohingya people are an ethnic minority group of Muslim faith from Myanmar’s
Rakhine state. Since the Independence of Myanmar, the Rohingya people have faced
intense persecution in the hands of Myanmar’s state apparatuses. Officially, Myan-
mar recognizes 135 ethnic groups as ‘indigenous races of the country’. However,
29 ASEAN’s Rohingya Dilemma: Limits of Regional Co-operation 341
Rohingyas are not recognized as one of the ‘National races’. The Myanmar gov-
ernment refuses to acknowledge the term ‘Rohingya’; instead, it prefers the term
‘Bengali’ to characterize the Muslims of northern Rakhine state (Cheesman 2017).
Many historical and political factors are responsible for the current situation. But it
was the Citizenship law of 1982 that rendered the Rohingyas ‘stateless’. The law
only recognizes the ‘ethnic groups’ who have been residing in the country before
1823. The Rohingyas, according to Myanmar’s state-sanctioned historical narrative,
are Bengali Muslims who migrated from British India after the Anglo-Burmese war
in 1824 (Haque 2017).
However, there are many historical pieces of evidence to support the claims of
Rohingya’s presence in Myanmar before 1823. For example, Azeem Ibrahim, study-
ing historical records, stressed that the Rohingyas could be the earliest Indian settlers
in the region, even before the arrival of Buddhist Rakhines in Arakan, now known as
Rakhine state. He also mentioned the historical accounts of Francis Buchanan who
in 1799 referred to the local Muslims of Arakan as ‘Rooinga’ (Ibrahim 2018). Many
historians believe that the name ‘Rohingya’ is derived from the term ‘Roshang’,
the ancient name of the Rakhine state which suggests the indigenousness of the
Rohingyas. Bengali and Rakhine chronicles also show a close cultural link between
Arakan and Bengal in ancient times, which is supported by the fact that Bengali
literature was widely practiced in the Arakan’s Royal court in Middle Ages (Haque
2017). Given the fluid nature of the border between Bengal and Arakan, people could
freely move across the regions in ancient times which partly explains the presence
of a large Rakhine population in south-eastern Bangladesh and Muslim Rohingya
presence in Rakhine state.
The statelessness of the Rohingyas has opened the door for their political marginal-
ization. Since 1948, the Rohingyas have faced severe state-backed oppression in
different phases. The first phase of violence occurred in 1978 when the Myan-
mar military drove over 200,000 Rohingyas into Bangladesh. The Rohingyas were
again driven out in 1991–92 period by the military government of State Law and
Order Restoration Council (SLORC) (Ullah 2011). The latest round of violence in
Rakhine state took place after Rohingya militants attacked Myanmar security forces
in three posts along the Bangladesh–Myanmar border in August 2017. In response,
the Myanmar army launched a military operation that triggered a fresh refugee influx
into Bangladesh (Albert and Chatzky 2018). According to the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), since 2017, more than seven hundred thou-
sand Rohingya refugees have arrived in Bangladesh from Myanmar. Based on reports
of widespread human rights violations, the United Nations has labelled Myanmar’s
actions in Rakhine state as a ‘textbook example of ethnic cleansing’ (Safi 2017).
However, global condemnation and Western sanctions have brought no meaningful
change in Myanmar’s policy towards the minority group, partly due to the indiffer-
ences of regional actors to the humanitarian situation in the Rakhine state. Moreover,
Myanmar has been able to secure the support of its two large neighbours, namely,
India and China on the Rohingya issue. China especially has been aggressively pro-
moting Naypyidaw’s interests in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) by
blocking the path for a practical resolution of the Rohingya crisis.
342 R. Saimum
29.3 ASEAN’s Response to the Rohingya Crisis
Myanmar’s atrocities against Rohingyas have created a debate on the effectiveness

of ASEAN’s diplomacy and conflict management mechanism. Contrary to global
expectations, the ASEAN leaders have failed to hold Myanmar accountable for the
human rights violations against the Rohingya Muslims. Though ASEAN has put
forward a joint statement on the Rohingya crisis during the 34th annual summit, it
was vague and inadvertent. The joint statement reiterated the points of past ASEAN
statements with no clear framework for resolving the crisis. It even failed to mention
the term ‘Rohingya’ to characterize the stateless Muslims of Rakhine state (Barber
2019). The organization has also shown a lack of interest in engaging in the refugee
repatriation process directly. Instead, it has called on Bangladesh and Myanmar to
work towards a timeline for refugee repatriation without committing any involvement
in the process.
ASEAN has been accused of ignoring the political realities of the Rakhine state.
On June 2019, a report titled ‘ASEAN Preliminary Needs Assessment for Repatria-
tion in Rakhine State’ leaked to the media. The report estimated that the repatriation
of Rohingya refugees to Myanmar would be completed within 2 years. Many com-
mentators have cast doubt on the assessment of the report as it portrays Myanmar’s
efforts in an overly positive light while ignoring the situation on the ground. Amnesty
International dismissed the report for failing to mention the ‘military atrocities’ by
Myanmar military that initiated the refugee exodus (Kit 2019). Human rights watch
(HRW), on the other hand, accused ASEAN of disregarding the ‘root causes’ of the
problem which need to be addressed before the safe return of the refugees (Human
Rights Watch 2019).
Despite falling short of its responsibilities, many have defended ASEAN’s efforts
vis-à-vis the Rohingya crisis. They argue that ASEAN simply does not possess the
resource or the mandate to change the course of a member state’s policy. Such line
of argumentation reinforces the idea of legal, political and institutional limitations
of the organization.
29.4 Intra-ASEAN Co-operation on the Refugee Issue
Many policymakers in South-East Asia have long espoused the ‘ASEAN Way’ as the
organization’s primary diplomatic approach. Based on twin principles of consulta-
tion and consensus building, the approach has been in the heart of regional security
co-operation among the ASEAN states. While the approach, in theory, could ensure
a peaceful regional order, its applicability in an actual crisis is questionable as it is
difficult for member states to balance national security interests within a multilateral
framework. In the case of ASEAN, ‘national interest’ has been the key driving force
for regional co-operation. The ASEAN states generally co-operate in a wide range of
trade and economic-related issues because they see tangible benefits in such arrange-
ments. However, ASEAN’s economic co-operation did not translate into a full-scale
security co-operation as it would require delegating at least some national security
functions of the state to a supranational body. While consensus and consultation as
diplomatic tactics may be viable for economy and trade-related negotiations, it may
not yield the same level of success in a humanitarian crisis situation, because in
cases of internal humanitarian crisis, the states, in order to find resolution, have to
compromise on ‘fundamental national interests’ such as sovereignty and territorial
integrity (Acharya 1997). In Myanmar’s perception, the Rohingya issue is tied to its
sovereignty, citizenship and territorial integrity. At first, it showed reluctance to dis-
cuss the issue in a multilateral platform such as ASEAN. But growing international
pressure has pushed Myanmar towards greater co-operation with ASEAN on the
Rohingya issue. Such co-operation in Naypyidaw’s view could boost its international
credibility without compromising its position on the Rohingya issue.
Moreover, South-East Asia has not experienced a refugee influx in the scale of
the Rohingya crisis since the Vietnam War. Even in the Vietnam War, the nature of
the crisis was significantly different from the Rohingya crisis. Besides, even within
ASEAN, not all the member states have a similar perception of the Rohingya issue
since it has been regarded as a ‘domestic matter’ of Myanmar. Hence, the major
challenge for ASEAN is to formulate a ‘balanced response’ that can accommodate
the diverse viewpoints within the community. While a ‘balanced response’ may
preserve unity within the ASEAN community, it may not be an appropriate approach
to resolving the crisis.
There are concerns that pressurizing Myanmar on the Rohingya issue could push
Naypyidaw more into Beijing’s orbit of influence as China has been the core supporter
of Myanmar in international arena. Such scenario could dilute ASEAN consensus in
regards to China on contentious bilateral issues like South China Sea. Besides, the
Rohingya crisis has exposed the internal power struggle between Myanmar military
and the Suu Kyi-led government of National League for Democracy. Both sides are
trying to garner the support of the Burman Buddhist majority by taking anti-Rohingya
stance (Saimum 2019). Thus, ASEAN’s strong pro-Rohingya issue might erode the
organization’s legitimacy among the country’s general public.
However, there are several security, political and economic implications of keep-
ing the Rohingya issue unresolved. The transnational terrorist groups operating in the
region could potentially radicalize vulnerable Rohingyas. Besides, the crisis could
jeopardize the ‘democratization’ of Myanmar and hinder the economic progress of
the country (Lego 2017). Thus, the continuous involvement of ASEAN in resolving
the issue is vital for the peace, prosperity and security of entire South-East Asia.
344 R. Saimum
29.5 Legal, Institutional and Political Limitations

of ASEAN vis-à-vis Rohingya Crisis
The biggest obstacle towards a greater ASEAN involvement on the Rohingya issue
comes from the organization’s guiding principle of ‘non-interference’. The ‘non-
interference’ clause enshrined in article 2 of the ASEAN charter calls upon the mem-
ber states to respect ‘the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity and
national identity’ of all ASEAN nations. Similarly, it promotes the notion of ‘peace-
ful settlement of disputes’ and forbids the ‘use of force’ in regional disputes. The
policy of ‘non-interference’ largely derives from the customary international laws
firmly entrenched in the UN charter (Goh 2000). However, unlike the United Nations,
ASEAN does not adhere to an institutionalized notion of ‘collective security’. Instead,
it defines regional security in terms of ‘co-operative security’ that relies on ‘consul-
tations’ and common ‘cultural norms’ rather than on strict legal framework (Leifer
1999). In sum, the aim of ASEAN’s ‘conflict management’ mechanism is to nego-
tiate settlements without breaching the sanctity of national sovereignty. However,
ASEAN had contributed to the resolution of regional conflicts through diplomatic
and political means in the past. After the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1978,
ASEAN played a pro-active role in supporting the Coalition Government of Demo-
cratic Kampuchea against Vietnamese occupation. ASEAN with the support of the
United Nations, European Community, Japan and the United States played a deci-
sive role in pursuing a Vietnamese withdrawal from Cambodia (Alagappa 1993). But
in the Cambodian case, ASEAN’s role was rationalized in the context of a broader
international involvement. Moreover, South-East Asian nations had a strong collec-
tive incentive to contain the communist threat in Indo-China after the Vietnam War.
But the situation in Myanmar is different from the Cambodian conflict. The ASEAN
states have no common incentive to intervene in the Rohingya crisis. Besides, with-
out an international mandate, ASEAN does not have any legal authority to interfere
in the crisis as its charter explicitly prohibits the member states to apply coercive
measures to settle regional issues.
The Rohingya crisis has exposed the institutional limitations of ASEAN in dealing
with humanitarian issues. In contrast to other regional bodies like the EU, ASEAN
lacks a coherent institutional structure to address the human rights issues in South-
East Asia. Apart from certain references in core ASEAN documents, the issue of
human rights was never a central agenda of ASEAN. From the beginning, the orga-
nization has prioritized the issues of ‘economic growth’ and ‘regional integration’
as stipulated by the Bangkok declaration. In a Joint communique of 1991, ASEAN
characterized human rights as a ‘universal’ discourse but insisted that it’s ‘implemen-
tation in the national context should remain within the competence and responsibility
of each country’. However, ASEAN nations have established the ASEAN Intergov-
ernmental Commission on Human Rights (AICHR) in 2009 and adopted the ASEAN
Human Rights Declaration (AHRD) in 2012 to integrate the issue of human rights
in its regional agenda. But the AICHR is not equipped with necessary legal instru-
ments to address the human rights issues in the region. The mandate of AICHR
emphasized on developing an ‘ASEAN human rights standard’ without any mention

of an enforcement or monitoring mechanism (Petcharamesree 2013). The terms of
reference of AICHR failed to specify any enforcement power of the commission.
Instead, it adopted ‘non-interference’ as a guiding principle of intra-ASEAN human
rights co-operation (Arendshorst 2009). In the context of Myanmar, the AICHR has
contributed a little to change the course of human rights violations in the country.
Although the formation of AICHR is an important step towards the institutional-
ization of human rights in South-East Asia, without an enforcement mechanism the
commission cannot properly address the country-specific human rights issues.
Furthermore, the political division within the ASEAN has weakened the orga-
nization’s ability to undertake a collective action in the case of Myanmar. Though
ASEAN states have condemned the human rights situation in Myanmar in the past,
they differ considerably on the approach to address the situation. A clear divide is
visible in the organization along the religious line. The Muslim majority nations
such as Indonesia and Malaysia have urged ASEAN to play a more constructive
role in the Rakhine state. However, other nations are less enthusiastic to intervene
in what they see a ‘domestic matter’ of Myanmar. Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam
have issues with their respective Muslim minorities. These countries are concerned
that any ASEAN action in regard to the Rohingya crisis may bring attention to the
treatment of their own minority population (Kassim 2012). Thus, they are comfort-
able with minimal ASEAN involvement in the crisis. In sum, the Rohingya crisis is
a delicate issue for ASEAN leadership. Any public disagreement may rupture the
ASEAN unity and create obstacles for intra-ASEAN co-operation.
29.6 Is the ‘ASEAN Way’ Enough?
Many proponents of ASEAN insist that the organization’s ‘non-interference’ pol-

icy has created a peaceful environment in the region. There are, of course, certain
merits in such an argument. The non-institutionalized and non-binding nature of the
‘ASEAN Way’ has allowed the member states to reconcile their differences and set-
tle their disputes without resorting to arm conflict. ASEAN’s conflict management
method offers bilateral mechanism within a multilateral framework. To address spe-
cific bilateral problems, ASEAN states had formed joint working committees in the
past. For example, Malaysia–Thailand and Malaysia–Indonesia joint border com-
mittees were formed to address border insurgency problem between those countries.
Moreover, a Malaysia–Philippines joint commission was established to manage the
problem of cross-border illegal immigration (Cabarello-Anthony 1998).
However, ASEAN leadership has long resisted the adoption of Western mech-
anisms of dispute settlement. It has been argued that ASEAN’s way of decision-
making, known as Musyawarah and Muafakat, allows all parties to engage in a
slow, step-by-step and incremental process of consultation and discussion which
decreases the possibilities of conflict. In ASEAN’s perspective, an informal pro-
cess of negotiation provides much-needed flexibility to deal with contentious issues
346 R. Saimum
(Cabarello-Anthony 1998). But such informal process of conflict resolution is overtly

state-centric, and it has failed to integrate the human security discourse in its doctrine.
Hence, to deal with complex challenges of conflict management in the twenty-
first century, ASEAN would have to adopt certain institutional arrangements like
the European Union especially in terms of human rights. For example, in 2009, the
treaty of Lisbon made the EU charter of fundamental rights (CFR) legally binding.
The treaty amended article 6 of the treaty of the European Union and gave CFR
the same legal standing with the domestic legal frameworks of the member states
(Douglas-Scott 2011).
On the other hand, ASEAN’s human rights architecture has been characterized
by scholars as ‘toothless’ and ‘lame duck’ because of the absence of an enforcement
mechanism. The lack of judicial institution akin to the European court of human rights
is a major impediment towards the development of human rights discourse within
ASEAN (Kaewjullakarn and Kovudhikulrungsri 2015). Moreover, the full realization
of human rights discourse requires the integration of a human security perspective in
the overall security arrangement of ASEAN. Many scholars argue that the ASEAN
political-security community (APSC) provides a promising framework to advance
and integrate the notion of ‘human security’ into the ASEAN agenda (Trihartono
2018). However, at this point, it is unreasonable to expect the total overhaul of
ASEAN’s existing policies on human rights. But a gradual transformation of existing
approaches to human rights and security is necessary for the future integration of
ASEAN.
29.7 Conclusion
The Rohingya crisis has certainly put stains on ASEAN’s reputation. The failure to
put pressure on Myanmar has exposed ASEAN’s inability to manage and mitigate
conflicts in South-East Asia. Though the ASEAN has been extremely successful
in resolving inter-state disputes, it has failed to address the intra-state and inter-
ethnic conflicts in the region. The political division on the Rohingya issue within the
community shows the necessity of political, legal and institutional reforms to equip
the organization with necessary legal mandates to meet the complex challenges of
the present time. Three observations can be made on ASEAN’s approach to the
Rohingya crisis.
First, ASEAN’s traditional notion of sovereignty has weakened its ability to effec-
tively address the complex inter-ethnic problems in South-East Asia. Although the
ASEAN mechanism offers a multilateral platform to discuss and resolve bilateral
disputes, it has proved to be insufficient in improving the human rights situation in
the region.
Second, while the democratic institutions are being slowly strengthened in coun-
tries like Indonesia and the Philippines, many ASEAN nations such as Myanmar and
Thailand are still in democratic transition. On the other hand, Vietnam and Laos are
socialist one-party states. Thus as a politically diverse community, ASEAN states
are not in agreement on how to integrate the issues of democracy and human rights
within ASEAN agenda.
Third, regional organizations such as the European Union and the African Union
have made human security and human rights as strategic priorities. In recent decades,
these regional blocs have been slowly adopting a comprehensive human-centric secu-
rity agenda. However, ASEAN still strictly adheres to the state-centric notion of
regional security. Hence, the regional security co-operation within ASEAN is driven
by the national security priorities of the member states. Furthermore, unlike the Euro-
pean states, the ASEAN nations have not explicitly categorized ‘human rights’ as a
foreign policy priority. As a result, a strong commitment towards human rights has
not been reflected on the overall policy approach of ASEAN.
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567149
Chapter 30
Revisiting MSME Cartel Under
Competition Act 2010 in Malaysia: The
Thin Line Between Collusion
and Cooperation
Angayar Kanni Ramaiah
Abstract The micro-, small-, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) are an inte-
gral part of the Malaysian economic transformation process to foster growth, employ-
ment, and income as a developing nation of ASEAN. However, MSMEs and their
trade associations’ reliance via cluster and cooperation contradict the Competition
Law (CL) initiated under the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) agreement 2015.
Meanwhile, the AEC third pillar under the “Equitable Economic Development”
emphasizes the development of MSMEs as the key toward narrowing the develop-
ment gap. In the mission of fullfilling the SMEs Master Plan 2025 objective to create
globally competitive, resilient, and innovative enterprises through national CL, the
national government’s protectionist policy over MSMEs as national champions has
shifted toward trade liberalization policy that prohibits all anti-competitive conducts,
which include cartel irrespective of the size of the enterprises. Evidentially, cartel
practices such as price-fixing or signaling, market sharing, limiting production and
bid rigging activities are widely practiced among MSMEs in Malaysia to safeguard
their market share in open competition. Meanwhile, MSMEs fail to comply with
CA 2010 claim; they are disproportionately abused by dominant enterprises and also
expected to adjust their competitive strategies with massive public and privately set
standards to match up with multi-national corporations (MNCs). MSMEs and their
trade associations also claim that CL is complicated for their understanding and car-
tel cooperation is a common and necessary strategy or business cooperation for their
business survival to offset their structural disadvantages and economies of scale. The
paper critically examines the thin line between the collusion and cooperation practice
among MSMEs to find an amicable solution without compromising the objective and
sanctity of Competition Act 2010, Malaysia.
Keywords Cartel · Collusion · Cooperation · Competition law · MSMEs
A. K. Ramaiah (B)
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Penang Branch, Permatang Pauh, Penang, Malaysia
e-mail: kanni844@uitm.edu.my

350 A. K. Ramaiah
30.1 Introduction
In Malaysia, micro-, small-, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) or also referred

as small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are classified based on a fixed quantitative
measure as to the total number of workers and the business sales turnover (Omar
et al. 2009; Nurulhasanah et al. 2016) according to the respective sector under the
classification of “Small” and “Medium”. SMEs for manufacturing sector are defined
as firms with sales turnover not exceeding RM300,000 or with employees of less
than 5 for “Micro”, and the turnover less than RM50 million or number of full-
time employees not exceeding 200 for “Medium”. Meanwhile, for the services and
other sectors, they are defined as firms with sales turnover not exceeding or less
than RM300,000 or employees of less than 5 for “Micro”, and not exceeding RM20
million or number of full-time employees not exceeding 75 for “Medium”.
MSMEs are regarded as a valuable national asset for developing economy, like
Malaysia, because they account for the largest number of enterprises operating in
ASEAN and play an important role in employment creation, as they tend to be more
labor-intensive than the large enterprises (APEC 2015). Henceforth, ASEAN Eco-
nomic Community (AEC) Blueprint 2025 and the ASEAN SME Master Plan 2025
outlined specific and focused measures to create globally competitive, resilient, and
innovative MSMEs (MITI 2016). Therefore, MSMEs’ growth is considered an essen-
tial part of Malaysia’s economic transformation process to promote employment and
income to local economy (Schaper and Lee 2016).
However, although the Malaysian government has facilitated various assistances
and programs for promoting MSMEs’ development and sustenance, they face vari-
ous challenges, ranging from financial constraints to management skills and issues
with respect to marketing skill, survival rates, and now Competition Law (CL).
MSME is generally not competitive, particularly with larger enterprises in interna-
tional market and sophisticated management skills. Thus, MSME depends solely
on their own experiences (Nurulhasanah et al. 2016), cooperation, and collusion
facilitated through their trade associations to maintain their market share and profit.
Although the Malaysian Competition Commission (MyCC) has embarked on various
advocacy and outreach programs for MSMEs to create Competition Act 2010 (CA
2010) awareness and compliance culture, evidentially infringement cases reveal that
the CA 2010 has not shackled their cartel culture (Ramaiah and Young 2017).
Cartel is a formal (explicit) agreement among competing firms who form a col-
lusion to coordinate prices, marketing, and production information with an aim to
increase their individual members’ profits by reducing competition (Sullivan and
Sheffrin 2003). MSME management regards cartel simply as a common business
instrument (Harm 2013) or business trite in Asia in various industrial sectors and
retail businesses. Hence, price-fixing and other cartel conducts such as standard
setting, exchange of sensitive business information, and bid rigging are commonly
practiced among MSME communities in Asia through their respective sectorial trade
associations very casually as a way of business (Ramaiah and Young 2017). This
business trait became illegal under the Competition Act 2010 in Malaysia.
30 Revisiting MSME Cartel Under Competition Act 2010 in Malaysia 351
As a result, MSME community in Malaysia raised numerous concerns on the

application of the CA 2010 to their businesses ranging from a claim that it should not
apply to MSMEs at all, to complaints that it is too complicated for small businesses to
understand its rules and compliance methods (The Edge 2016; Raj 2013). The paper
revisits MSME cartel practice to examine the infringement and compliance-related
issues under CA 2010 to explore an alternative approach or treatment (on prohibition
and exclusion) for MSMEs toward providing a fair competition platform for all.
30.2 ASEAN Competition Law and MSMEs: Cartel

Compliance and Infringement Issues in Malaysia
30.2.1 Objective and Scope of Competition Act 2010
Competition Law (CL) regime introduced and actively enforced in compliance with
ASEAN Economic Community 2015 (“AEC”) agreement and roadmap to stream-
line and strengthen the competitiveness (ASEAN 2015) of the members businesses
and economy (ASEAN 2016) (AEC Blueprint 2025) which predominantly includes
the MSMEs competitive edge. However, as a member of ASEAN CL, application
and awareness are still at infant stage of development in Malaysia. As other devel-
oping jurisdictions, Malaysia’s competition regime also suffers financial and human
resource scarcity, lack of competition culture, and political economy constraints. But
globalization and international trade agreement has increased the needs for CL com-
pliance to overcome these enforcement problems. Thus, regional competition law
initiatives such as ASEAN’s initiatives are important to potentially resolve some of
the enforcement problems as an additional benefit that goes beyond these solutions
(Gal 2009). At this stage of development, MSMEs and their related trade associa-
tions need more attention because they are the most defaulting business sector with
various compliance issues especially for cartel under CA 2010.
The two primary regulations which emerged from the AEC agreement in Malaysia
are the CA 2010 and the Competition Commission Act 2010. The Malaysian Com-
petition Commission (MyCC) under the purview of the Ministry of Domestic Trade,
Cooperatives and Consumerism (“MDTCC”) in Malaysia operates as an independent
body to enforce the Act. The CA 2010 is envisioned by the legislatures to resolve
the ever-increasing demands for global competitiveness and trade market liberal-
ization compliance under AEC roadmap (Ramaiah 2016). However, the CA 2010
does not apply to all market sectors in Malaysia; certain sectors are excluded (under
sector regulators) under the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 in relation
to network communications and broadcast sectors, Energy Commission Act 2001
in relation to the energy sector and Gas Supply (Amendment) Act 2016 (introduced
general competition law provisions to the Gas Supply Act 1993) for gas market and
Postal Services Act 2012, for postal market.
352 A. K. Ramaiah
Generally, CA 2010 prohibits anti-competitive agreement (Section 4) and abuse

of dominant position (Section 10) but does not have any provision to control merger.
The law applies to all enterprises to operate in the free market economy without
restriction or market distortion to optimize the benefit for consumer. The word “mar-
ket” within the Act refers to product market and/or geographical market. The CA
2010 aims to promote market efficiency, which is believed to ultimately promote eco-
nomic efficiency, consumer welfare innovation, and market participation. However,
no exception or exemptions of any form given to MSMEs.
Section 4 CA 2010 prohibits horizontal and vertical agreements between enter-
prises insofar as the agreement has the object or effect of significantly preventing,
restricting, or distorting competition in any market for goods and services. The word
“agreement” (Section 2, CA 2010) is widely defined to include any form of con-
tract, arrangement or understanding, decision by associations, and concerted prac-
tice (which includes any formal or informal agreements) either vertical or horizontal
level agreement. Horizontal agreement refers to that between suppliers and buyers
at different levels of production/distribution chain. Vertical agreement refers to that
between enterprises which operate at a different level in the production or distribution
chain and considered as less harmful compared to horizontal agreements [MyCC,
Guidelines on Anti-competitive Agreements 2012].
Although the CA does not prohibit “cartel” specifically, the offence is governed
and restricted under Section 4(1) of Chapter 1 Prohibition of the Competition Act
2010 which considers cartel as a “hard-core restriction”. Section 4(2) presumes
specifically certain horizontal agreements to have the “object” of engaging in cartel
practices when it significantly prevents, restricts, or distorts competition (Para 2.12
Guidelines on Chapter 1 Prohibition). Section 4(2) has listed certain horizontal agree-
ments which has the object to fix price, share market, limit or control production, or
bid rigging to be deemed to have the object of significantly restricting competition
in the market or collectively recognized as cartel. This proviso strongly reflects the
legislature’s intention to ensure that cartels are treated more severely compared to
other agreements which may fall under Section 4(1) of CA 2010.
While the object clause provides no requirement to prove that the agreement has
anti-competitive effect, the effect test requires MyCC to carry out an economic anal-
ysis. This provision applies to all conducts that lead to higher prices for consumers,
shortage of supply, or limiting technological progress (Nassarudin and Haniff 2016).
Hence, any horizontal agreements with an object in the list above are considered as
a flagrant breach of the CA 2010 and MyCC need not assess their agreements for
their anti-competitive effect (deemed liable).
Chapter 1, Prohibition Guidelines, also further prescribes that anti-competitive
agreements or decisions will not be considered as “significant” if the combined
market share of the parties to the agreement is less than 20% of the relevant market; or
if the parties to the agreement are not competitors, and their individual market shares
in any relevant market is not more than 25% (Guidelines to Chapter 1 Prohibition,
MyCC).
The application of the object rule for cartel, such as agreements to fix, directly
or indirectly the purchase or selling price or any other trading conditions, share
markets or sources of supply, limit or control production, market outlets or market

access, technical or technological development or investment, or an act of bid rigging
presumed prima facie infringement under Section 4 CA 2010. Meanwhile, in non-
cartel anti-competitive agreement MyCC is required to establish their effect by the
way of extensive analysis of the market to prove cases of infringement under Section 4
CA (Campbell and Macmillan 2001).
30.2.2 Scope of Prohibition and Infringement on MSMEs

Cartel
Generally, cartel occurs if producers (especially large producers) work together to

protect their interests by deciding to cooperate with respect to their market, by price-
fixing, market sharing, limiting production, or bid rigging. In MSME context, these
cartelization practices seem to facilitate cooperation among the members to avoid
competition to protect their market share and profit. On the flipside, the most feared
negative impact of such cooperation on consumer welfare includes among others:
(a) Higher prices because cartel members can all raise prices together, which
reduces the elasticity of demand for any single member.
(b) Lack of transparency because members may agree to hide prices or withhold
information, such as the hidden charges in credit card transactions.
(c) Restricted output because members may agree to limit output onto the market,
as OPEC and its oil quotas.
(d) Consumer market carving because the cartel members may collectively agree to
break up a market into regions or territories to avoid competing in each other’s
territory (Economics Online).
Meanwhile, MSME trade association decisions give rise to anti-competitive
issues, among others;
(a) When members bound over written constitution which contains rules of admis-
sion that may relate to, for example, the professional standards that must be
met in order to join the association. Although such restrictions are justifiable
if applied to all potential members, fairly and reasonably, overly restrictive or
unfairly or inconsistent rules can be regarded anti-competitive if the effect of
excluding (and thereby disadvantaging) businesses do not meet the rules;
(b) When making recommendations, even if they are not binding, but may determine
members’ conduct and therefore remove their ability to act independently.
(c) When members bound over or subjected to a “code of conduct” on how to
conduct their business, e.g., by setting out policies or standards. Such codes
even if extremely useful still considered anti-competitive, it relates to pricing,
market sharing, or which have the effect of unreasonably excluding members.
Any discussion or agreement to the fix of prices, sharing of markets, bid rigging,
or limiting production in any way (as explained above); or exchange of sensitive
354 A. K. Ramaiah
commercial information can also tantamount to cartel infringement (Tay and

Partners 2016).
Cartel invokes a powerful alliance and attracts serious anti-competitive infringe-
ment when it imposes high barriers for entry into a market or industry, and leads
all members to be “policed” by a dominant member (Economics Online). Hence-
forth, the Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development (OECD) endorses
cartels as the “most egregious violations of competition law” because it not only
“injures” consumers by “raising prices and restricting supply” but also distorts the
world trade by creating market power, waste, and inefficiency in countries which
otherwise would be competitive (OECD 1998; Wells and Haines 2009; Ezrachi and
Kindl 2011). Thus, cartel activities such as price-fixing, market sharing, limiting
production, and bid rigging are indeed the most serious infringement or considered
as hard-core cartel because it is done by dishonest businessman who fully realizes
its harm and willing to go to great lengths to keep their agreement secret (OECD
2003). Hence, cartels are prohibited widely around the world to protect competition
benefits and consumer welfare.
Therefore, under CL any agreement to fix prices, divide up markets, limit produc-
tion, or rig bids is regarded as an offence, regardless of their size of the business (The
Star 2013b). However, price-fixing arrangement such as retail price maintenance
(RPM) which facilitates manufacturer to provide high and sufficient profit margin to
the retailers for retail services such as pre-sale display, product specific-information,
store hours, adequate inventory, and post-sale service to increase is classified as ver-
tical restraint and not considered as cartel. RPM resolves the free-rider problem and
avoids advantage taken by other retailers who do not provide the same services to
enjoy the benefits of another retailer’s investment and sell at a lower price. RPM is
considered an important business strategy for small manufacturers trying to establish
their brand in a new market.
The CA 2010 generally applies to all entities that carry on commercial activities
equally. Cartel practices deemed under Section 4(2) CA 2010 are applied directly
to any MSMEs, and it is not necessary to prove that MSMEs have any subjective
intention of restricting competition when entering such agreement. It is also irrelevant
to consider that the agreement was not in the commercial interest of some of the
participants (Whish and Bailey 2012). This cartel ruling applies equally to agreements
made during trade associations meetings and to even members who did not agree or
intend to participate in the cartel, unless there is clear objective justification for the
decision, for example, the protection of health or safety (Whish and Bailey 2012)
under some other policy or exemption clause. However, if the combined market share
of the MSMEs is below 20%, it is presumed to be unlikely to have an anti-competitive
effect as prescribed in the Guidelines on Chapter 1 Prohibition for Anti-Competitive
Agreements (CA 2010).
A leniency regime for cartel is stipulated in Section 41 of CA 2010. The Guide-
lines on Leniency Regime (MyCC) offer for full leniency or partial leniency for
applicants who admit their involvement in a cartel by providing information or other
forms of cooperation to MyCC, who ultimately reserves the right to give reduction up
to 100%. A full leniency is available if the enterprise admission of its involvements,

information, and/or cooperation significantly assists or likely to assist in identifi-
cation or investigation of any finding of an infringement. A partial leniency (such
as reduction of sanction/fine/imprisonment) is given depending on the stage of the
investigation, the nature and the value-added of the information as well as other
cooperation provided by the leniency applicant (i.e., reduction in the sanction/fine)
on case-by-case basis. However, leniency allowance is not considered as an exemp-
tion but rather as a means to encourage enterprises to provide insider information to
curb cartels. Confidentiality and identity of the applicant are maintained subject to
Section 21 of CA 2010 (ICN 2009).
The CA 2010 has provided MyCC broad discretion to decide the amount of
reductions or immunity to be given, under Section 41 CA 2010, under its Leniency
program for a cartel infringement under Section 4(2) CA 2010. The reductions also
depend on whether the enterprise was the first to bring the suspected infringement to
the attention of MyCC, the stage of investigation the involvement was admitted for the
infringement as well as information or other form of cooperation and information
already in possession of MyCC (CA 2010). The Guidelines on Leniency Regime
(2014) also provides that what to be considered as “significant assistance” will be
determined by MyCC on the specific circumstance of the case under consideration.
The leniency regime is designed to encourage cartelists to be the “first in” to
supply as much information as possible in order to expedite MyCC’s investigation.
30.2.3 Cartel Infringement Under CA 2010: Can Smallness

Be Reservation for Exemption?
The MyCC clarified MSMEs should be equally subjected to the CA 2010 in the
absence of any legal provision for exemptions irrespective of their size like other
jurisdictions (CHFA, MyCC Decision 2012). SMEs cartel involvement with respect
to anti-competitive conducts such as price-fixing or signaling, production quotas,
and facilitating factors was never eliminated by the CA 2010 because it was always
practiced in the disguise of business arrangement or cooperation. MSME needed
the cartel arrangement to provide them with larger share than in open competition.
Despite various significant advocacy efforts to raise awareness and understanding of
the CL, MyCC finds local MSMEs respond far less than encouraging to the MyCC’s
efforts and promotion of free market enterprises (Raj and Burgess 2016).
The assessment for anti-competitive infringement examines both the actual com-
mon intention of the parties and objective of the agreement (i.e., its object) by
inculcating the surrounding economic context. Thus, an agreement that’s highly
likely to have a significant anti-competitive effect is only considered to have an
anti-competitive object and does not require further consideration on its effect in
non-cartel agreements. So although arguably this significant threshold market share
356 A. K. Ramaiah
assessment (20% for horizontal and 25% for vertical agreement provision) may help
MSMEs, this de minimis clause does not apply to cartel agreement.
Alternatively, MSMEs participation in a hard-core cartel can avoid the per se ille-
gality or infringement if the enterprises can seek exemption subject to the require-
ments listed under Section 5 of CA 2010. An enterprise, which is a party to an
anti-competitive agreement, can be relieved from liability (Section 5 CA 2010) if
able to prove all the following four reasons:
(a) There are significant identifiable technological efficiency or social benefits
directly arising from the agreement;
(b) The benefits could not reasonably have been provided by the parties to the
agreement without the agreement having the effect of preventing, restricting, or
distorting competition;
(c) The detrimental effect of the agreement on competition is proportionate to the
benefits provided; and
(d) The agreement does not allow the enterprise concerned to eliminate competition
completely in respect of a substantial part of the goods or services.
The onus of proving the reasons for exemption and that the benefits gained are
passed onto the consumers lies on the MSMEs who seek the relief. How possibly
these qualifications may help MSME cartel arrangements depend on the MSMEs
ability to come within the specific scope of the exemptions and expensive expert
legal and economic advice which the MSMEs may not afford (Cartel 2019). Hence,
it means CA 2010 rule of reason approach and provision for social benefits can
benefit MSMEs if they are able to seek it within the qualification.
30.3 MSME Cartel in Malaysia: Collusion or Business

Cooperation?
30.3.1 Difference Between Collusion and Cooperation
The task for authority to detect cartel infringement is a daunting task because the
line between collusion and cooperation among MSME is very thin and debatable.
Evidence implicating meeting of minds among the competitors to collude is indeed
difficult to obtain in practice. Hence, incentive-based mechanisms such as a leniency
program may be the only way to encourage evidence from the cartel members (Chen
2004). Furthermore, oligopoly firms in a certain market have common tendency to
decide the quantity to produce and price to charge, as if they were a monopoly. The
joint action of this oligopolistic firm can hold down industry output, charge a higher
price, and divide up the profit among themselves. When enterprises act together in
this way to reduce output and keep prices high, it is called collusion. A group of firms
that have a formal agreement to collude to produce the monopoly output and sell at
the monopoly price is called a cartel. Cartels are indeed a formal agreement to collude
desire of businesses to avoid competing to enable them to raise the prices to earn
higher profits. This is indeed a well-recognized trait described well by economists,
Adam Smith in Wealth of Nations in 1776 as, “People of the same trade seldom
meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but ends in a conspiracy against the
public, or in some contrivance to raise prices” which emphasized natural self-interest
promotes greater prosperity.
The consensus for cartel can be an explicit agreement to coordinate prices, an
unwritten understanding to limit competition, or simply a mutual recognition that all
firms would be better off if they restrained their competitive impulses and stabilized
prices (Dick 1996). What is considered as a cartel is a questionable according to
District Judge Rifkind when he said, “Whether the form of association they created
be called a cartel, an international cartel, a patent pool, or ‘a technical and commercial
cooperation’, is reality is of little significance but is the combination and a conspiracy
in restraint of trade” (United States v. National Lead Co 1947; Harm 2013) is what
matters for infringement under CL.
Meanwhile, collusion is non-competitive, secret, and illegal agreement between
rivals who attempt to disrupt the market’s equilibrium. Collusion involves people or
companies which typically compete against one another, but who conspire to work
together to gain an unfair market advantage. Implicit collusion occurs when two
or more firms in the same industry control the market through informal, interde-
pendent actions (Investopedia 2019). Collusion is one of the two ways oligopoly
firms cooperate to avoid competition besides mergers. Business all over the world
found to formulate strategies of cooperation to reduce the risks and uncertainties of
competition created by the market has been in existence since the late nineteenth
century ranging from informal understanding, business interest associations, cartels,
and joint ventures (Bouwens 2013).
Cartel shelters the local MSMEs from competition on the defined fields of the
contract which makes the survival easier and facilitates MSMEs to receive a larger
share than in open competition. Hence, cartels allowed an increased share and/or
expansion of small members. These findings show cartels rather foster MSMEs (and
consequently potential competition) as in the case of Swiss watch which although
prevented the industry from concentration and expansion abroad (which undermined
the industry’s competitiveness) but from the general point of competition reduced the
number of part-takers in the market as possible. It was observed from a perspective
of a nation’s competitiveness, more concentration and less national competition is
what is needed. Hence, in order to strike a balance, several countries allow in certain
cases MSMEs to form a cartel, if their combined market share does not exceed a
certain margin. It is also acknowledged that a cartel of MSMEs is different from
a cartel made of giant firms, and more important than firm size is the share in the
respective market (Harm 2013).
Therefore, from MSMEs point of view, a collusion by way of an agreement
such as to fix/increase prices becomes inevitable trade feature, especially to face
up the challenges of global price uncertainties of oil and other essential inputs,
whereby their collusion culture through their trade associations who acts as the
coordinator among the members regarded as an act of ‘defense’ against big players.
358 A. K. Ramaiah
The necessary discussion of benefits of cartel like agreement for MSMEs includes
the information sharing which can assist SMEs to measure performances, know
the market trends, to plan their operation, and plan for the market requirements.
And by sharing industry information MSMEs anticipate any increase in demand
or imminent shortages. Their market allocation allows them to create and develop
market products and services in an orderly way. Finally, the joint purchasing indeed
assists the MSMEs to centralize their order and combine warehousing or distribution
functions more efficiently besides enabling them to face up to the various abuses or
bullying tactics employed by larger enterprises or MNCs.
30.3.2 An Analysis of MSME Cartel Cases in Malaysia
In a very dramatic turn of event, the very first case caught by MyCC for cartel
agreement to fix price was an MSME in Malaysia. MyCC ruled the decision of
the President of Cameron Highlands Floriculturist Associations (CHFA 2012) to
increase the prices of flowers by 10% during their meeting, infringed Section 4(2) CA.
MyCC declared affirmatively in this case the principle that it will investigate, cartels,
regardless of whether the agreement involves any large multi-national companies or
as small as the family-run businesses. Price-fixing was established by various cases
to have been widely and openly practiced among local MSMEs or MSME trade
organizations as group or based around kinship network (Yeung 2004) effort to stand
together to be in a stronger platform in their industry or sector for reasons to protect
their market share and profit.
In CHFA case, MyCC specified that it is irrelevant whether members complied
with the trade association’s joint decision or whether the decision made is applicable
to all the members. The members’ mere joint agreement to increase the price evi-
denced in the minutes of their meeting and the newspaper publication is sufficient
evidence to endorse their anti-competitive conduct. In most cases, the decision to
increase the price was caused by the reason of increase in the production inputs such
as increase in electricity, fertilizers, plastic covers, and other raw materials. Although
MyCC acknowledged their reasons for increase and the existence of the common
practice among SMEs as trite law (to discuss and set prices or divide market geo-
graphically), it still ruled it as an infringement. However, initially MyCC took a soft
approach to enforcement by not imposing fines. MSMEs were also found not able
to afford to pay the fine imposed. Thus, in the final decision MyCC only required
CHFA to cease and desist the infringing act of fixing prices of flowers by providing
an undertaking that its members shall refrain from any anti-competitive practices
in the relevant market and also issue a statement on the above-mentioned remedial
actions in the mainstream newspapers (Ramaiah 2016).
Ironically, the CHFA case did not serve as a lesson for other MSMEs to be aware
of the impact of the CA 2010 on their business practice. Instead, more MSMEs
and trade associations were caught after for similar cartel conducts, specifically
price-fixing until to date. MSMEs, trade association cases revealed that cartel is
widely practiced among MSMEs in Malaysia. Investigation revealed cartel being

practiced among most of the competition infringement cases that involve price-
fixing arrangement (Nasarudin and Ahamat 2016). CHFA case was followed by
stream of other cases related to price-fixing cartel, such as the Ice Manufacturers
case (2015), Pan-Malaysia Lorry Owners Association (PMLOA) (2013), and Sibu
Confectionery and Bakery Association (SCBA) (2015) (MyCC) (The Edge 2013). In
determining the level of financial penalty, MyCC takes into account the seriousness of
the infringement, duration of the infringement, and mitigating factors, such as being
cooperative during investigation. In PMLOA, MyCC ruled to refrain the members
from entering into any form of communications or to facilitate any communications
concerning pricing, for services provided by lorry enterprises; and to amend and
remove from PMLOA’s and its members’ Constitutions, any provision concerning
any discussions and determination of any chargeable prices (The Edge 2013).
In June 2016, MyCC issued its decision against an information technology ser-
vice provider to the shipping and logistics industry and four-container depot opera-
tors for price-fixing. MyCC held that the Container Depot Operators have infringed
Section 4(2)(a) of the Act by entering into a horizontal agreement to fix the RM25
Depot Gate Charges together with the RM5 rebate which is deemed to have the
object of significantly preventing, restricting, or distorting competition in the mar-
ket for the provision of empty container storage, maintenance and handling services
within a 5–15 km radius of the Penang Port. The financial penalties imposed on the
operators and the information technology service provider ranged from RM52,980
to RM163,623, with a combined total penalty of RM645,774.
In Containerchain (M) Sdn Bhd and four-container depot case (Containerchain
Case), MyCC decided even third parties that are not competitors in a relevant market
may be held accountable for facilitating a cartel by engaging in concerted prac-
tices through vertical agreements. In June 2016, MyCC found that Containerchain,
an information technology service provider, had entered into vertical agreements
by the way of concerted practices with four-container depot operators (CDOs) to
fix the Depot Gate Charge (DGC) and impose an unfair rebate on hauliers within
Section 4(1) of the CA 2010 as the agreements had the effect of restricting compe-
tition. Containerchain’s conduct of influencing the behavior of the CDOs and coor-
dinating the implementation of the agreed revised DGC, as well as the rebate, was
found to have exchanged confidential information on the DGC and rebate charges
through Containerchain’s system, thereby collectively engaged in a cartel.
MyCC nabbed Tuition and Daycare Centers (TDC) (2018) and asked them to
repudiate their agreement with immediate effect with fine of total RM33,068.85
after they were found guilty of engaging in price-fixing. According to MyCC, the
centers infringed Section 4 of the Competition Act 2010 (Act 712) by entering into an
agreement in May 2017 to collectively fix and standardize their fees. MyCC sternly
stipulated in its decision that price-fixing is a hard-core cartel and not tolerable
because it victimizes and forces consumers to pay unnecessarily expensive prices
(Star Online 2018).
The cases overall reveal that MyCC has taken stricter stance when enforcing
hard-core cartel cases, and higher fines are imposed reflecting on the seriousness of
360 A. K. Ramaiah
the infringement and deterring anti-competitive practices leading to an infringement

of a prohibition under the Competition Act 2010. However, the MSMEs generally
hold significant market power in narrow geographic or product markets and pos-
sess an incentive for restrictive behavior. MSMEs in saturated markets with uncon-
tested structures and a low degree of innovation often threatened by new, resource-
ful entrants and react by shutting competitors out, by the way of anti-competitive
collusion scheme.
30.3.3 MSMEs Cartel in Malaysia: Should There Be

an Alternative Approach?
MSMEs are in overall recognized to have significant market power in narrow geo-
graphic or product markets and possess an incentive for restrictive behavior. MSMEs
in saturated markets with uncontested structures and a low degree of innovation con-
stantly feels threatened by new, resourceful entrants and react by shutting competitors
out, by way of anti-competitive means (UNCTAD 2013; The Star Online 2019). Their
limited size, resources, and profitability only allow them to develop expertise inhouse
by relying heavily on cooperation with other firms and very often as the only option to
develop and market their new, innovative, products. MSME’s inability to complete
with their larger counterpart on resources, capital, and technology can also force
them out of the market (Nasarudin et al. 2013). Hence, some CL regimes provide
necessary exemption. For example, Section 3 of the German Competition Act 2013
expressly allows cartel among MSMEs for cooperation agreement if the competition
is not significantly effected and if it serves to improve the competitiveness of the
MSME (GWBI, German 2013). European Union law also similarly recognizes the
efficiency-enhancing effects of certain types of cooperation between undertakings
and MSMEs in particular and regulates certain standard types of agreements as part
of a long list of jurisprudence which was later codified in block exemption regula-
tions and guidelines (EU, Council Regulation No. 2821/71 1971) on the assessment
of horizontal and vertical (EU, Council Regulation (EC) No 1215/1999) cooperation
agreements (RPPP, UNCTAD 2015).
Generally, MyCC experienced substantial difficulties in disseminating informa-
tion (as an advocacy effort) to the widespread, multilingual Malaysian MSME com-
munity. MSME is very slow to undertake compliance, and their trade associations
instead of taking a key role advocate compliance effort, keener to facilitate the illegal
arrangements (Raj and Burgess 2016). MSMEs through their trade associations not
only collude to fix prices but disclose their cartel conducts openly by announcing pub-
licly or in the newspaper (CHFA). MSMEs are often caught by surprise and shocked
to receive the charge on them. MSMEs claim the collusion needed for various admin-
istrative business efficacy reasons such as to deal with utility or fuel increase which
never considered as business agreement but as a cartel agreement within the scope
of CA 2010 (PMLOA). These analogies reflect the level of MSMEs unawareness,
blatant lack of knowledge, understanding, and education of the anti-competitive rules

applicable to them.
Analysis of the stream of infringement cases prosecuted by MyCC reveals MSMEs
and their trade associations failed to achieve the level of compliance expected and
often prosecuted in Malaysia for various cartel-related anti-competitive conducts.
CA enforcement did not change MSMEs cartel culture and is more dependent on
their experience and trade associations for gaining competitive edge. As a result,
the MyCC is always suspected of their trade association’s activities. MSMEs trade
association meeting serves as a forum for competitors to discuss and potentially
agree on matters that should not be discussed or agreed under CA. Their blatant
disobedience to CA is caused either because of their lack of awareness of CL or a
limited understanding of its application. Thus, MSMEs and their trade associations
openly commit the cartel by making open public announcement of their intention
ignorantly in order to improve their business environment for their members. Despite
various efforts to raise awareness to educate the Malaysian public and businesses of
the CA 2010, MSMEs believe it does not apply to them (The Star).
These race toward globalization and aim to achieve a competitive edge at regional
level further burdened the local MSMEs to face many challenges in their business
environment. MSMEs became protective of their market share through a close net-
work of entrepreneurs (Redding 1993) by forming trade associations or collusion and
very much influenced by their own social, cultural, and religious bases underpinning
business cultures (El-Kahal 2001; Ramaiah and Young 2017). The rise of e-commerce
and online marketing further impacted MSMEs insecurity level. Although MSMEs
benefited by accessing the previously inaccessible geographical market through dig-
ital marketing with innovative start-ups and price-cutting methods, investigation on
abuse of online searches (See FTC File No111 0163 Google Inc.) proves MSMEs
may be disproportionately affected by abuses of dominant undertakings in this area
(UNCTAD 2015). Thus, MSMEs in developing countries have to adjust to the com-
petitive strategies of the multi-national corporations (MNCs) in different countries
with overwhelmed public and privately set standards (e.g., sanitary and phytosani-
tary), to changes in international tastes, prices, and competitive conditions. Therefore,
the supply-side bottlenecks in the trade and investment areas and how the govern-
ments, development partners, and the private sector address these constraints have
implications on their economic growth potential (OECD 2004).
Furthermore, MyCC, baseline study in 2013, indicated a very low level of aware-
ness and knowledge of the CA 2010 among the respondents in the 14 states in
Malaysia, in which, Perlis, Melaka, and Sabah projected zero level of awareness and
knowledge of the CA 2010 overall. However, in 2016 although the study revealed an
overall improvement in the quality of the Commission’s advocacy and outreach pro-
grams in relation to awareness and perceptions of the CA, the survey did not reflect
tremendous improvement on MSMEs sector (MyCC Report 2018). Furthermore, the
cases reveal their cartel infringement conducts are though rather irresponsible but
also done openly without any secrecy to show the level of knowledge and ignorance
of CA in Malaysia.
362 A. K. Ramaiah
In this context, it is questionable whether SME in Malaysia is equipped to ensure

compliance and ready to move away from their habitual age-old anti-competitive
infused mutual understandings, specifically cartel practice. Maybe, MSMEs need
further advanced advocacy on awareness and help to better cope with competition
law regime which is still a strange culture to them. Perhaps, alternatively, some
consideration should be given by the various MSMEs-related authorities and trade
associations as to what MSMEs need and/or should be given to ensure compliance
and on what areas they may require assistance to avoid infringement of the CA (Star
Online 2013b). Trade associations should also be motivated and monitored to lead
their members to cultivate healthy competition culture to avoid liability.
30.4 Recommendations for MSME Cartel Treatment
MSMEs generally operate differently compared to the conventional large modern cor-
porations and recognized to face different challenges in competing in open markets
due to their comparatively, limited resources, and market size. From this perspective,
MSMEs argued by virtue of their size should be excluded from the CL regime as they
will not significantly affect competition in any market. However, unlike some other
jurisdictions (such as Indonesia), local MSMEs are not given any specific exemption
or exclusion under CA 2010, Malaysia.
Malaysian MSMEs face significant barriers that prevent them from achieving their
full potential with competition from cheaper imports and foreign competition. Fur-
thermore, MSMEs’ lack of financial resources and expertise to develop its business
structure add to the challenges to meet the consumer demands for quality, innova-
tion, and competitive pricing. Most MSMEs in Malaysia (similar to other South-East
Asian economies) are founded by families decades ago with age-old business prac-
tices and norms driven by traditional Asian values. So MSME must increase their
competitiveness if they are to survive and grow in a highly competitive marketplace
(OECD/ERIA 2018).
However, the process of educating the MSME anti-cartel activity needs fur-
ther advocacy efforts because collusion to fix/increase prices arguably has been an
inevitable cooperation process for MSMEs to face up to global price uncertainties
of oil and other essential inputs. Collusion acts as a ‘defense’ against big players.
Thus, from MSME point of view, the culture of sharing price information, amongst
themselves had been a business norm (Ng 2012) dating back from the colonial days
for over a century, and in fact it is one of the main founding reasons for starting of
trade associations (Ramaiah 2017).
The unfortunate turns of event under the present regulatory position are rather
unacceptable and incompatible for the MSMEs survival strategy. Thus, MSMEs are
rather traumatized and unprepared to move or shift to different competitive levels
under CA 2010. The current state of facts from the various disobedience cases reflects
MSMEs are innocently naïve and willingly ignorant to move away from the cartel
like practices. This current state of affair must be accepted to develop a better policy
for MSMEs to achieve competition culture within the CA 2010.
Meanwhile, CL should consider the MSME condition from local level of compat-
ibility to reflect a society’s wishes, culture, history, institutions, and other factors that
cannot be ignored nor should necessarily be ignored. Could one of those proclaimed
policies promote MSMEs economic growth and if so, what’s its impact or benefit on
local MSMEs micro- and macroeconomic perspective must be further evaluated and
analyzed to understand the effect on MSME. Decision on whether local MSMEs be
given an exemption or must strictly adhere to cartel prohibition should be based on
the collateral impact of its enforcement (Ramaiah 2016, 2017) on MSMEs.
30.5 Conclusion
Malaysian MSMEs cartel business culture or collusion to fix things in the name
of advancing the common good. Cartel must be changed despite all excuses from
the MSMEs. Presently, the Malaysian MSMEs deserve to be considered for some
conditional exemption at least as an interim measure to adjust their strategy in line
with national and regional CL policy. Perhaps, specific competition policies must
also be developed to address their distinctive characteristics without contradicting
the regulatory objectives of CA 2010. Cartel should not be disallowed or under
regulated as facilitating certain exemptions for a duration or under certain controls
may benefit the society and the economy. This is because the affected sectors such
as retail (especially high-end or branded goods), gastronomy and wider hospitality
should be given further consideration. Similarly, in consideration of the rise of e-
commerce as well as online marketing creating, a new area where MSMEs may
need time to adjust should be given some exemptions during the interim period with
respect to some types of anti-competitive agreements. Alternatively, although tedious
on the MyCC, a case-by-case approach according to the need of the nation’s economy
and in line with policy for an inclusive growth and MSME development should be
adopted to deal with MSME cases.
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Chapter 31
Identification of Key Leadership Criteria
Critical to SDG3 Success: Linking QFD
and the Triple Helix Model
Harshita Aini Haroon and Norshahrizan Nordin
Abstract Ensuring healthy lives and well-being of a nation’s population is

paramount to sustainable development, as delineated in Goal 3 of SDG. Target 3c
specifically focuses on the need to “substantially increase the recruitment, devel-
opment, training and retention of health workers”. Underlying this target, or action
plan, is the presence of strong leadership to mobilize the agenda. The purpose of this
paper is to conceptualize a way in which crucial leadership criteria can be identified
for the successful implementation of the SDG. The paper will first show how features
present in a volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA) environment
can be ascertained, in order to identify key leadership criteria of healthcare workers
in teaching hospitals. The criteria will be ranked using quality function deployment
(QFD) as a tool. The result of the ranking is then interpreted based on the triple
helix model due to the nature of the teaching hospitals, i.e., the collaboration of the
state, the university, and the medical industry. The paper suggests that undertaking
such analysis will lead to the identification of most desirable leadership characteris-
tics of health workers, which we argue are important to be developed to ensure the
achievement of Goal 3 of SDG.
Keywords SDG · VUCA · QFD · Good health and well-being
31.1 Introduction
The “UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” signals that we currently live
in complex and unpredictable environments and facing unprecedented changes. In
2015, the United Nations developed the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
to focus on diverse local and regional actions so that governments and relevant
parties can collectively address worldwide needs and create a shared global future
H. A. Haroon · N. Nordin (B)

Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
e-mail: norshahrizan@unimap.edu.my
H. A. Haroon
e-mail: harshita@unimap.edu.my

368 H. A. Haroon and N. Nordin
(UN 2015). In the healthcare world, SDG-related research is conducted in several

disciplines, including business and management (Annan-Diab and Molinari 2017;
Schaltegger et al. 2017; Storey et al. 2017). The SDGs and their potential and saliency,
however, have only just started to make an appearance in the healthcare literature
(Rinaldi and Sciarelli 2017). As in other service sectors, leadership in healthcare
services should play a substantive role in helping embed policy and action at an
organizational level in a way that contributes toward the achievement of the SDGs. We
therefore believe that there is a need to propose a model integrating quality function
deployment (QFD) tool together with the triple helix model (THM) to identify key
leadership criteria in the industry. Equally, VUCA affects and plays a key role in the
pursuit of the criteria. As such, we will also identify leadership attributes based on
VUCA quadrants before identification is done based on the QFD-THM model.
31.2 Initiatives in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
A lot of academic attention has been given to SDGs since they were envisioned.
Transforming the world and realizing the SDGs by 2030 will require a paradigm
shift in the way societies govern themselves. It will require rethinking on the role
of governments and the way it interacts with civil society. The involvement of the
private sector is also of no less importance. Key to these considerations is the needs
of the people, which will possibly require focus on effectiveness, inclusivity, and
accountability. In the last 2 years alone, academic reports are abundant in various
SDG implementations.
Table 31.1 gives an overview of the implementation, showing how each study has
practical implications within the context in which they are carried out. However, as
much as these are important, their implementation is not as clear-cut as we would
like it to be. This is due to the presence of a VUCA environment.
31.3 Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity

(VUCA) Environment and Leadership
The VUCA environment is often associated with instability. Bartscht (2015) likens
VUCA environments to “being in a fierce winter blizzard at night, everything is
always shifting and one cannot properly see what lies ahead. It is extremely difficult to
orientate yourself in a blizzard and find your way forward (p. 254)”. Figure 31.1 illus-
trates the attributes of each of the VUCA environment, applicable in many contexts
including that of leadership.
31 Identification of Key Leadership Criteria Critical to SDG3 … 369
Table 31.1 Studies/projects related to SDGs

(Year) and Authors Implementations SDGs focus area
(2019) Delgado et al. [A compositional approach SDG 7
for modeling SDG7
indicators: case study applied
to electricity access]
(2019) Ferro et al. [Validating and expanding a SDGs
framework of a triple bottom
line dominant logic for
business sustainability
through time and across
contexts]
(2019) Franco and Tracey [Community SDGs
capacity-building for
sustainable development:
effectively striving toward
achieving local community
sustainability targets]
(2019) Banerjee et al. [Evaluating synergies and SDGs
trade-offs in achieving the
SDGs of zero hunger and
clean water and sanitation: an
application of the IEEM
platform to guatemala]
(2018) Nikolaos et al. [Entrepreneurship and the Economic, social,
sustainable development environmental
goals]
(2018) Olayinka and [SDGs and digital financial Poverty
Nwagwu services (DFS)
entrepreneurship: challenges
and opportunities in Africa’s
largest economy]
(2018) Salazar et al. [Aligning your team’s vision SDGs
with the world’s bold goals]
(2018) Pomare, C [A multiple framework SDGs and SMEs
approach to sustainable
development goals (SDGs)
and entrepreneurship]
(2018) Al-Zu’bi and Radovic [Mapping SDG stories] Natural resources, emissions
(2018) Marchand and [Entrepreneurship as a tool SDG 8
Dijkhuizen for a new
beginning—entrepreneurship
training for refugees in a new
homeland]
(continued)

(Year) and Authors Implementations SDGs focus area
(2018) Moon [Contributions to the SDGs Education
through social and
eco-entrepreneurship: new
mindsets for sustainable
solutions]
(2018) Asi and Williams [The role of digital health in SDG 3
making progress toward
Sustainable Development
Goal (SDG) 3 in
conflict-affected populations]
Complexity Volatility
Many interconnected parts & variables Unexpected challenges
Overwhelming amount of information Unstable/unpredictable context
processing and sense making Timing or duration unknown
Challenges capacity
Ambiguity Uncertainty
Causal relationships unclear Basic cause-effect are known
No precedents Lacking key information
Several “unknown unknowns” Change is possible, but not given
Fig. 31.1 VUCA attributes (Bartscht 2015)
Leadership involves both the rational and emotional sides of human experience.
It includes actions and influences based on reason and logic as well as those based on
inspiration and passion. It is often associated with words like risk-taking, dynamic,
creativity, change, and vision. The importance of strong leadership in the running of
any organization, more so, one that is in the service sector, cannot be understated.
Kaivo-oja and Lauraeus (2018, p. 46), in recent management and leadership literature,
state that “under VUCA conditions, leaders and managers need a new arsenal of
foresights and management tools and methods. A global mindset, a virtual mindset,
an innovative mindset and a collaborative mindset are all key requirements in the
VUCA environment”. The importance of leadership in the capacity development
of others is indisputable, as highlighted by Alejandro and Yolanda (2015), who
posit that “leadership is going to be a matter of discovering the positive energy in
each person, to stimulate the best in every individual and develop the potential of
everybody because this ‘energy’ is a small assurance of the future” (p. 854). The
recognition of the VUCA environment has given rise to studies which demonstrate
how the categorization can be useful for the purpose of identifying and highlighting
leadership roles and attributes. Table 31.2 shows some studies conducted in the past
4 years on leadership in VUCA environments.
Table 31.2 The VUCA environment and leadership

Year VUCA environment–building leaderships Significance
2018 [The VUCA approach as a solution concept to corporate Decision-making
foresight challenges and global technological disruption
(Kaivo-Oja and Lauraeus 2018)]
2018 [Design thinking: how to thrive in a VUCA world Congruent support system
(Krawchuk 2018)]
2018 [Leadership in transformation: from Maestro to a Jazz Complexity of leadership
Orchestra (Porat 2018)]
2018 [The essence of leadership for achieving the sustainable SDGs strategic plans
development goals (Bahauddin 2018)]
2018 [Humanistic leadership for sustainable transformation Sustainable livelihoods
(Colbert et al. 2018)]
2017 [Leadership resilience in a VUCA world (Breen 2017)] Leadership resilience
2017 [Ethical leadership at the speed of VUCA (Elkington et al. Ethical leadership
2017)]
2017 [Collaboration in a VUCA environment (Krawchuk 2017)] Visionary leadership
2017 [Change management in a VUCA world (Pearse 2017)] Change management
2016 [Increasing darkness: combining toxic leadership and Toxic leadership
volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA)
(Watt et al. 2016)]
2016 [Leading with virtue in the VUCA world (Ko and Rea Sustainable livelihoods
2016)]
2015 [Why systems must explore the unknown to survive in System dynamics
VUCA environment (Bartscht 2015)]
2015 [Metaphors for today’s leadership: VUCA world, Leadership development
millennial, and “cloud leaders” (Alejandro and Yolanda
2015)]
2015 [Leadership for sustainability: theoretical foundations and Pedagogical
pedagogical practices that foster change (Burns et al.
2015)]
31.4 Forecasting and Modeling Leadership Attributes

in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Given that leadership attributes can be identified based on VUCA, it is then pertinent
that these attributes are ranked. The ranking is important to enable prioritization to
be made so that focus can be given to the development of essential attributes. Within
the context of SDGs, the use of modeling ensures transparency in decision-making
related to the ranking. It also allows for prioritization to be applicable across various
SDGs due to its robust nature. Table 31.3 highlights the contribution of forecasting
and modeling in studies on SDGs.
The contributions in Table 31.3 reveal that various tools and algorithms result from
modeling and forecasting. It appears that multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA)
Table 31.3 Forecasting and modeling in SDGs

Technological Forecasting and Modeling Contribution Year
[Healthcare and SDGs governance in light Sustainability helix model 2019
of the sustainability helix model: evidence
from the African continent (Saviano et al.
2019)]
[Community leadership and the triple Triple helix, Brazilian science parks, 2019
helix model as determinants of the Community leadership, Fourth helix
constitution of science parks: a Brazilian
experience (Bencke et al. 2019)]
[A compositional approach for modeling Compositional data analysis, Linear 2019
SDG7 indicators: case study applied to transformations, Mathematical
electricity access (Delgado et al. 2019)] transformations, Multivariate model,
Trend analysis
[Are SDGs suitable for China’s Analytical hierarchy process (AHP), 2019
sustainable development assessment? An Pairwise comparisons, Multiple dominant,
application and amendment of the SDGs Evaluation index system, Global indicator
indicators in China (Zhu et al. 2019)] framework for the SDGs
[Optimal decision guidance for the Decision-making, Optimization, 2019
electricity supply chain integration with Electricity supply industry, Power
renewable energy: aligning smart cities generation economics, Renewable energy
with sustainable development goals sources
(Al-Nory 2019)]
[Community capacity-building for Higher education, Sustainability, 2019
sustainable development: effectively Stakeholders, Community,
striving toward achieving local Capacity-building
community sustainability targets (Franco
and Tracey 2019)]
[Examining the application of the lifelong Literacy, Adult, Adult literacy, Inclusive 2019
learning principle to the literacy target in and equitable quality education, Lifelong
the fourth sustainable development goal learning perspective
(SDG 4) (Hanemann 2019)]
[Composite innovation metrics: MCDA Innovation scoreboard, Multiple criteria 2018
and the quadruple innovation helix decision analysis (MCDA), Analytical
framework (Carayannis et al. 2018)] hierarchical process (AHP), TOPSIS.
Quadruple innovation helix framework,
composite innovation metrics
[Monitoring water resources governance Resource management, Water governance 2018
progress globally: experiences from monitoring, Integrated water resources
monitoring SDG Indicator 6.5.1 on management
integrated water resources management
implementation (Bertule et al. 2018)]
and multivariate analysis are common tools utilized in studies on SDGs. This is
understandable as both these tools were generated by computational experiments
with simulation softwares (Kicinski and Solecka 2018). However, the authors are of
the opinion that MCDA and multivariate analysis are limited in their applications
for the purpose of ranking. While both MCDA and multivariate analysis exhibit
stability in their use and are able to process voluminous input, they are unable to
cater for multiple loops of analysis. In addition, MCDA and multivariate analysis
are only as robust as the softwares will allow. In comparison, QFD’s robustness lies
in its ability to enable simultaneous processing, moving backward and forward to
result in the best fit based on multiple dimensions of analysis. The trial-and-error
mode is an advantage because the analysis will continue until a logical output is
arrived at. Another tool that we found to be commonly used is the triple helix model
(THM). Originally developed by Etzkowitz and Leydesdordorff (1998), it is used to
analyze innovation processes as outcomes of effective interaction among three key
institutional agents: universities, industry, and government (Carayannis et al. 2018,
p. 5).
31.5 Key Concerns in SDG3
A scrutiny of research done in 2017 and 2018 on healthcare reveals key concerns in
the industry, which we argue can be addressed with the presence of strong leadership.
For each of the concerns, we are able to identify key variables which can be placed
in the VUCA quadrant. The key variables are shown in Table 31.4.
31.6 Quality Function Deployment and Its Application

in SDG3 via Healthcare Services
Quality function deployment (QFD) is a well-established methodology used to trans-

late the “what”, the “voice of the customer” or customer needs into the organization’s
accomplishment, the “how” (Hamilton and Selen 2004). Originally, QFD was con-
ceptualized by Akao in 1960 to determine the characteristics of industries in Japan. It
is a method to convert customer requirements into technical requirements, which are
important for production and service delivery. Figure 31.2 illustrates the nine steps
in QFD model. Although there are nine steps, its deployment can range between
five, seven, and nine steps. In this study, three phases will be included, mainly Phase
1 for determining importance rating of (WHATs), Phase 2 on the identification of
customer needs (WHATs), Steps 2 and 3; Step 4: to generate technical measures
(HOWs); Step 5: to determine relationships between (WHATs) and (HOWs); then
Step 6: matrix relationships. Phase 3 is mainly focused on Step 7: to determine
Table 31.4 Healthcare directions in SDGs

Year Key concerns of SDG3 Key variables
2018 [Future Direction of Sustainable – complex relationships and networks
Development in Private Hospitals: – organizational conviction regarding the
General Similarities and Specific future direction of sustainable
Differences (Rodriguez and Svensson development
2018)]. The study assessed the future
direction of sustainable development in
the healthcare industry and aimed to
reveal general similarities and specific
differences between private hospitals and
enabler or hinders of sustainable
development. Based on an inductive
approach, judgmental sampling was
applied to select relevant healthcare
organizations. The informants were
identified according to their knowledge of
their organizations’ sustainability
initiatives via qualitative approach
(Interviews)
2018 [Sustainable Development Goals and – internally displaced persons (IDPs) as
Reproductive Healthcare Rights of overlooked population
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in – displaced women and children
India (Sahoo and Pradhan 2018)]. The – access to the reproductive healthcare
study focuses on identification and rights, basic health, and needs
arrangement of durable advocacy with the
IDPs and for health promotion. Highlights
on the need for monitoring and evaluation
of multiple health schemes, given that
new IDPs have complex needs and health
problems due to the exposure to physical
and environmental threats, violence, and
trauma. Many of them face a loss of social
networks and assets, knowledge and
information in the new environment, and
lack food security. They have inadequate
shelter, healthcare services, sanitation,
and access to safe water
(continued)

Year Key concerns of SDG3 Key variables
2017 [The Potential of Health Literacy to – strong barriers to healthcare
Address the Health-related UN engagement: knowledge and education
Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG3) – other barriers: culture, gender roles,
in Nepal: a Rapid Review (Budhathoki quality of service, and cost of services
et al. 2017)]. The World Health
Organization (WHO) has positioned
health literacy as a key mechanism to
meet the health-related Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG3). However,
given that there is little known about the
status of health literacy in developing
countries such as Nepal, a review was
conducted to answer the question: What
are the impediments of public health in
Nepal that could potentially be addressed
by health literacy?
2017 [The Sustainable Development Goals and – the need to strengthen health systems
the Global Health Security Agenda: – the need to build IHR core capacities
Exploring Synergies for a Sustainable and for a sustainable world resilient against
Resilient World (Bali and Taaffe 2017)]. infectious disease threats
A study initiated due to a lack of a specific – to increase financial support by
target for global health security enhancing private sector engagement
and domestic resource mobilization and
allocation
2017 [An Analysis of Determinants of Under-5 – provision of affordable maternal
Mortality (U5MR) across Countries: healthcare services
Defining Priorities to Achieve Targets in – development of educational programs
Sustainable Developmental Goals for mothers and adolescents
(Acheampong et al. 2017)]. Results from – improving access to safe drinking water
109 countries showed that the most and sanitation
important factors that accounted for the
differences were fertility rate, total health
expenditure per capita, access to improved
water and sanitation, and female
employment rate
final importance ratings of (WHATs); Step 8: to determine initial technical ratings

of (HOWs); and lastly, Step 9: to determine final technical ratings of (HOWs).
QFD has been employed in healthcare service organizations in order to understand
consumers’ expectations better and consider these expectations into their strategy to
create high service specification and process performance (Camgoz-Akdag and Tarm
2013). There are many previous studies available on quality function deployment
(QFD) application in healthcare services. Cheng and Nordin (2018) applied QFD in
healthcare for physical environment, patient satisfaction, quality culture, and brand
image toward quality for sustainability. Nordin and Razak (2015) invented new inte-
gration of QFD-Kano in their study to redesign the assessment on satisfaction and
QFD
Determine Importance Ratings of

(WHATs)
Matrix
Relationships
PHASE 1 Step 6
extraction
Generate Technical Measures (HOWs)
Step 4
Determine Final Importance

Identify Customer
Ratings of
Needs
(WHATs) Determine Relationships Between (WHATs) and (HOWs)
(WHATs)
Step 3 Step 5 Step 7
PHASE 2 PHASE 3
Determine Initial Technical Ratings of (HOWs)

Step 8
Determine Final Technical Ratings of (HOWs)
Step 9
Fig. 31.2 Nine steps in QFD model
dissatisfaction among hospital patients in Malaysia Public Hospital. Mao and Pena-
Mora (2019) also proposed QFD in different stages of the critical infrastructure
systems (CISs) life cycle and could transform resilience criteria into system prop-
erties. Camgoz-Akdag and Tarm (2013) adopted QFD to define the customer needs
and expectations and convert it into the quality characteristics while defining also
the private healthcare setting. In addition, many case studies have been published
detailing the adoption of QFD by a number of researchers in healthcare services
(Nordin et al. 2018), some of which are exemplified in Table 31.5.
31.6.1 Establishing Key Leadership Criteria: Utilization

of Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and Triple
Helix Model (THM)
Key leadership criteria for health sectors within SDG3 can be identified through
three specific phases. Figure 31.3 illustrates our proposed working model. Generally,
Phase 1 identifies leadership criteria pertaining to SDG3. The bulk of the process
of leadership criteria identification lies in Phase 2. The consideration of THM and
Table 31.5 QFD in healthcare services

QFD applications Tools Year
[Hospitality Co-Creation with Co-creation 2019
Mobility-Impaired People (Lin et al.
2019)]
[Quality Function Deployment-based Resilience 2019
Framework for Improving the Resilience
of Critical Infrastructure Systems (Mao
and Pena-Mora 2019)]
[A Multi-Phase QFD-based Hybrid Fuzzy Hybrid Fuzzy MCDM 2018
MCDM Approach for Performance
Evaluation: A Case of Smart Bike-Sharing
Programs in Changsha (Tian et al. 2018)]
[Robust Fuzzy Quality Function Robust Fuzzy QFD 2017
Deployment based on the
Mean-End-Chain Concept: Service
Station Evaluation Problem for Rail
Catering Services (Wu et al. 2017)]
[Combined Quality Function Deployment Quality Function Deployment (QFD), 2016
and Logical Framework Analysis to Logical Framework, Emergency Care
Improve Quality of Emergency Care in
Malta (Buttigieg et al. 2016)]
[A Multi-phased QFD-based Optimization Optimization, Service Design 2016
Approach to Sustainable Service Design
(Chowdhury and Quaddus 2016)]
[Improving Healthcare Quality: A Innovation 2016
Technological and Managerial Innovation
Perspective (Kim et al. 2016)]
[Green Hospital Design: Integrating QFD, Green Hospital Design 2016
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and
End-User Demands (Wood et al. 2016)]
[Analyze the Healthcare Service Fuzzy QFD 2015
Requirement using Fuzzy QFD (Lee et al.
2015)]
its technical measurement happens in this phase. At this stage, leadership criteria
applicable to all three players, i.e., the government, industry, and academia, are
scrutinized, resulting in measures of VUCA-SDG3-THM relationship. The measures
are then tested for strength based on relationship matrix in Step 6. The result of the
mapping is a series of ratings pertaining to the identified leadership attributes. The
ratings will enable ranking to be made for SDG3. However, the model also allows for
the determination of leadership attributes that are applicable to all SDGs resulting
in further ranking of the attributes. The final step in the model will produce two sets
of rankings: one is for general leadership attribute critical to overall SDGs success,
while the other one is for key leadership criteria critical to the implementation of
SDG3.
VUCA Environment & Leadership QFD
Volatility-Uncertainty-Complexity-
Ambiguity
Initiatives in SDGs
Matrix
Relationships
Determine Importance Ratings of
(WHATs)
Step 1
VUCA-SDG3 relationship
PHASE 1 Step 6
extraction Triple Helix Model (THM)
Generate Technical Measures (HOWs)
Step 4
VUCA-SDG3-THM relationship Determine Final Importance

Identify Customer
SDG3 Good Health (0,1,3,9) Ratings of
Needs
(WHATs) and Well Being
Determine Relationships Between (WHATs) and (HOWs) (WHATs)
Step 2 Step 3 Step 5 Step 7
PHASE 2 VUCA-SDG3-THM index PHASE 3
Determine Initial Technical Ratings of (HOWs)

Step 8
Prioritized VUCA-SDG3-THM
Determine Final Technical Ratings of (HOWs)
Step 9
Fig. 31.3 The proposed QFD working model
31.7 Conclusions
The working model has been conceptualized based on the authors’ previous work
in the context of patients’ satisfaction and dissatisfaction, as well as being informed
by literature. We hope to test the model by drawing upon the Malaysian healthcare
context. Further works may include its application in the context of higher education,
the construction industry, and other service sectors.
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Chapter 32
Using the ASSURE Model in Developing
an English Instructional Module
for Indonesian Migrant Workers
in Penang, Malaysia
M. Arif Rahman Hakim, Mohamad Jafre Zainol Abidin,

and Nur Ilianis Adnan
Abstract The aim of this study was to develop an English instructional material for
Indonesia migrant workers in English Academy Bengkulu Malaysia. The output of
this study was an instructional teaching material product in the form of module devel-
oped using ASSURE model that has gone through the stages of analyzing student
characteristics; standards and learning objectives to be achieved; selecting methods;
media and teaching materials; using media and materials; and require learner partic-
ipation. After the development process is complete, the product is also validated by
experts, especially in the content and language section. Based on the results of tryouts
that have been conducted on Indonesia migrant workers in Penang, Malaysia, this
product received a positive response from them and their English teachers. The prod-
uct is also proved useful in completing and covering shortcomings in the teaching-
learning process in English Academy Bengkulu Malaysia. The result of the study is
an English instructional module consisting of six chapters on topics of daily conver-
sation, business communication, basic writing, delivering speech, news reading, and
tourism conversation. This educational product is also expected to be able to assist
the ASEAN free trade program in the future.
Keywords ASSURE model · English instructional material · Indonesian migrant

workers
32.1 Introduction
English is a global language which plays an important role in various aspects of life,
especially in this era of globalization faced by the ASEAN free trade. However, the
Indonesian government through the Ministry of National Education made policies to
M. A. R. Hakim (B)
Institut Agama Islam Negeri, Bengkulu, Indonesia
e-mail: arifelsiradj@iainbengkulu.ac.id
M. J. Zainol Abidin · N. I. Adnan
Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Penang, Malaysia

384 M. A. R. Hakim et al.
acquaint this language in its educational system in elementary schools and colleges
due to its importance in business, communication, education, science, technology,
diplomacy, art, tourism, etc. (Saukah 2003).
Learning English, as a course, is different compared to formal classes, which are
not systematically structured (Pujiati and Aisah 2015). According to the previous
researches, learning materials used by class instructors are organized based on the
teachers’ expectation and not the participants, with inadequate teaching evaluation. In
addition, the implementation of an English language training program for Indonesian
migrant workers known as the English Academy Bengkulu Malaysia has not been
properly programmed and does not have adequate teaching materials. Besides, its
purpose is also not systematically structured, to increase the speech skills as well as
the needs and demands of the organization. Interviews were conducted regarding the
interpretation of the academy program, which resulted in varied responses, thereby
implicating the choice of teaching materials utilized. An instructor is opportune to
use books that are commonly used in formal English classes, while other teachers
search for material from various sources and then combine them into a module.
32.1.1 An Overview of English Academy Bengkulu Malaysia
Poverty is one of the dominant and main factors which drive the Indonesian people
to become migrant workers. However, this preference does not change their quality
of life due to many problems. According to data obtained from Ketua Kelompok
Kerja Pemilu Luar Negeri Republik Indonesia or the Chairperson of the Republic
of Indonesia’s Overseas Election Working Group Mr. Wajid Fauzi, in 2018, over
1 million migrant workers were living in Malaysia (Rizqo 2018).
According to interview results obtained from Indonesian migrant workers, they
often receive unpleasant treatment from fellow workers from other countries, and
a small local population of Malaysia. This was also expressed by several activists
and members of the non-government organization officially registered in Malaysia,
namely, Pertubuhan Masyarakat Indonesia (Permai) or the Indonesian Community
Association in Penang Island. In addition, their poor English communication skill,
which is considered an elite language among the working community, is also one
of the reasons for the creation of this academy. Besides, it also has an impact on
their careers. According to an analysis conducted by the Human Resources section
of some companies, Indonesian workers performed far better than those from other
countries but were constrained by their poor English skills. Due to this, the Permai
Penang together with the Indonesian Postgraduate Students’ Academic Forum at
University Sains Malaysia initiated an English language training program named
English Academy Bengkulu Malaysia. This program is carried out 2 days a week in
the morning (9–11 am), afternoon (3–5 pm), and night (8–10 pm) due to the different
working hours of the migrants. It was implemented in November 2017 and conducted
by two main instructors. Based on the data obtained from the lecturers, in August
2019, a total of 320 people had joined the program since its inception. Some workers
32 Using the ASSURE Model in Developing an English Instructional … 385
have completed this program which lasts for 5 months and has raised their standard
of living by getting a better paying job, returned to Indonesia, gained admission into
a well-known tertiary institution, and have been successfully promoted.
Based on the above-listed problems, an educational development research method
was used to develop teaching material products or learning resources for English lan-
guage training programs specifically for Indonesian migrant workers. The research
stages are explained in the next section.
32.2 Research Method
The current study is an educational development research aimed at developing

English teaching materials for Indonesian migrant workers. Latief (2012) defines
it as a research design used to develop educational products such as curriculum, syl-
labus, textbooks, learning media, modules, assessment instruments, etc. Furthermore,
the ASSURE model developed by Molenda et al. (2008) which is an abbreviation
of analyzing learner characteristics was used to state performance objectives, select
methods, media, materials, as well as utilize technology, which requires learner par-
ticipation, evaluation, and revision. Several steps have been carried out, such as
obtaining information consisting of identifying problems, choosing ways of solv-
ing problems and theoretical studies, defining concepts and arranging the developed
teaching materials in the form of modules, conducting validation by experts in the
field of developing English materials, revising the content based on expert input,
and verification. It also evaluates the trials, revisions, and validations based on input
obtained from program participants and teachers during the tryout process. The semi-
structured interview method was used to obtain data which seem to be more open
and flexible.
According to Al-Nassar (2010), semi-structured interviews consist of structured
and unstructured data, which allows previously designed and additional questions. A
total of 60 students and 2 teachers were interviewed and the analysis of program on
participants’ needs, the required English teaching materials, the opinions of partici-
pants and teachers on the type of class needed, their favorite learning techniques, and
main interest was performed. The results of this analysis are the main foundation used
to develop the teaching materials. Furthermore, the respondents also participated in
the testing phase of the products.
32.2.1 Data Analysis
While processing data for this study, the researchers used technical triangulations
and source triangulation, where technical triangulation consist of data collection
techniques including observations, interviews, and documentation to get the data
from the same sources (Lexy 2008), while source triangulation is data collection
Fig. 32.1 Triangulation

scheme. Adapted from Observation
Moleong (Lexy 2008)
Results
Interview Documentation
techniques from different sources (English teachers and participants) with the same
method (interviews) and also analyze the results obtained from the answers of the
interview given by participants and teachers. Triangulation technique is a data col-
lection technique that combines various existing data collection techniques and data
sources (Sugiyono 2010). Triangulation in credibility testing is defined as check-
ing data from various sources with various ways and various times (Suyanto 2008)
(Fig. 32.1).
32.3.1 The Results of Need Analysis
The semi-structured interviews were conducted on 60 participants and 2 teachers.

This step is very important to obtain all the information needed in developing the
teaching modules (Hakim and Abidin 2018). It consists of six points, namely, the
favorite material and learning activities, opinions on available teaching materials,
interest in learning using audiovisual and social media, as well as the preferences in
the illustration of English materials needed (Table 32.1).
Based on the data collected, 45 participants stated that they liked the speaking
material in learning English, while 15 students were interested in grammar. In the
next question related to the learning activities, as many as 30 participants were very
happy to learn English through role-playing activities, 20 people liked the business
conversation activities, while 10 people preferred reading text activities. Furthermore,
the third question related to the participants’ opinions on the available teaching
materials has as many as 50 people who considered that it could not meet their
expectations, while 10 people considered it to be sufficient. Related to this case, the
teachers also acknowledged that the materials provided do not specifically address
the needs of migrant workers.
Regarding the interest in learning using audiovisual material, 45 participants of
the total number liked teachers delivering lecturers through this medium to reduce the
boredom. Furthermore, 10 participants did not really like learning using audiovisuals,
and 5 people did not care.
Table 32.1 The percentage of need analysis’s answers for participants

No Questions of need analysis (students) Answers
1 Favorite subject in learning English 1. Speaking (75%)
2. Grammar (25%)
2 Favorite learning activity 1. Role-play activity (50%)
2. Business conversation activity (33.33%)
3. Reading text activity (16.66%)
3 Students’ interest in learning using 1. Interested 75%
audiovisual material 2. Not interested 16.66%
3. Did not care 8.33%
4 Learning English using social media 1. Agree 100%
5 Suggestion related to their teaching 1. More teaching material and practice
materials sheets (50%)
2. Add more pictures in the book (33.33%)
3. The physical side of teaching material
that is elegant with pleasant designs
(16.66%)
Furthermore, interview participants’ interest in learning English using social

media was analyzed. All respondents stated that using it in the current digital era
is very important and helpful as it helped them deal with their tight working hours,
which limited in-class learning.
The last question addressed the preferences of participants with 30 people of the
respondents requesting more teaching material and practice sheets for after-class
practice. However, 20 people of respondents needed a form of teaching material that
used more illustrations to make it look more interesting and understandable, while
10 people were in need of the physical side of teaching materials that are elegant
with pleasant designs.
In addition to gathering requirement analysis to program participants, interviews
were conducted on two English teachers at this academy, with the aim of obtain-
ing various information related to the teaching and learning process. The teachers’
opinions regarding the interests of Indonesian migrant workers, the availability of
appropriate teaching material, the obstacles encountered, and their suggestions were
also analyzed.
According to these teachers, students are often excited at the initial stage and
tend to feel bored and easily distracted by other individuals later. However, it is not
uncommon for participants to feel uninspired or even sleepy when a new lesson is
about to start, rather a fatigue after working for about 10–12 h. This is subsequently
followed by the availability of teaching materials in the academy, which was very
limited and entirely summarized from several sources.
Furthermore, the obstacles often found by teachers are related to the consistency
of the learning participants, as they were not formally bound like an institution or
course-training institute. Three batches were run concurrently, with large numbers
of participants at the beginning, which were drastically reduced at the end of the
program. Therefore, the teachers advised for the development of teaching materials
or modules capable of meeting the requirements of program participants with familiar

topics related to their daily lives.
32.3.2 The Result of Developing the Teaching Material

Products
The teaching materials designed for English lessons are focused on speaking and
writing activities. This is consistent with the results obtained by analyzing the pro-
gram participants and teachers who are directly related to the needs of an Indonesian
migrant worker in Malaysia. Besides, these materials tend to motivate the participants
of this academy to improve their English skills using modules and learning support
videos obtained from YouTube. The topics covered in the teaching module of the
results of this research development are daily conversation, business communication,
basic writing, speech delivery, news reading, and tourism conversation. These topics
were chosen by considering the needs and interests of participants, which is expected
to increase the consistency of Indonesian migrant workers in the English Academy
Bengkulu Malaysia (Fig. 32.2).
Fig. 32.2 The cover for teaching material product

32.3.3 Learners’ Participation
It is necessary to test the product to acquire some information related to the materials
which need to be revised and improved in order to determine the effectiveness of the
teaching materials developed (Latief 2012). Therefore, tryouts were conducted using
60 participants in 12 meetings and tested by the teachers by applying the material
developed during the teaching and learning process. In this tryout, researchers acted
as collaborators and observers in the classroom and the teachers had the role of apply-
ing teaching material product that had been developed by researchers to make the
teaching-learning process to be natural (Hakim and Abidin 2018). In tryout process,
researchers also made several field notes related to several important aspects based on
the situation that occurred in the tryout process. In addition, the effectiveness of the
teaching material developed was used in ascertaining participants’ activeness, inter-
ests, and opinions. In general, during the analysis, it was discovered that participants
were very enthusiastic in their respective classes.
32.3.4 Revision of Teaching Materials’ Product
After conducting a tryout, the product was revised based on the results and sug-
gestions from both participants and teachers. In this stage, the researchers revised
the shortcomings and weaknesses of the material developed (Sismiati and Latief
2012). The revision was based on the changes in inappropriate teaching material,
spelling errors, as well as the addition of several examples and practice materials.
This was followed by validating the teaching material product by experts experi-
enced in developing the products using modules, videos, strategies, language, and
conformity while analyzing the needs of program participants and teachers. Accord-
ing to Asiyah et al. (2018), this step is very important to develop a good product. In
addition, all suggestions from experts were used to develop and make the product
better.
32.4 Conclusion
In this study, the teaching material developed is in the form of complementary mod-
ules aimed at completing and covering the shortcomings associated with the main
modules used in English-speaking classes at English Academy Bengkulu Malaysia
in Penang. This module-shaped product was developed through the research process
of developing the ASSURE model adopted by Molenda et al. (2008) in stages by
analyzing the needs of students and teachers, product development, expert validation,
trials, and final revisions. This module also aims to assist teachers in solving some of
the problems they face with Indonesian migrant workers while teaching. However,
there were some obstacles associated with the module development process, such
as heterogeneity of the opinion of the English class participants on the expectations
of teaching materials and learning methods. Therefore, additional interviews were
conducted by giving more specific questions to the participants, thereby providing
a clear picture of the English-speaking class. The teaching material products in the
form of modules produced in this study amounted to six topics. However, after going
through the stages of expert validation, it was trialed to 12 meetings with 60 Indone-
sian migrant workers. This stage was carried out to determine the suitability of the
teaching products developed with its needs and effectiveness. Based on the results
of the tryouts conducted, the modules obtained a good reception response from both
program participants and teachers.
Acknowledgments The researchers would like to thank Pertubuhan Masyarakat Indonesia (Per-
mai) Pulau Pinang, Inspirasi Akbar Sdn Bhd and English Academy Bengkulu Malaysia for funding
and support to this research project.
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Usia Dini di Kota Bengkulu. Awlady: Jurnal Pendidikan Anak 4(1):30–49
Hakim MAR, Abidin MJZ (2018) Developing public speaking materials based on communica-
tive language teaching for EFL learners in Indonesia. In: ELT in Asia in the digital era: global
citizenship and identity. Routledge, London, pp 145–150
Latief MA (2012) Research methods on language learning: an introduction. Universitas Negeri
Malang, Malang
Lexy MJ (2008) Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. PT. Remaja Rosdakarya, Bandung
Molenda H, Russell JD, Smaldino SE, Heinich R (2008) Instructional technology and media for
learning, 12th edn. Pearson, New York
Pujiati H, Aisah A (2015) Pengembangan model bahan ajar bahasa inggris untuk program
ekstrakurikuler di sekolah dasar. Parameter: Jurnal Pendidikan Universitas Negeri Jakarta
27(2):107–114
Rizqo KA (2018) Pokja Pemilu Luar Negeri: Total DPT Hasil Perbaikan Pertama 2 Juta. Retrieved
from https://www.news.detik.com/berita
Saukah A (2003) Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris di Indonesia: Tinjauan Terhadap Unjuk Kerja
Pembelajar dan Upaya Peningkatannya. Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang
Sismiati S, Latief MA (2012) Developing instructional materials on English oral communication
for nursing schools. TEFLIN J 23(1):44–59
Sugiyono (2010) Metode Penelitian Pendidikan Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D.
Alfabeta, Bandung
Suyanto KKE (2008) English for young learners. Jakarta, Bumi Aksara
Chapter 33
Acceptance of Food Waste Recycling
Products among Public toward
Sustainable Food Waste Management
Noorazlin Ramli, Nur Sabrina Rosli, Faraezwantie Abdul Wahap,

Wan Nazriah Wan Nawawi, and Hayati Adilin Mohd Abd Majid
Abstract In Malaysia, sustainable management of food waste has become a criti-

cal issue for the authorities to handle. Insufficient number of landfills to dispose of
all the food waste has caused a great concern to manage the piling of food waste.
Alternatively, recycling food waste into beneficial products is seen to be a great
solution in managing the issue. However, little is known about how this alterna-
tive will impact the society in Kuala Terengganu area. This study is conducted to
examine the acceptance of public on food waste recycling products based on knowl-
edge, behavior, and emotions. A total of 200 respondents were randomly selected
from four different areas of Kuala Terengganu to answer a set of questionnaires.
Nonetheless, only 193 questionnaires were completed and returned with reliable and
meaningful results. Descriptive analyses and chi-square test analysis were used for
the empirical analysis. Results revealed that knowledge has the highest mean among
the three variables: knowledge, behavior, and emotion. This proves that knowledge is
the most prevalent factor toward public acceptance of food waste recycling products.
In addition, the study also found that the public would consider to have recycled
food waste as it is cheaper, more beneficial, and acceptable. Besides, the public
agreed that recycling the food waste is a great effort for sustaining healthier envi-
ronment and boosting economy. Thus, the study will contribute to the community
goodwill, provide modest reductions in disposal costs, as well as improve Malaysia’s
environmental sustainability.
Keywords Food waste · Sustainable food waste management · Recycling food

waste product
33.1 Introduction
Malaysia, which is a part of Southeast Asia, is recognized for its good variety of food
since it is a multiracial country (Abd Ghafar 2017). Unfortunately, this specialty of
N. Ramli (B) · N. S. Rosli · F. Abdul Wahap · W. N. Wan Nawawi · H. A. Mohd Abd Majid
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Terengganu Branch,
Dungun, Terengganu, Malaysia
e-mail: noora115@uitm.edu.my

392 N. Ramli et al.
Malaysia is also revolved into a cultural waste. In 2012, a study conducted by Jabatan
Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal Negara (JPSPN) stated that food waste is the largest type
of waste contributed by Malaysians, where 31–45% are from overall solid waste
generated. Solid Waste Corporation of Malaysia (SWCorp) reported a statistic that
showed in the year 2015 food waste in Malaysia reached 15,000 tons daily, which
also included 3,000 tons that was still fit for consumption and should not have been
discarded. Since Malaysia is currently experiencing urbanization and population
growth, Papargyropoulo et al. (2015) indicated that this development contributes to
the positive increase of solid waste generated. The study showed that waste generation
increased from 0.5 kg per capita daily in the 1980s to more than 1.3 kg per capita daily
in the year 2009. According to Ministry of Housing and Local Government (MHLG),
domestic food waste volume stands at 8,745 tons daily which is around 3,192,404
tons yearly representing more than 38.32% of total waste produced compared to
restaurants (Loo 2011).
In 2012, JPSPN listed several strategies to sustain the environment, economic,
social, and global concerns in Malaysia. One of the strategies includes implementing
the regulation of recycling food waste. This regulation has to be implemented as
it will help in developing a more systematic food waste management leading it
to an improved economy and a positive environmental effect. This is one of the
strategies suggested by Papargyropoulou et al. (2014) to sustain food surplus and
waste management besides re-use, recovery disposal practices, and more. This food
waste recycling enforcement would improve both household and national economies
by producing new products recycled from food waste which will lead to business
opportunities for third parties. This recycling activity would also help in reducing
environmental pollution and contagious diseases. Thus, the acceptance and usage of
food waste recycle product could be one of the alternatives to sustain the environment
as well as provide a business opportunity to industries and public household (Takata
et al. 2012; Papargyropoulou et al. 2014; Nawawi et al. 2017).
33.2 Problem in Context
According to Papargyropoulo et al. (2015), Malaysians generate about 36,000 tons

of waste per day, and almost 15,000 tons of that is food waste. The study revealed
that about 8,000 tons which is almost 60% of the food waste is avoidable. Out of
this 8,000 tons, 3,000 tons goes to landfills daily even though they are still edible.
This number could have fed around two million people. A study done by SWCorp
has discovered that the number of food waste can increase by up to 50% during the
festive periods. This has been contributed most by the households, followed by night
markets and Ramadhan bazaars. Apart from these three contributors, food courts and
food and beverage sectors in Malaysia also contributed much to the disposal.
Undoubtedly, food waste is socially and morally unacceptable due to the fact
that many people still live in poverty and do not have enough food to consume
even a piece of bread (Abdul Razak 2017). According to Ocicka and Raźniewska
33 Acceptance of Food Waste Recycling Products among Public … 393
(2018), as global population is expected to rise in the future, food waste elevates
the constraints of food shortage and availability. Wasting food is an offense to those
who are facing food insecurity because while thousands are sleeping in hunger,
households and restaurants alike are dumping away large volumes of edible food
waste everyday (Jereme et al. 2017). Hence, reducing food waste is a compulsory
step toward reducing hunger issues in the world.
However, the ugly truth is, food waste is still ending up in Malaysia’s landfills
despite the scarcity of land and space. As of 2016, Malaysia has 1,170 disposal
sites and only 4 of them have sanitary landfills (Papargyropoulo et al. 2015). The
increasing number of wastes would require larger space for landfills, thus higher
cost is needed in order to manage the waste produced. After the food waste goes
to the landfills, it will be decomposed and disintegrated producing methane gases
which have a severe impact on local weather change and global warming. Environ-
mentally, food waste leads to water pollution since the liquid remnant of the waste
will be absorbed and flowed to water sources. In addition, food waste brings out
unpleasant smell and attracts pests that actually pollute the air and lead to several
contagious diseases and health concerns. According to Godfray et al. (2010) as cited
by Ocicka and Raźniewska (2018), food waste prevention has become an important
environmental topic as it provides a compelling opportunity to diminish the ill envi-
ronmental impacts caused by food consumption habits. Due to this problem, food
waste recycling product is seen to be a part of the solution. Recycling is a vital aspect
of managing the food waste issue as it assists in reducing food waste, and maintain-
ing environment sustainability, economically, socially, and globally (Haviland et al.
2013). Therefore, this study is worth (i) to determine the acceptance of public on
food waste recycling product and (ii) to identify whether food waste recycling is a
part of solution in food waste management.
33.3 Material and Methods
33.3.1 Research Design
This research was conducted with a purpose of discussing public acceptance of food
waste recycling products. A cross-sectional study of descriptive research design was
used, and it was conducted using the quantitative research method.
33.3.2 Population and Sampling
A convenience sampling technique was used where households among citizens of

Kuala Terengganu were randomly chosen. According to Haviland et al. (2013) cited
by Nawawi et al. (2017), municipal solid waste in Kuala Terengganu has increased
394 N. Ramli et al.
drastically over the years. Kuala Terengganu City Council (MBKT) collected 300
tons of solid waste per day for clean-up operations in the city. It was also reported
that the solid waste collection and disposal costs in Kuala Terengganu are around
RM7.75 million a year (Nawawi et al. 2017). Therefore, Kuala Terengganu needs to
seriously address its waste management issues and has been selected for the purpose
of study.
According to Jereme et al. (2017), food wastage is higher in urban area due to
different income levels of the citizens. A household is defined as one or more person
living in the same house unit such as an apartment, a mobile home, or any single
room that is occupied (Roscoe 1975). Since all the respondents are believed to live in
a house and generate municipal solid waste, thus they are categorized as household.
The household population of Kuala Terengganu is about 186,100 with an immensity
of land of 20,776 hectare. However, Stevens’ (1996) rule of thumb indicated that the
sample size of respondents should be larger than 30 and smaller than 500 which is
appropriate for research to be done. Based on this, a total of 200 questionnaires were
distributed to respondents who are currently residing or have been residing in Kuala
Terengganu for at least 2 years. Hence, only 193 questionnaires out of a total of 200
questionnaires were completed and returned with reliable and meaningful results.
The areas selected in Kuala Terengganu are the nearby areas of PB Square, Plaza
Paya Bunga, Pasar Payang, and Kuala Terengganu Express Bus Terminal.
33.3.3 Research Instrument Design
The research instrument was developed from a review of previous literatures and
studies. The instruments were prepared in two languages, Bahasa Malaysia and
English, to avoid any misunderstanding from the respondents. The questionnaire
is divided into two sections. Section A consists of the respondent’s demographic
variables such as gender, age, marital status, and level of education. Section B consists
of the questions of the acceptance of public on food waste recycling product. Section
B contains three sub-sections which are (B1) knowledge, (B2) behavior, and (B3)
emotion. Sub-section (B1) measures the knowledge of public on food waste recycling
using questions based on Likert scale ranging “1 = True”, “2 = Not sure”, and “3 =
False”. As for sub-section (B2), it measures the behavior of public toward food waste
using dichotomous (Yes/No). Similarly, for sub-section (B3), the emotion of public
on food waste recycling product is measured also using dichotomous (Yes/No). A
pilot study was carried out to test the suitability of the questionnaire for this study. The
pilot study was conducted with 30 randomly selected citizens in Dungun area. During
the pilot study, respondents were encouraged to add comments and suggestions to
the extent to which the instructions and contents of the questionnaire itself are clear,
understandable, complete, and neutral. In addition, peer critiques were also allowed
during this period for their comments on the questionnaire’s contents.
33.3.4 Data Collection
Questionnaire distribution took place for 1 week in October 2018 at selected areas
in Kuala Terengganu which are PB Square, Plaza Paya Bunga, Pasar Payang, and
Kuala Terengganu Express Bus Terminal. The questionnaires were distributed during
the weekends (Friday and Saturday) so that a wide range of respondents could be
reached compared to weekdays. The respondents were randomly selected in the
specific areas and given a set of questionnaires. A total of 193 questionnaires from
200 questionnaires were successfully answered by respondents with reliable and
meaningful results. The questionnaires were then coded and keyed in Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 2.0.
33.4.1 Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Respondents
Table 33.1 shows the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents. Most of

the respondents are females with 61.1%, while the rest are male respondents with
38.9%. The result is not surprising as females are seen shopping around the city com-
pared to males. Besides that, respondents of age 30 years and above are the majority
standing at 49.2%, followed by respondents aged between 22 and 25 years at 22.3%,
respondents between 18 and 21 years at 17.1%, and lastly respondents between 26
and 29 years of age at 11.4%. This is expected as people above 30 years of age are
seen as being most of the sellers around Pasar Payang, while teenagers between 22
Table 33.1 Sociodemographic

Frequency Percent
characteristics of the
respondents Gender Males 75 38.9
Females 118 61.1
Age 18–21 years old 33 17.1
22–25 years old 43 22.3
26–29 years old 22 11.4
30 and above 95 49.2
Marital status Single 82 42.5
Married 111 57.5
Education level SPM 100 51.8
Diploma 29 15.0
Bachelor 51 26.4
Master 12 6.2
Ph.D. 1 0.5
396 N. Ramli et al.
and 25 years are seen shopping around in the urban area of Kuala Terengganu. With
regard to the respondents’ age, it is expected that the education level information
gathered presented 51.8% of respondents are with SPM certificate as the majority,
16.4% of respondents are Bachelor’s degree holders, 15.0% of them possess Diploma
certificate, 6.2% of the respondents are Master’s degree holders, and the least 0.5%
among the respondents possess Ph.D. certificate. Lastly, referring to the table on
marital status category, an average of 42.5% of the respondents are single while
the other 57.5% are married. This shows that the majority of respondents are single
respondents hanging out in urban areas compared to married respondents.
33.4.2 Descriptive Statistical Analysis on Knowledge,

Behavior, and Emotion
Tables 33.2, 33.3, and 33.4 present the descriptive statistic for knowledge, behavior,
and emotion on food waste recycling product, respectively. Respondents were seen to
have a good knowledge of food waste management as 65.3–90.1% of the respondents
manage to provide correct answer for the questions in Section (B1). Most respondents
answer the definition of food waste recycling correctly (90.1%) followed by benefits
of food waste recycling (83.7%), recycling method for food waste (70.5%), and the
Table 33.2 Descriptive statistic (knowledge)

Percent
Correct Not sure Wrong
Definition of food waste recycling 90.1 2.3 7.6
Disposal method for food waste 65.3 19.7 15.0
Recycling method of food waste 70.5 1.3 28.2
Benefit of food waste recycling 83.7 9.4 6.9
Table 33.3 Descriptive statistic (behavior)

N Mean
I simply throw away my food waste into dustbin 193 0.77
I do not separate waste into a different bin 193 0.55
I do not recycle my food waste 193 0.70
I do not produce food compost 193 0.78
I do not have time to manage food waste 193 0.69
I do not have proper facilities at home 193 0.82
It is troublesome to segregate waste 193 0.54
Valid N (listwise) 193
Table 33.4 Descriptive statistic (emotions)

N Mean
I feel insecure to use food waste recycling products 193 0.50
It is unpleasant to separate food waste 193 0.50
I feel disgusting to consume recycled food waste 193 0.47
I am not confidence that recycling practices beneficial 193 0.11
I do not believe food waste recycling as business opportunity 193 0.11
Overall, I am not satisfied with current waste management 193 0.26
best disposal method for food waste (65.3%). Likewise, in Table 33.3, results present
the descriptive analysis of respondents’ behavior. The results show the highest mean
score of (M = 0.82) representing the absence of facilities at home to manage food
waste. The least mean score is (M = 0.54) representing that separating food waste
is troublesome. Lastly, referring to Table 33.4 representing the descriptive statistics
for emotion shows that the highest mean score of (M = 0.50) represents the public
feels insecure to use or purchase food waste recycling products and feels unpleasant
to separate waste. Unsurprisingly, this is expected as food waste recycling among
Malaysians is still new and they are unfamiliar with the methods of disposal.
33.4.3 Analysis of Chi-Square Test on Knowledge, Behavior,

and Emotion
Table 33.5 shows a cross-tabulation between knowledge and public acceptance of

food waste recycling products. The percentage for knowledge shows that 57.5% of
the respondents are ready to accept recycling method to manage food waste, while
another 42.5% of respondents are not ready to accept the method of disposal. The
Pearson Chi-Square value calculated is 31.411, and the Asymptotic significance value
is 0.000 proving that they are both related. This shows that knowledge is related with
the acceptance of the public and concludes that the variables absolutely affect the
public acceptance of food waste recycling product.
Table 33.6 shows a cross-tabulation between behavior and public acceptance of
food waste recycling products. The behavior percentage shows that 57.5% of the
Table 33.5 Analysis of Chi-Square test on knowledge and acceptance

Knowledge (%) Pearson’s Chi-Square Asym. Sig. (2-sided)
value
Acceptance No 42.5 31.411 0.000
Yes 57.5
Total 100.0
398 N. Ramli et al.
Table 33.6 Analysis of Chi-Square test on behavior and acceptance

Behavior (%) Pearson’s Chi-Square value Asym. Sig. (2-sided)
Acceptance No 42.5 39.950 0.000
Yes 57.5
Total 100.0
Table 33.7 Analysis of Chi-Square test on emotions and acceptance

Emotions (%) Pearson’s Chi-Square value Asym. Sig. (2-sided)
Acceptance No 42.5 39.950 0.000
Yes 57.5
Total 100.0
respondents are ready to accept recycling method to manage food waste, while the
other 42.5% of respondents are still not ready. The Pearson Chi-Square value calcu-
lated is 39.950, and the asymptotic significance value is 0.000, which is smaller than
alpha value (α = 0.05), proving that behavior does affect public acceptance of food
waste recycling products.
Table 33.7 shows a cross-tabulation between emotion and public acceptance of
food waste recycling products. The percentage for emotion shows that 57.5% of
the respondents are ready to accept recycling method to manage food waste, while
the other 42.5% of respondents are not ready to accept the method of disposal. The
Pearson Chi-Square value calculated is 66.251, and the asymptotic significance value
is 0.000. On comparing with the alpha value (α = 0.05), it is observed that they are
both related, and emotion does affect the acceptance of public on food waste recycling
products.
33.5 Discussions
The most apparent findings of this research are proving that knowledge is the highest
affecting factor toward public acceptance of food waste recycling products among
the three variables studied. This research has some levels of similarities with those
of Papargyropoulou et al. (2014), Nawawi et al. (2017), and Abdul Razak (2017),
which stated that knowledge contributes to the public acceptance of food waste recy-
cling. However, the public’s knowledge on food waste recycling is still low, and the
government should play an important role in exposing the public on the benefits
of recycling food waste in sustaining environment as well as improving local and
national economy. A noticeable finding of current study is that most respondents
agreed that composting and landfill are two famous methods applied in Malaysia
compared to recycling. This can be seen where the number of recycling food waste
campaigns is literally lower than anti-litter campaign. It also appears that the public
is not aware that food waste can be recycled into other beneficial products as little
information from authorities and media being given on the alternatives of disposal
methods. On the bright side, majority of the respondents agreed that recycling food
waste has a significant impact on achieving environmental sustainability and improv-
ing the economy. This is supported by several studies done by Papargyropoulo et al.
(2015), Nawawi et al. (2017), and Takata et al. (2012), which stated that food waste
recycling products could be one of the alternatives to sustain the environment and
also used as a business opportunity to certain industries and households.
In addition, majority of the respondents agreed that the absence of proper facilities
at home is the main reason why they do not separate food waste from other waste.
They also find the separating process to be troublesome. This point is agreeable as
most households are provided with a dustbin resulting in food waste directly ending
up in landfills before being processed first. This is supported by a study conducted
by Othman and Yuhaniz (2013) where tenants of terrace houses in Shah Alam do
not practice recycling regularly as there is no facility provided for waste separation,
less space at home, and the practice of recycling is felt to be troublesome.
Referring to what has been discussed about knowledge variable regarding disposal
methods for food waste, it is proven that the public is well informed that composting
is one of the best alternatives to dispose food waste. However, in terms of practices,
public’s behavior seems to result otherwise as they do not practice the disposal
techniques. This is expected as the public is not exposed to how exactly composting
should be done and what facilities needed. As far as they are concerned, composting
is simply burying food waste into the soil as fertilizers. A study by Nawawi et al.
(2017) postulated Bokashi method as one of the food waste composting methods
that appears to be profitable in the long term and suggested that the method is to be
introduced as a business opportunity among households to boost their economy. The
study also concluded that the public is willing to initiate food waste recycle business if
the process is convenient and engaged with high anticipations with the local authority
to initiate the recycling business regardless of their moderate interest. Aside from
composting, recycling food waste appeared to be the least informed type of disposal
method. This leads to the behavior of not separating waste and also not recycling food
waste. It is understood that the practice is still unfamiliar among Malaysian, as the
only disposal techniques mostly practiced in Malaysia are composting and landfill.
Furthermore, the public also claimed that they do not have much time to separate
food waste and other waste, adding that majority of the respondents are busy sellers
at Pasar Payang.
On another note, respondents showed negative emotion as they feel insecure and
disgusted to purchase food waste recycling products as they understand that food
waste is referred to leftover food. Besides that, from the Chi-Square test analysis, both
behavior and emotion variables proved that they are related to the public acceptance of
food waste recycling products. They believe that leftover food cannot be recycled into
other beneficial products. Some of them can hardly accept innovated food products
from food waste unless if the products are from food by-products such as corn cob
or carrot peels. Apart from that, other beneficial products such as fertilizer, animal
feeds, and soap recycled from food waste may be acceptable as long as it is not food
400 N. Ramli et al.
for human consumption. Moreover, the public also displayed an unpleasant feeling
of separating food waste and other types of waste. This might have happened because
they do not have much time or proper facilities to separate waste at home. Because
of this, the government should act on enforcement of food waste recycling as it may
change public perspective. Even though information about food waste recycling has
been introduced, the practice of separating food waste cannot be incorporated into
daily routine if there is no enforcement from the local authorities.
33.6 Conclusion
The findings of this research ascertain that knowledge, behavior, and emotions do
affect public acceptance of food waste recycling products. Interestingly, majority
of the findings showed that knowledge has a greater impact on the acceptance of
public addressing food waste recycling products compared to behavior and emotions.
Furthermore, the recycling of food waste is a successful practice to resolve pilings of
food waste that keeps increasing day by day as practiced by other ASEAN countries
such as Thailand and Singapore. Food waste that is recycled into other beneficial
products such as fertilizer, animal feed, and from recycled oil to soaps could improve
the local and national economy as it can be a business opportunity for households and
the food industry. In fact, a new business opportunity could be established focusing on
new food innovation made from food waste by-products and be commercialized in the
market. Since there are many other studies proving the effectiveness of recycling food
waste on sustaining the environment and improving the economic, the government
is suggested to play the main role in raising public awareness about the practices.
Incorporate several bodies to start practicing food waste recycling as another option
of disposal method of food waste besides landfill, which could be a great move
where it takes everyone to get involved in this effort. Authorities such as JPSPN
and SWCorp are responsible to educate the public on food waste recycling as an
alternative to the disposal method. Ultimately, this research supports the government
in pursuing green growth for sustainability and resilience as the government’s target
is to achieve a 22% recycling rate among Malaysians in Eleventh Malaysia Plan
(MP 11). In conclusion, producing food waste into beneficial products will give a
better solution for the proper food waste management in pursuing government focus
in achieving environmental sustainability as well as improving local and national
economies.
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Chapter 34
Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived
Usefulness, and Behavioral Intention:
The Acceptance of Crowdsourcing
Platform by Using Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM)
Rosmiza Izyaty Mohd Amir, Idaya Husna Mohd, Shatina Saad,

Sharidatul Akma Abu Seman, and Tuan Badrol Hisham Tuan Besar
Abstract This study aims to identify the relationship between perceived ease of
use, perceived usefulness, and behavioral intention: the acceptance of crowdsourc-
ing platform by using TAM model. A survey questionnaire was designed as a research
instrument to evaluate respondents and find out the relationship between perceived
ease of use, perceived usefulness, and behavioral intention. A total of 48 question-
naires were distributed via online among students of a business faculty from a public
university in Kelantan. The data collected was analyzed using SPSS 21.0, and this
study found that all the independent variables have significant positive relationship
with behavioral intention. In addition, for all three variables which were perceived
ease of use, perceived usefulness, and behavioral intention, the results indicate that
all variables’ reliabilities were high.
Keywords Digital workforce · TAM model · Perceived ease of use · Perceived

usefulness · Behavioral intention
34.1 Introduction
The term “crowdsourcing platform” was initially introduced by Howe (2006), which
is defined as the outsourcing a function or task traditionally done by a designated agent
to an undefined network of laborer carried out by a company or a similar institution
using a type of “open call” (Kaufmann et al. 2011). In addition, according to Soliman
(2012), crowdsourcing platform is a method for companies in utilizing the power of
the crowd through Internet-based platforms. Subsequently, it creates a relatively new
phenomenon. Soliman (2012) added that the media and entertainment companies
R. I. Mohd Amir · I. H. Mohd · S. Saad (B) · S. A. Abu Seman · T. B. H. Tuan Besar

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor Branch, Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: shatinas@uitm.edu.my
T. B. H. Tuan Besar
e-mail: tuan.badrol.hisham@gmail.com
404 R. I. Mohd Amir et al.
have been struggling to adjust to the rapidly changing, technology-enabled industry

eco-system, and many companies are yet to find their spot on the new map over the
years. By supporting the crowdsourcing, with the combination of two elements, IT
and sharing economic had contributed to new approach of income generation over
the technologies and skill workers.
In the Malaysian context, for instance, research has shown that teachers in
Malaysia may not be adequately prepared to integrate ICT in the learning environ-
ments (Wong et al. 2006). However, in 2002, the Malaysian Ministry of Education
(MMOE) commissioned a study to assess the impact of the Smart School Pilot Project
on teaching and learning (Wong et al. 2006). As the result was encouraging, it clearly
shows that students and teachers had benefited from the technology-supported project
(Wong et al. 2006).
In the context of this study, positive attitudes toward the computer use are more
likely to be accepted by student and teachers in addition to the usage of computers
in the classroom (Wong et al. 2006). Students nowadays spend much of their time
with technologies, in playing multimedia, interactive and social online games, and
entertainment technology in general (Junco et al. 2010). In fact, today’s students
are mostly Net Generation. They are considered as consumers of technology as they
entered the university (Junco et al. 2010). In a way, this creates a gap between the new
and previous generation in ways that previous generations barely understand. The
new generation tends to associate with technology more with playfulness than with
learning (Padilla-MeléNdez et al. 2013). As the influence of the game and enjoyment,
considering gender differences, regarding the intended use and the use of technology
to support teaching and learning processes would produce interesting results, the
objectives of this study are (1) to know the relationship between perceived usefulness
and behavioral intention and (2) to know the relationship between perceived ease of
use and behavioral intention.
34.2.1 Crowdsourcing Platform
One of the most interesting developments is the creation of general-purpose markets

for crowdsourcing platform diverse tasks (Kittur 2010). These markets represent the
potential for accomplishing work for a fraction of the time and money required by
more traditional methods (Kittur 2010). According to Jain (2010), while crowdsourc-
ing platform initiative provides several benefits for the participants involved, it also
poses several novel challenges to effectively manage the crowd. Blohm et al. (2013)
and Kittur (2010) contended that crowdsourcing platform has worked especially well
for certain kinds of tasks, typically, ones that are fast to complete, incur low cognitive
load, have low barriers to entry, are objective and verifiable, require little expertise,
and can be broken up into independent subtask (Soliman 2012).
34 Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived Usefulness, and Behavioral … 405
34.2.2 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
TAM has proven to be a useful theoretical model in helping to understand and explain
the used behavior in information system implementation (Legris et al. 2003). It has
been tested in many empirical researches, and the tools used with the model have
proven to be of quality and to yield statistically reliable results (Legris et al. 2003).
According to Venkatesh and Davis (2000), technology acceptance model (TAM)
explains the perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence
and cognitive instrumental processes, and the goal of this research is to develop and
test a theoretical model of the effect of system characteristics on user acceptance
of computer-based information systems (Venkatesh and Davis 2000). This model is
being developed with two major objectives in mind (Davis 1985).
First, it should improve the understanding of user acceptance processes, providing
new theoretical insights into the successful design and implementation of informa-
tion systems (Davis 1985). Second, TAM should provide the theoretical basis for a
practical “user acceptance testing” methodology that would enable system designers
and implementers to evaluate the proposed new systems prior to their implementation
(Davis 1985). Applying the proposed model in user acceptance testing would involve
demonstrating system prototypes to potential users and measuring their motivation
to use the alternative systems (Davis 1985). Such user acceptance testing could pro-
vide useful information about the relative likelihood of success of proposed systems
early in their development, where such information has greatest value (Davis 1985).
For better understanding of the development and the emergence of TAM, a brief
description of theories and models, which preceded and influenced its appearance, is
required (Marangunić and Granić 2015). At the very beginning of technology enter-
ing users’ everyday life, there was a growing necessity for comprehending reasons
why the technology is accepted or rejected (Marangunić and Granić 2015).
34.2.3 Behavior Intention
Flow theory emphasizes the role of a specific context rather than individual differ-
ences in explaining human-motivated behaviors and provided there is no consensus
on how to measure flow; playfulness is a concept that is used most widely to measure
it (Lee et al. 2009). Perceived enjoyment is the extent to which the activity of using
a specific system is perceived to be enjoyable, aside from any performance con-
sequences resulting from system use (Venkatesh and Davis 2000). Computer play-
fulness has been defined as “the degree of cognitive spontaneity in microcomputer
interactions” (Webster and Martocchio 1992). Playfulness is a complex variable,
which includes individual’s pleasure, psychological stimulation, and interests (Flow
1990). Perceived playfulness has been considered together with TAM quite since the
beginning of it (Chung and Tan 2004; Venkatesh and Davis 2000).
Fig. 34.1 Conceptual

framework of technology Perceived usefulness
acceptance model Behaviour Intention
Perceived ease of use
Technology acceptance model (TAM) with or without modifications has been

successfully applied to a wide range of empirical studies to predict and explain
acceptance and adoption of a variety of technologies such as electronic banking (Al-
Smadi 2012), mobile education (So et al. 2012), and social networks (Pinho and
Soares 2011; Shin and Kim 2008), as well as to understand consumer markets for
technological products and services such as online shopping (Vijayasarathy 2004)
and mobile shopping (Ko et al. 2009).
According to Davis (1989), the attitude of an individual is not the only factor
that determines his use of system, but it is also influenced by the impact that the
system may have on his performance; that is whether the student does not really
use an information system, the possibility that student will use the system is high if
they perceived the system will increase their performance. According to Dillon and
Morris (1996), the model hypothesizes a direct link between perceived usefulness
and perceived ease of use, which suggests that with two systems offering the same
features, the one which is easier to use will be perceived as more useful by the user
as demonstrated in the conceptual framework in Fig. 34.1.
34.3 Methodology
The research design is a plan and procedure to explain how the researcher sets out
specific details of the research enquiry which enables the researcher to arrive at valid
findings, comparisons, and conclusions (Kumar 2019). The portion of the population
is 57 randomly picked students. For the purpose of this study, the researcher chose
non-probability sampling design of convenience sampling. The sample of this study
consisted of students of the business faculty of one of the public universities in
Kelantan. The researchers used Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table, in determining
a minimum of 48 respondents that were required to complete this research. The
questionnaires were distributed to 57 students via online medium. The items in
Section A of the questionnaire consist of demographic profile of the respondents and
ranking of interest in using crowdsourcing platform. Section B of the questionnaire
covers items related to independent variables on a five-point Likert scale. The five-
point Likert scale represented number 1 for Strongly disagree, 2 for Disagree, 3 for
Neutral, 4 for Agree, and 5 for Strongly agree. In terms of validity, it is often defined
as the extent to which an instrument measures what it purports to measure. Validity
requires that an instrument is reliable, but an instrument can be reliable without
being valid (Kimberlin and Winterstein 2008). The questionnaire was validated by
experts on the subject matter. All the findings in the study were analyzed by the SPSS
software.
34.4 Findings and Results
Out of 57 questionnaires distributed, only 48 questionnaires were returned; thus

there’s only 84.2% of participation rate within the time period given. The demo-
graphic profile of this study is shown in Table 34.1. The demographic profile shows
that there are 56.3% (27 respondents) male respondents and 43.8% (21 respondents)
are females. The findings show that the highest age group of respondents was 21–
23 years old of which 21 years old was 35.4%, 22 years old was 52.1%, meanwhile
at age 23 years old was 12.5%. The highest number of respondents who answered
the questionnaire was age 22 years old. Next, the highest percentage of respondents
pursuing their degree was 77.1% of respondents. The lowest percentage was 22.9%
of respondents pursuing their diploma.
Table 34.2 shows the descriptive statistics of all study variables. The mean for
perceived ease of use (PEOU) was the highest, i.e., 4.37 out of 5, while perceived
usefulness was 4.29 and the highest was behavioral intention (BI) at 4.27. These
indicate that the respondents mostly agree to strongly agree to the items that have
Table 34.1 Demographic

Item Details Percentage (%)
profile
Gender Male 56.3
Female 43.8
Age 21 35.4
22 52.1
23 12.5
Education Diploma 22.9
Degree 77.1
Table 34.2 Descriptive

Variables PEOU PU BI
statistics, Cronbach’s alpha,
Pearson’s correlation PEOU (0.815)
PU (0.736)
BI 0.768** 0.940** (0.707)
Mean 4.37 4.29 4.27
SD 0.452 0.499 0.452
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); Entries in
parenthesis indicate Cronbach’s alpha values
been asked in the questionnaire. Table 34.2 shows that the highest item was perceived
ease of use and perceived usefulness as it had the highest value which were 4.37 and
4.29, respectively, and this value was considered high. The lowest value in this
variable was for behavioral intention in which the value was 4.27. Hence, it can
be concluded that their perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and behavioral
intention were at high level.
The first independent variable which is perceived ease of use (PEOU) indicated
that r = 0.768 while p = 0.000. The result shows that there was a positive significant
and strong association between perceived ease of use and behavioral intention. The
second independent variable which is perceived usefulness indicated that r = 0.940
while p = 0.000. The result showed that there was a positive significant and strong
association between perceived usefulness and behavioral intention. The result shows
that there was a positive significant and strong association between both variables.
Therefore, the findings confirmed that increasing perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness will increase the behavioral intention.
The first objective is to identify the relationship between perceived ease of use and
behavioral intention with the Hypothesis: Perceived ease of use will have a positive
effect on behavioral intention. The findings discussed above show that perceived ease
of use has positive strong relationship with behavioral intention with r = 0.768, p <
0.05. Therefore, the hypothesis is accepted.
The second objective is to identify the relationship between perceived usefulness
and behavioral intention with the Hypothesis: Perceived usefulness will have a pos-
itive effect on attitude. The findings showed that perceived usefulness has positive
strong relationship with behavioral intention with r = 0.940, p < 0.05. Therefore, the
hypothesis is accepted.
Students in this new era spend most of their time immersing themselves in technol-
ogy, i.e., using multimedia software and applications, interactive and social online
games, and entertainment technology in general (Junco et al. 2010). Junco et al.
(2010) further explained that students nowadays are the consumer of technology that
they are already tech-savvy when they arrived at the university. In fact, this creates a
gap between the new generation and the older generation. The new generation may
associate technology more with playfulness than with learning (Padilla-MeléNdez
et al. 2013). Padilla-MeléNdez et al. (2013) mentioned that it was interesting to
analyze the influence of the game and enjoyment, with regard to gender differences,
regarding the intended use and the use of technology to support teaching and learning
processes. This is clearly shown in the results demonstrated above.
34.5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Looking back at the research objectives of this study, which is (1) to know the rela-
tionship between perceived usefulness and behavioral intention and (2) to know the
relationship between perceived ease of use and behavioral intention. The results have
shown that both elements of TAM which are perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness have positive strong relationship with behavioral intention. Therefore, it

is important for organization to know the relationship of crowdsourcing platform
between technologies. Crowdsourcing is highly unlikely to deliver the best educa-
tional experience on itself. Over the years, crowdsourcing has increasingly become a
recognized sourcing mechanism for problem-solving in organizations by outsourcing
the problem to an undefined entity or the crowd and is an alternate way of building
the carrier for a sustainable living over the technology. This study has identified and
proven the acceptance of crowdsourcing platform by using the TAM model among
the students of a business faculty from a public university in Kelantan.
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Chapter 35
An Evaluation of Customer Rating,
Online Review, and Management
Response in Measuring Budget Hotel
Performance: A Case of Seri Pauh
Natural Motel, Perlis, Malaysia
Zulaiha Ahmad, Syazwani Ya, Kamsol Mohamed Kassim,

Nurul Farihin Mhd Nasir, Nurwahida Fuad, and Hasrul Nizam Hamsani
Abstract The hotel industry has embraced the existence of social media platforms as
vital tools for communication, marketing, and promotions of budget hotels. Perhaps,
in the era of intense competitive pressures, social media sites have become powerful
to form customer attitudes toward the services through travel websites and social
networking sites. Numerous studies have focused mainly on the brand chain hotel
and not highlighted the budget hotel perspective. Thus, the present study investigates
on how customer rating, online review, and management response affect the budget
hotel performance. The study relied on the list of hotel guests gathered from the
customer relationship management (CRM) database provided by Seri Pauh Natural
Motel, Perlis, Malaysia. Data were collected from the sample of 120 customers by
answering the questionnaire through social media applications such as Facebook and
WhatsApp. Research findings have discovered that online hotel review is the most
salient predictor of hotel performances followed by the customer rating. Furthermore,
the management response is not the predictor which is claimed to affect the hotel
performance. It was discovered that the more impressive the customers with the
hotel reviews and excellent ratings, the higher the hotel performance. Thus, those
Z. Ahmad (B) · S. Ya · K. Mohamed Kassim · N. F. Mhd Nasir · N. Fuad · H. N. Hamsani

S. Ya
K. Mohamed Kassim
e-mail: kamsol@uitm.edu.my
N. F. Mhd Nasir
e-mail: nurulfarihin@uitm.edu.my
N. Fuad
e-mail: wahida.fuad@uitm.edu.my
H. N. Hamsani
e-mail: mnizamhamsani@gmail.com

412 Z. Ahmad et al.
hoteliers should emphasize responding to the negative reviews as well as providing

the excellent service because these factors should be considered crucial in hotel
marketing.
Keywords Budget · Hotel performance · Customer rating · Online review ·

Management response
35.1 Introduction
The tourism and hospitality industry has become a major player in the global econ-
omy and also serves as a contributor to the successful achievement of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) (Jones and Comfort 2019). The accommodation sector
is a major component in the travel and tourism industry with various types of ser-
vices offered, ranging from five-star hotels to low-cost budget hotels. Budget hotels
are characterized as a small-scale business with limited facilities and it synony-
mous with limited-service hotels (Fiorentino 1995). The budget hotel industry is
now experiencing accelerated growth. This industry stimulates some of the develop-
ments, especially in rural areas in Malaysia. In fact, competitiveness among tourism
industry is more rigorous and tourism infrastructures have become more advanced
with increased interconnections between suppliers, firms, and customers (Phillips
et al. 2016). Thus, tourism organizations need to identify the real sources of business
value creation for sustainable tourism development. To some extent, hoteliers need
to reconsider some of their long-term strategies by emphasizing social media as the
important source of medium in marketing activities.
With the increasing number of internet usage, social media sites have become
an important tool for customers seeking and sharing information on products and
services (Filieri and McLeay 2013; Podnar and Javernik 2012; Zhou et al. 2014).
Moreover, Minazzi (2015) argued that the role of social media appears to be ele-
vated especially in service industry. Hospitality industry relies heavily on social
media data to keep themselves survive, sustain, and competitive in the market. In
hospitality industry, the advancement of data innovation has enabled online corre-
spondences among customers through different channels, for example, travel site
(i.e., Agoda, Booking.com, Traveloka, Expedia, Trivago, and Airbnb) and social
networking medium (i.e., Instagram, Facebook, and YouTube).
However, the biggest challenge for hoteliers is to develop effective social media
marketing to measure the hotel performance. For this reason, hoteliers need to be
progressively aware of the need to actively communicate with customers on social
media platform (O’Connor 2010) and develop strategies to address customer reviews
(Levy et al. 2013). Numerous studies have been conducted among branded chain
hoteliers (Kim et al. 2015; Raguseo and Vitari 2017) but only a few focused on
non-branded chain hoteliers (i.e., budget hotel) (Xie et al. 2016; Raguseo and Vitari
2017). Therefore, this study aims to examine the effectiveness of managing social
35 An Evaluation of Customer Rating, Online Review and Management … 413
media in order to get more information and further knowledge on hotel performance
by using the determinants of independent variables, namely customer rating, online
review, and management response toward comments.
35.2.1 Hotel Performance
In this Internet age, social media is critically utilized in managing hotel performance
through measuring hotel guest satisfaction (Xiang et al. 2015; Gu and Ye 2014; Jeong
and Jeon 2008) and it is vital in influencing the customers’ decision-making (Xie et al.
2014). For the assessment of hotel performance, the previous study by Phillips et al.
(2016) found that hotel attributes including the quality of rooms, Internet provision,
and the building itself show the highest impact on hotel performance, and the role of
online reviews is crucial to determine the guest decision. In addition, other previous
eWOM studies have used revenue per available room (RevPAR) (Blal and Sturman
2014) and occupancy rate (Levy et al. 2013) as hotel performance metrics. The power
of social media especially the eWOM must not be underestimated since it is the most
major contributor to the revenue and profit of hotel industry. This is proven by Buhalis
and Mamalakis (2015) where social media can indeed generate revenue for hoteliers.
Therefore, they should not hesitate to invest in social media channel for their online
campaign.
35.2.2 Customer Rating
Most of the studies emphasized online rate and review to play a vital role in people’s
experiences on online purchase decision and shopping. Wang et al. (2018) claimed
that these eWOM marketing will help the customers to reduce the risk associated
with the uncertainty purchasing experience. High involvement travelers would refer
to both information quality and product ranking when they process all information
related to the accommodation and other tourism products (Filieri and McLeay 2013).
It is clear that customers’ ratings have a large impact on the hotel performance (Xie
et al. 2014; Kim and Park 2017). Kim and Park (2017) in the study conducted among
a large hotel chain in USA indicated that social media rating is the most significant
predictor rather than traditional customer satisfaction in explaining the hotel perfor-
mance. Interestingly, they found that TripAdvisor is the best travel website which is
the best predictor for the hotel performance. Furthermore, Xie et al. (2014) revealed
that ratings of purchase value, cleanliness of hotel, employee services, and location
are the three attribute ratings that can influence the hotel performance. The study has
414 Z. Ahmad et al.
collected the data from TripAdvisor.com which was conducted among 843 hotels.
Based on the above discussion, the first proposition is developed as follows:
Proposition 1 There is a positive relationship between customer rating and budget

hotel performance.
35.2.3 Online Review
One of the prominent types of eWOM that gives a huge impact on travel industry
is the online reviews (Filieri and McLeay 2013) which may influence the customer
buying decision. Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004) defined online review as “any positive
or negative statement made by potential, actual or former consumers about a product
or company, which is made available to a multitude of people and institutions via
the Internet” (p. 39). Cantallops and Salvi (2014) argued that hotel industry has been
impacted by the online reviews. Basically, they have identified that social media mar-
keting tools can influence directly or indirectly the customers and company. From the
customers’ perspectives, people will reduce their uncertainty by searching comments
and feedbacks on service evaluation (ratings) (Pavlou and Dimoka 2006). Perhaps,
most of the travelers found that online reviews can be the information source when
planning their trips as the information is more up-to-date, enjoyable, and reliable to
refer to Gretzel and Yoo (2008). Online reviews have become a major source of infor-
mation affecting most of the travelers in considering the decision toward online hotel
bookings (Ye et al. 2009; Tsao et al. 2015) and predicting positively hotel financial
performance (Raguseo and Vitari 2017; Kim et al. 2015; Phillips et al. 2016). How-
ever, from the company’s perspective, it will evaluate its own products and services
and its competitors as it recognizes the important information that they received from
the customers’ feedback. It will help and ease the lodging business because the hotel
has a better understanding and expectation related to the customers’ behaviors, and
they can also identify their market opportunities (Duan et al. 2016). Based on the
above discussion, the second proposition is developed as follows:
Proposition 2 There is a positive relationship between online review and budget

hotel performance.
35.2.4 Management Response
By referring to the current atmosphere in tourism and hospitality industry, hoteliers

need to consider on reacting or respond to customers’ comments and experiences
with the hotel services (Gu and Ye 2014). According to Gu and Ye (2014), manage-
ment response refers to a business effort to interact and respond to any comments on
experience with the business or its products and services. Due to unresponsive man-
agement, thus, the hotel will face the risk of future business loss (Chan and Guillet
2011). However, the growing popularity of online social media gives new challenges
to service provider. Online complainant easily expresses his dissatisfaction by posting
negative comments on online social media without interacting with the management
(Gu and Ye 2014). The hotelier needs to change the business strategy by imple-
menting proactive engagement through management response by practicing active
listening. Chan and Guillet (2011) in the study conducted in Hong Kong claimed
that the company which practices an active management response may experience
positive impact. Thus, the scenario will increase the customers’ future satisfaction
among complaining customers, influence revisit intention among hotel guests (Yavas
et al. 2004), and affect the hotel performance (Xie et al. 2014, 2016). Xie et al. (2016)
further argued that any of the hotels that would like to grow vigorously should play
a big role in proactively responding to customer reviews in an effort to stimulate the
ratings and volume of reviews. Based on the previous literature, the third proposition
is developed as follows:
Proposition 3 There is a positive relationship between management response and

budget hotel performance.
35.3 Methodology
35.3.1 Method
Online questionnaires through Facebook and WhatsApp have been selected as a

medium to collect the data after researchers get the details of the customer, such as
name, contact number, Facebook account, Instagram account, and date of customer
check in and check out from customer relationship management (CRM) database
provided by Sri Pauh Natural Motel. Using convenience sampling, a total of 120
customers have been selected as a sample size by considering the rule of thumb
(Krejcie and Morgan 1970). The data which were collected from the respondents
through questionnaires have been tested using the software Statistical Package for
the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis.
35.3.2 Questionnaire Development
All the questionnaires were adopted from the previous studies in which the questions
were valid and reliable to be used. The questionnaires comprised 21 items to be mea-
sured, such as demographic factor, customer rating, online review, and management
response and budget hotel performance. A total of four items were used to evaluate
416 Z. Ahmad et al.
hotel performance instrument (4 items) developed by Moorman and Rust (1999) and
Narver and Slater (1990). Customer rating instrument (4 items) was developed by
Lee et al. (2014), online hotel review instruments (4 items) was developed by Park
and Lee (2009) and Cheung et al. (2008), and lastly, management response variables
(4 items) developed by Smith et al. (1999). Respondents were asked to respond to
the items by indicating their level of agreement using a 5-point Likert scale (1 =
strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree).
35.4 Findings
The data which were collected from the respondents through questionnaire have been
tested using SPSS software for data analysis. The descriptive analysis results (Table
35.1) show that 56.7% of males represented 68 respondents, while the remaining
52 target respondents (43.3%) were females. The hotel guests were mostly of age
between 21 and 30 years (45%), 32 respondents between 31 and 40 years (26.7%), 18
Table 35.1 Demographic

Variables Frequency %
profile of the respondents
Gender Male 68 56.7
Female 52 43.3
Age Below 20 9 7.5
21–30 54 45.0
31–40 32 26.7
41–50 18 15.0
51–60 7 5.8
Status Single 55 45.8
Married 65 54.2
Social media user Student 56 46.7
Full-time 31 25.8
employed
Part-time 8 6.7
employed
Self-employed 10 8.3
Pensioner 7 5.8
Unemployed 3 2.5
Others 5 4.2
Experience using Less than 6 months 27 22.5
social media 6 months–1 year 26 21.7
2–3 years 28 23.3
More than 3 years 41 34.2
Table 35.2 Cronbach’s alpha and correlations for study variables

Alpha Mean Customer Online hotel Management Hotel
rating review response performance
Customer 0.927 3.11 1
rating
Online hotel 0.907 3.15 0.854** 1
review
Management 0.932 3.14 0.912** 0.889** 1
response
Hotel 0.893 3.14 0.862** 0.914** 0.859** 1
performance
** Significant at the p ≤ 0.01 level
respondents between 41 and 50 years (15%), 9 respondents below 20 years (7.5%),

and the remaining 7 of the users were 51 years and above (5.8%). Most of the respon-
dents were single (54.2%), and the remaining 55 target users were married (45.8%).
Among all the hotel guests, 56 were students (46.7%), 31 respondents (25.8%) were
full-time employed, 10 (8.3%) of them were self-employed, 8 (6.7%) were part-time
employed, 7 (5.8%) from those who were pensioners, others contributed to 5 (4.2%),
and the remaining group was from unemployed representing 3 (2.5%). The total of
41 (34.2%) of the respondents have an experience more than 3 years using social
media network to search information relating hotel, 28 of them representing (23.3%)
have experienced using social media between 2 and 3 years, 27 (22.5%) experienced
using social media less than 6 months, and lastly, only 26 (21.7%) have experienced
between 6 months and 1 year.
As shown in Table 35.2, the reliability statistics, mean, standard deviations, and
correlations were analyzed for each of the variables. In terms of the internal con-
sistency reliability of the study variables, the results show that Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients ranged between 0.90 and 0.93, which fulfilled the rule of acceptable
value suggested by Nunnaly (1978). It is also shown in Table 35.2 that there is a
relationship between dependent variable and independent variables. The result of
this study indicates that there is a positive and strong significant correlation between
the hotel performance with customer rating (r = 0.862; p < 0.01), online hotel review
(r = 914; p < 0.01), and management response toward comments (r = 0.859; p <
0.01).
Regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between vari-
ables. As shown in Table 35.3, there are three predictor variables (customer rating,
online hotel review, and management response) which contribute to the hotel perfor-
mance. All hypotheses were also tested by using the multiple regression. The result
reveals that 86% (r2 = 0.860, F-value = 236.57) of the variance in budget hotel per-
formance was explained by customer rating, online hotel review, and management
response.
Among the variables, customer rating and online hotel review are significantly
related to the hotel performance. There is a significant positive relationship found
418 Z. Ahmad et al.
Table 35.3 Result of the multiple regression analysis

Hypotheses Beta Sig. Findings
H1 Customer rating 0.296 0.001 Supported
H2 Online hotel review 0.652 0.000 Supported
H3 Management response 0.010 0.920 Not supported
r2 0.860
Adjusted r2 0.856
F-value 236.568
between customer rating and the hotel performance (β = 0.296; p < 0.001). In addi-
tion, there is a significant positive relationship found between online hotel review and
performance. The results indicate that there is a strong association of online reviews
and budget hotel performance (β = 0.652; p < 0.000). However, the result points
out that there is no significant relationship between management response toward
comments from social media user and would not affect the performance at all (β =
0.010; p > 0.920). Hence, it can be concluded that Hypothesis 1 and 2 are supported,
while Hypothesis 3 is not supported.
Generally, the findings of this study exhibit the crucial predictor of social media sites
marketing in determining budget hotel performance. The multiple regression analysis
result shows that customer rating and online review have a positive relationship with
budget hotel performance. The findings are also in tandem with the previous study by
Kim and Park (2017) who stated that customer rating is the most reliable and predictor
for hotel performance metric, and Xie et al. (2014) argued that negative impacts of
rating may also reduce sales revenue. This indicates that managing the customer
rating will lead to an increase in the hotel performance. From practical perspectives,
the results of this study offer several suggestions to practitioners. Hoteliers must put
forward their emphasis on budget allocation to their social media marketing campaign
and select the best practices of social media campaign (Kiralova and Pavliceka 2015).
Also, online reviews were seemingly important and found to play a significant
role in contributing to hotel performance (Kim et al. 2015; Phillips et al. 2016).
Viglia et al. (2016) conducted a study among 346 hotels in Rome and identified three
dimensions of online reviews, such as review score, review variance, and review
volume which lead to an increase in hotel occupancy and, therefore, leads to hotel
performance. Achieving a better online review can lead to positive testimonials,
great eWOM communication, and a strong brand reputation for a hotel (Kim et al.
2015). Hoteliers should follow up the negative reviews related to tangible (room
cleanliness, facilities, and location) and intangible (service and employee attitudes)
elements in order to maintain a good reputation. By focusing on relatively lacking
area in products and services, hotels can receive much better online reviews from
customers. Online review can not only lead to discussing the negative points, but
also ease the budget of hotels which could save their traditional promotion expenses.
Therefore, Propositions 1 and 2 are supported.
However, results reveal that management response does not have a significant
relationship with budget hotel performance. There are no clear findings in the pre-
vious literature stating how managerial response affected hotel performance (Xie
et al. 2016). Xie et al. (2017) argued that the effect of management response does not
directly increase hotel performance, but it depends on the average rating and number
of online reviews. Surprisingly, the result is contradicted with the study conducted
by few studies (Xie et al. 2014, 2016, 2017). Customers from high-class hotels usu-
ally expect managerial response (Xie et al. 2014) compared to low-class hotels. It is
because by providing the responses, it will show that the hotel is presenting the hotel
value and really emphasizing customer care. The case is different if the guests stay
in budget hotel. Raguseo and Vitari (2017) highlighted the interaction of organiza-
tion with the RevPAR growth, and sales profitability is shown not to be applied to
non-branded chain hotels. It can be concluded that normally customers do not really
care if there is no special treatment provided by the hotel if the customers complain
about the products and services (Xie et al. 2014).
The discussion above shows that various social media sites play a vital role and
increasingly become primary information source for both customers and businesses
when they refer to customers’ experiences, user feedback, and product reviews. Thus,
hotel marketers and hotel owners need to acknowledge the social media sites as the
medium which promotes the budget hotel. Furthermore, they should strengthen and
concentrate on their budget allocation to the social media marketing campaign in
order to make sure the hotel remains competitive and enhances sustainability in the
tourism market.
While this study provides some insights into the importance of social media sites,
several limitations of the research are notable. First, the data were collected only
on a small sample size and limited to only one budget hotel located in Perlis. Due
to the limitation, future researchers could collect the data from wider perspectives
by extending the sample to other budget hotels in tourism states such as Melaka,
Langkawi Island, and Penang. Second, the present study focused on the relation-
ships between social media sites and budget hotel performance. Another avenue for
future research is suggested to be conducted at different tiers of hotels, including
luxurious and mid-scale hotel. The comprehensive data might improve the valid-
ity and generalization of the findings. Third, the present study focused on only
three variables such as customer rating, online review, and management response
toward hotel performance. It is suggested that future researcher should explore the
other variables of customer ratings such as volume and valence of rating and use
personalities of reviewers (e.g., celebrities, Instafamous) as moderating variables
between online review and hotel performance (Kim et al. 2015). Lastly, this study
was based on cross-sectional data and thus, causality cannot be firmly established.
More longitudinal studies are needed.
420 Z. Ahmad et al.
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Chapter 36
Systematic Literature Review
on the Essential Items in a Grab Bag
for Flood Risk Community

Sayed Muhammad Aiman Sayed Abul Khair, Thuraiya Mohd,
Farid Al Hakeem Yuserrie, and Asniza Hamimi Abdul Tharim
Abstract In the wake of 2014 disastrous flood in Kelantan, over 250,000 people
were displaced and were in urgent need of shelter, food and water. Failure to assemble
logistics overnight left the victims cold, starved and in fear as they were not prepared
with essential items when they left their houses during the flood. Hence, the objectives
of this research are to review and suggest the essential items needed in a grab bag
for flood disaster preparedness. A systematic literature review (SLR) method was
applied to achieve the objectives. Findings from SLR indicate that three items are
suggested in the preparation of a grab bag, namely essential, optional and special
items. Two recommendations were also accentuated; first is to invent a prototype of
the grab bag for flood disaster and to commercialise the grab bag so that it can be
available in stores for purchase.
Keywords Systematic literature review · Essential items · Grab bag · Flood risk
community
36.1 Introduction
Disaster preparedness is everyone’s business. Lessons aplenty were to be learnt from

2014 Kuala Krai major floods’ recovery: one of them was unprepared flood vic-
tims who were displaced for several days without proper shelter, food and water,
as well as medical care (Medical Relief Society of Malaysia 2017). When disaster
strikes an unprepared community, the damage can be unbelievable. The widespread
flood damage had resulted in many displaced victims isolated by floodwater, which
added to the logistical difficulties in providing timely aid to them (National Disas-
ter Management Agency 2018). Ironically, many communities including those who
live within the flood-prone areas are often unprepared because the big floods do not
happen often. With no awareness of immediate need, the survival bag or grab bag
M. H. Mohamed Saraf (B) · S. M. A. Sayed Abul Khair · T. Mohd · F. A. H. Yuserrie ·

A. H. Abdul Tharim
e-mail: ijamsama@gmail.com

424 M. H. Mohamed Saraf et al.
for disaster preparedness is rarely a priority (Badan Penanggulan Bencana Nasional

2018).
In Malaysia, flooding happens to be the most frequent and significant natu-
ral disaster in terms of affected population, event frequency, duration and socio-
economic damage (Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia 2010). For
effective response to flood threat, everyone especially individuals who reside in
flood-prone areas need to be organised and prepared with the correct essential items
or survival kits in an emergency bag or in this context, the grab bag. Being prepared
and knowing the essential items needed for survival purpose can reduce the anxiety
or fear after being hit by flood (Disaster Reduction Center 2005). This will reduce the
possible losses during a flood or an emergency situation. In disaster-prone countries
like Japan and Indonesia, grab bag has become a priority.
Grab bag is a disaster supply kit that contains basic items or supplies like food,
water and other essential items (Federal Management Agency 2004). The purpose
is to survive at least 72 h in the event of an emergency as help or logistics do not
come immediately after disaster occurs. Each disaster-prone country has additional or
different items in the grab bag. Nevertheless, it is irrelevant to adopt other countries’
grab bag as the nature of disaster is different. Thus, this study aims to review the
essential items needed in the grab bag through desk study that is the systematic
literature review. The findings from the SLR provide suggestions for the suitable
items in the grab bag for flood disaster in the Malaysian context.
36.2 Systematic Literature Review Method
A systematic literature review was utilised to obtain the related literature on the
essential items needed for flood disaster. The reviewers used the SLR methodology
to produce the suggested essential items needed in a grab bag for flood disaster,
particularly for flood-prone areas’ community. There are four phases in SLR method
(see Fig. 36.1).
Fig. 36.1 Four phases in SLR method

36 Systematic Literature Review on the Essential Items in a Grab … 425
Table 36.1 SLR search strings

Database Keywords
Scopus TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“essentia* item*” OR “essentia* kit*
AND surviva* “OR” essentia* AND disaste* “OR” earthquak AND
essentia* OR “disaster* surviva*” OR “emergenc*” OR
“disaste*” OR “kit* OR” gra* AND ba* “OR” read* AND ba* OR “survival*
AND bag*”
WoS TS = ((“essentia* item*” OR “essentia* kit*
AND surviva* “OR” essentia* AND disaste* “OR” earthquak AND
essentia* OR “disaster* surviva*” OR “emergenc*” OR
“disaste*” OR “kit* OR” gra* AND ba* “OR” read* AND ba* OR” survival*
AND bag*
36.2.1 Phase 1: The Identification of Literature
First, a rigorous search of related topics or terms related to essential items for disaster
preparedness were identified. The identification was conducted by queries searching
that allows systematic search via established publication databases. Justified by the
large abstracts and citations databases of peer-reviewed publications, the reviewers
used Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) for identification of literature review or
queries searching.
These two databases covered over 256 disciplines with more than 20,000 journals
available. At this phase, related published papers were sought from the two databases
search engines. Keywords like “essential items needed in emergency bag”, “essential
items needed in post-disaster kit”, “essential items needed in grab bag”, “essential
items needed for 3-days survival kits” and “survival kits for disaster” were used
during the search.
The review resulted in the identification of 47 items of literature of similar key-
words as mentioned earlier in this section. The search string is summarised in Table
36.1.
36.2.2 Phase 2: The Screening of the Identified Literature
The identified literature was later screened to suit the context of essential items, type
of disaster and grab bag. Of the 47 types of literature, 13 suited the topic of this paper,
which is the essential items needed in grab bag for the flood disaster. The screening
also excluded any literature duplication such as similar authors, similar research title
and non-English publications as well as any post-disaster reviews as this paper only
focuses on the pre-disaster preparation or disaster preparedness.
36.2.3 Phase 3: The Eligibility and Exclusion
Next was the eligibility and exclusion phase. The remaining 13 forms of litera-
ture were reviewed thoroughly. After an extensive review, four literature types were
removed. These did not have the information on essential items needed for pre-
disaster preparedness as they were generally on policy and pre-disaster planning.
At this stage, 11 literature remained relevant. Data or the items were analysed and
abstracted.
A systematic review was tabulated with items checklist, author(s), title of pub-
lication, year of publication, country or region of study and type of disaster. The
checklist of items was categorised into five items, namely Essentials, Sanitation,
Comfort, Cooking and Tools.
In essential checklist, review includes water supply, first aid kit, water purifica-
tion kit, non-perishable food, blanket, torchlight, medications, cash, special items
for infants, elderly or disabled people, whistle, copies of important documents, baby
food and pet food. Out of these 15 items, only water supply, first aid kit, non-
perishable food, whistle, copies of important documents, special items for elderly,
babies and disabled were discussed in at least 8 literature out of 11 literature on essen-
tial items in a grab bag (Badan Penanggulan Bencana Nasional 2018; Department of
Disaster Management, Virgin Islands 2011; Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Malaysia 2010; Disaster Management of Japan 2018; Federal Management Agency
2004; International Code Standard 2006; Medical Relief Society of Malaysia 2017;
Mohamed Shaffril et al. 2018).
Second checklist is the sanitation. In this checklist, review takes into account wet
wipes, bar soap, shampoo, toothpaste and toothbrush, toilet paper and deodorants.
From the review, the accurate term for this checklist is personal hygiene, which
includes bathing soap, laundry soap, menstrual hygiene product (feminine), moist
towelettes or wet wipes, toothbrush and toothpaste as recommended by The Sphere
Project and United Nations Commissions on Human Rights (The United Nations
Refugees 2006; The Sphere Project 2011).
Third checklist is safety and comfort. The items in this checklists are sturdy
shoes, heavy gloves for clearing debris, candles and matches, light sticks, change of
clothes, multi-tools, tent, communication kit, extra pair of glasses, cell phones, paper
and pen, books, games or puzzles for kids, insecticide spray or coil, portable radio
and large plastic trash bag. Some items like change of clothes, matches and multi-
tools are suggested as essential items or must-have items in a grab bag as discussed
by the UNCHR (The United Nations Refugees 2006). Other items are considered as
optional items.
The fourth checklist from the review is cooking that includes plastic knife, paper
plates, cutlery, paper towels and matches. Only three literature discussed this check-
list (Department of Emergency Management 2004; Federal Management Agency
2004; International Code Standard 2006).
The last checklist consists of tools like wrench, pliers and hammer. Some of the
literature recommended tools as one of the checklists because of the disaster type
(Department of Emergency Management 2004; Disaster Management of Japan 2018;

Federal Management Agency 2004; International Code Standard 2006). Items like
pliers and hammer will ease the survivors that have to deal with building debris from
earthquake (Disaster Management of Japan 2018). Thus, countries that are free from
or experience the least earthquake disaster may disregard this checklist (The United
Nations Refugees 2006).
36.2.4 Items in Abstraction
The last phase is abstraction. In abstraction, the items in the five checklists were
reduced to three checklists based on frequency and disaster type. The reduction from
five to three checklists was based on the two reduction factors: first, it is the suitability
of the items to flood disaster, and second, it is the frequency of the recommended
items from the review. This abstraction later formed the suggested items in grab
bag for flood disaster, and it was categorised into three checklist items. These three
checklist items were deemed as crucial items for survival purpose after disaster, and
categorised into Essential Items, Optional Items and Special Items. The abstraction
data are given in Table 36.2 and further discussed in the following section.
36.3 The Essential Items in a Grab Bag for Flood Risk

Community
Table 36.2 shows the suggested checklist items, the frequency of similar items,
description of items and recommended unit of quantity for the preparation of grab bag
within the flood context. Sections 36.3.1, 36.3.2 and 36.3.3 explained the suggested
items and recommended quantity or units needed for 3-day survival.
36.3.1 Essential Items
Essential items are the compulsory items in the preparation of a grab bag for sur-
vival purpose. There are ten essential items as reviewed in the selected 11 literature
(Badan Penanggulan Bencana Nasional 2018; Department of Disaster Management,
Virgin Islands 2011; Department of Emergency Management 2004; Department of
Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia 2010; Disaster Management of Japan 2018; Fed-
eral Management Agency 2004; International Code Standard 2006; Kelantan Flood
Disaster Committee 2015; Mohamed Shaffril et al. 2018; Singapore Civil Defence
Force 2018; The United Nations Refugees 2006; The Sphere Project 2011). The first
essential item is water supply. Water supply is crucial as nearly 60% of human body
Table 36.2 Suggested checklists, description and recommended quantity
428
Suggested checklist Suggested supplies F Description of supplies Guidelines and recommendations

Essentials items Water supply 11 Nearly 60% of human body is water. For • 2 L of water/person/day
hydration, setting aside enough bottled • 1 L water for sanitation/day
water for an emergency is essential.
Identify the storage date and replace
twice a year
Packaged or canned food 11 Small packaged food like energy bars, • 2100 kcals/person/day
dried fruits, cookies or crackers. Canned • 53 g protein/person/day
food lasts longer but heavier. Meals • 40 g fat/person/day
ready-to-eat (MRE) is recommended as • Multi-vitamins
it has complete nutrients. Identify the
expiration date and replace when
required
Complete change of clothing 11 For comfort and hygiene purpose, at • 2 sets of clothing to enable laundry
least has two sets of change; t-shirt, long • Footwear
pants, undergarment and footwear • Materials dry fast and not too hot
Blanket or sleeping bag or foldable mat 10 For comfort and thermal insulation. It • Able to reduce heat loss
can be blanket, space blanket, sleeping • Durable materials
bag or foldable mat
Torchlight with spare batteries 10 In case of power outage or when • Nil
evacuating in dark situations. Spare
some batteries, but do not fit the
batteries into the device until needed as
installed batteries may result in leakage
(continued)
M. H. Mohamed Saraf et al.
Personal hygiene 8 Without running water, bare minimum • 200 g bathing soap (1 person 1 month)
toiletries are essential for proper hygiene • 200 g detergent (1 person 1 month)
• Menstrual hygiene product (feminine)
• Moist towelettes or wet wipes
• Toothbrush
• toothpaste
First aid kit 8 To treat any small or severe wounds that • Band-aid (adhesive bandage)
are not immediately life threatening • Bandages
• Gauze
• Antihistamine (counter allergic)
• Antiseptic wipes
• Antibiotic ointment
• Moleskin (blister)
Copies of important documents 8 Copies of important documents should • NRIC
be kept in case the original documents • Passport
be destroyed or lost during disaster. • Insurance policies
Store them in waterproof container • Titles of property ownership
Matches in a waterproof container 8 To heat/cook meals over a fire in a true • Matchbox or
emergency. Store it in waterproof • Lighter
container
36 Systematic Literature Review on the Essential Items in a Grab …
Whistle 7 Use to alert or call others. Shouting can • Nil

be tiring and ineffective
(continued)
429
430

Optional items Water purification kit 6 Any water source needs to be treated. If • Mini water filter
left untreated over time, it will become • 1 pack of water bags to store the
contaminated with bacteria and algae collected water
• 1 bottle for keeping the treated water
Insect repellent 6 Pools of stagnant water will be a • Ointment or spray type of repellent
breeding ground for mosquitoes;
keeping them away with repellent will
reduce the risk of diseases like malaria
or dengue
Multi-tool equipment 5 Use to avoid items’ redundancies. A tool • Nil
installed with a small knife, a small
scissor might come in handy for
multi-purpose tasks like cutting or
cooking
Special items Baby care 6 Baby care has different requirements • Formula
than normal adult • Diaper
• Baby food
• Baby wipes
• Blankets
• Clothing
Elderly care 6 The elderly care has different • Digestive biscuits
requirements than normal adult • Adult diaper
• Extra glasses
• Other personal care
Personal medication 6 For any medical condition, e.g. asthma, • Regular prescription
heart problems, diabetic, keep a supply • Pain relievers
of prescription drugs that one consumes • Antacids
regularly
M. H. Mohamed Saraf et al.
is water as agreed by all the selected 11 literature (F = 11). To prevent dehydration,

setting aside enough bottled water for an emergency is crucial. It is recommended
that individuals who have the prospect of becoming flood victims prepare at least
3 L of water as per told in the review (The Sphere Project 2011). Next item is food
(F = 11). Food is also crucial as an energy source. Meals ready-to-eat (MRE) is a
must-have item as it has complete nutrients. As an alternative, packaged or canned
food is also allowed as it lasts longer.
A set of clothing (F = 11) is also essential for comfort and hygiene purposes. A
complete set of clothing normally includes a shirt, a pair of pants or shorts, footwear
and undergarments. At night, a blanket or sleeping bag (F = 10) is recommended
as an essential item to reduce heat loss or provide thermal insulation (heat) and
comfort. Torchlight with spare batteries (F = 10) is also essential in case of power
outage or when evacuating at night. It is recommended that batteries are spared for
longer usage of the torchlight. Without running water, a bare minimum of toiletries is
essential for proper hygiene (F = 8). The recommended basic hygiene products are
bathing soap, detergent, menstrual (female), wet wipes, toothbrush and toothpaste
(The Sphere Project 2011).
Considered as equally important is first aid kit (F = 8). The recommended kit must
at least include band-aid, bandages, gauze, antihistamine, antiseptic wipes and mole-
skin (blister). The kit is to treat any small or severe wounds that are not immediately
life-threatening.
Next, essential items are copies of important documents (F = 8). For post-disaster
management purpose, copies of documents should be kept and should the original be
destroyed or lost during disaster. This will ease the registration and logistics purposes
after the disaster. It is recommended to copy identity card, passport, insurance policy
and ownership titles. Matches or lighters (F = 7) are also considered as essentials
to heat or cook meals over a fire in a true emergency situation or controlled fire to
warm the bodies at night or in cold situation. The last essential item is a whistle. It
is recommended as it can be used to alert or call others as shouting can be tiring.
Blowing a whistle is effective especially for victims who are trapped under building
structures due to an earthquake or isolated due to floodwaters.
36.3.2 Optional Items
From Table 36.2, there are three items which are considered optional. Optional items
are items that can be included in the preparation of grab bag as it has specific purpose.
The first optional item as reviewed is water purification kit (F = 6). After evacuation
or being displaced due to disaster, human body will dehydrate. If evacuated without
grab bag, water supply must be rummaged.
Any water source needs to be treated before consumption, especially countries
with nuclear plant or chemical leakage. If the source of water is left untreated, it
could be tainted with bacteria and algae as well (The Sphere Project 2011). It is
recommended to purify water with purification kit to ensure that the water is safe to
drink or use.
Insect repellent (F = 6) is also optional to prepare as stagnant water will be a
breeding ground for mosquitos. Keeping the insect repellent will reduce the risk of
diseases like malaria or dengue. Finally, another item that must not be overlooked
is multi-tool equipment (F = 5). A tool installed with small knife and scissors will
come in handy for cutting, cooking or other purposes.
36.3.3 Special Items
Special items are for special groups of people, namely infants, individuals diagnosed
with illness and the elderly. As the items are special to these particular groups of
victims, it is recommended to prepare them as required. For an infant or baby care
(F = 6), it is recommended to prepare milk formula, diaper, baby food, baby wipes,
blankets and clothing. For the elderly care (F = 6), digestive biscuits, adult diapers,
extra glasses and other personal care should be prepared in a grab bag. In addition,
those with specific illness (F = 6) need to keep a supply of prescription drugs that
consumes regularly like asthma, heart problems or diabetes.
36.4 Conclusion
This systematic review highlights the essential items needed in grab bag (bag for
survival or emergency) that should be considered in the preparation before flood
(pre-disaster preparedness). The preparation of grab bag must take into consideration
the items needed as recommended, namely essential, optional and special items.
Preparation of a grab bag will help the community especially those who reside in
flood risk areas during emergency as they only need to grab the bag and evacuate to
safe areas.
Two recommendations for further research could be suggested from the abstracted
systematic review data. First, the checklist items (essential, optional and special)
could be used in the invention of an actual grab bag. Yet, the items need to be tested
quantitatively. Second, the invented grab bag could be designed for commercial
purpose.
References
Badan Penanggulan Bencana Nasional (2018) Situation Update No. 11, M 7.4 earthquake &
Tsunami Sulawesi, Indonesia. BNBP, Central Sulawesi
Department of Disaster Management, Virgin Islands (2011) Community Disaster Preparedness

Handbook. Virgin Islands
Department of Emergency Management F (2004) Handbook for Disaster Assistance. Division of
Emergency Management, Florida
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia (2010) Mitigation and Management of Flood
Disasters in Malaysia. Asian
Disaster Management of Japan (2018) A grab bag and its contents. Available online: https://www.
bousai.go.jp
Disaster Reduction Center (2005) Total disaster risk management—good practices (Chap 3), pp
80–81
Federal Management Agency (2004) Preliminary damage assessment for individual assistance:
operations manual, USA
International Code Standard (2006) Earthquake preparedness kit. Berkeley. www.iccsafe.org/
congress
Kelantan Flood Disaster Committee (2015) Kelantan flood disaster management conference
(2015)—resolution, Pulau Pinang
Medical Relief Society of Malaysia (2017) The Art of Humanity 2016. MERCY Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur
Mohamed Shaffril H, Krauss SE, Samsuddin S (2018) A systematic review on Asian’s Farmers’
adaptation practices towards climate change. Sci Total Environ 683–695.
National Disaster Management Agency (2018) Disaster Portal. Retrieved 13 Feb 2018, from https://
portalbencana.ndcc.gov.my/Portal/Disaster
Singapore Civil Defence Force (2018) Ready bag. Retrieved at 10:59 am, 7/12/2018. Avail-
able online: https://www.scdf.gov.sg/home/community-volunteers/community-preparedness/
community-programmes/ready-bag
The Sphere Project (2011) Humanitarian charter and minimum standards in humanitarian response.
The Sphere Project, Southampton
The United Nations Refugees (2006) Housing, land and property emergency handbook, Switzerland,
https://emergency.unhcr.org.
Chapter 37
The Essential Items Needed in a Grab
Bag by Flood Victims in Kuala Krai,
Kelantan
Thuraiya Mohd, Asniza Hamimi Abdul Tharim,

Sayed Muhammad Aiman Sayed Abdul Khair, Farid Al Hakeem Yuserrie,
Fadhlizil Fariz Abdul Munir, and Mohd Nasurudin Hasbullah
Abstract Floods cause damage to homes and possessions. In this situation, the
flood victims require emergency relief aid in the form of necessities. According to
newspaper reports, the emergency relief aid only arrived at the flood relief centre after
48 h. Thus, this research aims to determine the essential items needed by victims of
floods during the preparation of flood survival kits. An empirical study was conducted
in the worst flood area of Kelantan, Malaysia. Questionnaires were distributed to 500
flood victims. Data were analysed quantitatively using Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS) software analysis. Findings indicate that the main essential items
needed in flood survival kits are food and water, medical and sanitatry supplies,
dental hygiene essentials, pads and blankets. Research findings will give input for
the preparation of emergency bag in regard to flood context.
Keywords Essential items · Grab bag · Flood victims
37.1 Introduction
Disaster preparedness is everyone’s business. One of the lessons learnt from 2014
Kuala Krai major floods’ recovery was that unprepared flood victims were displaced
for several days without proper shelter, food and water, and medical care (Medical
Relief Society of Malaysia 2017). When disaster strikes an unprepared community,
the damage can be unbelievable. The widespread flood damage had resulted in many
displaced victims isolated by floodwaters, which added to the logistical difficul-
ties in providing timely aid to them (National Disaster Management Agency (n.d)).
Ironically, many communities including the flood-prone areas are often unprepared
because the big floods do not happen often. With no awareness of immediate need,
T. Mohd (B) · A. H. Abdul Tharim · M. H. Mohamed Saraf · S. M. A. Sayed Abdul Khair ·

F. A. H. Yuserrie · F. F. Abdul Munir · M. N. Hasbullah
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch,
Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
e-mail: thuraiyamohd2015@gmail.com

436 T. Mohd et al.
the survival bag or grab bag for disaster preparedness is rarely a priority (Badan
Penanggulan Bencana Nasional 2018).
In Malaysia, flooding happens to be the most frequent and significant natu-
ral disaster in terms of affected population, event frequency, duration and socio-
economic damage (Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia 2010). For
effective response to flood threat, everyone especially those who reside in flood-
prone areas needs to be organised and prepared with the correct essential items or
survival kits in an emergency bag, or in this context, the grab bag. Being prepared
and knowing the essential items needed for survival purpose can reduce the anxiety
or fear after being hit by flood (Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia
2010). This will reduce the possible losses during the flood or an emergency. In
disaster-prone countries like Japan and Indonesia, grab bag is a priority.
Grab bag is a disaster supply kit that contains basic items or supplies like food,
water and other essential items (Federal Management Agency 2004). The purpose is
to survive at least 72 h in the event of an emergency as help or logistics do not come
immediately after disaster occurs. As each disaster-prone country has additional or
different items in the grab bag, it seems irrelevant to adopt other countries’ grab bag
as the nature of disaster is different. Thus, this study aims to review the essential
items needed in the grab bag through desk study, that is, the systematic literature
review. The findings from the SLR provide suggestions for the suitable items in the
grab bag for flood disaster context in Malaysia.
37.2 The Essential Items in a Grab Bag for Flood Disaster
Grab bag is a disaster supply kit that contains basic items or supplies like food, water
and other essential items (Federal Management Agency 2004). The purpose is to
survive at least 72 h in the event of an emergency as help or logistics do not come
immediately after disaster occurs. As each disaster-prone country has additional or
different items in the grab bag, it seems irrelevant to adopt other countries’ grab bag
as the nature of disaster is different. Thus, in this section, the researchers reviewed the
essential items’ checklists from different disaster-prone countries and categorised it
based on the frequency and disaster type to suit the flood disaster nature in Malaysia.
37.2.1 The Essential Items Checklists in a Grab Bag
According to the literature review, there are five checklists to produce a grab bag.
They are Essential Items, Sanitation, Safety and Comfort, Cooking and Tools. In
essential checklist, review includes water supply, first aid kit, water purification kit,
non-perishable food, blanket, torchlight, medications, cash, special items for infants,
elderly or disabled people, whistle, copies of important documents, baby food and
pet food. Out of these 15 items, only water supply, first aid kit, non-perishable
37 The Essential Items Needed in a Grab Bag by Flood Victims … 437
food, whistle, copies of important documents, special items for elderly, babies and
disabled were discussed in at least 8 literature out of 11 literature on essential items
in a grab bag (Badan Penanggulan Bencana Nasional 2018; Department of Disaster
Management, Virgin Islands 2011; Malaysia. Asian. 2010; Disaster Management of
Japan 2018; Federal Management Agency 2004; International Code Standard 2006;
Medical Relief Society of Malaysia 2017; Mohamed Shaffril et al. 2018).
Second checklist is sanitation. In this checklist, review takes into account wet
wipes, bar soap, shampoo, toothpaste and toothbrush, toilet paper and deodorants.
From the review, the accurate term for this checklist is personal hygiene which
includes bathing soap, laundry soap, menstrual hygiene product (feminine), moist
towelettes or wet wipes, toothbrush and toothpaste as recommended by The Sphere
Project and United Nations Commissions on Human Rights (The United Nations
Refugees 2006 and The Sphere Project 2011).
Third checklist is safety and comfort. The items in this checklists are sturdy
shoes, heavy gloves for clearing debris, candles and matches, light sticks, change of
clothes, multi-tools, tent, communication kit, extra pair of glasses, cell phones, paper
and pen, books, games or puzzles for kids, insecticide spray or coil, portable radio
and large plastic trash bag. Some items like change of clothes, matches and multi-
tools are suggested as essential items or must-have items in a grab bag as discussed
by the UNCHR (The United Nations Refugees 2006). Other items are considered as
optional items.
The fourth checklist from the review is cooking that includes plastic knife,
paper plates, cutlery, paper towels and matches. Only three literature discussed on
this checklist (Department of Emergency Management 2004; Federal Management
Agency 2004; International Code Standard 2006).
The last checklist is tools like wrench, pliers and hammer. Some of the literature
recommended tools as one of the checklists because of the disaster type (Department
of Emergency Management 2004; Disaster Management of Japan 2018; Federal
Management Agency 2004; International Code Standard 2006). Items like pliers and
hammer will ease the survivors to deal with building debris from earthquake (Disaster
Management of Japan 2018). Thus, countries that are free from or experience the
least earthquake disaster may disregard this checklist (The United Nations Refugees
2006).
37.2.2 The Suggested Items in a Grab Bag for Flood Disaster
Using descriptive analysis, from five-item checklist, it was noted that all of the items
can be categorised into three checklist items. These three checklist items were deemed
as crucial items for survival purpose after disaster, categorised into Essential Items,
Optional Items and Special Items.
Essential Items: Essential items are compulsory items that must be prepared and
included in the preparation of grab bag for survival purpose. There are ten items as
reviewed in the selected 11 literature. The first essential item is water supply. Water
438 T. Mohd et al.
supply is crucial as nearly 60% of human body is water as agreed by all selected 11
literature (F = 11). To prevent dehydration, setting aside enough bottled water for
an emergency is essential. It is recommended that individuals who might be flood
victims prepare at least 3 L of water as per told in the review.
Next is food (F = 11). Food is also crucial as energy source. Meals ready-to-eat
(MRE) is recommended as it has complete nutrients. However, packaged or canned
foods are also allowed as it lasts longer. A set of clothing (F = 11) is also essential
for comfort and hygiene purpose. A complete set of clothing normally includes a
shirt, pants or shorts, footwear and undergarments.
At night, a blanket or sleeping bag (F = 10) is recommended as essential item to
reduce heat loss or provide thermal insulation (heat) and comfort. Torchlight with
spare batteries (F = 10) is also essential in case of power outage or when evacuating
at night. It is recommended that batteries are spared for longer usage of the torchlight.
Without running water, a bare minimum of toiletries is essential for proper hygiene
(F = 8). The recommended basic hygiene products are bathing soap, detergent,
menstrual hygiene product (female), wet wipes, toothbrush and toothpaste.
Considered as equally important is first aid kit (F = 8). The recommended kit
must at least include band-aid, bandages, gauze, antihistamine, antiseptic wipes and
moleskin (blister). The kit is to treat any small or severe wounds that are not immedi-
ately life-threatening. Next essential item is copies of important documents (F = 8).
For post-disaster management purpose, copies of documents should be kept in the
case the originals are destroyed or lost during disaster. This will ease the registration
and logistics purposes after the disaster is over. It is recommended to copy identity
card, passport, insurance policy and ownership titles.
Matches or lighters (F = 7) are also considered as essential to heat or cook meals
over a fire in a true emergency situation or controlled fire to warm the bodies at night
or cold situation. The last essential item is a whistle. It is recommended as it can be
used to alert or call others as shouting can be tiring and it is effective especially for
those who are trapped under building structures due to earthquake or isolated due to
floodwaters.
Optional Items There are three items reflected as optional. Optional items are items
that can be included in the preparation of grab bag as they have specific purpose.
The first optional item as reviewed is water purification kit (F = 6). After evacuation
or displaced due to disaster, human body will dehydrate. If evacuated without grab
bag, water supply must be searched. Any water source needs to be treated before
consumption, especially countries with nuclear plant or chemical leakage. If the
source of water is left untreated, it can be contaminated with bacteria and algae as
well.
It is recommended to purify water with purification kit to ensure the water is safe
to drink or use. Insect repellent (F = 6) is also optional to prepare as stagnant water
will be a breeding ground for mosquitos. Keeping the repellent will reduce the risk
of diseases like malaria or dengue. Lastly, the item needed is a multi-tool equipment
(F = 5). A tool installed with small knife and a pair of scissors will come in handy
for cutting, cooking or for other purposes.
Special Items Special items are for special group of people, namely infants, individ-
uals diagnosed with illness and the elderly. As the items are special to these groups,
it is recommended to prepare them as required.
For infant or baby care (F = 6), it is recommended to prepare milk formula, diaper,
baby food, baby wipes, blankets and clothing. For the elderly care (F = 6), digestive
biscuits, adult diapers, extra glasses and other personal care should be prepared in
grab bag. In addition, those with specific illness (F = 6) need to keep a supply
of prescription drugs that they consume regularly like asthma, heart problems or
diabetes.
37.3 Methodology
This research applies analytic survey using cross-sectional research design. The data
were collected through a series of structured questionnaires distributed in Kuala Krai,
Kelantan to the victims. Questionnaire forms were distributed by hand to villagers
at selected relocation areas in Kuala Krai. The area includes Kampung Telekong,
Kampung Bekok and Kampung Nal.
A total of 233 questionnaires were received which represented an approximately
100% of response rate. The questionnaires used in this study consist of two main
sections, Sect. 37.1: Demographic Profile that includes survey location, age and
gender of the respondents, while Sect. 37.2 of the survey was divided into three
sub-sections of Essential Items, Optional Items and lastly Special Items. The items
in Sect. 37.2 were measured using four agreement scales of 1—Strongly Disagree,
2—Disagree, 3—Agree and 4—Strongly Agree.
Data collected through the survey were analysed quantitatively using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. The analysis comprises the descrip-
tive statistics encompassing frequency distribution and percentages distribution form
for univariate analysis and t-test comparative analysis that measure the differences
in terms of male and female flood survival items.
37.4 Findings
There were 136 male respondents and 97 female respondents. The majority were from
Kg. Telekong with the percentage of 44.6%. The majority (33.5%) of the respondents
were from the age of 46–60 years old.
Table 37.1 portrays that most of the respondents need water supply with mean
index score of 3.97 as essential items in the grab bag followed by copy of important
documents (3.91), canned and packaged food (3.73), clothes (3.52) and medical
supply (3.49). Majority of the respondents agreed that they experienced a scarcity
440 T. Mohd et al.
Table 37.1 Items by clusters

Clusters Items Mean Mean (Cluster) Rank
Essential Water supply 3.97 3.32 1
Canned food 3.73 3
Clothes 3.52 4
Blanket 3.2 8
Torchlight and battery 3.44 6
Toiletries 3.1 12
First aid kit 3.18 9
Copy of documents 3.91 2
Matches/lighter 2.93 14
Whistle 2.23 16
Optional Water purification kit 3.22 2.99 7
Insect repellent 2.8 15
Multi-purpose tool 2.94 13
Special Baby care product 3.12 3.24 10
Elderly care products 3.12 11
Medical supply 3.49 5
of safe drinking water, contaminated water resource, flood-related disease outbreak

and disruption of water treatment facilities.
Koh Liew et al. (2017) articulated that the water supply problem would worsen
when large and prolonged floods happen because it leads to an increase in the number
of victims. This in turn results in high demand for clean water in flood evacuation
centres. This situation causes these victims to experience lack of clean water to
accommodate a large number of flood victims. Hence, the result shows that water
supply is the most important item among all 16 items listed.
The least mean index score for needed items is whistle (2.23) followed by insect
repellent (2.80), matches/lighter (2.93) and multi-purpose tool (2.94). According to
the cluster, the least important item in Essential Cluster is whistle; Optional Cluster
is insect repellent and Special Cluster is elderly care product.
37.5 Conclusion and Recommendations
This research provides an account of the essential items needed by flood victims in
Kuala Krai, Malaysia. Findings indicate that 58.4% of males and 41.6% of females
stated their need during the flood is clean water. It is undeniable that water needs are
significant in life, mainly when floods occur. In addition, important documents are
the second essential item for their needs or conformation as a flood victim and for
being eligible for assistance during and after the flood.
The research findings will give input on framework for essential items needed by
victims for the government, NGO, MERCY or other appropriate bodies involved in
disaster management. The input will help government to successfully provide quality
of life for victims through preparation of the survival kit or grab bag as preliminary
actions for helping the victims to survive for at least a few days before big actions
are taken to save the household life. Flood survival kits is crucial to be prepared and
ready during the pre-disaster period. Having a flood survival kit is an important step
to prepare and protect the household for unforeseen and unpredictable consequences.
This action will enhance the victims’ quality of life.
References
Badan Penanggulan Bencana Nasional (2018) Situation Update No.11, M 7.4 earthquake & Tsunami
Sulawesi, Indonesia. BNBP, Central Sulawesi
Department of Disaster Management, Virgin Islands (2011) Community disaster preparedness
handbook. Virgin Islands
Department of Emergency Management, F (2004) Handbook for disaster assisstance. Division of
Emergency Management, Florida, Florida
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia (2010) Mitigation and management of flood disas-
ters in Malaysia. In: Asian Disaster Reduction Center—Total disaster risk management—Good
practices (Chap. 3), pp 80–81
Disaster Management of Japan (2018) A grab bag and its contents. Available online: https://www.
bousai.go.jp
Federal Management Agency (2004) Preliminary damage assessment for individual assistance:
operations manual. United States of America
International Code Standard (2006) earthquake preparedness kit. Berkeley. www.iccsafe.org/
congress
Kelantan Flood Disaster Committee (2015) Kelantan flood disaster management conference
(2015)—Resolution. Pulau Pinang
Medical Relief Society of Malaysia (2017) The art of humanity 2016. MERCY Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur
Mohamed Shaffril H, Krauss SE, Samsuddin S (2018) A systematic review on Asian’s farmers’
adaptation practices towards climate change. Sci Total Environ 683–695
National Disaster Management Agency (n.d.) Disaster portal. Retrieved 13 Feb 2018 from https://
portalbencana.ndcc.gov.my/Portal/Disaster
Public Works Department of Malaysia (2015) Persidangan Pengurusan Bencana Banjir Kelantan
2015. Kuala Lumpur
Singapore Civil Defence Force (2018) Ready Bag. Retrieved at 10:59 am, 7 Dec 2018. Avail-
able online: https://www.scdf.gov.sg/home/community-volunteers/community-preparedness/
community-programmes/ready-bag
The United Nations Refugees (2006) Housing, land and property emergency handbook. Switzerland.
https://emergency.unhcr.org
The Sphere Project (2011) Humanitarian charter and minimum standards in humanitarian response.
The Sphere Project, Southampton
Chapter 38
The Influence of Personality Differences
on Job Burnout among Medical Doctors
in Public Hospitals: A Review
of the Literature and Model Development
Nor Farehan Omar and Aizzat Mohd Nasurdin
Abstract Large bodies of research in the last few decades have provided evidence
that life events contribute to the onset of psychiatric illness. These life events cause
stress, and they are called stressors (Asreene and Razali in Malays J Psychiatry
16:16–22, 2007). Among all health issues, burnout among employees deserves par-
ticular attention as they are easily neglected. There is a large body of evidence that
proves medical doctors are at greater risks of experiencing stress, depression, anxiety,
substance misuse, addiction, and high level of distress than the general population
(Brooks et al. in J Mental Health 26:161–166, 2017). However, there is evidence from
the Department of Statistics and National Health and Morbidity Survey from 1986
to 2015, showing that prevalence of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases
are not reported (MOH in Malaysia Health Systems Research Volume 1: contextual
analysis of the Malaysian Health System, 2016). Within the Malaysian healthcare
environment, studies relating to the health status of medical doctors in public hospi-
tals have been relatively scanty (Lizano in Hum Serv Organ Manag Leadersh Gov
39:167–181, 2015; Lua and Imilia in Malays J Psychiatry 20, 2011; Sidi and Maniam
in Malays J Psychiatry 5:16–26, 1997).
Keywords Neuroticism · Extraversion · Job burnout · Health care professionals
38.1 Introduction
There are large bodies of evidence that proved medical doctors are at greater risks
of experiencing stress, depression, anxiety, substance misuse, addiction, and high
level of distress than the general population (Brooks et al. 2017). Doctors who suffer
from these risks not only jeopardize their quality of life but also the quality of care
that they provide for their patients. This prolonged stress is known as job burnout.
N. F. Omar (B) · A. Mohd Nasurdin

Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Penang, Malaysia
e-mail: farehanomar@student.usm.my
A. Mohd Nasurdin
e-mail: aizzat@usm.my

444 N. F. Omar and A. M. Nasurdin
Doctors who experience burnout have a higher rate of depressive symptoms and
suicide attempts and are often unable to meet the demands of patients (Wieclaw
et al. 2008). Doctors are significantly important to the public, and thus their illnesses
and sufferings may result in a delay in care delivery, which will have a spillover
effect on their patients (Kay et al. 2004; Uncu et al. 2006). However, Othman et al.
(2015) cited that previous empirical studies have shown that personality traits predict
individuals’ performances in various non-medical and medical occupation settings
(Lockenhoff et al. 2011). This is to conclude that individuals with high neuroticism
would be affected greater than those who are low in neuroticism, especially when
dealing with organizational stressors (Nasurdin et al. 2005). Besides, a study among
medical students reported that extraversion trait buffers the effect of mental health
symptoms such as stress reaction, anxiety, and depression due to the existence of
job stress (Gramstad et al. 2013; Kokkinos 2007). Medical students are exposed
to chronic mental health compared to other students, especially during their final
undergraduate years. These findings led to the understanding of why junior doctors
struggle to survive in their first year and the worse it becomes a prolonged mental
disease for a longer period.
38.1.1 Job Burnout
Job burnout is a psychological state resulting from prolonged emotional or prolonged

job stress (Maslach and Jackson 1981; Maslach et al. 2001). It has three dimensions
comprising emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accom-
plishment. Emotional exhaustion refers to feelings of being emotionally exhausted
because of the work. It is characterized by a lack of energy, negative affect, and a
perception that one’s emotional resources have been depleted (Maslach and Jackson
1984; Maslach and Leiter 1997). In other words, these individuals perceived that they
are incapable of performing their work, and therefore they feel upset and resentment.
Meanwhile, depersonalization is an attempt to put distance between oneself and ser-
vice recipients by actively ignoring the qualities that make them unique (Maslach
et al. 2001; Maslach and Jackson 1984). For instance, the individuals isolate them-
selves from interacting with customers, patients, or clients due to the negative feelings
that they experience. Lastly, reduced personal accomplishment refers to a feeling of
reduced competence and a lack of success or achievement in one’s work with people
(Maslach and Jackson 1981; Maslach et al. 2001). These individuals lack confidence,
and they feel incompetent that they cannot perform their jobs sufficiently.
The occurrence of job burnout results from job-related factors and lack of con-
ducive workplace in various professions, such as medical doctors, nurses, police-
men, teachers, social workers, mental health workers, and psychologists (Maslach
and Jackson 1981, 1984; Constable and Russell 1986). Till today, job burnout among
healthcare professionals has been recognized as a serious phenomenon particularly
relevant to caregiving and human service occupations which are interpersonally
stressful and emotionally demanding such as for nurses and physicians within a
38 The Influence of Personality Differences on Job Burnout among … 445
series number of cultures and countries such as USA, Canada, UK, Netherlands,
Japan, Brazil, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Serbia, Romania, and Greece
(Alexandra-Karamanova et al. 2016; Bakker and Heuven 2006; Lloyd et al. 2002;
Ogundipe et al. 2014). Job burnout may, in turn, become an extreme case of chronic
disease due to prolong occupational stress which, in turn, may affect the individual’s
mental health and physical health (Maslach et al. 2001; Arigoni et al. 2010; Ju et al.
2015). Job burnout syndrome may result in mental disorders such as alcohol abuse,
anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and even suicidal attempts.
In summary, many publications pointed out the possible association of evidences
which had consistently supported the favorable relationships between personality
and various areas of individual performance, which include job performance, mental
health, academic success, career success, positive personal qualities, and well-being
either in medical or pharmacy context or others (Kokkinos 2007; Yusoff et al. 2012).
38.1.1.1 Predictors of Job Burnout
Neuroticism. Soto and John (2009) defined neuroticism as an individual’s tendency to

experience psychological distress due to the experience of negative emotions such as
anxiety, general apprehensive, and easy to feel worried, for instance, sad, lonely, and
dejected (Costa and McCrae 1992a). According to Judge et al. (1999), neuroticism is
related to anxiety, instability, anger, insecurity, and depression. In addition, neurotic
individuals are more likely to experience negative moods and physical symptoms
affected by negative life events. Neuroticism as the variable is relatively more stable
and statistically controlled, especially in assessing the influence of stressors (Sun and
Stewart 2000). Neurotic individuals easily triggered negative responses and negative
emotional reaction such as strain and job burnout (Hoogh and Hartog 2009). Based
on previous studies, Kotov et al. (2010) concluded that neuroticism is a trait of
personality that significantly predict the mental health of an individual.
Empirical evidence has shown that personality differences are strong predictors
of employee’s well-being particularly in regard to mental health and physical health
(Beehr et al. 2010). According to Costa and McCrae (1980), neuroticism becomes
a strong predictor of individual well-being in which neuroticism increased nega-
tive emotions. According to Francis and Jackson (2003), individuals with the neu-
rotic traits are categorized as anxious, depressed, tense, irrational, shy, moody, emo-
tional, suffering from guilt feelings, and having low self-esteem. They are also overly
attached to emotions and react to those particular emotions strongly until they feel
exhausted and fatigue and consequently affecting their health behaviors such as
smoking and alcohol addiction, bad sleeping patterns, unhealthy eating habits, and
others. People who score high on neuroticism are characterized by negative emotions
and feel easily overwhelmed by stressful experiences and may facilitate adjustment
to current situations, and thus promote cognitive, emotional, and physical well-being
(Lockenhoff et al. 2011).
Extraversion. One of the strongest dimensions of the five-factor model is extraver-

sion. As defined by Costa and McCrae (1992b), extraversion refers to the extent to
which one is cheerful, gregarious, fun loving, enthusiastic, and tendency to expe-
rience positive emotions such as joy and pleasure. Individuals high in extraversion
may perceive the work environment more positively than do individuals who are
low in extraversion (Alarcon et al. 2009). Extroverts, for example, may generally
experience positive social environments at work, because they often induce posi-
tive responses from their co-workers (Bowling et al. 2006). Empirical evidence has
shown that personality differences are strong predictors to employee’s well-being in
the concept of mental health and physical health (Beehr et al. 2010). According to
Costa and McCrae (1980), extraversion becomes a strong predictor of well-being in
which extraversion increased positive emotions of the individual. According to Evans
et al. (2016), individuals with a high score on extraversion would be less inclined to
become stressful and they would experience better health outcomes. This is because
extraverts will be less likely to regulate negative emotions, prefer being with others
rather than being lonely, and they enjoy socializing with the community. Hence, they
are less likely to experience poor mental health and physical health.
38.1.2 Propositions
There are two propositions that have been developed in this study prior to previous
studies. Those are as follows:
Neuroticism and Job Burnout The effects of personality characteristics such as

neuroticism on burnout among employees in various populations such as nursing
workers, doctors, school psychologists, professional caregivers, physicians, health-
care providers, and teachers are well documented in the literature (Maslach et al.
2001; Armon et al. 2012; Shimizutani et al. 2008). In a study conducted in Japan
in a hospital among the healthcare staff, it seems to suggest that neuroticism was
positively associated with job burnout (Shimizutani et al. 2008). Individuals with
neuroticism with traits such as anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, and
vulnerability are emotionally unstable and are more prone to job burnout (Maslach
et al. 2001). In addition, researchers reported that healthcare employees with high
neuroticism were found to experience greater dimensions of job burnout (Azeem
2013; Zellars et al. 2004). Individuals with high neuroticism tend to view certain situ-
ations in a negative manner; they become easily worried about unpleasant conditions,
react negatively to that particular condition, and take a long time to return to normal
emotional state. Thus, individuals high in neuroticism should be more likely to expe-
rience emotional distress compared to those who score low on the trait (Azeem 2013;
Bono and Judge 2004). Previous research by Buhler and Land (2003) using a sample
of 119 people working in an intensive care unit from 10 German hospitals confirmed
that neuroticism was statistically and positively related to job burnout. The study is
consistent with the findings of Piedmont (1993) who found that neurotic individuals
show higher scores of job burnout. McManus et al. (2004), in a 12-year longitudinal
study, found that the medical graduates who have high neuroticism scores tend to
have a higher level of emotional exhaustion when they become medical doctors. In
sum, neuroticism positively predicts job burnout. Thus, the following hypothesis is
proposed:
Proposition 1: Neuroticism will have a positive influence on job burnout.
Extraversion and Job Burnout Personality differences enhance the risk of burnout
by influencing the individual responses to stressors at the workplace (Spickard
et al. 2002). Literally, employees with higher extraversion are associated with lesser
burnout risk (Alarcon et al. 2009). According to Iorga et al. (2018), extraversion
predicted the strongest toward burnout risk among hospital pharmacists in Romania.
Extraversion trait is statistically significant in lowering the score of depersonaliza-
tion and reduced personal accomplishment. In addition, a 12-year longitudinal study
among UK doctors suggested that doctors with higher extraversion reported lower
emotional exhaustion level (McManus et al. 2004). Numerous studies have indicated
that extraversion is significantly associated with job burnout (Pishghadam and Sahe-
bjam 2012). Zellars et al. (2000) found that extraversion was negatively associated
with job burnout dimensions. Lower level of depersonalization and fewer personal
accomplishments, specifically by individuals with the extrovert traits, are more likely
to value their jobs and perceived the jobs as important as they want to achieve personal
accomplishments.
A cross-sectional study by Lue et al. (2010) demonstrated that extraversion was
positively and significantly related to job burnout using the sample of medical stu-
dents in their final year at Taiwan hospitals. Their findings revealed that individuals
with positive traits, such as enjoy their works, socialize with other peer, craves for
excitement, challenges and like to lead others, would be able to manage stress at
workplace, hence, reducing their job burnout. In short, using samples from diversi-
fied professions, it can be confirmed that extraversion negatively predicts job burnout
(Armon et al. 2012). Those were adult population in Israel (Armon et al. 2012), hotel
employees in the United States (Kim et al. 2007), school teachers in Iran (Pishghadam
and Sahebjam 2012), and first-year postgraduate residents in Taiwan (Lue et al. 2010).
Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Proposition 2: Extraversion will have a negative influence on job burnout.
38.2 Problem Statement
Furthermore, doctors who experience burnout have a higher rate of depressive symp-
toms and suicide attempts and are often unable to meet the demands of patients
(Wieclaw et al. 2008). Doctors are significantly important to the public, and thus
their illnesses and sufferings may result in a delay in care delivery, which will have a
spillover effect on their patients (Kay et al. 2004; Uncu et al. 2006). Moreover, there
is evidence that those risks that doctors face at workplace result in reduced work
performance and absenteeism (Carolan et al. 2017).
According to the Malaysian medical and health services, shortage of doctors in the
public sector, and the increasing number of patients seeking treatment at government
clinics and hospitals have resulted in greater work burden for doctors especially the
junior ones (Rajaendram 2017). It has been reported that junior doctors who worked
under severe stress had sought psychiatric help (Today 2018). As reported in the
news, on average one medical doctor in public hospitals quits from job and changes
to private hospitals especially among the specialists by at least 124 specialist doctors
resigned in 2015, while in 2016, 128 specialist doctors left the job (Fong 2016). The
former Director-General of Health, Tan Sri Dato’ Seri Haji Mohd Ismail Merican,
suggested that doctors should be healthy both physically and mentally so that they
are able to perform well in their roles as care providers to their patients (Merican
2010).
38.3 Research Questions
The research questions of this study are as follows:

1. Does neuroticism influence job burnout?
2. Does extraversion influence job burnout?
38.4 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to review the literature and subsequently propose a
model linking neuroticism and extraversion and job burnout among medical doctors
in Malaysian public hospitals.
38.5 Research Methods
This study is a cross-sectional study, with all variables and data gathered over a
set period of time in order to answer the research questions. Data collection will
be conducted among medical doctors ranging from UD41 to UD56 in 12 selected
state hospitals across Peninsular Malaysia among medical doctors. In this study, the
variables will be measured at an individual level.
Fig. 38.1 Proposed research framework
38.6 Findings
On the basis of the preceding review of the literature and consistent effect of neu-
roticism and extraversion on employee’s job burnout, a model has been developed
as depicted in Fig. 38.1. Neuroticism and extraversion are viewed as independent
variables that have a direct effect on job burnout.
38.7 Conclusion
Individual differences in personality impact on how the individual responds to stress.

The experience of job burnout stimulates the personality of the individuals to distance
themselves from their works. Research has consistently suggested that personality
of the individuals such as neuroticism and extraversion can lead to a chronic stress,
affecting the health of the individuals, be it the mental health and physical health
as well as the organizations that employ them (Foley and Murphy 2015). Medical
doctors who have higher levels of neuroticism express more negative emotions, emo-
tional instability, and stress reaction to job burnout and leads to psychological dis-
tress (Foley and Murphy 2015), whereas individual with higher levels of extraversion
reduced the tendency to experience job burnout since they are capable of deleterious
stress outcomes to medical doctor’s health status, especially job burnout (Lue et al.
2010). As conclusion, individual personality plays an important role in stress and
job burnout. Therefore, exploring personality differences should be taken into con-
sideration for early identification of medical doctors expose to risk of job burnout at
workplace.
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Chapter 39
Organizational Climate, Management
Support, Workplace Relationships,
and Job Stress among College Workers
Nik Azlina Nik Abdullah, Rozihana Shekh Zain, Ismalaili Ismail,

Ahmad Aqram Azuha and Siti Farhana Hasanudin
Abstract Stress is an important phenomenon and is often associated with perfor-

mance and health of individuals or workers. Job stress can affect productivity and
quality of workers if not dealt with properly and effectively. This study investigates
the relationship between organizational climate, management support, and work-
place relationship with employees’ job stress by conducting a survey among 114
employees working at one of the private colleges in Perlis. The data were analyzed
using Pearson’s correlation and multiple regression analysis techniques, and the
results revealed all the three independent variables, organization climate, manage-
ment support, and workplace relationship, have a significant negative relationship
with employees’ job stress. This study had been crucial for organization to under-
stand how the organization climate, management support, and workplace relationship
affect the employees’ job stress and several recommendations were put forth for the
practitioners in enhancing the level of employees’ job stress by acknowledging the
importance of all variables.
Keywords Job stress · Organization climate · Management support · Workplace

relationship
39.1 Introduction
Job stress is an important phenomenon and is often associated with performance,

health, and productivity of individuals or employees. Difference from general stress,
job stress is specifically a result of work settings. In work settings, various factors
can cause stress, such as the work task, the workplace, the job characteristics, role
conflict, or workers’ capabilities (Jou et al. 2013). Job stress threatens the health of
the workers (Bowen et al. 2014) and damages their job performance (Wei et al. 2016;
N. A. Nik Abdullah (B) · R. Shekh Zain · I. Ismail · A. A. Azuha

e-mail: nikazlina@uitm.edu.my
S. F. Hasanudin
Kolej Universiti Islam Perlis, Kuala Perlis, Perlis, Malaysia

454 N. A. Nik Abdullah et al.
Leung et al. 2012). Despite the plenty of studies conducted globally to investigate
job stress and its impact on other constructs, for instance, burnout (Khan et al. 2019),
organizational commitment (Abdelmoteleb 2019), eating behavior (Okumus et al.
2019), and intention to leave (Lo et al. 2018), only few have been carried out in
studying the factors associated with it.
Moreover, the need to study job stress factors in Malaysia has become more impor-
tant with the increasing rate of job stress. AIA Bhd., one of the leading providers of life
and health insurance, reported that based on the AIA Vitality 2018 survey, Malaysia
continues to be affected by productivity loss in the workplace that is attributed to
significant absence and presenteeism in its workforce. The results also highlighted
the increasing prevalence of mental health issues in the workplace with 50.2% of
employees having reported at least one dimension of work-related stress. Therefore,
the purpose of this study is to determine the factors that are associated with job stress
which are organization climate, management support, and workplace relationship.
This study was conducted among employees at one of the private colleges located
in northern region of Peninsular Malaysia. This study is practically significance to
help the organization and individual employees strategized and identify what should
be done to reduce the job stress.
Stress can be defined as an individual’s response to external stimuli in the environ-

ment. Previous studies have indicated that job stress has a major effect on individual
physiology, psychology, and behavior (Burke and Greenglass 2001; Gonge et al.
2002; Johnston and Pollard 1991) and also on job performance (Motowidlo and
Manning 1986). It has recently become a persistent global problem and thus of
increased interest for researchers (Choy and Wong 2017). Furthermore, adequate
tension in the workplace can stimulate the workers’ enthusiasm. Chronic stress may
inflict damage on all aspects of workers’ physiology and psychology (Gärtner et al.
2010). Compared to job stress, ordinary occupational hazard factors (physical, chem-
ical, and biological) will not lead to specific occupational diseases but will inflict
damage in the form of nonspecific worker’s health issues. In mild cases, job stress
can result in suboptimal health and cause job burnout (Luo et al. 2016; Johnstone
et al. 2016) among other symptoms. Severe cases may lead to depression (Wang
et al. 2017), death (Inoue et al. 2016), and other serious diseases (Biglari et al. 2016;
Lazaridis et al. 2017; Jiang et al. 2016). In addition, job stress can cause absenteeism,
high employee turnover, and low productivity (Andersson et al. 2001; Elfering et al.
2008; Elstad and Vabo 2008). These consequences will further lead to low quality of
life, job dissatisfaction, impaired judgment (Nguyen et al. 2012), decreased worka-
bility, difficulties in social relationships (Lu et al. 2012; Valiee et al. 2014), and even
accidents (Park and Kim 2013).
Meanwhile, organizational climate has been of interest to researchers and practi-
tioners alike for decades (Schneider 2011; Schneider et al. 2013). From a theoretical
39 Organizational Climate, Management Support, Workplace … 455
perspective, organizational climate represents employees’ holistic conceptualiza-

tions of an organization; it captures the sense-making process and shared meaning
that employees create about their organizational environment (Reichers and Schnei-
der 1990). It signifies the shared meaning that employees assign to aspects of the
organization, like policies, practices, procedures, and behaviors that get rewarded
and are expected (Schneider et al. 2013; Schneider and Barbera 2014). One goal of
organizational climate is to coordinate employees’ thought and action. Consequently,
the climate of an organization can be a powerful predictor of employee attitudes and
behaviors, as well as firm-level outcomes (Denison and Mishra 1995; Sackmann
2011).
The main assumption underlying the anticipated relationship with job stress is that
the shared meaning a climate creates helps to coordinate employees, align employ-
ees’ goals, and increase effort and at the same time reduce the job-related stress.
As such, there has been a strong emphasis in the climate literature exploring the
relationship between organizational climate that is related to key organizational out-
comes (Andersson et al. 2001; Elfering et al. 2008; Elstad and Vabo 2008) but less
likely emphasis on job stress and other occupation-related disease. Generally, poor
organizational climate can lead to physical illnesses and has possibility to harm emo-
tional health and mental well-being of employees, especially in terms of depression
and anxiety because of the higher stress level. Poor employee’s mental health will
reduce organizational productivity such as bad performance in dealing with tasks and
responsibilities as well as increase costs to cure mental problems among employees.
Employees are vital assets and therefore need to be well managed and valued
appropriately. Employers need to create a safe working environment and provide a
working environment that reduces stress. Managers can provide organizational sup-
port through their managerial role by caring for subordinates’ well-being and provid-
ing work advisory. By providing managerial support to employees, cost reductions
and increased productivities can be obtained (Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002).
Previous research has demonstrated that managerial support is associated with
several work-related and well-being outcomes. For example, Hoert, Herd, and Ham-
brick suggest that employees’ perceptions of organizational leadership support for
health promotion are related to their participation in wellness activities, perceived
job stress levels, and health behaviors (Hoert et al. 2018). Meanwhile, Jones-Johnson
and Johnson also found that the perceived managerial support is negatively associ-
ated with subjective underemployment (individuals’ perception that their inability
to perform certain task and the lack of opportunity to develop skills and talents) and
psychosocial stress (Jones-Johnson and Johnson 2001). Lack of managerial support
was also associated both with negative mood states and, particularly, with low levels
of work satisfaction (Bennett et al. 2001).
Employees are supposed to build and maintain positive relationships with others in
the workplace. According to Ferris, Rogers, Blass, and Hochwarter, workplace rela-
tionship is defined as the information and knowledge exchange between individuals
and groups who want to complete their shared mission and vision (Ferris et al. 2009).
While Colbert, Bono, and Purvanova referred to workplace relationship as a primary
source of emotional support, career development and instrumental support (Colbert
et al. 2016) as employees may have a clear understanding of the working experiences
and conditions (Sias 2005), as well as gossip about organizational information that
cannot be obtained by external employees (Rawlins 1994). Social relationships that
exist among employees in a workplace are important in maintaining an individual’s
self-esteem, as it fosters a sense of social support. In an environment where co-worker
support is high, employees can discuss ideas more openly and honestly and there is
a positive relationship to job satisfaction (Bateman 2009).
Furthermore, Blair and Littlewood believed that the low quality of workplace
relationships was a potential contributor to employee stress (Blair and Littlewood
1995). In addition, Searle, Bright, and Bochner reported that interpersonal interac-
tions at workplace could reduce stress experiences among the staff (Searle et al.
1999). This is also similar to the study in the hospital sector by Sveinsdottir, Biering,
and Ramel where they found that lack of support from supervisors and peers and less
satisfaction with the head nurses generated stressful situations among nursing staff
(Sveinsdóttir et al. 2006). Contrarily, Allen indicates that employees who are well
informed through relationships at workplace report higher levels of job satisfaction
and commitment that might reduce job stress among them (Allen 1996). The finding
is in line with the study by Brown and Mitchell where they explain that the higher
the workplace interaction quality, the better-informed employees are and, in turn,
the less uncertain they are about tasks and goals and the better the perceived per-
formance (Brown and Mitchell 1993). Furthermore, strong support from co-workers
and supervisors improves work environments by relieving employee stress (Sloan
2012; Edwards and Rothbard 1999) which enhances job satisfaction and performance
(Pritchard and Karasick 1973) and subsequently reduces job stress and presenteeism
in enterprises and organizations (Cooper et al. 2001; Otsuka et al. 2007).
Apart from that, employees who lack social support will shift their resources from
current work tasks to managing high levels of job stress (Halbesleben and Bowler
2007). Additionally, reciprocation of work support between lower level employ-
ees and managers may decrease job stress and increase productivity (Eisenberger
et al. 2001). Besides that, Khoa, Phuong, Thao, and Tran indicate that high-quality
workplace relationship was negatively and significantly related to job stress (Khoa
et al. 2018). This is implied by the fact that, within positive workplace relation-
ships, employees are powered by instrumental resources and emotional support from
supervisors and peers, which results in a lower level of reported stress.
39.3 Methodology
Figure 39.1 describes the framework for this study. The independent variables are
organizational climate, management support, and workplace relationship; the depen-
dent variable is job stress. This study utilizes 114 employees working at a private
college in northern region of Peninsular Malaysia. A set of questionnaires had been
given to the respondents which consist of five sections. Section A asked respondents
on the background information such as gender and age; in section B, it consists of
Organizational
Climate
Management Job
Support Stress
Workplace
Relationship
Fig. 39.1 Research framework
five items that are related to job stress which were adapted from Dwivedi and Purohit
(2016). Furthermore, in sections C, D, and E, all items were adapted from Cooper
et al. (1988) which dealt with questions on organizational climate (7 items), manage-
ment support (6 items), and workplace relationship (6 items). All items were rated on
a five-point Likert scale. The wording of the items was modified to accommodate the
context of the present study. The scales have been found to have sufficient levels of
reliability and validity. Bivariate correlation was used to test the relationship between
the study variables, and multiple regressions were utilized to test the main effect of
independent variables with dependent variable.
The hypotheses for this study include the following:
H1 There is significant negative relationship between organizational climate and
job stress.
H2 There is significant negative relationship between management support and job
stress.
H3 There is significant negative relationship between workplace relationship and
job stress.
39.4 Results
The survey was administered to the employees working at a private college in north-
ern region of Peninsular Malaysia. Among those who participated, majority of the
respondents were female (51.8%), while 48.2% is male. Most of the respondents
(55.3%) were married, in the range of 30 to 39 years old (52.6%), have a Master’s
degree (41.2%), and have working experience between 11 and 15 years (39.5%).
The internal consistency of each measurement was determined by calculating
Cronbach’s alpha. All items of organizational climate, management support, work-
place relationship, and job stress were found to have alpha values of 0.901, 0.794,
0.786, and 0.875, respectively. The initial relationship between all independent vari-
ables with job stress was investigated using Pearsons correlation coefficient. The
findings reveal that there was a strong negative correlation between organizational
climate (r = −0.796, p < 0.01), management support (r = −0.794, p < 0.01), and
Table 39.1 Descriptive, internal consistency reliabilities, and inter-correlations

Variables Mean SD OC MS WR JS
Organizational climate (SOC) 1.665 0.586 (0.901)
Management support (MS) 2.098 0.516 0.837* (0.794)
Workplace relationship (WR) 2.602 0.489 0.701* 0.659* (0.786)
Job stress (JS) 4.365 0.594 −0.796* −0.794* −0.704* (0.875)
*p < 0.01
Table 39.2 Regression

Variables β t Sig.
results between
organizational climate, Organizational climate (OC) −0.321 −3.226 0.002
management support, and Management support (MS) −0.371 −3.927 0.000
workplace relationship with
Workplace relationship (WR) −0.234 −3.220 0.002
job stress
R 0.846
R-Square 0.715
Adjusted R-Square 0.708
F-Value 92.16
Dependent variable Job stress
workplace relationship (r = −0.704, p < 0.01). A summary of the means, standard

deviations, reliability, and correlations is provided in Table 39.1.
Regression analysis was conducted mainly to examine the hypotheses in this
study. Table 39.2 shows that all the hypothesized relationships were significant.
Organizational climate (β = −0.321, p < 0.01), management support (β = −0.371,
p < 0.01), and workplace relationship (β = −0.234, p < 0.01) were found to have a
significant and negative relationship with job stress. Overall, the variance explained
by the set of predictors is 70.8%. Hence, hypotheses H1, H2, and H3 were supported.
39.5 Discussion
The main purpose of this study is to determine factors associated with job stress. It is
found out that all the independent variables which are organizational climate, man-
agement support, and workplace relationship, have a significant negative relationship
with job stress.
The first hypothesis suggested that organizational climate has a significant neg-
ative relationship with job stress. The result obtained is in line with the previous
study conducted by Vong, Ngan, and Lo; their study shows that stressful employees
working in organizations characterized by unsupportive organizational climate had
far less desire to stay with the organization than those working in organizations with
supportive organizational climate (Vong et al. 2018). Generally, poor organizational
climate can lead to physical illnesses and has possibility to harm emotional health
and mental well-being of employees, especially in terms of depression and anxiety
because of the higher stress level. Poor employee mental health will reduce organiza-
tional productivity such as bad performance in dealing with tasks and responsibilities
as well as increase costs to cure mental problems among employees. Changes in work
organization and work practices often cost little or nothing, and they can bring impor-
tant economic advantages both in terms of organization efficiency and in reducing
the burden of stress.
Meanwhile, this study also revealed that management role did have an impact on
job stress. Westerlund et al. found that lack of managerial support is one of the most
commonly cited variables that lead to depression, stress, and anxiety (Westerlund
et al. 2010). That is why management should take part in providing positive behav-
iors as it helps workers to manage all kinds of difficulties, including mental health
problems so that employees will upgrade their performance. A good leadership and
management is one of the main factors in ensuring good mental health and well-being
of employees. The way they are treated by their manager and the behavior of all the
leaders in the organization makes a big difference in how they feel about themselves
and their work. Hence, they will perform their tasks well and provide a better job
quality as a sign of gratitude for the good behaviors shown by the leader.
Thus it is concluded that positive relationship in workplace had an impact on
employees’ job stress and well-being. Robertson et al. stated that employees will
interact more with their colleagues during working hour rather than their family;
therefore, positive interactions between workers may create a better work environ-
ment and also can increase levels of productivity and job satisfaction (Robertson et al.
2019). In contrast, toxic or negative relationships in the workplace can increase the
stress levels among workers, as well as feelings of isolation. A negative interaction
may harm employees’ mental and physical health, as well as lowering employees’
morale and motivation due to stress and isolation. Therefore, management should
provide diversities of activities to strengthen the relationship between all members
of the organization.
39.6 Conclusion
The results of this study should be interpreted with caution considering its several
limitations. Firstly, this study only focused on employees working in one of the private
colleges in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia and was a cross-sectional
study. As such, the conclusions made from this study only hold true for specific
sample as well as a specific period of time and may not be generalizable to a larger
population and in different contextual settings. Therefore, future research should
consider a larger sample in other industries. A comparative study on employees’
job stress among different organizations also needs to be carried out as different
organizations possibly commit to different levels of factors that will lead to job stress.
As such, this could make a difference in understanding the factors and prevention
strategies that could be employed by the organization.
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Chapter 40
A Compilation and Analysis of Key
Criteria for Land Bank Development
Sharifah Nurul Akhilah Syed Mustorpha

and Tuan Badrol Hisham Tuan Besar
Abstract Land bank is one of the most important instruments of sustainable devel-
opment of properties. However, land banking is still considered very risky as the
actual use of land is difficult to fill (Van Dijk and Kopeva in Land Use Policy 23:286–
301, 2006). Gilbert (Habitat Int 33:425–435, 2009) argues that land bank managers
need to know how and why they need to take steps to increase the market value of
the land. It focuses on not only the decision that has been made, but also how that
decision was made (Williamson et al. in Land Administration For Sustainable Devel-
opment (p. 487), 2010). This paper explores the key criteria needed for a successful
land bank development. The first phase includes a thorough review of more than
30 sources of literature relevant to the topic, while the second phase is a survey of
five selected developers in Penang, Malaysia. Content and quantitative analyses were
performed on the data, respectively, identifying the connection between both the lit-
erature and developers’ perspectives. The study presents interesting findings in that
it lends support to existing literature, such as practices in land bank development
do affect land bank development success. The data received from respondents have
implications for the level of performance that is perceived by developers, as well as
the experience in land development process. This piece of work serves as a corrob-
orative evidence to improve the satisfaction of industry players, policy makers and
investors. The paper ends by recommending that the study be repeated in Malaysia
in the context of other stakeholders to enrich the findings.
Keywords Criteria · Land bank · Land development
S. N. A. Syed Mustorpha (B)

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
e-mail: sharifahnurulakhilah.utm@gmail.com
T. B. H. Tuan Besar
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor Branch, Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: tuanbadrol@uitm.edu.my

464 S. N. A. Syed Mustorpha and T. B. H. Tuan Besar
40.1 Introduction
Today, the Malaysian land development industry is evolving at a record pace to

new levels, well beyond the dreams of the most original industry pioneers. The
need for land development is steadily increasing because of massive population
growth and changing tastes of how the populace wants to live. Additionally, there
has been a mass exodus of workers from villages to towns. According to Ahmad et al.
(2009), Malaysia is among the fastest growing developing countries in the East. Since
her independence in 1957, together with the nationwide progress and development,
rapid urbanization has taken place, leading to massive migration of people from
rural villages to urban and newly developed areas. It is generally recognized that in
any urbanization process, one of the most important issues is space. This scenario
shows the importance of real estate developers in catering for the incessant property
demands.
However, the growing problem of vacant and abandoned properties has been wor-
rying many parties. The properties that are left behind can spur a cycle of blight, crime
and decreased property values, consequently draining the city resources, threaten-
ing the safety and stability of the surrounding neighbourhoods. Because the issues
leading to property vacancy are diverse, an equally diverse and comprehensive set
of tools is needed in response. The land bank is quickly becoming one of these
tools. The land bank is seen to be able to solve some of the issues related to land
speculation (Gilbert 2009); land fragmentation (Van Dijk and Kopeva 2006); land
conservation (Cummiskey 2001); to encourage the use of agricultural land (Coimbra
2011); to control social pressure arising from the disproportionate distribution of
resources, and the problem of high population and unemployment (Harts-Broekhuis
and Huisman 2001).
Based on the results of a comprehensive compilation and analysis of preliminary
literature review, this paper seeks to present a new agenda for further research on the
key criteria needed for a successful land bank development. This aspect had triggered
the subsequent research question of what is the strategy to obtain a successful land
bank development in the context of past literature and the real estate developers’
perspective. The paper’s structure, exempting the introduction, begins with a concise
literature review that explores land banking and strategy implementation. Ensuing
section presents the applied research methodology by highlighting the approach in
collecting and analysing the data. The subsequent section discusses various topics
concerning the real estate developers’ views on current practices of development and
strategy as a cross-comparison. The last section concludes with a general discussion
followed by suggestions for further research.
Generally, land bank is a process of buying or acquiring land and property, storing
and then developing them for certain needs, thereby adding value and returning the
productive use of these land (Kelly 2016; Bao et al. 2012; O’Brien et al. 2005 and
40 A Compilation and Analysis of Key Criteria for Land Bank Development 465
Cummiskey 2001). In fact, it is referred to as a collection of vacant land and makes

it easier to use when needed (Green et al. 2016).
40.2.1 Existing Strategies with Respect to Land Bank

Development
Some researchers have set out to prepare a taxonomy of land development strate-
gies (Kahne 1975; Gallimore et al. 2000; Roberts and Hennebery (2007); Sah et al.
(2010); Parker 2014; Parker and Parker 2016). Several others have presented land
development strategies according to stages of development process, have a more
focused analysis on a specific area of the development, or have attempted to cate-
gorize land development strategies according to planning frameworks. Olsson et al.
(2015) proposed an iterative model for real estate development projects. The model
explained the different phases that follow one another, though at the same time cer-
tain processes must be repeated more or less continuously throughout the entire real
estate development in terms of loops—an iterative process.
Other researchers were more comprehensive in their coverage of land develop-
ment strategies, but attempted to categorize them differently. The model suggested
by Healey (1992) focused on distinguishing levels of analysis rather than placing
the analytical emphasis on typologies of actors, events and interests. Furthermore,
another study produced a quantitative decision-making model for land developments
in land banking decisions and strategies using a Monte Carlo simulation for China’s
property developers (Bao et al. 2012). Finally, the work by Pyhrr et al. (1999) high-
lighted several real estate cycles in a micro-decision-making contexts and discussed
their strategic implications for investors and portfolio managers, but there was no
indication of the methodology used. Clearly, there is a limited research that has
attempted to produce an expansive collection of land bank development strategies.
The summary of the strategies as well as key policies with respect to the land bank
development adopted from Land Bank established in America, Australia, Asia and
Africa, is presented in Table 40.1.
40.2.2 The List of Criteria Applicable for Land Bank

Development
Many researchers (e.g. Maruani and Amit-Cohen 2011; Wilkinson and Reed 2008)
noted the importance of market analysis in real estate development. Kahr and Thom-
sett (2005) explained market analysis as an action to identify the trends in demand
and supply for the sake of product marketability and competitive advantage against
business rivals. For the real estate developers, this is considered as homework before
taking up the project since it involves feasibility study and thorough observation of
Table 40.1 Existing key policies and strategies with respect to land bank development:
Actions taken
Acquires and assembles properties to support development and promote economic growth
Manages an inventory of surplus public property
Disposes of public property in a transparent manner
Collaborates with the developers, non-profit organizations, economic and community
development corporations, and state and local units of government on development projects
Facilitates the reutilization of vacant, abandoned, and tax-foreclosed property
Efficiently holds such property pending utilization
Assist sentities to assemble and clear the title of such property in a coordinated manner
Provides financial services to promote and facilitate access to ownership of land for the
development of historically disadvantaged persons
Holds the land temporarily and often exchanges it with landowners in the land consolidation
project who are asked to sell land for a nature restoration project
Carefully plans the use and protection of land
Acquires large quantity of land in periphery regions around major cities in order to achieve a
smooth implementation of plans
No more Land Use Right transaction via negotiation is allowed, all the LUR to be supplied for
business and industrial use in the first hand market should first go into the land bank of the city
governments via the land banking procedure of land banking authorities
Implements an Environmental Due Diligence (EDD) System wherein it conducts environmental
impact assessment and monitoring as a requirement in financing projects
Encourages and strengthens compliance of clients with applicable environmental laws and
regulations
Reduces credit risk in the bank’s gross loan portfolio
Broadens the power to independent authorities, approved and created by local governmental
agreements and practical cooperation as sweeping tax foreclosure law reform
Property classification according to site characteristics
Consolidates municipal real estate records linked to GIS data as a property management tool,
rather than just geographic information
Good intergovernmental cooperation
Incentivizes private realtors to represent city-owned properties
Ability to waive delinquent property taxes
Administration and legal capability to sell properties at below-market value
Expedites judicial foreclosure process and system
Property acquisition goals that are integrated with long-term consolidated plan
Integrated data management with regional collaboration and planning efforts
the industry. Extensive research on the markets may allow the developers to make
decisions concerning design, site, design, section numbers, size and timing (McDon-
agh 2010). Also, with fine-grained analysis and adequate information, they will be
able to prepare financial projections in relation to the targeted market.
Basically, the real estate developers need market information before commenc-
ing the preliminary design phase. Miles et al. (2000) pinpoint several dimensions
that might be beneficial for the developers in undertaking the market analysis. They
mainly include employment trends and population growth rates in the market area,
number of properties that market can absorb, percentage of market demand and tar-
geted customers, as well as expected operating revenue or income of the project. Most
importantly, the significant demographic information including market statistics,
population base, population density, projected growth, growth patterns and incomes
must be investigated (Sorenson 1990). The analysis is very valuable to gain insights
into project designs and feasibility, market velocity, regulatory reaction, marketing
plans and basic documentation of zoning (Wilkinson and Reed 2008).
40.3 Methodology
Utilizing a conceptual analytical approach, this comprehensive literature review has

involved extensive note taking to highlight any and all possible references to strategies
and key criteria. They are defined as a reference to any condition or element that is
deemed necessary in order for the land bank development to occur successfully. Those
articles containing references to strategies and key criteria of land bank development
are then analysed deeper for the purpose of coding the identified constructs. Part of
this analysis involves differentiating and combining the data collected (Miles and
Huberman 1994, as cited in Finney and Corbett 2007). Emphasis is placed on the
meaning of the words rather than the words themselves. Therefore, all strategies and
key criteria, regardless of description, are noted before commencing the sorting phase
which would place key criteria like categories. Further, opinions from real estate
developers are considered as the selected five are all based in Penang, Malaysia.
40.4 Main Results
The second phase of this research is conducted via web-based survey of land bank
and land development identified from the literature review. Specifically, five devel-
opers are identified to obtain an in-depth look at the existing land bank operations
and specific policy development and practices. The selected real estate developers
are surveyed on questions relative to the decision-making concept and process.
Synthesizing the results of the literature review, several themes emerge as to
the common practices in land bank strategy. The following figures identify the most
prevalent practices, and provides a brief analysis of how these practices are used to
provide optimal results in a land development. Primarily from the literature review,
Fig. 40.1 outlines the current land bank strategies and Fig. 40.2 outlines the main
criteria.
Fig. 40.1 The composition of land bank strategy for a succesful land development
Fig. 40.2 The key criteria for land bank development

Based on the results recorded, the researcher decided to group the factors into
several variables which are financing, financial analysis, legal environment analysis,
techno-economic analysis of the object (attractiveness of the territory), and invest-
ment environment (business perspectives) analysis. Financing variable is highly
dependent on bank loans (Gunji and Yuan 2010). Financial analysis, on the other
hand, is considered as a suitable tool for the following reasons: to assess a company’s
financial and economic situation, and guiding the decision-making processes of com-
panies and financial markets and to embrace sustainability issues within its logic,
under some kind of scheme or framework that permits the evaluation of a company’s
sustainable management system and the impact of sustainability issues on financial
performance (Castro and Chousa 2006). Meanwhile, legal environment analysis
is positively and robustly associated with per capita growth, physical capital accu-
mulation and productivity growth (Levine 1998). Techno-economic analysis of the
object (attractiveness of the territory) mostly depends on project type. Finally, invest-
ment environment (business perspectives) analysis is the organic whole of a series
of key elements of production and the conditions of production that could promote
the increment of capital.
Further more, Table 40.2 shows the results obtained from the survey of five private
developers on the decision makers, the ways to make decisions, decision-making
criteria, decision-making methods, problem in decision making and decision-making
process. Figures 40.3, 40.4, 40.5 and 40.6 show the decision-making process by five
selected developers.
In Fig. 40.3, the decision-making process by D1 has two main functions only. This
process would analyse a basic procedure to evaluate the financial project by breaking
down the process into a decision tree analysis. The procedure would then become
a basis for further discussion of the project profitability level before the planning
phase. The flowchart by D1, however, does not provide any decision-making point.
Nevertheless, the process clearly defines the decision maker participation at different
stages of the decision tree analysis.
Figure 40.4 shows the decision-making process by D2 which appears simpler
and straightforward than that of D1. The developer uses only discussion to produce
the needed results. This process, however, does not emphasize on the goal towards
getting a consensus decision. It may involve adversarial debate and the formation
of competing factions. These dynamics may harm group member relationships and
undermine the ability of a group to cooperatively implement a contentious decision.
However, the process includes and respects all decision makers at every stage.
On the other hand, the decision-making process by D3 is more theoretical in
nature. This is because the decision-making process shows the decision point (refer
Fig. 40.5) that identifies the step that occurs before the action is taken. The step
entails the decision with a “yes” or “no” question that helps the developer evaluate
the consequences of profitability. However, the flowchart has flaws where it does not
have an allocation of decision maker and decision method or tool.
Figure 40.6 shows both D4 and D5 decision-making process. Apparently, the D4
decision-making process is the simpler between the two. The activity begins with
the inception and feasibility study and finishes with scheme design. The flowchart
470
Table 40.2 Decision making concept by developer

Developer Who decide? How make? What criteria? What tools? What problems?
D1 • General manager • Discussion • Location • Market study • Land purchase
• Executive team • Direction by General manager • Demand • Experience • Labour supply
• Land • Decision tree
• Environment • Cash flow
D2 • General manager • Discussion • Demand • Market study • Capital
• Board committee • Direction by General manager • Environment • Experience • Conflict in management
• Account method
D3 • General manager • Discussion • Location • Market study • Not applying current method
• Executive team • Direction by General manager • Profit • Experience • Labour supply
• Account method
D4 • Manager • Discussion • Location • Market study • Control by manager
• Executive team • Direction by General manager • Capital • Experience • Labour supply
• Demand • Cash flow • Profit
D5 • Manager • Discussion • Demand • Market study • Land purchase
• Executive team • Direction by General manager • Resource • Experience • Material cost
• Profit • Account method
S. N. A. Syed Mustorpha and T. B. H. Tuan Besar
Fig. 40.3 Decision-making process by D1
however, shows only the activities that are taking place before the planning phase.
No decision-making element is included in the diagram. On other words, the chart
is about the process of activities, not the decision-making process itself.
Similarly, D5 has the process of decision making that includes a decision method
and decision maker contribution. The process is more realistic compared to the
decision-making process by D4. The decision-making process shows only one activ-
ity has a decision method (discussed), and the process simply involves the interaction
between the manager and project team at the first stage of the activity.
Overall, the decision-making processes are simpler and usable in understanding
the decision makers. Both decision-making process by developers D1 and D3 are
towards the theoretical concept compared with the others whereby the basic method
used is the decision tree technique and flowchart which includes decision point.
Figure 40.7 summarizes all results from the analysis. The flowchart is developed by
integrating all data from Table 40.2 and Figs. 40.3, 40.4, 40.5, 40.6 and 40.7.
To conclude, developers prefer making decisions using intuitive discussion, deci-
sion tree and simple financial method. Although flowchart is a very straightfor-
ward flow of activities, the actual decision-making process does not use symbols in
reaching a decision.

40.5 Conclusions
It is expected that many more examples of new and innovative ways to deal with land
will emerge. The barriers will continue to perplex the smartest of policy makers and
practitioners, but the urgency of inner-city rapid land development will undoubtedly
push both practitioners and policy leaders towards innovation and action in the near
future. In summary, land banking means choosing how to select applicants for land,
what spatial developments to stimulate, how large new farms and parcels must be and
what type of tenure to distribute land in. This research has some practical implications
such as identification of basic criteria for land bank development and helps industry
players and investors to make decisions objectively. Even though land banks are
differently organized and financed in different countries, they all prove to be very
effective in the aspect of local historical, sociological, economic, cultural and other
specificities. In view of the limitations of the above-mentioned literature and based
on the recommendations of other researchers as well as recommendations by the
developers, there is a need to focus future research efforts on studies which focus
mainly on other stakeholders in Malaysia to enrich the findings.
Fig. 40.6 Decision-making process by D4 and D5

Fig. 40.7 Summary of decision-making process by private developer
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Chapter 41
Sex Education for Children:
A Betterment Pathway for ASEAN
Member States
Nur Ain Yaacob, Ainatul Fathiyah Abdul Rahim, Nurul Afzan Najid,
Rafizah Mohd Noor, and Nursyahida Zulkifli
Abstract One of the main targets of ASEAN Cultural and Social Community
(ACSC) 2025 is to improve education and training, especially in sex education,
to enhance socio-economic development and gender equality in ASEAN. However,
sex education in ASEAN nations is challenged by taboo and conservative cultural
values. According to a recent global data conducted by UNICEF, child sexual abuse is
experienced by one in every five females and one in every 11 males across the world.
Besides, there are about 11–22% girls and three to 3–16.5% boys who are sexually
abused and harassed in Southeast Asia. Other than that, UNICEF also reported that
children who are exposed to sex education have fewer partners and become sexually
active much later in life, than those without sex education. Therefore, it is impor-
tant for ASEAN governments to set an explicit goal and political commitment in
overcoming this problematic issue. Providing sex education to children is regarded
as the best asset that any government can give to empower them for a better future.
Hence, the present article aims to provide a comprehensive literature review of the
existing sex education programs in selected Western countries (the United States of
America, the United Kingdom) and in several ASEAN member states (Malaysia,
Singapore, Vietnam). The literature review reports observations and implications
for sex education policy and practice, and recommendations for future research for
youths are outlined.
N. A. Yaacob (B) · A. F. Abdul Rahim · N. A. Najid · R. Mohd Noor

e-mail: ainyaacob@gmail.com.my
A. F. Abdul Rahim
e-mail: ainatul@uitm.edu.my
N. A. Najid
e-mail: nurulafzan@uitm.edu.my
R. Mohd Noor
e-mail: rafeezamn@gmail.com
N. Zulkifli
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kelantan Branch, Machang, Kelantan, Malaysia
e-mail: syahidazulkifli@gmail.com

478 N. A. Yaacob et al.
Keywords ASEAN · Political commitment · Sexual abuse · Sex education · SDG

5
41.1 Introduction
ASEAN Socio Cultural Community 2025 aims to improve the quality of life of the
people through cooperative activities that focus on human development, environmen-
tally friendly programs, and toward the promotion of sustainable development to face
the future challenges of ASEAN (Asean Socio Cultural Community 2016). It can be
done by providing people with equitable access to human development opportuni-
ties by promoting lifelong learning education, human resource training, encouraging
innovation, the use of English language, the use of ICT in socio-economic activities,
and entrepreneurship. One of the main targets of ASEAN Socio Cultural Commu-
nity 2025 is to improve education and training, especially sexuality education, to
enhance socio-economic development and gender equality in ASEAN (Yasukawa
2015). Sex education can be defined as the provision of information about bodily
development, sex, sexuality, and relationships, along with skills-building to help
young people communicate about and make informed decisions regarding sex and
their sexual health. Sex education is crucial in providing children with skills, knowl-
edge, and values about sexual and social relationship in order to produce better
decision makers because they are the best assets to govern future country devel-
opment (United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization 2009).
Sex education is regarded as a key to prevent any sexual behavior by teenagers.
Therefore, it needs to be learnt from primary school when students are between
6 and 12 years old. It is the best time when students start to sexually mature until
they become adolescents (Shahnaz 2017). However, sexuality education in ASEAN
nations is challenged by taboo and conservative cultural values. According to a recent
global data conducted by UNICEF, child sexual abuse is experienced by one in every
five females and one in every 11 males across the world. Besides, there are about
11–22% girls and 3–16.5% boys who are sexually abused and harassed in Southeast
Asia. In addition, over 40% of adolescent girls in poor countries in ASEAN feel that
wife-beating is acceptable in some circumstances. Meanwhile, about 34% of women
have experienced some forms of physical or sexual violence by their partners in their
lifetime (Yasukawa 2015). These numbers insist that sexuality education must be
substantially developed in order to help young people understand and share their
circumstances.
Sex education in ASEAN nations is challenged by taboo and conservative cultural
values that will cause dangerous consequences for thousands of youths. For exam-
ple, in Malaysia, in 2010, Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat, the Kelantan Menteri Besar
(Chief Minister), reported in The Star that teaching sex education would be like
teaching a thief how to steal, and that the move would encourage children to learn
about sex among themselves, resulting in negative incidences like unwanted preg-
nancies and baby dumping. It also reported that boys are better informed about sex
41 Sex Education for Children: A Betterment Pathway for ASEAN … 479
as the topic is a greater taboo for girls—due to girls being expected to keep their vir-
ginity and also because sexual activity is not openly acknowledged (The Star 2010).
UNESCO (United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization 2009)
listed various opinions such as sex education should not be implemented because
it will make teenagers more sexually active, it corrupts the mind of teenagers and
children, and it should be the duty of parents to educate their children on sex. Parents
are simply opposed to this implementation (Kaler 2018). Most teachers teaching
sex-related topics simply base it on what is necessarily found in textbooks only. The
teachers were found not relating it to a wider scale concerning sexuality as the topic
was deemed to be taboo. With regard to the teaching methods of teachers, the respon-
dents specifically opined that they felt it was ineffective due to lack of conviction or
a sense of awkwardness among teachers toward the topic (Talib et al. 2012).
Sex education in Singapore creates a culture of shame and fear, discouraging
young people from seeking information and help. This is especially harmful if they
have faced sexual abuse, unplanned pregnancies, or sexually transmitted infections.
Shame is the biggest barrier to talking about sex (Lau 2016). According to Sid
Azmi, who grew up as a Malay Muslim in Singapore, young people feel a certain
discomfort and shyness when the topic comes up. We also use shameful words to
describe people who are open about sex, such as ‘slut’ or ‘dirty-minded’. However,
sex education in Vietnam is also challenged by taboo and conservative cultural values
as young women who desire discussion about sexual issues accept that cultural
‘barriers’ are formidable. Their desires conflict with the traditional familial norm of
‘silence’ regarding sexual matters. Consequently, knowledge is sought outside home,
specifically from peers and the media (Rawson and Liamputtong 2010). In addition,
open conversation about sex with a stranger is not normal in any country. The silence
surrounding this topic masks a larger issue in Vietnam, whereby most young people
aren’t learning about safe sex from a reliable source. Schools expect students to
learn it from the Internet, and parents expect children to learn from school; it end
ups that nobody really talks about sex to inform young kids. The lack of education
and embarrassment to talk openly about sex quite often means that they end up
with the wrong information. In the Vietnamese society, sex before marriage is still
considered taboo. As a result, family planning resources are widely accessible to
married couples but less available to the young and unwed who, particularly in urban
areas, wait longer to get married (Gibson 2017).
According to a recent global data conducted by UNICEF, child sexual abuse
is experienced by one in every five females and one in every 11 males across the
world. Besides, there are about 11–22% girls and 3–16.5% boys who are sexually
abused and harassed in Southeast Asia. In addition, over 40% of adolescent girls in
poor countries in ASEAN feel that wife-beating is acceptable in some circumstances.
Meanwhile, about 34% of women have experienced some form of physical or sexual
violence by their partners in their lifetime (Yasukawa 2015). These numbers insist
that sexuality education must be substantially developed in order to help young
people understand and share their circumstances.
41.2 Practices in Several ASEAN Member States
41.2.1 Malaysia
Malaysia is aware that the number of sexual illnesses among teenagers can be over-
come through education. Previous research has shown that early sexual education can
decrease sexually risky behavior. In Malaysia, the subject of sex education is still in
discussion. Although there is no specific subject entitled Sex Education in school, the
Ministry of Education has introduced some subjects related to sexuality and repro-
ductive health such as Islamic Studies, Health and Physical Education, Moral Educa-
tion, Science, and Biology for primary and secondary schools. Effective from 2011,
primary school students began new syllabus that focuses on colorful pictures that
teach children important information like ‘good touch’ and ‘bad touch’, helping
them differentiate between them. This teaching can indirectly overcome pedophile
issues and sex abuse among children. Physical Education and Health textbooks for
Form Five students state that ‘pre-marital sex will sully the family’s name, ruin the
future of teenagers, and raise the risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), like
HIV/AIDS’ (Satpal 2018).
The existing subjects related to the topic of sex education cause students not to
look at the comprehensive sex-related matters (Dawi 2009). For example, a biology
teacher explains the physical aspect, while religious teacher explains religious val-
ues and moral teacher explains the social consequences of sexual activities. These
teachers seem to repeat the same information in their teaching (Ihwani et al. 2015).
Due to repeated information on sexual education at schools, a study conducted by
Talib et al. (2012) analyzed sex education in schools across Malaysia. They found
that most participants felt that information on sex was insufficient. With regard to
teaching methods, teachers remain embarrassed and seem unwilling to teach sex-
related topics because they are ill-prepared and untrained to explain in a proper way.
Jaafar and Lee (2009) found that 58.2% of the students stated that information given
in books does not fully cover the important aspects of sex education.
As for now, the Ministry of Education, Malaysia is yet to determine the suitable
age to learn about sex education, what should be taught, and who is qualified to
teach sex education to students. It gives a signal to the Malaysia government that
more efforts should be made since the implementation of sex education is still in the
process of evaluation. The opinions and views of various parties account for good
results.
41.2.2 Singapore
Singapore introduced sex education in 2000. A survey conducted by the Singapore

Planned Parenthood in 1991 revealed that schools are a major source of information
which includes sexuality matters for Singapore youths. Teachers are the main actors
to consult on such issues. As a result, sex education curriculum was designed to

provide schools with teaching resources to educate youths regarding sexuality.
The Ministry of Education (MOE) has implemented a holistic and secular sexu-
ality education curriculum in schools to meet students’ developmental needs at dif-
ferent stages. The curriculum currently comprises two main programs: The Growing
Years (GY) and Empowered Teens (eTeens) that span from primary to junior college
(JC)/centralized institute (CI) levels (Liew 2014).
The Growing Years (GY)
GY focuses pupils from primary five up to the junior college or centralized institutes.
The topics covered in GY include building a rewarding and responsible relationship,
dating, going steady and marriage, sexual health and behavior, consequences of
teenage sexual activity, and pregnancies. It also covers the best course of action
for teenagers to protect themselves from sexually transmitted infection (STIs) and
unwanted pregnancies.
eTeens
The program is conducted for students at the secondary 3 and JC/CI Year 1 levels and
comprises mass talks and classroom-based lessons (Ministry of Education 2016). It
aims to provide accurate information on STIs, HIV and protection from the health per-
spective, increase awareness, and knowledge of the different STIs and HIV, modes of
transmission and protection, abstinence, skills for decision-making, assertiveness and
rejecting peer pressure to have pre-marital sex, and the consequences and impact of
STIs/HIV, and ultimately empower students to make informed decisions (Liviniyah
2018).
Both programs aim to enhance students’ understanding of the physiological, social
and emotional changes they may experience as they mature, build relationships and
make decisions in sexuality matters. On top of that, it also aims to provide students
with accurate and adequate knowledge on human sexuality and the consequences
of sexual intercourse, develop intra- and interpersonal problem-solving, decision
making and communication skills as well as inculcating positive values and attitudes
toward sexuality (Liviniyah 2018). Sex education programs in schools are constantly
reviewed by MOE to ensure that they remain relevant and serve the needs of students
(Liew 2014).
41.2.3 Vietnam
According to The Alan Guttmacher Institute (The Alan Guttmacher Institute 1999),
Vietnam is 1 of 3 countries which has the highest reported abortion rates in the world
with 83 per 1000 women aged 15–44 years reported to have had an abortion. Ten
years later in 2009, Vietnam was ranked first in Asia. In addition, a 2009 national
report shows that abortion rates among teenagers increased 20% and among the cities
in Vietnam, the highest abortion cases among teenagers were in Ho Chi Minh City,
which has been increasing steadily around 2499 cases per year (Dao 2011). Besides,
the World Health Organization reported in 2009 that 40% of new HIV infections in
Vietnam were among young people (Dao 2011). Therefore, sexual and reproductive
health issues are serious health concerns for teenagers in Vietnam.
Vietnam does have sexual education in school. However, like other ASEAN coun-
tries, there are no specific subjects on sexual education. Sex education is normally
taught in biology, and moral class and teachers do not received proper training.
Children in Vietnam begin sex education in the fifth grade (10–11 years).
Rapid changes on sex education in schools must be made. Sex education must
be made available for children aged between 3 and 16 years, covering a range of
complicated subjects depending on the age of the child. Current topics include the
reproductive cycle and formation of the human body, as well as advice on rais-
ing children. The topics covered are inadequate because children are taught about
reproductive system rather than a healthy attitude to sex. Experts suggest that sex
education must include information on ejaculation, spermatorrhoea, masturbation,
gender identity and advice on how children can protect themselves from and respond
to sexual abuse.
In 2014, the Ministry of Education issued a circular on life skills education which
also included sex education and encouraged schools to develop child abuse prevention
programs.
41.3 Practices in Several Western Countries
41.3.1 United States
Although formalized sex education has been included in most U.S. public schools
since the 1970s, its content varies widely across school districts and is not federally
mandated or regulated. As reported in Guttmacher Institute (2016), for more than
four decades, sex education has been a critically important and a contentious pub-
lic health and policy issue in the United States. Rising concerns about non-marital
adolescent pregnancies beginning in the 1960s and the pandemic of HIV/AIDS after
1981 have shaped the need for and acceptance of formal instruction for adoles-
cents on life-saving topics such as contraception, condoms, and sexually transmit-
ted infections. Debates over the content of sex education have centered primar-
ily on the degree to which ‘safer sex’ versus abstinence until marriage should be
taught. Supporters of comprehensive safer sex education contend that students should
be taught age-appropriate, medically accurate information on a broad set of top-
ics related to sexuality. Supporters of sexual abstinence until marriage education,
conversely, argue in favor of restricting information about contraception and other
risk-reduction approaches that are believed to legitimize and possibly inadvertently
endorse out-of-wedlock sexual activity at younger ages.
In the United States today, adolescents’ experiences with sex education are any-
thing but consistent. Believe it or not, less than half of all states even require that
sex education to be taught at all. Additionally, sex education is widely supported
by the vast majority of people in the United States. In Planned Parenthood’s most
recent poll on sex education, 93% of parents support sex education to be taught
in middle school, and 96% of parents support having sex education taught in high
school. The majority of parents support sex education in middle school and high
school that covers a wide range of topics, including sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs), puberty, healthy relationships, contraception, and sexual orientation. Other
national, state, and local polls on sex education have shown similarly high levels
of support. Sex education is supported by various prestigious health and medical
organizations, including the American Medical Association, the American Academy
of Pediatrics, and the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Over 150 organi-
zations are members of the National Coalition to Support Comprehensive Sexuality
Education. In the United States, sex education is often included as part of health or
physical education (PE) curriculum for high school students, which is delivered by
health and PE teachers. Unfortunately, according to Hall et al. (2016), until now,
there remains a lack of evidence-based conceptual models on comprehensive sex
education for adolescents in the United States.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2014) proposed 16 critical
topics that should be included in sex education as a part of the school health profile,
including (1) how to create and sustain healthy and respectful relationships, (2) influ-
ence of family, peers, media, technology, and other factors on sexual risk behavior,
(3) benefits of being sexually abstinent, (4) efficacy of condoms, (5) importance of
using condoms consistently and correctly, (6) importance of using a condom at the
same time as another form of contraception to prevent both STDs and pregnancy,
(7) how to obtain condoms, (8) how to correctly use a condom, (9) communication
and negotiation skills, (10) goal-setting and decision-making skills, (11) how HIV
and other STDs are transmitted, (12) health consequences of HIV, other STDs and
pregnancy, (13) influencing and supporting others to avoid or reduce sexual risk
behaviors, (14) importance of limiting the number of sexual partners, (15) how to
access valid and reliable information, products, and services related to HIV, STDs,
and pregnancy, and (16) preventive care that is necessary to maintain reproductive
and sexual health.
41.3.2 United Kingdom
Local authority maintained that schools in England are obliged to teach sex and
relationships education (SRE) from age 11 onwards and must have regard to the
government’s SRE guidance. Academies and free schools, the majority in secondary
education in England, do not have to follow the National Curriculum and so are not
under this obligation. However, if they do decide to teach SRE, they must have regard
to the guidance. Parents are free to withdraw their children from SRE if they wish
to do so. The only exceptions to this are the biological aspects of human growth
and reproduction that are essential elements of National Curriculum Science. While
there is no standardized curriculum for SRE in the UK, progressive developments
were made in 2000 when the Department of Education and Employment published
a statutory Sex and Relationship Education Guidance which provided guidelines for
SRE within schools where the importance of respecting social, cultural, and sexual
diversity was highlighted.
Recently, after 20 years, the UK finally unveiled new guidelines for sex education
in school. The government announced that relationships and sex education (RSE)
lessons in the country would finally be getting new guidelines from the Department
of Education (DfE), and that three new subjects will be added to the new curricu-
lum from September 2020. The new additions included relationships education from
primary school, relationships and sex education at secondary school, and health edu-
cation for all ages in which students will learn about the importance of getting enough
sleep, the dangers of sexing, and how to spot anxiety in their friends. According to the
guidelines, secondary school pupils would be taught about female genital mutilation
(FGM) with a focus on awareness over its illegality and the availability of support
networks. Students aged 11 and older should also be taught about other forms of
‘honour-based’ abuse, as well as grooming, forced marriage, and domestic abuse.
41.4 Teaching Methodology of Sex Education
Table 41.1 shows Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam use classroom coaching as
a teaching methodology of sexual education. Through this method, teachers explain
about sex education according to the syllabus provided by the Ministry of Educa-
tion. In Malaysia, sex education is incorporated into various subjects likes religious
or moral education. This is definitely a good approach, because by learning religion
and sexual education simultaneously, teenagers are exposed to a better understanding
on sexual activities concerning their religious faith (Mutalip and Mohamed 2012).
The United States and the United Kingdom combine classroom coaching method
with role play and the use of media and visual aids. The teacher will explain in detail
about the content of sex education, including doing a role play on how to use protec-
tion or about contraception. Teachers need to provide students with demonstrations,
Table 41.1 Teaching methods of sex education across countries

Country Teaching methodology
Malaysia Classroom coaching
Singapore Classroom coaching, the use of media and visual aids
Vietnam Classroom coaching
United Kingdom Classroom coaching, role play, and the use of media and visual aids
United States Classroom coaching, role play, and the use of media and visual aids
resources, and discuss the benefits and effects of using protection and contraceptives.
For example, condoms can be used by both females and males. Besides, teachers use
fear-based approach to teach children the effects of having unprotected sex. These
include having unwanted or unplanned pregnancy and receiving and transmitting
diseases. This method emphasizes the risks of sexually transmitted infections, dis-
eases, and HIV. Combination of classroom coaching, role play, demonstration, and
the use of media and visual aids will help students understand the topic better.
41.5 Methodology
The framework of this paper was developed by using a comprehensive review on

evidence-based sex education programs in developed countries from the West (the
United Sates, and the United Kingdom) to Southeast Asian regions (Malaysia, Singa-
pore, and Vietnam). These countries were selected as they provide diversity in terms
of their political and cultural background, the role played by the government in sex
education policy making, as well as its varying approaches in the implementation
of sex education. This type of data collection technique is also known as library
research method. It refers to theoretical proof obtained from previous studies by
other researchers. It also refers to explanations that exist in the form of documents
and records, even though this category is only used occasionally (Yvonna and Guba
1985). By using this method, the research would obtain important data from books,
journals, documents, manuscripts, papers, proceedings, and internet sources on infor-
mation related to the researcher’s study. The data or information obtained through
this research method were analyzed to complete the structure of the research paper.
The literature review on sex education among ASEAN countries found similarities
between Malaysia and Vietnam. Both countries have sex education at school, but it
is only covered in other subjects such as Biology, Science, Physical Education, and
Islamic Studies. This is why students find the information about sexual education
to be inadequate and unable to help them have in-depth understanding of sexual
matters. Lack of knowledge finally leads them to social illnesses such as unwanted
pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), abortion, baby dumping, and sex
abuse.
As a first step to overcome social illnesses among teenagers, ASEAN countries
should make sex education a major subject in the curriculum. It is in line with
United Nations policies where comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) should be
provided to promote sexual and reproductive health for young people in schools from
kindergarten to upper secondary or high school and CSE should be taught as a major
subject. In addition, since schools are places where teenagers spend most of their
time, teachers are important key partners if CSE is to be successful. Parents want
their children to learn from schools and stress the importance of having an expert to
talk to their children about sexual and reproductive health. Studies have shown that
CSE in schools increases knowledge and awareness among teenagers, which in turn
reduce their sexual and reproductive risks (Do 2017).
In order to reduce the number of social illnesses, strong support from various
parties is needed. Parents in ASEAN countries must support and involve themselves
in sex education as parents in the UK and the United States do. Teaching sex education
should be a shared responsibility of the school and home. At the family level, parents
play an important role in shaping the key aspects of their children’s sexual identity
and social relationships. Parents need to know the way to better communicate with
their teenagers about sex and sexuality and how to teach their teenagers about sexual
and reproductive health at home. ASEAN parents should be open on sexual education
and need to realize that if their teenagers have exposure to CSE, it does not mean
that they will become bad or spoiled or that they will engage in social evils or social
vices.
In the United States, sex education is supported by many prestigious health and
medical organizations, including the American Medical Association, the American
Academy of Pediatrics, and the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Other
governmental departments in ASEAN countries must also support sex education and
do not let the Ministry of Education to solely bear the responsibility.
However, it is very important to observe the role of governments to seriously
formulate and use policy to support sex education which varies considerably across
the region, reflecting different traditions and approaches to governance as well as
commitment to addressing these issues. A number of countries are policy-rich in
that they have multiple inter-related and interlocking policies such as Cambodia,
for which there is even a National HIV/AIDS Policy Inventory. It shows that very
significant issues are aligned with coordination of policies. There are other national
strategies that are relevant to sex education, and these may also offer multiple sources
of funding. For example, Bangladesh has a national Adolescent Reproductive Health
Strategy that includes effective dissemination of knowledge and information through
the curriculum in secondary and higher secondary schools. India also has a National
Adolescent Reproductive and Sexual Health Strategy. Cambodia, Timor-Leste, and
Vietnam have national population growth or reproductive health strategies. How-
ever, these are generally more focused on the health sector and have minimal or no
inclusion of education on comprehensive sex education.
It is, therefore, very clearly of critical importance that comprehensive sex educa-
tion (CSE) be included in the education sector plan which provides the main action
framework and, of course, budget commitment for the sector. The Bangkok Plan
reported that only two countries have developed detailed medium-term education-
sector strategies specifically for HIV and sex reproductive health (SRH) and they are
Cambodia and Vietnam, and one of them is sector-wide and costly, which is Cam-
bodia. Indonesia has mainstreamed HIV in its education sector plan. The country
has decentralized administration and at least two provinces (Bali and Papua) include
HIV education in their provincial strategic plans. Various programs are taking place
at the provincial level in line with the national policy, depending on local needs and
the availability of resources (Clarke 2010).
CSE refers to education about all matters relating to sexuality and its expression.
Comprehensive sexuality education covers the same topics as sex education but
also includes issues such as relationships, attitudes toward sexuality, sexual roles,
gender relations, and the social pressures to be sexually active, and it provides infor-
mation about sexual and reproductive health services. It may also include training
in communication and decision-making skills (Leung et al. 2019). As CSE is an
empowerment-based rooted program with values and practices emphasizing human
rights, several elements are pertinent, such as gender equality, participative learning,
youth advocacy, and civic engagements, as well as cultural appropriateness regardless
of Western countries or no-Western countries. That is why CSE is an empowered-
based program rooted with values and practices which will be suited to the culture,
tradition, and appropriateness of that country and region practices. There is a research
that supports the implementation of CSE. For instance, the United Nations Popula-
tion Fund (2016) reported that CSE does not lead to earlier sexual debut or risky
sexual behaviors which may be a misconception held traditionally (United Nations
Population Fund 2016). Rather, approximately two of three CSE programs evalu-
ated showed reductions in risky sexual behaviors. 60% of the CSE programs yielded
positive effects such as increased condom use or reduced teenage pregnancies. In
addition to the effective outcomes of CSE, it is important to note that healthy sexu-
ality plays a crucial role in a holistic positive youth development. Without healthy
sexual attitudes and behaviors, adolescent development will be adversely affected.
In conclusion, the observations from the countries mentioned above will be a good
parameter for any country to not only learn and adopt but also adapt according to the
country’s framework.
41.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
Overall, to conclude, sex education is a more encompassing term but the ultimate
reasoning of it is the goal. UNESCO defines that every sex education must have a
primary goal for children and young people to become equipped with the knowl-
edge, skills, and values to make responsible choices about their sexual and social
relationships in a world affected by HIV disease. It is urgent that we have a long-term
mechanism and sustainable education to be taught to our society starting with the
correct term at a very young age. Therefore, what we are supposed to teach is com-
prehensive sex education (which includes scientifically accurate information about
human reproductive biology, childbirth, contraception, and sexually transmitted dis-
eases including HIV). This is important because if there is a case of sexual abuse
or harassment, the child would be able to properly inform their parents where and
what happened, and this will help children to navigate real-world issues that they
may face. Furthermore, education ministries should have very clear policy state-
ments on sex education that are easily accessible and disseminated to stakeholders.
Policies should be formulated in participatory process involving all stakeholders and
groups, and should be accountable. They should be regularly monitored, reviewed,
and revised from time to time, and the most important part is that there should be
support strategic plan development. It should not be an ad hoc program, but inte-
grated into a strategic plan. In addition, the aspect of participation is also crucial.
Participation and inclusion of all stakeholders such as parents, community mem-
bers, and learners is required. One of the mechanisms is to strengthen partnerships
with health ministries through memoranda of understanding that specify roles and
responsibilities. In addition, it must include a regular participatory review process.
The process of developing policies and strategies in enhancing participation within
the education sector and with partners such as NGOs and other ministries will be the
core process which requires strong and continuous commitment.
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duc+-+SKSS.pdf
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Chapter 42
Achieving Environmental Sustainability
through Good Regulatory Practice (GRP)
Nursyahida Zulkifli, Nurul Afzan Najid, Rafizah Mohd Noor,

Ainatul Fathiyah Abdul Rahim, and Nur Ain Yaacob
Abstract The study mainly focuses on reviewing and analysing the measures which
Southeast Asian countries can adopt to achieve environmental sustainability. Good
regulatory practice (GRP) is one of the regulatory reform mechanisms used by devel-
oped countries in achieving sustainability. Malaysia is one of the ASEAN members
that has very high environmental pollution, mainly because of its industrial revo-
lution. The government realizes this could become a major problem as a develop-
ing country and is trying to reduce it in the future. This paper provides specific
reforms and initiatives that Malaysia could consider, capturing the measure progress
in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by drawing an analytic litera-
ture and international experience. These recommendations significantly benefit the
country as well as the society in managing the impact of environmental issues. The
impact can be reduced by implementing the proposed framework since it is devel-
oped according to the GRP which is accepted worldwide, especially in developed
countries like the United Kingdom.
Keywords ASEAN · Environment and climate · Good regulatory practice ·

Sustainability · SDGs
42.1 Introduction
Regulatory reforms are systems used widely to facilitate the development of states
and become the national agenda that particularly benefit the whole society. These
reforms are a part of the government’s initiative toward achieving good regulatory
practice (GRP). GRP aims to reduce the number of unnecessary regulations, require-
ments and to make regulations simpler and more transparent by focusing on legiti-
mate regulatory purposes. The implementation of GRP provides various advantages
N. Zulkifli (B)
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kelantan Branch,
Machang, Kelantan, Malaysia
e-mail: syahidazulkifli@gmail.com
N. A. Najid · R. Mohd Noor · A. F. Abdul Rahim · N. A. Yaacob
492 N. Zulkifli et al.
for the country while improving the effectiveness and efficiency of administration.
The concept of GRP can be used for new and existing regulations. Various tools
can be considered by institutions to formulate new regulations such as National Pol-
icy on Development and Implementation of Regulations (NPDIR), State Policy on
Development and Implementation of Regulations (SPDIR), Unified Public Consul-
tation and Regulatory Impact Analysis Secretariat, whereas Modernising Business
Regulation (MBR), MyCURE, Guillotine and Non-Tariff Measures (NTM) are for
the purpose of reviewing the existing regulations (OECD 2019).
42.1.1 Good Regulatory Practice (GRP) in Malaysia
GRP is still a new concept to most institutions in Malaysia. The Malaysian govern-
ment started implementing GRP in reviewing the existing policies in 2013 and focus
more on business regulations only. Various benefits had been achieved from this
initiative such as the removal of unnecessary rules, where by 29 business licences
were abolished, and the reduction in compliance cost, whereby 735 business licences
were re-engineered involving cost saving of RM729 million (Jayasiri, 2006). Some
examples of industries that are involved in the process are medical, electric and elec-
tronic, warehousing services and construction (OECD 2019). Besides these positive
impacts from the implementation of GRP in business regulations, the government
is able to boost economic growth and increase the number of investors to do busi-
ness in Malaysia. From this, it can be seen that the regulatory reforms is currently
emphasized by the government in the area of impact to business regulations.
This study is relevant to the government policies, namely Tenth Malaysia Plan,
Eleventh Malaysia Plan, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Buku Harapan
Membina Negara Memenuhi Harapan. In the 11th Malaysia Plan 2016–2020, the
regulation reforms will be accelerated to ensure that new and existing regulations as
well as their administration and enforcement are aligned with good regulatory prac-
tice. It will be done by expanding the adoption of National Policy on Development
and Implementation of Regulations (NPDIR) and by conducting regular regulatory
reviews for ministries and agencies. This study is also in line with National Initiative
7 (Thrust 4) in the Buku Harapan which is to reduce regulatory burden by reviewing
or repealing the number of regulations and saving the compliance cost.
The Malaysian government also raised this issue during the presentation of Mid-
term Review of the Eleventh Malaysian Plan 2016–2020 in October 2018. Inadequate
and uncoordinated efforts by these stakeholders to review the existing policies and
legislations have contributed to ineffective planning and inability to translate national
policies into action that is in line with the environmental agenda (EPU 2018).
42 Achieving Environmental Sustainability through Good Regulatory … 493
42.2 Environmental Issues in Malaysia
The importance of achieving SDGs has been addressed many times by the gov-
ernment. Various international organizations such as the United Nations (UN)
have reported that environmental sustainability, good health, health and well-being,
and sustainable living could be potential drivers for sustainable development but
are usually neglected by institutions. Sustaining the flow of these drivers is a vital
requirement for sustainability. Therefore, the specific issues of the study are as
follows:
Issue 1
Malaysia has a very high environmental pollution rate, mainly due to its recent
industrial revolution. The government realizes this could become a major problem
as a developing country, and it is trying to reduce it in the future. The current envi-
ronmental issues are air pollution, industrial pollution, waste management, water
pollution from raw sewage and deforestation. Besides, Malaysia has a natural hazard
of flooding as well (Habtemchael 1995). Mei et al. (2016) investigated the current
level of environmental awareness and behaviour among Malaysians according to the
four environmental issues which are water pollution, air pollution, waste manage-
ment and climate change. The findings showed that environmental awareness and
behaviour are not positively correlated in this study. It shows that a strong environ-
mental awareness does not indicate greater degree of environmental behaviour. The
impact of these issues can be minimized by managing the environment properly.
Issue 2
The level of awareness and understanding among the public on environmental issues
and the role of natural resources in providing ecosystem services is still low. Environ-
mental education in schools has not been translated into habits and culture which is
imperative in changing the mindset and behaviour as well as to inculcate a sustainable
lifestyle amongst the younger generation. In addition, community involvement and
shared responsibility are still insufficient, particularly in addressing environmental
issues and cleanliness (EPU 2018).
Issue 3
Dozens of factories have been opened in Malaysia to handle waste and many of these
are without operating license, use low-end technology and environmentally harmful
methods of disposal (Ananthalakshmi & Chow 2018; Mei et al. 2016). Besides, there
are almost 500 illegal plastic waste facilities in the state of Selangor and the plastic
is not recycled properly but is dumped into landfills which results in harmful health
problems for Malaysians nearby (Koh 2016).
With that, the aim of the study is to identify the existing impact of environmental
regulations imposed by the local government in local areas. The government needs to
revise the existing policies, rules and regulations related to the environment in order
to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The government will be able
to identify the weakness of existing policies after revision and some improvements
are required according to practices acknowledged by the world which is GRP.
42.3 Regulatory Reforms in Australia
Australia is one of the countries that actively adopts good regulatory practice (GRP).
GRP should be adopted by the countries in regulatory reforms to ensure sustainability.
It is widely used in Australia in the aspect of water management reform (Tisdell et al.
2002), telecommunication reform (Wellenius and Stern 1994) and renewable energy
supply (Martin and Rice 2012). Australia has been recognized as a leader in regulatory
reforms by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
The important aspect of reforming regulation is to improve the market and economic
performance based on Australia’s experiences. Thus, it is important to establish an
effective system in managing regulations and identifying opportunities for reform.
Three waves of regulatory reforms in Australia are to: (1) increase international
competition in the 1980s, (2) increase domestic competition in the 1990s and (3)
increase burden reduction initiatives of the 2000s. The regulatory reform process
consists of comprehensive reviews of all structures and legislations that may restrict
competitions and aims to ensure that the most efficient and effective regulatory
approaches are in place (Cousins 2011).
42.3.1 Initiatives of Regulatory Reforms
Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA)

The successful implementation of regulatory reform in Australia is because of the use
of regulatory impact analysis (RIA). This country has been a very early adopter of
RIA since 1985. Ten years later, RIA was formally accepted by the Council of Aus-
tralian Government (COAG) which urged that all national standards are required to
prepare regulatory impact statement (OECD 2010). The regulatory impact statement
(RIS) should be included in all proposals that explain the regulatory impact on busi-
ness or non-profit organizations. The basic elements of a RIS are problem, objective,
options, impact analysis, consultation, conclusion and recommended option, and
implementation and review (Porter 2011; World Bank Group 2016). Therefore, all
regulation proposals should be included in the RIS before they can be submitted to
the cabinet or presented to the decision makers. It shows that the Australian govern-
ment is very serious in ensuring that all legislations are aligned with good regulatory
practice (GRP), hence can increase productivity of the state. Porter (2011) stated that
productivity is the priority of the Australian government by emphasizing on reducing
unnecessary and poorly designed regulations.
The RIA is recognized by most developed countries as a key to improve the

quality of regulatory decision making and it is widely regulated within the member
countries of OECD and is dispersed to the developing countries such as European
Countries, the United Kingdom and Finland (World Bank Group 2016). There is no
generic definition of RIA but it can be understood as an instrument or obligation of
public policy analysis in identifying the costs of regulation on certain business sectors
(Fisher et al. 2007). Basically, this analysis is used to reduce the regulatory burden of
a sector and that would improve the countries’ competitiveness (De Francesco et al.
2012).
The benefit of implementing the impact assessment is RIA helps the regulators to
decide the most efficient policy option by referring to the cost–benefit analysis as the
main component in the good regulatory process. Besides, the use of RIA enables the
promotion of accountability of regulators for the outcomes generated by the proposed
policies. It means that the regulators or decision makers need to be more committed
in evaluating the policies implemented by them (Cousins 2011; World Bank Group
2016).
42.3.2 Institutions
Australian Productivity Commission

To make successful effort towards regulatory reforms, Australian Productivity Com-
mission is a policy advocacy body. The role of this commission is to research and
advocate the benefits of regulation reforms as well as to monitor and advise on regu-
lations and undertake benchmarking in specific sectors. The Australian Productivity
Commission is an important institution in Australia in terms of regulatory reforms
by providing a model to be adopted by other countries (OECD 2010).
National Competition Policy (NCP) Review Programme

This programme has been promoted by OECD to its members as a model approach.
This programme is known as an effort to stock or list all the laws and jurisdictions,
and the laws are then examined for potential restrictions. This approach is also used
to identify and schedule the jurisdictions to be reviewed (OECD 2010).
Bank Review
The Bank Review is set as one of the reform initiatives to promote good regulations.
The government has endorsed six principles of good regulatory practice and the
most important changes adopted on the recommendation of the Bank Review is the
analysis of RIS in the regulatory proposals. Failure to do so will cause proposals to
be prevented from proceeding to the Cabinet. Besides, the Bank Review contributes
to regulatory reform to sustain economic development (OECD 2010).
42.4 Regulatory Reforms in Malaysia
Good regulatory practice (GRP) is still a new concept to Malaysia and is not fully
implemented in all states. Malaysia’s regulatory reform journey started in the 1970s
from privatization and deregulation to a systematic regulatory governance practice.
The Malaysian government showed a strong commitment to improve regulatory
reforms by introducing public–private partnership to enhance public service delivery
and business commitment in 2007. In 2013, the government introduced the National
Policy on the Development and Implementation of Regulations (NPDIR) to pro-
mote an effective, efficient and accountable regulatory process in order to achieve
greater coherence among the policy objectives of the government. The NPDIR are
implemented across government agencies, including states and local governments.
However, RIA is not consistently carried out and is sometimes carried out after the
decision to regulate or after the regulations have been developed (Hadad-Zervos
2017). RIA should be carried out during the drafting of the legislation proposal
(Porter 2011) as recommended by OECD.
NPDIR is an example of good regulatory practices in Malaysia. The NPDIR
requires consultation with stakeholders or known as public consultation and should be
conducted online. However, the GRP requirement that includes public participation is
an ad-hoc compliance which causes agencies to become unprepared. However, some
agencies are taking initial steps to comply with GRP requirement (Hadad-Zervos
2017).
42.4.1 Institutions
National Development Planning Committee (NDPC)

NDPC is responsible to oversee the implementation of the National Regulatory Pol-
icy, assess the effectiveness and recommend improvement, and examine the RIS for
adequacy and to make appropriate recommendations (MPC 2013).
Malaysian Productivity Corporation (MPC)

In Malaysia, Malaysian Productivity Corporation (MPC) is a responsible institution
to promote good regulatory practice. MPC is responsible to NDPC to implement its
functions on this policy. MPC is in charge to develop guidelines and programmes for
the implementation of RIS, to provide guidance and assistance to regulators in RIA,
to conduct periodic review of progress and to submit reports to NDPC (MPC 2013).
Malaysia has recorded success in business regulatory reforms in 2017. A total of
23 reforms had been undertaken by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry
(MITI) through new Companies Act 2016. Malaysia had reduced regulatory burden
to ensure that the laws encourage small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), such
as Registering Property and Enforcing Contracts. Several requirements which made
the process complicated in the past, especially for SMEs, have been removed. Due
to this improvement, Malaysia is now ranked 24th among 190 economies by World
Bank’s Doing Business Report 2018 (Damodaran 2017).
This shows that the significant contribution of a well-structured and implemented
programme of regulatory reform ensures better economic performance and enhanced
social welfare.
42.5 Environmental Regulatory Reforms
Environmental issues have gained increasing attention in the public arena in Aus-
tralia over the last 20 or more years. At the national level, there have been debates
over land and water degradation that has resulted in policy initiative. Market-based
instruments for environmental management are relatively new mechanisms in both
Australian and international policy contexts. However, they are increasingly being
considered for the management of natural resources and the environment. Market-
based instruments (MBIs) are gaining acceptance as important policy mechanisms
for achieving environmental protection goals. However, their application in Australia
and internationally is still in the embryonic phase.
MBIs are becoming a mainstream policy instrument in managing a wide range
of environmental problems. Australia’s uptake of MBIs for environmental manage-
ment has so far been modest compared to other OECD countries (OECD 2010).
However, recent government reforms in natural resource management policy both
at federal and state level suggest that MBIs will play a greater role in the future.
The governments appear to be undergoing a paradigm shift in their views on what
constitutes good environmental policy, with greater emphasis being placed on the
role of decentralized instruments to achieve change within industry. This new era
of environmental policy presents both opportunities and challenges. Environmental
awareness and the growing demands placed on businesses to be accountable for their
environmental performance is an international phenomenon.
Governments have tended to respond to community demands for better environ-
mental outcomes via regulatory responses. The core motivating force of the policy
reforms is the changing attitudes of the Australian community to environmental
issues together with an increasing scarcity of environmental goods and services.
Among the reasons for people’s changing attitude towards environmental protec-
tion is improved incomes, education and standard of living, and increasing scarcity
of untouched wilderness areas, a better scientific understanding of the impact of
man’s disturbance on the ecosystem and more advanced methods in communicating
environmental issues quickly and to a large audience.
42.6 Conclusion
Good regulatory practice (GRP) is important to be considered in regulatory reforms

to prevent unwanted consequences, such as environmental degradation, and dissatis-
faction among the public. One of the elements in GRP is public consultation. Public
consultation is part of good governance which involves public participation in every
policy from the government that affects them. The public consultation consists of
meeting of the stakeholders to get feedback from them on the policy that will be
introduced or amended. The consultation can be carried out in the form of meeting,
interview, roundtable discussion or townhall. It is part of transparency while making
certain policies. However, public participation in Malaysia is still low as most of the
policies created by the government do not emphasize public participation. Therefore,
a lot of changes need to be made in the public policy making process to ensure that
it is consistent with GRP.
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of the barriers, targets, policies and actions. Renew Energy 44:119–127
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Procedia Soc Behav Sci 222:668–675
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Malaysia
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Chapter 43
Malaysia’s 14th General Election
Dilemma: Candidate or Party, the Case
of Sepanggar
Al Hafiz Awang and Mohammed Rahezzal Shah Abdul Karim
Abstract Analysis of democratic institutions in ASEAN countries has been and

continues to be the primary interest of many political scientists. The essence to demo-
cratic institutions is the electoral system. A voluminous literature has discussed the
problems and challenges of the institutional context affecting the electoral system
in Southeast Asian countries. However, there are limited studies on the behaviors
of voters. Malaysia has witnessed a historic moment in the 14th general election;
Barisan Nasional, the longest-serving party was ousted by Pakatan Harapan. While
change in government is quite common in some Southeast Asian countries, this is the
first time for Malaysians to witness a democratic transition. Change in government
in Malaysia prompted analysts to assess voting behavior. This study is a prelimi-
nary assessment of voter behavior in casting the ballot in the 14th general election,
whether to vote based on candidate or party. It aims to study the trends among
voters in the Malaysian 14th general election in the Parliamentary Constituency of
Sepanggar in Sabah. This study will explain the trends of the voting behavior by
using rational choice theory to understand why voters voted for the candidate and
why they voted for the political party.
Keywords Malaysia 14th general election · Candidate or party · Rational choice ·

Sabah · Sepanggar
43.1 Introduction
In democracy, the people are offered to choose their representative by casting a ballot
during the election, which is fundamental for a government to exercise its legitimate
authority. In election, the most interesting question is not necessarily about who won,
but rather why voters voted in that way and what are the implications received by these
voters. Election is indispensable to democracy because it provides an opportunity
for citizens to endorse or reject an election candidate.
A. H. Awang (B) · M. R. S. Abdul Karim

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sabah Branch, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
e-mail: hafizawang77@gmail.com

502 A. H. Awang and M. R. S. Abdul Karim
Voting is a unique democratic process which forms the bedrock of political equal-
ity and civic rights in a democratic society. Many people even risk their lives fighting
for the right to vote in some countries. Voting, asking a question about how voters
make up their minds to whom they vote for, is linked to how voters make up their
minds and make decision in many other spheres. It is clearly seen as a choice. In the
electoral system, voters decide to make their choice, whether to choose the parties
or candidates on the basis of the benefits they think or are told they will derive.
The changing of government in the Southeast Asian countries is quite a common
phenomenon. Most ASEAN countries have experienced the phase of changing of
government. In Thailand, the government was changed from Phue Thai Party to
Phalang Prachat party in 2014, while in the Philippines, the Liberal Party lost its
power in becoming the ruling party to Partido Democratic Philippino—Laban (PDP)
party in 2016. In Indonesia, the previous government, i.e. Democratic Party lost to
Democratic Indonesia Party in 2001. Malaysia experienced the same phenomenon
for the first time in 2018. Since its independence in 1957, Barisan Nasional (BN) had
been in power until Pakatan Harapan (PH) defeated it in the 14th General Election
(GE14) in 2018. Various studies have been carried out to study how the changing of
government influenced the change in voting behavior. In other words, the changing
of government influenced the change in the voting behavior in casting the ballot
(Prysby and Carmine Scavo 1993).
Voting behavior is a set of personal electoral activities including participation
in electoral campaigns, turnout at the polls, and choosing whom to vote (Bratton
2013). The study of voting behavior was conducted as early as in 1948 in a number
of Western countries. Early studies of voting behavior focused on voter behavior
in choosing to vote based on the party rather than the candidate (Lazarsfeld et al.
1948). The study of voting behavior began at Columbia University, where the social
team organized by Paul Lazarsfeld pioneered the survey in the study of the voting
behavior. Brooks et al. (2010) pointed out that the voting behavior is a study of voter
behavior in casting the ballot in the election. The scenario illustrates how voters have
to make a decision to cast the ballot to vote their representative. Puyok (2018) finds
that the concept of voting behavior is the action taken by voters toward the political
decision in the election. In this sense, voters will decide whether to vote based on
the candidate that represents the party or to vote based on the party’s ideology.
This study examines the voter behavior in casting the ballot in the 14th general
election, that is, whether to vote based on a candidate or party in Sepanggar by
employing the rational choice theory.
43.2 General Election in Malaysia
Malaysia has inherited the British Westminster system. At the federal level, Malaysia
applies the bicameral legislature system consisting of two houses called the House
of Representatives and the House of the Senate. The house of representatives is also
known as the Parliament. Malaysia electoral system is based on the “first past the
43 Malaysia’s 14th General Election Dilemma: Candidate or Party … 503
post”, otherwise known as plurality system or single member plurality (SMP). The
first past the post system has been practised in Malaysia since 1954, inherited from
the British system. Currently, there are about 47 countries in the world practising
first past the post system. These include the United Kingdom, Canada, India, United
States of America, and many of the commonwealth states (Norris 1999). This system
is regarded as the most popular system among democratic countries.
The main features in the first past the post system is where the constituencies
are divided into territorial of single member constituencies. During election, voters
within each consistency will cast a single ballot, which is marked by an “X” for one
candidate. The candidate who wins or obtains the highest number of votes in each
seat will be the winner. The political party which obtains the overall majority of seats
will be able to form the government (Schwartz 2012). This system is based on simple
majority where the party that wins most of the seats represented by a candidate for
each seat will be the winner of the election, even if by a small margin. The loser
will get nothing. In other words, this is a situation where “the winner takes all” (Ides
2011). In this electoral system, within one constituency, voters are given a choice of
candidates (who are competing to represent their constituencies), and whoever wins
and gets the highest votes, with or without a majority, automatically wins the seat.
An election system within the democratic country provides equal rights to the
people to choose their representatives in the government system (Nor and Ahmad
2013). The election in Malaysia exists at two levels, the federal and the state level.
The general election is held every five years, both at the federal and state level. The
election at federal level is held simultaneously in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and
Sarawak while the state election in Malaysia is also held simultaneously involving
all state legislative assemblies in Malaysia except Sabah and Sarawak. However, in
1985, the Sabah state legislative assembly election was conducted simultaneously
with the federal election.
In accordance with article 55 of Malaysia Federal Constitution 1957, The Yang
Di Pertuan Agong (King) is the one who holds the power to dissolve the Parliament
on the advice of the Prime Minister. After the Parliament is dissolved, the Election
Commission (EC) will run the election.
EC functions as an independent body. The appointments to the commission are
to be made by the Agong after consulting the Conference of Malay Rulers. EC
is responsible for revising the electoral roll, delineation of the constituencies, and
conducting the election. After the first federal election was held in 1955 during
the constitutional formulation prior to independence 1957, The Reid Commission
derived the power of registering the electors, preparing and revising the electoral
rolls, delineating the constituencies and conducting elections.
Article 55(4) of the Federal Constitution stipulates the general election shall be
held within 60 days of the dissolution of Parliament. Within this period, EC fixes the
nomination day following the formal period of campaigning before the polling day.
The campaigning period was reduced from 21 days to 14 days in 1971 and to seven
days in 1986 (Sothi 1993: 39).
43.3 Voting Theory
Rational choice theory focuses on human action in social science in regard to choice
and decision made by the individual or actors. A rational choice theory developed by
the economic model explains how the individual reponds in action to make a deci-
sion based on the rationale phenomenon that can maximize benefits to the society
(Downs 1957). This theory is used widely in social science, political science, and
anthropology. In rational choice theory, there are three terms that need to be distin-
guished: rational choice, rationality, and rationale. Rationality brings up the question
of “reasonable or not”. It refers to designing the concept of rationality of the voter in
casting the ballot (Kahneman 2011), while rationale is determined as the exogenous
concern of ethical, moral, or other justifications made by each individual. Accord-
ing to Kahneman (2011), rationality is distinguished from the aspect of intelligence,
especially in making preferences through choice. Making preferences depends on
the choice offered to voters, which consequently reflects on the intellectual levels of
voters.
Lau and Redlawsk (2006) identify voters’ decision to vote in the rational choice
theory into retrospective and prospective. Retrospective refers to job performance,
where voters will vote based on the past performance that has been achieved by the
government to maximize benefits to the country. If voters vote for a candidate, they
consider how the candidate performed his or her duties in the past, while if they cast
their vote for a party, they vote by looking at how the political party has performed
in the past; whereas the prospective refers to judgement. In this sense, the voters
vote for the candidate by judging how they have seen the candidate possess a certain
value. If they vote for a party, they view the ideology upheld by the political party
as a benchmark for judgement.
Elser (2007) states that rational behavior is all about maximizing utility. Voters
do cost/benefit analysis before making a choice. The individual tends to vote based
on the benefits that will be gained.
Basically, the rational choice theory portrays the voter as a rational economic
actor just like a consumer in a market. The voters express their choice according to
the available policy options promoted to them either by the political parties or can-
didates. Feddersen and Sardoni (2006) highlight the voting preferences as a concept
of consistency in the rationale choice theory which is focused on the behavior in
analyzing the preferences among the actors in making an assumption about the other
actors, after which they will decide their own. The key importance in understanding
the rationale choice theory is in accordance to Down’s economics theory; the rational
choice clarifies that voters and political parties are directly acting according to their
own interest. Rational choice theory sees voting as an instrument. In the concept of
voting in rational choice theory, voting is considered as an “end”.
Downs (1957) classifies voters’ behaviors into five. First, an individual is always
able to make a decision when presented with alternatives. Secondly, voters have
the ability to rank themselves and their own preferences. Thirdly, individual prefer-
ences are transitive, where the voter will prefer the alternative 1–2, and 2–3. Fourthly,
the individual will always choose the most preferred alternative, the highest ranked
alternative in preference orderi. Lastly, the individuals will always make the same
decision whenever presented with the same alternatives under the same circumstance.
In the rational choice theory, voters act in rational ways to determine their vote choice;
the determination includes the pros, cons, and cost/benefit. Voters will vote based
on the candidate or party according to the programs and policies assuming the best
service in self-interest (Andersen and Heath 2000; Catt 1996; Downs 1957).
Rational choice model promotes voters’ freedom of choice, where voters are
engaged in rational, purposeful behavior in casting the ballot in the elections (Oppene-
heimer 2008). Voters decide on how they will vote based on the expected change
they will gain based on their political support.
Rational choice model concerns two types of decision making during an election:
either to vote or withdraw and whom to vote for. Farber (2010) found that an
individual would vote if the expected reward from voting is higher than the expected
reward of not voting. As a voter who decides to participate through the ballot, the
rational voter will think about the scenario in which the party might win and the
possible benefit received. In addition, rational voters will vote for the candidate or
party that is able to fulfill their interests (Antunes 2010). Rational choice model
identifies voters as an individualistic entity.
This model claims that the individuals make their voting decision regardless of
their membership to a social group or psychological attachment they have to a polit-
ical party. Voters as self-interested and materialistic individuals may prioritize their
personal benefits in the negotiation or collective bargaining, especially if they do not
belong to any party or do not have any connection with any political parties (Bartle
and Griffiths 2002; Downs 1957; Fiorina 1977). For Crewe (1983), “voters are up
for grab”.
Bratton et al. (2001) argue that “elections are won or lost on the economy”.
Rational choice stands on the perspective of voters’ decision toward an economic
base. In the rational choice theory, economy is said to be the “valence issue” that
relies on every election. The economy comes as an argument during the election
(Fossati 2014). Thus, the rational voters pay more attention to how the economy
operates and is handled, through assessment of performance of the incumbent gov-
ernment. By assessing the incumbent government performance, rational voters will
reward the incumbent government with renewal of mandate if the economic situation
satisfies the voters, but they would vote for the opposition if the economy performs
poorly. This circumstance is also known as reward–punishment (Butler and Stokes
1974).
There are three dimensions used to analyze the behavior of voters in the ratio-
nal choice concept, which are target, time, and context of evaluation. In the target
dimension, voters will assess governmental performance based on their own personal
economic situation and the government’s performance in the general economy. Vot-
ers may judge the government based on their individual well-being and that of their
family (Keulder 2000; Lewis-Beck and Stegmaier 2000, 2008, 2009). The voters
would use indicators in judging the government’s economic performance, such as
gross domestic product (GDP), unemployment, and inflation rates (Bratton et al.
2012). Secondly, time dimension is used by voters for evaluating the government’s
economic performance, either retrospectively or prospectively. Prospective views
voters’ choice based on the prediction of future economic performance while ret-
rospective sees voters’ choice based on past economic performance (Fiorina 1981:
26; Lewis-Beck and Stegmaier 2000: 191). The third dimension is used to analyze
voting behavior called the context of evaluation. This dimension argues that voters’
preferences depend on the economic and political factors which means that voters’
choice is able to change at different times and in different elections (Andersen and
Heath 2000).
43.4 Candidate or Party
Franklin (2004) found that voters’ choice of candidate is influenced by characteristics

possessed by the candidate, such as the candidate’s personality. Personality of the
candidate is said to have substantial influence on voters (Bouchard and Loehlin 2001;
Bouchard and McGue 2003; Revelle 2005). McCrae and Costa (1990) classify traits
as dimensions of individual differences in tendencies to show consistent patterns
of thought, feelings, and actions. Traits give an impact to voters in choosing the
candidates.
Since the publication of The American Voter, party identification has stood out as
one of the most important factors among voters to vote for the party (Evans 2004).
Voting for party is commonly said to be party identification and denotes a voter’s
psychological attachment to a particular party. Party-based voting will create a desire
in voters to vote for the party they are comfortable with. Likewise, if they have
little preference for a particular party, they would vote for alternative party (Evans
2004).
The Michigan model explains how voters cast their vote based on party. In party
identification, Harrop and Miller categorize three key factors in influencing votes
based on party. These include attitudes to policy and how the political party presents
its manifesto. Attitudes to group benefit concern the effect the party will have if voters
are involved with trade unions, associations, and ethnic and religious groups. Lastly,
attitudes to the candidate is about being “fair” of self-explanatory. This attitude is
formed through the candidates’ personalities and perceptions toward voters as an
important role in pulling or turning votes away from parties. This exists when voters
identify themselves with the party but may particularly dislike the candidate at a
certain election and those who are not according to their identification (Fig. 43.1).
Rational choice theory argues that voters may believe the candidates or the party
they vote for is the best based on their preference. In this sense, voters believe in order
to cast the ballot, they should take a look at the benefits of their votes. Generally,
voters will cast the ballot based on the types of benefits they can derive the most in
the future, be it benefit for their local facilities, family, or self-interest. Voters will
respond and support the candidates or the party they like in order to make gains in
return.
Fig. 43.1. Michigan-psychological model
43.5 Conclusion
To know if voters tend to vote for party or candidates, this paper has explored the
voting trends at the 14th general election, whether voters choose the party or candidate
in the election. The dilemma of voters to cast their ballot are based on the candidate
or based on party. Generally, the election process is casting a ballot to decide and
appoint the public office to implement the public policies. The party, idealogy, and
candidate evaluation are crucial for consideration when casting the ballot. At the 14th
general election, voters decided to whom they were actually voting for; they looked
at the candidate’s personality, skills, and public image, but at the same time they
were looking at the list of political parties running in the election. Rational choice
models offer the reasons on why and how voters vote rationally by considering what
they would receive as a return. Voters’ behavior on casting the ballot was influenced
by rational phenomena and self-interest acts, by relying on the pros and cons of the
options available in determining their vote choice.
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Chapter 44
The Role of Institutions in the Politics
of Poverty Eradication Programmes: The
Case of Sabah, Malaysia
Sitti Aisyah Orlando and Firdausi Suffian
Abstract Poverty is not a recent issue for the international community. From Mil-
lennium Development Goals (MDGs) to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
poverty has always been the primary objective for most countries. The ASEAN com-
munity also places a central concern over the poverty issue in the region. Malaysia,
as a founding member of ASEAN, has successfully reduced the poverty rate in the
past four decades. In 1970, the country’s poverty rate was recorded at 49%, but after
the introduction of the New Economic Policy along with other poverty alleviation
programmes, Malaysia managed to reduce the poverty rate to 0.4% in 2016. While
efforts by the government to combat poverty is commendable, poverty alleviation
performance, however, seems to be uneven across states in Malaysia, especially in
Sabah, a state in East Malaysia. The state is rich with resources such as petroleum,
timber, palm oil and other natural resources but, ironically, remains one of the poorest
states in the country. This state received a considerable amount of financial support in
poverty eradication programmes by the previous United Malays National Organisa-
tion (UMNO)-led Barisan Nasional federal government. Although the state govern-
ment managed to reduce poverty, its performance was not impressive as compared to
other states in the country. Like most social policies, poverty eradication programmes
are a political process because they involve a substantial amount of state resources
and are fraught with certain political interests. Hence, this paper attempts to explore
the politics of poverty eradication programmes in Sabah under the Barisan Nasional
government. This study will employ institutional theory to understand the challenges
of coordinating and implementing poverty eradication programmes.
Keywords Poverty eradication programmes · Institutions · Historical

institutionalism · Malaysia · Sabah
S. A. Orlando (B) · F. Suffian

e-mail: orlandoeisyah@gmail.com

510 S. A. B. Orlando and F. Suffian
44.1 Introduction
Poverty has long been recognised as one of the most serious and lasting problems
faced by ASEAN members states. The word “poverty” or “poor” comes from the
Latin word pauper meaning poor. Poverty is classified as a syndrome affecting people
in situations characterised by malnutrition and poor health standards, low income,
unemployment, unsafe housing, lack of education, inability to access modern neces-
sities, job insecurity and a very negative outlook on life (Siwar 1988). Poverty is seen
where people lack access to the basic needs, such as food, clothing and shelter (Cross-
man 2011). In Malaysia, the definition of poverty refers to the income level of a
household (Hatta and Ali 2013).
Poverty alleviation was the most crucial aspect in the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) when it was announced by the United Nations as a main objective
of MDGs. Even though MDGs ceased in 2015, the effort to alleviate poverty is still
under taken seriously nowadays, given the continuance of worldwide conflict and
introduction of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Poverty has long been
viewed as one of the most important and enduring problems of ASEAN countries.
Recent data suggests that ASEAN countries are succeeding in combating poverty
as a statistical report by ASEAN in 2017 showed ASEAN had gone beyond the
MDG poverty level target for the region of 23.5% (ASEAN Statistical Report on
Millennium Development Goals 2017). Malaysia is one of the members of ASEAN
that has succeeded in the fight against poverty. The process of combating poverty in
Malaysia is quite unique as it began with the implementation of the New Economic
Policy (NEP) in 1970 which used a two-pronged strategy of overcoming poverty
and, at the same time, restructuring society. By implementing the New Economic
Policy and poverty alleviation programmes, Malaysia managed to lower its poverty
rate. In 1970, its poverty rate recorded was 49%, which decreased to 16.5% in 1990
and further dropped to 0.4% in 2016.
Malaysia comprises 13 states. The two states located on Borneo island are Sabah
and Sarawak; while the states in Peninsular Malaysia are Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan,
Terengganu, Pulau Pinang, Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka and
Johor, the federal territories are Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya and Labuan. Poverty in
Malaysia is measured by Poverty Line Income (PLI) based on the three abovemen-
tioned regions in Malaysia. Over the years, specifically from 2004 to 2016, the
poverty rate has seen a decline. In spite of this fact, not all individual states have
enjoyed similar success in reducing poverty rates. The results show that Sabah is the
poorest state in Malaysia (Table 44.1).
Poverty alleviation in Sabah has gradually declined, as seen in Table 44.1. His-
torically, Sabah has been ruled by various political parties since the formation of
Malaysia. By year 1994, Barisan Nasional gained control of Sabah and this lasted
for a long period of time. During the Barisan Nasional era, Sabah received a substan-
tial amount of funds for its poverty alleviation programmes. The allocation of funds
was tabled in the Sabah State Legislative Assembly and it is noted that the funds
increased from RM 36.6 million in 2007 to RM 162.12 million in 2011, up to RM
44 The Role of Institutions in the Politics of Poverty … 511
Table 44.1 Malaysia poverty rate by state (%)

State 2002 2009 2012 2016
Perlis 6.3 6.0 1.9 0.1
Kedah 7.0 5.3 1.7 0.2
Kelantan 10.6 4.8 2.7 0.4
Terengganu 15.4 4.0 1.7 0.4
Pulau Pinang 0.3 1.2 0.6 0.1
Perak 4.9 3.5 1.5 0.2
Pahang 4.0 2.1 1.3 0.2
Selangor 1.0 0.7 0.4 0
Negeri Sembilan 1.4 0.7 0.5 0.2
Melaka 1.8 0.5 0.1 0
Johor 2.0 1.3 0.9 0
Sarawak 7.5 5.3 2.4 0.6
Sabah 23.0 19.7 8.1 2.9
Source DOSM (2016)
178.14 million in 2014, while in 2017, the funds increased drastically to RM 298.39
million (Sabah State Budget Report). Besides, Sabah is the richest Malaysian state in
terms of petroleum, timber and palm oil resources. It is the biggest contributor to the
national income of Malaysia, between 22.9% and 31%, through the petroleum and
palm oil industries but, ironically, remains one of the most impoverished states in
the country. Various poverty eradication programmes were introduced at the Sabah
state level under the Barisan Nasional government. However, the fact remains that
Sabah is still the poorest state in Malaysia.
The effort of eradicating poverty must involve proper implementation and coor-
dination of poverty eradication programmes, which have been designed as part of
social policy. Social policies involve state actors transferring state resources and this
scenario becomes political, given the response adopted by the government to address
the needs of citizens depends largely on who has power to devise policies.
44.2 Theoretical Framework
Poverty eradication programmes are one of the main themes in social policy. McClel-
land and Smyth (2010) believe that social policy is an output and a set of policies
seeks the arrangement in an organisation to achieve the policy, while the researchers
also highlighted the impact of said policy. Public policy-making is a political process
that involves a set of political activities linked with government actions, in accor-
dance with the legitimacy of its power (Machiavell 2005; Lasswell 1942; Lippmann
1922). The current process for development of policies covers problem identification,
policy development and policy implementation. Policy development is concerned

with asking questions on who should be involved and what should be considered
in addressing the problem, while policy implementation looks at to what extent the
implemented policy has met the policy objectives (Sabatier and Mazmanian 1981).
Machiavell (2005) points out that public policy is too complicated as it requires an
understanding of governmental practices in the legislature in terms of solving social
issues, since devising of public policy depends on a forged political identity. It was
conceptualised that public policy-making is the confluence of various factors that
include organisational structures, processes and culture, and also dependings on the
priorities of a leader and the manner in which a particular policy will play out and
reach its goal.
Policy implementation in regard to poverty eradication programmes is political
because it involves various actors (policy-makers and bureaucrats) in transferring
state resources to underprivileged groups. The state welfare policy, such as poverty
eradication programmes, is not implemented in a straightforward manner because
it is linked to political legitimacy. In patrimony-based concept, the needs of society
depend on the political elites. In this sense, coordination and implementation of
poverty eradication programmes will be largely influenced by the political elites,
thus the institutional theory was employed in this study.
Institutions originate from the phrase “the rule of the game” introduced by North
in 1991. Institutions look into putting the rules and regulations in daily actions, on
how and what to do, but, seek to win the game in all forms often through bypassing
a rule, leaving aside formal institutions to move to informal corruption (Rhodes and
Marsh 1992). Institutional theory is classified into formal (written rules) and infor-
mal institutions (unwritten rules). Informal institutions are distinguished from formal
institutions as in the former, socially shared unwritten rules are created, communi-
cated and executed outside of officially-sanctioned channels (Helmke and Levitsky
2004). Institutions originated from the older study of politics. Plato, Aristotle, Locke,
Hobes and Madison realised the importance of political institutions in shaping polit-
ical behavior. Madison found that institutions are the study of how the different
institutional arrangements will encourage or discourage different types of political
action.
Institutional theory identifies “players” in the policy implementation. North
(1990) identifies the players as an actor (political elites, politicians and policy-
makers) who is involved in policy implementation and coordination through the
practice of informal institutions. The actors hail from a certain group of power or
have obtained high-level positions in the state government. Berger and Luckkman
(1991) believed that actions undertaken by the institutions depend on the different
actors involved.
There are three forms of institutions, which are rational, sociological and histori-
cal. The rational choice argues that human beings act as rational individualists who are
concerned about the costs and benefits associated with their course of action. While
in contrast, the sociological institutionalism views human beings as fundamentally
social beings. From this standpoint, humans are neither self-interested nor rational,
which differs from the perspective of rational choice scholarship (March and Olsen
1989), but are satisfied when they act habitually. Sociologists argue that institutions
frame the very way in which people see their world and are not just a set of rules
within which they try to work. Rather than abiding by rules to maximise self-interest,
sociological institutionalism posits that humans generally follow a logic of appropri-
ateness. Historical institutions study on the aspect of history and are concerned with
how the political system has emerged through its history and in the socioeconomic
context (Olsen 2010). Historical institutions consist of the theory of pattern, namely
path dependence, critical juncture and sequencing.
There are at least two important dimensions in historical institutionalism (Pierson
1993). First, political dimension takes place within a historical context and directly
impacts decisions or events. The second reason as to why history is an important part
of historical institutionalism is that actors or agents can learn from their experiences.
Historical institutions observe the behavior and strategic choice, in particular, social,
political and economic aspects, as well as the events that happened in the past. Pro-
ponents of historical institutionalism argue that by going in depth and understanding
historical moments allows actors to learn and explain specific events that they had
previously explored.
44.3 History of Poverty Eradication in Malaysia
Poverty in Malaysia became serious after the outbreak of race riots on May 13, 1969.
Following the riots, conflict arose between the Malays and the Chinese. Based on
historical records, in 1970, 66% of the poor were Bumiputeras, while 27% were
Chinese and Indians accounted for 35%. Furthermore, the poverty rate in rural areas,
at 59%, is significantly higher compared to urban areas, which recorded only 21%. At
that time, those living in rural regions were mostly Malays and Bumiputeras, while
an overwhelming proportion of the poor then were Malays (Abhayaratne 1996).
The race riots began a few days after the general election was held. During that
time, United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), the ruling coalition, lost many
of its seats in the Parliament to Chinese opposition party Democratic Action Party
(DAP) which increased its number of seats in the general election. However, the
result showed that UMNO had won a majority of the seats in the legislature and this
caused dissatisfaction among young supporters of the Chinese opposition party and
prompted them to lead a victorious parade in Kuala Lumpur. This conflict turned
into a national tragedy as the number of people who were killed reached 196. Thus
this led the Malaysian government to begin tracking and reporting the poverty level
regularly in order to carry out proper actions to overcome the issue and restructure
society (Jomo and Sundaram 2014).
The measure undertaken by the government to eradicate poverty was to introduce a
policy, namely the NEP. This policy was a two-pronged strategy aimed to restructure
the society through new land development in rural areas and help eradicate poverty
among Malays in rural regions (Jomo and Sudaram 2014). The poverty eradication
effort continued from 1990 to 2000 through the introdcution of the National Devel-
opment Policy which provided an opportunity to Malays and Bumiputeras to be
involved in commerce (Jaya and Abah 2005).
The results showed poverty in Malaysia declined slowly from 49.3% to 16.7% in
1990 over a span of 10 years after the NEP was implemented. The NEP focused on
eliminating hardcore poverty through developing land in rural areas and at the same
time providing job opportunitines for people, especially in rural areas. Thompson
(1970) listed the programmes launched under NEP, specifically new land develop-
ment projects by statutory bodies, namely Federal Land Development Authority
(FELDA) and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA),
under the rubber and oil scheme (Mohd 2012). This policy was enhanced and modi-
fied by the Malaysian government through the introduction of National Development
Policy (NDP). This new policy, proposed after the success of NEP, was highlighted
in the Sixth Malaysian Plan and lasted from 1990 to 1995 with the main objective of
encouraging participation of Bumiputeras in commerce (Jaya and Abah 2005).
Poverty eradication is still in the interest of the government nowadays. Various
poverty eradication programmes have been introduced and implemented at the federal
or state level.
44.4 Poverty Eradication Programme in Sabah

and Its Performance
Poverty in Malaysia is measured based on its three regions: Peninsular Malaysia,

Sabah and Sarawak. PLI measures poverty according to the level of income obtained
by individuals. This measure is based on minimum requirements of households con-
cerning food, clothing and other non-food items such as rent, fuel and power. As PLI
is defined by consumption, thus the determination of poverty refers to gross house-
hold income rather than expenditure. In this circumstance, households that earn a
monthly income of less than half the PLI of RM 950 per month are categorised
as absolute poor, while the PLI for hardcore poor stands at RM 580 in Peninsular
Malaysia, RM 710 in Sabah and RM 660 in Sarawak (Economic Planning Unit,
2017). The relative poverty is classified by income disparity groups that comprise
Below 40% (B40), Middle 40% (M40), and Top 20% (T20). Omar (2014) posited
that the B40 group obtains a mean gross income of RM 2357 per month, the M40
earn a mean gross income of RM 5662 per month, while the T20 receives a mean
gross income of RM 14,305 per month (Economic Planning Unit, 2017).
Poverty eradication programmes have been implemented by both the federal and
state governments. The Barisan Nasional-led government launched the Government
Transformation Programme (GTP) which focuses on National Key Result Areas
(NKRA) in raising the standard of living among lower-income households. Under the
NKRA, various poverty eradication programmes have been introduced such as Akhiri
Zaman Miskin (1AZAM), Bantuan Rakyat 1 Malaysia (BR1M), Projek Perumahan
Rakyat Termiskin (PPRT) and Projek Perumahan Mesra Rakyat (PR1MA) which
provide affordable housing, and Kedai Rakyat 1 Malaysia (KR1M) which is a chain
of low-priced grocery stores. In Sabah, the Sabah Development Corridor (SDC) was
announced in the Ninth Malaysian Plan with one of its main missions being the
reduction of poverty levels and ensuring poverty will be eliminated by 2010 (Sabah
State Budget Report, 2009). The programme is coordinated by the Sabah Ministry
of Rural Development through Skim Pembangunan Kesejahteraan Rakyat (SPKR).
Other programmes listed in the SDC as part of the fight against poverty include Mini
Estet Sejahtera (MESEJ) and Program Pembangunan Ekonomi Setempat (PPES).
MESEJ was proposed at the Sabah state level in early 2007 with the objective of
helping the poor sustain their income through creating job opportunities for them.
This programme was established in 30 locations in Sabah with the highest poverty
rate (Sabah State Budget Report, 2007). MESEJ focuses on the agricultural, micro
enterprise and aquaculture sectors and received RM 36.06 million from the Sabah
state government at the start of its establishment (Sabah State Budget, 2007). As of
2016, MESEJ was still carried out by the Sabah state government with an additional
budget tabled in the Sabah State Legislative Assembly every year, thus allowing for
an increase in MESEJ programmes each year. As of early 2017, MESEJ was being
conducted in 52 locations all around Sabah (Sabah State Budget, 2017).
PPES was introduced by the Sabah state government on 18 November 2016 as
part of the state budget which was tabled in the Sabah State Legislative Assembly,
whereby it received a grant of RM 2.2 million to be used in its implementation (Sabah
State Budget, 2017).
44.5 The Role of Institutions in Poverty Eradication

Programmes in Sabah
Poverty eradication programmes are part of a social policy proposed and implemented
by the government. Basically, social policy is centralised by the policy-making insti-
tutions and it is a political process that involves political activities linked to political
interests (Machiavell 2005; Lasswell 1942; Lippmann 1922). Social policy-making
is monopolised by a group of state actors (political elites and bureaucrats) in transfer-
ring, allocating, coordinating and implementing poverty eradication programmes at
the state level. Implementing and coordinating the programmes is quite challenging
because it involves interference from the political elites who persuade and intimidate
the institutions and bureaucrats.
The implementation of poverty eradication programmes is closely linked to the
concept of governance, formally referred to as “getting things done by mobilising col-
lective resources” (Schmitter 1999). The World Bank frequently quotes governance
to be equivalent to the manner in which power is exercised in terms of managing eco-
nomic and social resources to boost development in that particular country. However,
with the existence of political elites in shaping the institutions, this will influence how
institutions govern poverty eradication programmes. In this sense, implementation

of poverty eradication programmes could potentially sway away from their social
objectives as they can be compromised by political interests.
The Sabah state government had spent the biggest amount on poverty eradication
programmes through various programmes launched by the government during the
Barisan Nasional era in hopes of eradicating and achieving zero poverty in Sabah.
However, these programmes in Sabah are moving slowly in comparison to the other
states in Malaysia as the fact remains that Sabah’s poverty decline rate is slower
compared to other states. Institutions play an important role in the implementation
of poverty eradication programmes. These institutions have found the existence of
“players” in policy implementation. The players have legitimacy in interfering with
the implementation of poverty eradication programmes at the state level. The organ-
isations involved in the implementation of said programmes face pressure from the
players who continuously exhibit behaviour that can be explained as “trapping of
legitimacy” to express that its actions are based on “good faith”. In this sense, organi-
sations need to stay relevant and lengthen its life cycle. However, players that possess
the legitimacy act beyond the formal institutions and move into corruption since they
have to cater to their own personal interests.
North (1990) says the players comprise political elites who are practising
informal institutions. These actors influence the institutions to act on behalf of
their power, where bureaucrats are responsible for implementing poverty eradication
programmes. The behaviour of actors is constrained by implementation and coordi-
nation of poverty eradication programmes but at the same time, their behaviour will
compromise the allocation of resources that are supposed to meet the objective of
said programmes.
44.6 Conclusion
Even though ASEAN has managed to go beyond the poverty target in the MDGs,
poverty still exists. MDGs ended in 2015, but the same objectives are reiterated
in SDGs. The statistical reports in Malaysia show that the country has been able
to fight poverty by introducing various poverty eradication programmes at federal
and state levels. However, the facts show that poverty is still faced by the richest
state in Malaysia, especially in Sabah. In the context of Malaysia, the implementa-
tion of poverty eradication programmes by state actors is largely influenced by the
political elites. This scenario will create barriers in implementing these programmes
since the elite group has undue influence in coordinating and implementing the said
programmes.
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Chapter 45
Knowledge, Attitude and Practices
of Food Safety Hazards among Street
Food Handlers towards Sustainability
of Food Industry
Hayati Adilin Mohd Abd Majid, Mufida Syasnim Mohd Sa’ad,

Norshafinas Mohd Noor, Noorazlin Ramli, Wan Nazriah Wan Nawawi,
and Jazira Anuar
Abstract Street food is a prominent food industry that plays an important role,
and represents most of the food culture in Asia and other developing countries.
Monitoring food safety hazards (that is, physical, biological and chemical) is cru-
cial for safeguarding, ensuring safety and preserving the sustainability of prolonged
business. Food handlers play a key role in ensuring food safety throughout the food
supply chain and reduces an alarming rate of foodborne illness (FBI). Hence, this
study aims to identify the knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of food safety
hazard of street food in Kuala Dungun, Sura and Kuala Paka, Dungun, Terengganu.
Simple random sampling method was used to select 76 participants and the data were
gathered using semi-structured administrative questionnaires. Descriptive analyses
were done with frequency and percentage scores and evaluated against a scale of
poor (0–49%), fair (50–69%) and good (70% and above). The results revealed that
the majority of responses show a good level of knowledge and attitude towards phys-
ical hazard among food handlers, while other questions on biological and chemical
hazard were given fair and poor response. On the contrary, less than half of the ques-
tions answered show good practices on physical hazard, and much of the feedback
shows poor and fair practices on biological and chemical hazard. Thus, government
agencies, private companies, academicians and other experts should work together
to increase awareness specifically on the poor aspect of KAP and work holistically
towards sustainability of food safety and commercial trading of the food industry.
Keywords Food handlers · Street food · Knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP)
H. A. Mohd Abd Majid (B) · M. S. Mohd Sa’ad · N. Mohd Noor · N. Ramli ·

W. N. Wan Nawawi · J. Anuar
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Terengganu Branch, Dungun, Terengganu, Malaysia
e-mail: hayati2959@uitm.edu.my

520 H. A. Mohd Abd Majid et al.
45.1 Introduction
Street food (SF) industry is rising owing to the fast-paced lifestyle, and people dine
in and hang out not only to quench their hunger but also to socialize. It is vital to fulfil
the demand of food dwellers and lovers as well as contribute to the sustainability
growth in the economy of the nation. SF means a wide variety of edible food and
drinks sold and sometimes cooked in open spaces. A study by Rahman et al. (2016)
shows food can be eaten straightaway or can be eaten somewhere else. The effect
of suburbanization has twisted a high need of ready-to-eat food, especially among
busy people with less time to eat and prepare meals at home. However, as more
people prefer to buy food outside, less hygiene in food preparation and poor knowl-
edge of personal cleanliness lead to the occurrence of food safety hazards (FSHs)
that trigger foodborne illnesses (FBIs) (Ghazali et al. 2012). Food safety hazard
(FSH) is known as any mediator with the possibility to be a source of adversative
health consequences for consumers. It can occur when food is exposed to hazardous
agents, which results in adulteration of food. FSH is commonly classified as physical,
biological and chemical hazard. Physical hazards ordinarily happen from poor food-
handling practices that involve hard or soft foreign objects in food (e.g. glass, metal,
jewellery and toothpicks). It may also inadvertently happen from contamination that
can occur at any point in food preparation, which contributes to illness and injury.
Biological hazards are usually connected with humans and raw products entering the
food establishment that contain bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi, while chemical
hazards are toxic substances that may occur naturally or may be added during the
processing of food. There are various sources of hazard from chemical contaminants
(e.g. detergent, pesticides and fertilizers) (McSwane et al. 2003).
If FSH is not properly taken care of, it can be a substantial contributor to the
increasing number of FBIs occurring nowadays. FBI is a problem for all societies
that can happen due to consumption of contaminated food (Asiegbu et al. 2016). It
is also reported that FBIs are connected to poor individual cleanliness of foodstuff
handlers (Rahman et al. 2016). This is also strongly supported by Yidana and Philip
(2018) whereby this phenomenon will become a global problem to public health
when a food handler is not concerned about hygiene while preparing food. A food
handler is a person who works in a food industry and handles foodstuff or surfaces
that are expected to come into contact with food such as tableware or dishes (George
et al. 2018). They must be knowledgeable on safety issues in handling food, followed
by good attitude and practices that must continuously apply in their work (Adetunji
et al. 2018). This is also supported by George et al. (2018), as nearly 30% of cases
may additionally be triggered by way of bad food management and contaminated
food prepared in food business premises. In addition, SF are ordinarily exposed to
the hazard of microbial contagion due to sales nature and dissatisfaction in regard to
cleanliness rules by merchants (Ohin et al. 2018).
This is in agreement that FBIs ordinarily happen in countries worldwide, includ-
ing Asia and Europe due to poor food hygiene practices, weak implementation of
food hygiene laws, deficient supervision and checking, and absence of nourishment
45 Knowledge, Attitude and Practices on Food Safety Hazards … 521
cleanliness instruction among wholesalers (Yahaya et al. 2018). From a study by the
Ministry of Health (MOH) (as cited in Lee et al. 2017), FBIs in scholarly organiza-
tions contribute to 43% of the aggregate foodborne harming occurrences in Malaysia.
Street food selling activities in most developing countries like Malaysia are mostly-
beyond the regulations and protection of the government and it can be one of the
factors which predisposes to the public health risks (Alimi 2016). This is substan-
tiated with data from the Department Statistics of Malaysia (2016) that shows food
poisoning records the highest incidence rate (IR) of 47.3 cases per 100,000 popula-
tion in Malaysia. To ensure food handlers practise proper methods of managing food
and personal hygiene, it is essential for them to understand the knowledge about
factors of foodborne diseases, agent transmission, attitude and practices in their
job. Former researches have evaluated the significance of knowledge, attitude and
practices (KAP) amongst food handlers. The understanding of important cleanliness
measures by a food handler in the KAP study is applicable. Proper management by
all stakeholders (food vendors, farmers, government, food and health professionals,
and consumers) is needed to ensure a safer and healthier society. In the past, MOH
has established training programmes since 1996 to increase the knowledge of food
hygiene (Salleh et al. 2017). Training programmes are also provided to help them
implement hygiene as a routine on a daily basis (Abdul-Mutalib et al. 2015). Besides
that, the government is also implementing strict rules to ensure food handlers prior-
itize cleanliness of their working area. Hence it is hoped that the result of this study
would theoretically be a stepping-stone for improvement and enforcement of law,
controlling of quality and safety of street food in Dungun, Terengganu.
45.2.1 Research Design and Sampling Method
This is a cross-sectional study conducted among food handlers of street food in Dun-
gun, Terengganu, who own a legal license as inclusion criteria. This area has been
chosen because there are many street food mushrooming due to the development of
Dungun district nowadays. It can be seen with the development of higher learning
institutions, schools and new organizations. This is important as one of the precau-
tions in avoiding foodborne illness, especially to food service areas in institutions
and to the public. According to the data collected from Majlis Pembandaran Dun-
gun (MPD), 91 food handlers have registered their business with legal license in
Dungun. Sample size was calculated based on the table of determining sample size
by Krejcie and Morgan (1970). In this current study, 76 respondents were taken as
the sample size from the total population of 91 food handlers who own the license.
They were chosen based on several categories of gender, age and type of food they
sold. A simple random sampling was used, whereby the population had an equivalent
and known chance of being chosen for the sample (Kumar et al. 2013). Permission
was also requested from all participants in this study on a voluntary basis before the
survey was initiated.
45.2.2 Data Collection Procedure and Data Analysis
Questionnaire was designed as a self-administered tool, and data were also collected
through face-to-face interview with food handlers. The questionnaire was developed
by adopting and adapting from previous research literature (Akabanda et al. 2017;
Abdullah et al. 2015; Prabhusaran et al. 2018; Iwu et al. 2017; Samapundo et al. 2016).
It was also based on information from Food Hygiene Regulations 2009, which was
derived from Food Safety and Quality Unit (FSQ), from the MOH website (2019)
Malaysia. The questionnaire was prepared in Bahasa Malaysia as the majority of
the respondents use Bahasa Malaysia as their first language. The questionnaire was
structured into four sections, A, B, C and D. Section A focuses on sociodemographic
profile of the respondents (e.g. nationality, race, age, gender, monthly income, edu-
cational level, experience and training programme), while the other sections, B, C
and D, contain 36 questions that consist of equal distribution of 12 questions of each
section for “knowledge”, “attitude” and “practice”. Each section has been structured
evenly by three categories on FSH, which are physical, biological and chemical haz-
ards (Alimi 2016). The final set of questions were randomly arranged in a table to
avoid bias during data collection. The Likert scale used in this questionnaire was
inspired from a study by Abdullah et al. (2015).
Section B on knowledge of food handlers requires respondents to specify their
level of agreement with the statements through a three-point Likert scale, where
“1 = True”, “2 = Not sure” and “3 = False”. In Section C on attitude, respondents
were required to indicate their answer through a three-point Likert scale ranging from
“1 = Agree”, “2 = Not sure” and “3 = Not Agree”. Section D are questions related to
practice and are measured through a three-point Likert scale where respondents need
to give their answer from “1 = Always”, “2 = Sometime” and “3 = Never”. This
KAP study was evaluated against a scale within the range of 49% and below as
poor, between 50 and 69% as fair, and 70% or higher as good (Iwu et al. 2017).
Before disseminating the actual questionnaire, piloting was done to confirm that the
questions used in the questionnaire were correct, placed in the right sequence and
conveyed similar meaning to all the respondents. This was to confirm all respondents
clearly understand the questionnaire and whether the additional questions are needed
or some questions should be deleted (Kumar et al. 2013). Findings from the pilot
study revealed that the results for Cronbach’s alpha for each section of the question-
naire were within the range of 0.64–0.70. These values are acceptable in research
(Bowling 2002). Questionnaires were distributed randomly to all the respondents
with brief explanation about the confidentiality of the data collected, the purpose of
the study and some guidelines on answering the questionnaire were also offered. It
took about 10–20 min to complete the questionnaire. SPSS (Statistical Package for
Social Science) version 22 was used to analyse the data using descriptive analysis
(frequency and percentage scores) for every section. Results were discussed on the
classification of food safety hazard, i.e., physical, chemical and biological hazards
(Alimi 2016).
45.3.1 Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Respondents
Table 45.1 shows the sociodemographic profile of the respondents. All of them
Table 45.1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents

Characteristics Total (n = 76)
Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
Nationality Malaysian 76 100
Race Malay 76 100
Gender Males 41 53.9
Females 35 46.1
Age (years old) 18–28 38 50.0
29–38 22 28.9
39–48 9 11.8
49–58 6 7.9
Above 58 1 1.3
Income range (RM) Below 500 17 22.4
500–999 43 44.7
1000–1499 17 22.4
1500–1999 6 7.9
2000–3999 2 2.6
Education level No formal education 4 5.3
Primary school/secondary 58 76.3
school
Diploma/degree 14 18.4
Master/Ph.D. 0 0
Working experience Yes 57 75
No 19 25
Attend food handling Yes 43 56.6
training No 33 43.4
Typhoid injection Yes 62 81.6
No 14 18.4
were Malaysians, and out of 76 respondents 53.9% were males, while 46.1% were
females. Half the respondents were between 18 and 24 years old (50%), while only
one respondent was above 58 years. The rest were between 29 and 58 years old.
Nearly half of the respondents (44.7%) had monthly income ranging between RM500
and RM999, followed by of 22.4% having income below RM500 and between
RM1000 and RM1499, while the rest earned between RM1500–RM1999 (7.9%)
and RM2000–RM3999 (2.6%). For education level, three-fourths of the participants
obtained education at primary and secondary level (76.3%). Respondents with a
diploma or degree were 18.4%, and 5.3% had no formal education. None of the
respondents had a Master’s or PhD qualification. The majority of food handlers
had experience in the food business with a percentage of 75%, and the remain-
ing 25% did not have any experience working in the food business. Furthermore,
56.6% of the overall food handlers had previously attended food-handling training,
while 43.4% of them had never attended the course. This shows that almost half of
the respondents have taken the importance of having food-handling training lightly.
Subsequently, 18.4% of food handlers have not received typhoid injection. This is
something that should be considered, as it is compulsory for all food handlers to
have this vaccine before handling food. This is a serious issue and action needs to be
taken to ensure that they fulfil the requirement to become good and responsible food
handlers. They need to be vaccinated against typhoid since this disease is endemic
in Malaysia.
45.3.2 Knowledge among Food Handlers
Table 45.2 shows the results for knowledge of food handlers on FSH. The food
handlers were seen to have good knowledge whereby 72–93.4% of the respondents
provided correct answers for half of the 12 questions. More correct answers were
on physical hazard, where most participants had good knowledge about the use of
kitchen caps, hygiene masks, food-handling gloves and adequate clothing that can
reduce the risk of food contamination. This was followed by an understanding that
the use of separate towels at work is important to avoid food contamination and
unclean surroundings, such as smoke, roadside dust and food waste. This finding
is supported by Abdullah et al. (2015), who stated that food handlers at Putrajaya
food courts clean their workplace before starting work, involving all participants
(100%). They also use separate towels in cleaning up places and equipment (92.1%)
and separate different kitchen utensils in preparing raw and cooked food (86.8%).
However, this result is in disagreement with Pang and Toh (as cited in Alimi 2016),
who said that vendors in Malaysia regarded wearing complete attire to be awkward
and time wasting.
Nevertheless, 50–69% of the respondents correctly responded to three questions,
which makes them to have fair knowledge on biological and chemical hazards. How-
ever, they were still unsure that putting raw and ready-to-eat food together at the same
Table 45.2 Respondents’ knowledge

Items Percent (%)
Correct Not sure Wrong
B1 The use of cap, masks, protective gloves and 93.4 6.6 0
adequate clothing can reduce the risk of food
contamination
B7 Unmanaged maintenance of food place contributes 86.8 7.9 5.3
to the presence of cockroaches, flies and rats
(LILATI)
B4 The use of separate towels at work is important to 85.5 10.5 4.0
reduce food contamination
B10 Food poisoning can be caused by pesticides from 80.3 18.4 1.3
unwashed vegetables
B3 Unclean surroundings such as smoke, roadside dust, 73.7 25.0 1.3
and food waste are contributors to food poisoning
B11 Cigarette smoke has the potential to pollute food 72.4 21.0 6.6
B2 Putting raw and ready-to-eat food together at the 69.7 29.0 1.3
same place can increase contamination
B12 Storage of covered detergents with other covered 52.6 31.6 15.8
dry food items may cause food poisoning
B8 It is very risky to eat leftover cooked food kept at 50.0 46.1 3.9
room temperature for more than six hours even
though it is covered
B9 Drinking bottles/cans placed in ice cubes can cause 43.4 29.0 27.6
food poisoning
B6 The incorrect method for thawing frozen meat is to 42.1 39.5 18.4
keep it overnight at room temperature
B5 The unsafe temperature of cooked food is 5–63 °C 23.7 72.4 3.9
place can increase contamination, and storage of covered detergents with other cov-
ered dry food items may cause food poisoning. They were also not clear of the risk
of eating leftover cooked food, which was kept at room temperature for more than
six hours even though it was covered. Unpleasantly, there were only 23–43% of the
respondents that had correctly answered three questions while the rest were not con-
fident regarding unsafe temperature of cooked food which is 5–63 °C. They were
also not sure the right method of thawing frozen meat and also whether drinking
bottles/cans placed in ice cubes can cause food poisoning. This showed that they
had poor knowledge on biological and chemical hazards. Lack of knowledge on this
biological and chemical hazards may be crucial and can cause cross-contamination
of microorganism that can lead to FBI.
This was supported by poor knowledge of hygiene and practices in food ser-
vice establishments which can result in outbreaks of foodborne illnesses, whereas
Muyanja et al. (as cited in Alimi 2016) reported that the longer cooked food exposed
for more than four hours can be one of the factors contributing to food borne illness
through multiplication of microorganisms during the temperature danger zone from

5 to 60 °C (United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 2017). This finding
corroborates with the study of Akabanda et al. (2017) that time and temperature abuse
to have effect on food safety. World Health Organization (2017) has developed five
main keys to safe food, which includes using safe water and raw materials, keeping
it clean, cooking thoroughly, separating raw and cooked food, and keeping food at
safe temperatures. According to Tomaszewska et al. (2018), knowledge regarding
storage of food at room temperature in Poland showed 71% correct responses but it
was slightly different in Thailand where only 58% of respondents had this knowl-
edge. To keep cooked food safe, some of the food handlers at Kuala Pilah, Negeri
Sembilan use water bath to keep the food hot and to reduce reproduction of harmful
microorganisms. However, there were still other food handlers who exposed food on
shelves or tables for a long period of time (Abdul-Mutalib et al. 2012). This action
will lead to food contamination and allows the growth of microorganisms.
45.3.3 Attitude among Food Handlers
Table 45.3 shows that nine out of 12 questions for attitude of food handlers were
positively answered (agreed) by 81.6–96.1% of the respondents. This shows that
they have good attitude and most of the correct answers were on physical hazard,
whereby most of them believe that practising hygienic ethics (e.g. using kitchen caps
and wearing closed shoes) can reduce the possibility of food contamination. Similar
response was given on the statement that food handlers should clean the work area
before commencing to work, and one cleaning cloth cannot be used for many places
and equipment. This finding is similar to a study in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, con-
cerning food cleanliness, whereby most of the food vendors were found to have good
attitude on most aspects on cleaning the operational area, hand cleanliness and food
(Abdul-Mutalib et al. 2012). This has confirmed that the association with positive
and good attitudes of food handlers towards the enforcement of food sanitary plan
is strongly useful in controlling FBI (Akabanda et al. 2017).
Unfortunately, for three of the questions in this study, the respondents showed
poor attitude where only 34.2–48.9% agreed to the questions asked. They were still
not sure that defrosted foods should not be refrozen and placing bottles or cans in
ice causes cross-contamination to the ice cubes served to customers. They were also
unsure that cleaning products cannot be stored together with cans and/or jars of food,
even if all of them are covered. All these are on biological and chemical food safety
hazards that have potential towards FBIs if less precaution is observed. These results
are consistent with the fact that refrozen completely thawed food can increase severe
health dangers as the method may spoil the food and cause more rapid progression
of contaminating bacteria. It is important to understand that the growth of bacteria
only slows down during freezing and freezing does not kill pathogens as stated by
Julie (as cited in Akabanda et al. 2017). In addition to the attitude towards placing
bottles or cans in ice cubes which is a practice among street food handlers, it can
Table 45.3 Respondents’ attitude

Items Percent (%)
Agree Not sure Not agree
C1 Food handlers should comply with a complete set 96.1 1.3 2.6
of hygiene ethics such as wearing aprons, hats,
masks, gloves and covered shoes
C3 Food handlers should clean the work area before 94.7 2.6 2.7
commencing work
C4 One cleaning cloth cannot be used for many 94.7 2.6 2.7
places and equipment
C5 One of my job responsibilities is to handle food 92.1 7.9 0
safely
C10 Insect repellents cannot be used to eliminate 90.8 6.6 2.6
insects during food preparation
C11 Smoking during food handling is wrong 89.5 5.3 5.2
C7 Hands with abrasions or cuts should be covered 88.2 10.5 1.3
with gloves
C8 Unsold food cannot be reheated to be sold the 82.9 13.2 3.9
next day
C2 In preparing raw and cooked food, different 81.6 13.2 5.2
kitchen utensils must be used
C12 Cleaning products cannot be stored together with 48.9 31.6 19.5
cans and/or jars of food, even if all of them are
covered
C6 Food that has been defrosted should never be 35.5 43.4 21.1
refrozen
C9 Putting some bottle/can drink inside ice cube box 34.2 42.1 23.7
can contaminate the ice to serve to customers
cause cross-contamination to ice cubes served to customers as the hands of food

handlers are more exposed as a vector and are unhygienic.
This is in accordance with George et al. (2018) where nearly 30% of cases may be
triggered by improper method of food management and filthy food prepared in food
business premises. The study by Ab Karim et al. (2017) also found that two out of 11
food handlers were detected positive of Salmonella. Therefore, under the Malaysia
Food Act 1983, all food trainers are required to attend a course by the Malaysian
government on how to handle food safely and be immunized against typhoid since this
disease is widespread in Malaysia (Lee et al. 2017). In addition, Alimi (2016) states
that major adulterated food at vending sites had cross-contamination effect during
exposure cutting and chopping. They were also mindful of the fact that kitchen
utensils must be separated when preparing raw and cooked food. Another study
by Lee et al. (2017) reported that food handlers in Kuala Lumpur had a fair level
of KAP based on microbiological hand cleanliness and KAP study among them.
This section has attempted to provide a brief summary that the occurrence of FBIs
is affected by the attitude of food handlers. Thus, it affirms connections between

good behaviors, attitudes and education of food handlers in sustaining safety of food
handling (Akabanda et al. 2017).
45.3.4 Practices among Food Handlers
Surprisingly, even though respondents had the most positive answers for good knowl-
edge and good attitude. Table 45.4 shows that this was not reflected in the practices
among food handlers. It can be seen that less than half of the questions (5 ques-
tions only, out of 12) showed good practice by 80.3–97.4% of the respondents. This
was more on physical hazards, whereby food handlers always clean the workplace
before they start work, use separate towels to clean up many places and equipment
and use different kitchen utensils for different chores such as preparing raw or cooked
food. In sequence, the respondents showed fair practices on five questions, whereby
60.5–69.7% of them did not smoke while preparing food, did not use insecticide spray
to kill insects or pests while preparing food and did not store closed detergents with
Table 45.4 Respondents’ practices

Items Percent (%)
Always Sometimes Never
D3 I clean the work area before I start working 97.4 2.6 0
D5 I practise safe food handling because it is 93.4 6.6 0
important and part of my job responsibilities
D4 I use separate towels to clean up many places and 92.1 3.9 4.0
equipment
D2 I use different kitchen utensils for different chores, 86.8 11.8 1.4
such as preparing raw or cooked food
D7 I do not touch food h if I have a wounded hand but 80.3 5.3 14.5
I would wear a hand glove
D1 I wear enough hats, masks and clothing to avoid 69.7 30.3 0
the risk of eating contamination
D11 I do not smoke while preparing food 68.4 7.9 23.7
D10 I do not use insecticide sprayst to kill insects/ 65.8 10.5 23.7
pests while preparing food
D8 I do not reheat unused/residual food for resale the 64.5 10.5 25.0
next day
D12 I do not store closed detergents with other dry 60.5 13.2 26.3
food items that are also closed
D6 I do not refreeze food that has been defrosted 48.7 28.9 22.4
D9 I do not use the same place to store ice cubes with 48.7 26.3 25.0
bottles/cans
other dry food items that were also closed. Regrettably, the response on two questions
showed poor practice, where only 48.7% of respondents answered they always did
not refreeze food that had been defrosted and did not use the same place to store ice
cubes with bottles/cans, while the rest were still unsure whether they practised or did
not practise these correctly. Most of fair and poor answers were on biological and
chemical hazards, where these hazards are crucial in preventing food contamination.
Similarly, George et al. (2018) testified that 55.3% of food handlers in the south
of Karnataka had lower practices of food hygiene. Likewise, food handlers in the
north of Kuching, Sarawak were also stated to have poor practice which only scored
16.9% from the total respondents studied (Rahman et al. 2016). Inappropriate perfor-
mance throughout food management and storage can favour situations that allow the
spread of disease-causing organisms such as viruses, bacteria and other foodborne
pathogens. With reference to Prabhusaran et al. (2018), food handlers who fail to
practise excellent hygiene are responsible for the spread of infectious gastrointestinal
pathogens. This can lead to mass infections.
Thus, there is a good association between food cleanliness practices towards food
safety knowledge and personal hygiene (Ismail et al. 2016). In contrast, according to
Al-Shabib et al. (2015), one of the studies conducted in Saudi Arabia exhibited that
most of the food handlers practised washing their hands after coughing, sneezing and
smoking. They also preserved safe practices by wearing complete outfits and cap dur-
ing work. Nonetheless, according to Ismail et al. (2016), the KAP level of food safety
among mobile food vendors in Shah Alam, Selangor had the strongest influence on
food hygiene practices. A few of them were aware of food safety but unsuccessfully
implemented food cleanliness practices. Another study stated that food handlers had
fair knowledge, decent attitude and self-reported practices. However, they showed
poor routine in practising food management safety, especially in hand cleanliness
evaluation. Seaman and Eves (as cited in Prabhusaran et al. 2018) suggested that
continuous education, groundwork and strict supervision are important components
in transmitting knowledge into behaviour.
45.4 Conclusion
The results revealed that most of the responses showed good level of knowledge
and attitude towards physical hazard, but other questions on biological and chemical
hazard, were given fair and poor responses by food handlers. On the contrary, less than
half of the questions answered showed good practices on physical hazard, and most
of the feedback showed poor and fair practices related to biological and chemical
hazards. This may help to focus and pinpoint the fair and poor results of food safety
hazards for improvement in the future. However, a holistic approach will also need
to be applied that may enhance good KAP among food handlers in avoiding any
FBIs in running their business. This concurrently may shed some light in sustaining
the SF business in future as well as increase economic growth in the food industry
and environmental safety. Therefore, training and education are vital for maintaining
sanitation facilities. Hence, the government should also provide a comprehensive

formal training programme, besides the currently offered food-handling courses. This
is to ensure that food handlers know the importance of application of their knowledge
into practice. The authorities also need to enforce law and penalties especially to those
who do not exercise good hygiene practices with food. From that, caution would be
higher, attention be more focused and FBI cases can be reduced and prevented. Thus,
the authorities such as government agencies, private companies, academicians and
other experts should work hand-in-hand to increase awareness of KAP and work
holistically in sustaining the commercialization of the food industry.
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Chapter 46
The Level of Payment Mode
and Advertising on Consumer Buying
Behaviour among Lecturers at Public
Higher Learning Institutions in Perlis,
Malaysia
Tengku Aroal Hawa Delaila Tengku Ahmad, Nurul Izzati Mohd Noh,
and Asmiza Osman
Abstract The recent development of a global telecommunication technology has

provided a new mechanism for companies to promote their products and services.
This modern electronic advertising concept is commercially known as mobile adver-
tising. Despite the high potential of online shopping in Malaysia, there is still a lack
of understanding concerning the subject matter and its potential impact on online
shopping. A rational understanding is essential to ensure the effective use of this
medium in the future. This study aims to examine the relationship between pay-
ment mode and advertising. The growing use of the Internet in Malaysia provides a
developing prospect for electronic marketers. The paper argues that when electronic
dealers are aware of the factors affecting online buyers behaviour in Malaysia, it
could develop their marketing strategies to transform potential customers into active
ones by retaining existent online customers. A total of 254 questionnaires were
distributed among lecturers of public higher learning institutions (PHLI) in Perlis,
Malaysia. This paper is part of a more extensive study and focuses on factors, which
online Malaysian buyers keep in mind while shopping online. It helps to identify
the factors associated with the consumer buying behaviour of online shopping store
among lecturers of public higher learning institutions (PHLI) in Perlis, Malaysia.
This research reveals that payment mode and advertising are the two dominant fac-
tors, which influence consumer behaviour of online shopping. The findings suggest
that consumer buying behaviour is positive in all independent variables which consist
of payment mode and advertising.
Keywords Consumer · Buying behaviour · Payment · Mode · Advertising
T. A. H. D. Tengku Ahmad (B) · N. I. Mohd Noh · A. Osman

Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin, Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
e-mail: aroaldelaila@yahoo.com

534 T. A. H. D. T. Ahmad et al.
46.1 Introduction
E-commerce has grown potentially in recent years where many successful retail-
ers are seeking global penetration and expansion of their business. It has become
popular because of quick access and faster ways to expand business in a low-cost
manner. Besides that, it also provides opportunities for global retailers to build their
brands and to learn more about the consumers or to invest a company or store in par-
ticular countries before expanding their business. Thus, the government has set up
1Malaysia Internet Centre, a mini-community broadband Centre, 1Malaysia com-
munity broadband library and 1Malaysia wireless village, both in West and East
Malaysia, in order to promote E-commerce in the country.
According to He et al. (2010), electronic payments refer to the parties in electronic
transactions such as consumers, manufacturers and financial institutions. It includes
the taking of electronic equipment and various types of trading cards as a medium,
computer technology and communication technology as a means and issuing payment
instructions directly or indirectly through the network to achieve currency payment
and transfer of funds. Aruna and William (2015) stated that payment mode becomes
an issue of online shopping when payment information is sent to an online merchant.
Then, the merchant is able to keep the payment information such as the last four
digits of credit card, cardholder name and credit card number. However, what often
occurs on the Internet today is a fraud—fraud by hackers, fraud merchants and data
thieves who place attacks on networks and personal computers to corrupt and steal
information (Sakharova, 2012).
According to Delafrooz et al. (2010), advertising serves some essential purposes.
It promotes competition among producers of products and services, keeps prices low
through the development of mass markets, encourages store owners to stock a variety
of items, supports free expression by funding media sources and spurs invention. In
theory, access to all available information on a given product should promote all
of these ends and allow consumers to make the most intelligent product purchase
decisions; while in practice, no one takes the time to gather many facts. The amount
of information needed to make knowledgeable product purchase depends on such
considerations as the cost of product and the difficulty of obtaining further data.
Apart from that, according to Perea y Monsuwé et al. (2004), the comparison is
related to online shopping. Customers of online shopping will compare the price,
promotion and services of the products or services that consumers intend to shop from
the online store. They do a comparison of online shopping behaviour in order to get the
most out of their money. Customers would buy something if it is cheap. Moreover,
they want to compare items while shopping to see which is the best or has the lowest
price by comparing prices and the quality of competing merchandise.
Consumer behaviour is a comparison between traditional way of shopping and
online shopping. The comparison has shown that shopping online is more conve-
nient to make purchases compared to traditional means of shopping. Shopping tools
46 The Level of Payment Mode and Advertising on Consumer … 535
that provide side-by-side product comparison opportunities are offered on many e-

commerce websites. They will compare the quality of brands to determine the better
one (Kim and Kim 2005).
Consumers become more dissatisfied with services when their propensity to
complain to e-vendors increases (Voorhees and Brady 2005). Research concerning
complaint/repurchase behaviours has two significant approaches in terms of social
exchange and technology use. The possible reasons for consumer complaints about
online services may not be fully explained in terms of these two factors. Hence,
complaint intentions towards e-vendors should be understood in terms of a combina-
tion of these three factors: social exchange, technology use and trust. Trust belief is
argued to be an essential determinant of the consumer’s willingness to transact with
e-vendors and has been identified to be directly linked to customer satisfaction in the
online context. This concept is also evident in e-commerce contexts in the way and
manner it results in behavioural intentions (Gefen et al. 2003).
46.2.1 Consumer Buying Behaviour
Consumer buying behaviour involves studying individuals, groups or organisations

as well as how to use, select and dispose of products, services, experiences or ideas to
satisfy customer needs and wants. It is also concerned with the social and economic
impacts that purchasing and consumption behaviour have on both the consumer
and wider society. Characteristics of individual consumers such as demographics,
personality lifestyles and behavioural variables such as usage rates, occasion, loyalty,
brand advocacy, willingness to provide referrals in an attempt to understand people’s
wants and consumption are all investigated in formal studies of consumer behaviour.
The study of consumer behaviour also investigates the influences on the consumer
from groups such as family, friends, sports, reference groups and society in general
(Solomon et al. 2012).
The study by Delafrooz et al. (2010) tried to find out the factors influencing stu-
dents’ attitudes towards online shopping in Malaysia. The multiple regression anal-
ysis demonstrated the most significant determinants of consumer attitudes towards
online shopping. The results indicated that utilitarian orientation, convenience, price
and broader selection influenced consumers’ attitudes towards online shopping.
Therefore, e-retailers should emphasise a more user-friendly function to provide
utilitarian customers with a way to find what they need efficiently.
The study of consumer behaviour is concerned with all aspects of purchasing
behaviour from purchase activities to post-purchase consumption and evaluation
activities. It is also related with all persons involved, either directly or indirectly,
in purchasing decisions and consumption activities including brand influencers and
opinion leaders. Research has shown that consumer behaviour is difficult to predict,
even by experts in the field.
Consumer satisfaction has been the focus of investigation in only three articles.
It can be defined as the extent to which consumers and the perceptions of online
shopping experience confirm their expectations. Most consumers form expectations
of the product, vendor, service and quality of the website that they patronise before
engaging in online shopping activities. These expectations influence their attitudes
and intentions to shop at a specific online store, and consequently, their decision-
making processes and purchasing behaviour are also impacted. If expectations are
met, customers would achieve a high degree of satisfaction, which influences their
online shopping attitudes, intentions, decisions and purchasing activity positively. In
contrast, dissatisfaction is negatively associated with these four variables (Ho and
Wu 1999).
According to Guarracino et al. (2011), Internet shopping for businesses and con-
sumers is being accepted as an alternative shopping mode rather than visiting the
stores. However, convincing consumers to shop online is still a challenging task for
web retailers in Malaysia. The growth of Internet technology in Malaysia has enor-
mous potential as it reduces the costs of products and service delivery and extends
geographical boundaries in bringing buyers and sellers together (Salehi 2012).
Payment Mode. Regarding payment, online shoppers often use credit cards, cash
and cheques to make payment. A payment system that utilises the Internet to gain
access to the banking system helps buyers to make purchases through online retailers.
It also gives a retailer who has Internet access the opportunity to make an online
shopping transaction (Holloway and Anderson 2009).
Previous studies have addressed the subject of how payment modes influence
consumer spending behaviour (Chatterjee et al. 2013), which means that how the
payments can be done also affect online transactions. According to Karjaluoto (2002),
the results of his study suggest that the primary factors affecting the choice of a mode
of bill payment are speed, security and trustworthiness, easy-to-use, and price of the
payment. It means that most online shoppers want the speediest way to pay for their
purchased goods. By using the Internet, consumers can easily purchase their products
and payment can be made immediately without worrying about the security of online
transactions.
Advertising. Advertising is a means of communication with the users of a product
or service. Advertising messages must be paid for by those who send them and
is intended to inform or influence people who receive them. As an integral part
of marketing, advertisements are public notices designed to inform and motivate.
Their objective is to change the thinking pattern of the recipient so that he or she
is persuaded to take action desired by the advertisers. Advertisements are always
present, though people may not be aware of them. In today’s world, advertising uses
every possible media to get its message through. It does this via television, print
newspaper, magazines, journals, radio, Internet, direct selling, events, posters and
visuals. A company needs to advertise itself and its products by hiring an advertising
agency for more people to know them (Bauer et al. 2005).
Advertising is done to create likeness and attraction and influence buying

behaviour in a positive way. Attitude towards the ads, as a thought-provoking theory
of advertising, is often used to understand buying behaviour. Effective advertisement
influences the attitude towards the brand and finally leads to consumer purchase
behaviour (Goldsmith and Lafferty 2002). Ideally, consumer-buying behaviour is
the product purchase decision (Adelaar et al. 2003). Advertisers are using different
techniques to convey commercial messages to create a purchase decision effectively.
The major aim of advertising is to impact buying behaviour. However, this impact
about brand is changed or strengthened frequently in people’s memories. Mem-
ories about the brand consist of associations that are related to brand name in
the consumer’s mind. These brand cognitions influence consideration, evaluation,
and finally, purchases (Romaniuk and Sharp 2003). The principal aim of consumer
behaviour analysis is to explain why consumers act in particular ways under certain
circumstances. It tries to determine the factors that influence consumer behaviour,
especially the economic, social and psychological aspects (Ayanwale et al. (2005).
Advertisers’ primary objective is to reach prospective consumers and influence
their awareness, attitudes and buying behaviour. They spend a lot of money to keep
individuals (markets) interested in their products. To succeed, they need to understand
what makes potential customers behave the way they do. The advertisers’ goals are
to get enough relevant market data to develop accurate profiles of buyers-to-find the
common group (and symbols) for communications. It involves the study of consumer
behaviour, mental and emotional processes and the physical activities of people who
purchase and use goods and services to satisfy particular needs and wants (Arens
et al. 1996). Advertising is a non-personal and paid form where an identified sponsor
to persuade or influence behaviour promotes ideas, concepts, products or services,
and information, through media (visual, verbal and text) (Ayanwale et al. 2005).
The data collection mode for this study took a quantitative approach. A survey ques-
tionnaire was developed to validate the conceptual model. On the basis of proposed
research hypotheses, a method suitable for collecting data from the lecturers at Uni-
versiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin (PTSS) and
Kolej Komuniti, Perlis was developed. The population consisted of lecturers from
Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin (PTSS), Kolej Komuniti Arau and Universiti
Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Perlis (Table 46.1).
This study was done using a convenience sample technique among 254 lecturers
based on the sample size proposed by Sum et al. (2008) on an equal proposition
percentage from each institution. For this study, the data was collected through ques-
tionnaires which were directly distributed to the respondents. These respondents were
targeted because they have experience of online shopping and come from various
backgrounds.
Table 46.1 Table of

Population Number of lecturers
population
Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajjudin 263
Kolej Komuniti Arau 70
Universiti Teknologi MARA 386
Total 719
46.3.1 Research Measurement
The variables were measured using a five-point itemised rating scale. This type
of scale measures the distance between two points on the scale, which helps the
researcher to compute means and standard deviations of the responses on the variables
(Sekaran and Roger 2003). Several studies suggest the optimal scale to fall between
4 and 7 points (Krosnick and Fabrigar 1997; Masters 1974; McKelvie 1978). It
is argued that lesser points might compromise the information gathered. On the
other hand, more points may compromise the clarity of meaning (Krosnick and
Fabrigar 1997). According to Krosnick and Fabrigar (1997), the scales between 5
and 7 points are more reliable and valid than shorter or longer scales. Some studies
suggest the six-point scale as the most reliable compared to other aspects (Birkett
1986; Komorita and Graham 1965).
Various instruments have been developed and used by researchers in their studies,
but in this study, questionnaire was chosen as the instrument. Questionnaires were
given to the respondents for their feedback and to obtain some information of the
study. The study used numerical scale because data was obtained from lecturers
who are consumers at Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin Kolej Komuniti Arau and
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perlis. Here is an example of the numerical scale used
in the study (Table 46.2):
Measurement for Consumer Buying Behaviour (Dependent Variable). The
questionnaire contained items aimed at obtaining information on consumer buying
behaviour towards online shopping store among lecturers of Politeknik Tuanku Syed
Sirajuddin, Kolej Komuniti Arau and Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perlis (Table
46.3).
Measurement for Independent Variables. Payment Mode. The questionnaire
contained questions aimed at obtaining information on the payment mode towards
Table 46.2 Table of

Scale Category
numerical scale
1 Strongly agree
2 Disagree
3 Moderate
4 Agree
5 Strongly agree
Table 46.3 The questionnaire about consumer buying behaviour

No. Question No. of items
1 I currently use online shopping to buy products. 6
2 The price of a product is more affordable on an online shop.
3 I want to purchase a product from the Internet site that I regularly use.
4 Online shopping can help me to get products of equivalent quality at
lower cost.
5 If I like something, i wouldn’t think twice before spending.
6 Buying through online shopping can help me to save time.
Source Salehi (2012)
online shopping store among lecturers of Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin, Kolej
Komuniti Arau and Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perlis (Table 46.4).
Advertising. The questionnaire contained questions aimed at obtaining informa-
tion on advertising towards online shopping stores among lecturers of Politeknik
Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin, Kolej Komuniti Arau and Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Perlis (Tables 46.5 and 46.6).
Table 46.4 The questionnaire about payment mode in consumer buying behaviour
1 I want to shop online than face-to-face because it is easy to make 5
payment.
2 I think online banking is convenient rather than using a credit card to
make payment.
3 In my opinion, online banking is easy rather than using a credit card to
make payment.
4 I prefer cash-on-delivery than payment via credit/debit card.
5 While shopping online, I hesitate to give my credit card number.
Source Sum et al. (2008)
Table 46.5 The questionnaire about advertising in consumer buying behaviour

1 Exciting advertising may incline me to buy products. 4
2 I will pay attention to an online advertisement before I purchase
the product.
3 Advertising is beneficial to me because it provides essential information
about products.
4 The more frequently I view an advertisement, the more likely I buy the
product.
Source Katawetawaraks and Wang (2011)
Table 46.6 Analysis of

Variable Cronbach’s alpha
reliability of questionnaire
Consumer buying behaviour 0.746
Payment mode 0.643
Advertising 0.745
46.4 Analysis and Results
This study aims to measure the relationship between payment mode and advertis-
ing towards consumer buying behaviour. The analysis aims to achieve the research
objective and answer the research questions.
Table 46.7 shows the descriptive statistics for the payment mode variable for online
shopping buying behaviour among lecturers at public higher learning institutions
(PHLI). There are five statements in this section. Statement 1: “In my opinion, online
banking is easier than using a credit card to make payment.” It obtained mean value
of 3.88. Statement 2: “I think online banking is convenient rather than using a credit
card to make payment.” It gained mean value of 3.85. Statement 3: “I would like
to shop online than face-to-face because it is easy to make payment.” It had mean
value of 3.83. Statement 4: “While shopping online, I hesitate to give my credit
card number,” which showed mean value of 3.58. Statement 5: “I prefer cash-on-
delivery than payment via credit/debit card,” which obtained mean value of 3.41. In
conclusion, all statements yielded higher interpretations of the mean.
Table 46.8 shows the descriptive statistics for the advertising variable in online
shopping buying behaviour among lecturers at public higher learning institu-
tions (PHLI).
Table 46.7 Descriptive results for payment mode

No. Question Mean Standard deviation Interpretation
1 In my opinion, online banking is 3.88 0.907 High
easier than using a credit card to
make payment.
2 I think online banking is 3.85 0.917 High
convenient rather than using a
credit card to make payment.
3 I want to shop online than 3.83 0.967 High
face-to-face because it is easy to
make payment.
4 While shopping online, I 3.58 0.999 High
hesitate to give my credit card
number.
5 I prefer online banking to 3.41 0.990 High
payment via credit/debit card.
Total 18.55 4.78
Table 46.8 Descriptive results for advertising

No Question Mean Standard deviation Interpretation
1 Advertising is beneficial to me 4.04 0.794 High
because it provides essential
information about products.
2 I will pay attention to an online 3.97 0.841 High
advertisement before I purchase
the product.
3 Exciting advertising makes 3.96 0.892 High
me inclined to buy the product.
4 The more frequently I view an 3.76 0.912 High
advertisement, the more likely I
will buy the product.
Total 15.43 3.439
Table 46.8 shows the descriptive statistics for online shopping intention among
our respondents. Intention of online shopping for advertising has four questionnaires.
Question 1: “Advertising is beneficial to me because it provides crucial information
about products,” which had mean value of 4.04. Question 2: “I will pay attention to
online advertisement before I purchase the product,” whose mean value was 3.97.
Question 3: “Exciting advertising makes me inclined to buy products,” with mean
value of 3.96. Question 4: “The more frequently I view an advertisement, the more
likely I will buy the product,” which showed mean value of 3.76. In conclusion, all
questions showed higher interpretations of the mean.
The results show that all the hypotheses were supported. It leads to the conclu-
sion that interactivity of payment mode and advertising of online shopping among
lecturers at public higher learning institutions (PHLI) has a positive relationship.
The variables of payment mode had mean value of 3.88. Next, the mean value for
the variables of advertising was 4.04. Results from the mean and standard deviation
show that payment mode and advertising are factors that affect online shopping
behaviour among lecturers at Universiti Teknologi MARA, Politeknik Tuanku Syed
Sirajuddin and Kolej Komuniti Arau.
Table 46.9 shows the overall finding that payment mode (Pearson correlation
= 0.864) is the main factor affecting online shopping behaviour among lecturers at
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin and Kolej Komuniti
Arau as compared to the effect of advertising (Pearson’s correlation = 0.859).
46.5 Conclusions
In this descriptive study, an attempt was made to associate factors with consumer
buying behaviour of online shopping stores among lecturers of public higher learning
institutions (PHLI) in Perlis, Malaysia. The influencing factors for online shopping
Table 46.9 Correlation

Variables
analysis
Variable Consumer Payment Mode
buying advertising
behaviour
Consumer 1 0.864** 0.859**
buying
behaviour
Payment mode 0.864** 1 0.743**
Advertising 0.859** 0.743** 1
** Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed)
are identified as payment mode and advertising. Payment mode has higher mean and
standard deviation/correlation compared to advertising. Consumer decision making
varies with the buying decision. Comparatively, complex and expensive purchases,
like durable procurements, are likely to involve more buyer deliberations and more
participants. This study on consumer buying behaviour attempts to throw more light
on how consumers select, buy, use and dispose goods, services, ideas or experience
to satisfy their needs and desires. In turn, the investigations will provide clues for
the firms to develop new products, product features, prices, channels, messages and
other marketing mix elements. Identification of the most and least inducement factors
has thus become worthy of consideration by marketers in designing an appropriate
marketing mix to entail optimal consumer satisfaction in Malaysia.
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Chapter 47
Goods and Services Tax (GST) Transition
to Sales and Services Tax (SST): Impact
on the Welfare of B40 and M40
Households in Malaysia
Suriyani Saidi and Mukaramah Harun
Abstract Goods and Services Tax (GST) was introduced in Malaysia from 2015
to 2018 to replace the Sales and Service Tax (SST). The primary purpose of intro-
ducing GST was to extend the government’s revenue as the SST system was not
transparent. However, the efficiency of the GST itself as a revenue generator was sat-
isfactory. Whilst there was an increase in revenue each year during its implementa-
tion, at the same time, the welfare of households had to be balanced so as not to be
burdened, especially those of low income. The main goal of this paper is to assess,
in terms of household welfare, and compare the impact of GST and SST in Malaysia
through the computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. As a first attempt, the
researchers developed a basic static CGE model for Malaysia, calibrated with Social
Accounting Matrix (SAM) 2014. The impact results from the simulations of group
of households are presented in two scenarios. Specific emphasis on the impact of
tax on B40 and M40 (in urban and rural area) households were measured using a
welfare-related instrument. Among them are regressive or progressive and simultane-
ous equivalent variation (EV). As a result, although the implementation of GST in the
Malaysian tax system drew negative perspectives compared to SST, on the welfare
of the B40 and M40 households, the impact was totally different. Indeed, the charac-
teristics of GST in Malaysia meet the necessary features, where results demonstrate
that targeted income groups spend lower on tax compared to high-income groups.
Keywords GST · Household welfare · CGE
JEL Classification H22 · I38 · C68
S. Saidi (B) · M. Harun

Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia
e-mail: suri_1402@yahoo.com
M. Harun
e-mail: mukaramah@uum.edu.my

546 S. Saidi and M. Harun
47.1 Introduction
In the 14th Malaysian General Election, we saw a profound change after a new
government took over, and Malaysia became the first country in history which
switched back its tax system from Goods and Services Tax (GST) to Sales and Ser-
vices Tax (SST). Even though GST policy is known to be broader and more efficient
compared to SST, however, the new government opted for SST to fulfil its promises
of protecting the welfare of households compared to its efficiency in collecting tax
revenue.
As we know, the SST of 10 and 5% (only for selected goods) and 6% service tax
applies only to the manufacturing sector, whereas GST tax rate is 6% at every level
of sales and lower than SST tax rate.
The Malaysian government has, since 1997, initiated the most efficient tax reforms
from the conventional SST to a broader tax based on GST to address the fiscal
challenges faced by the country. Fiscal policy has focused on stimulating economic
growth, strengthening tax administration and raising tax revenue.
Among the objectives of GST is to improve the existing tax collection systems
as well as to reduce budget deficit. Malaysia has experienced a deficit since 1998
until now. As recorded, Malaysia’s direct tax from individual income tax covers only
1.7 million. People taxed are from a total workforce of about 12 million (Central
Bank of Malaysia 2014). This figure shows that revenue earned through individual
income tax does not contribute much to the government revenue.
Therefore, the Government took the step to increase its revenue by expanding
the tax system through GST. Malaysia earned income of RM27 billion through
GST in 2015, and in 2016, RM39 billion was obtained (Central Bank of Malaysia
2016). The amount successfully collected through GST in the first year was slightly
lower than the second year, due to uncertainty of the global economy and burden
of bearing the cost of management such as providing training and equipment grants
to the companies involved.
With the help of various government-provided information, many entrepreneurs
registered their businesses under the GST system. There are many benefits to pro-
ducers because the input tax to produce something is transferred directly to the
consumers. Nevertheless, along with the implementation, there is the issue of price
increase marketed by producers. If it happens, what guarantee can the government
give to ensure that this price increase does not occur significantly?
According to Go et al. (2005) with the implementation of uniform tax rates,
the low-income group will also pay the same rate as the high-income group. So,
the percentage of low-income earners will decrease compared to the percentage of
consumption of the high-income group. If this happens, GST will become regressive,
rather than progressive.
It is identified that the issue of impact on households is welfare. The targeted
households are in the income group of B40 and M40. The Economic Planning Unit
announced the group of B40 and M40 each with average income lower than RM2537
and RM5662, respectively.
47 Goods and Services Tax (GST) Transition to Sales and Services … 547
The more appropriate approach of the study method is the computable general
equilibrium (CGE) model. The CGE model has a set of similarities that have rela-
tionships between different variables. The framework used by CGE was through a
simulation that interacts between economic agents and markets.
Therefore, the main aim of this paper is to evaluate the household welfare after
the transition of GST to SST in Malaysia using the CGE model. As a first attempt,
the researchers developed a basic static CGE model for Malaysia, calibrated with
the 2014 SAM. Results of impact on simulation household groups are presented as
different simulation scenarios. Specific emphasis on the impact on medium and low-
income households is measured using welfare-related instruments. Among them are
looking at regressive or progressive and equivalent variation (EV).
As a conclusion, the paper is organized as follows: Sect. 47.2 covers literature
review on CGE studies that address issues of household welfare; Sect. 47.3 focuses
on the relevant methodology. Section 47.4 will present the results and discussion
on welfare due to changes in tax reform. Conclusions and recommendations are
offered in Sect. 47.5.
47.2.1 Study on Welfare Impact
Since the issue remains new, there are a few studies in Malaysia about the impact
of GST from different views. In the new taxation reform of SST implementation,
there are a few studies which have compared the different impact within tax reforms
but from different perspectives and objectives. A study conducted by Hassan et al.
(2016) focused on the impact of GST on production costs and cost of living. This
study found that GST was able to lower the product prices and increase the consumer
purchasing power more than SST. Nevertheless, the study only involved estimation
of expectations throughout the GST by using input/output analysis.
Another study on the impact of GST on sectoral price was carried out by Kadir
et al. (2016). Their paper simulated the different tax rates to identify its impact on
sectoral prices. The findings show that GST increases most of sectoral prices, par-
ticularly communication and ICT sectors. They also suggested that the government
imposes the GST as maximum as 6%, for adjustment of new rates would surge most
of the sectoral prices again.
For studies outside Malaysia, there are many studies on the impact of GST on
households. Among them is the study by Ahmad and Stern (1989), which addressed
the issue of income and welfare distribution. Another study by Jenkins and Khadka
(1998) showed that the regressive nature of GST was problem for lower income
groups than higher income earners. Regressiveness happens when the percentage of
expenditure to pay GST from the total income of low-income households is higher
than high-income households.
Many of the actual studies have found that GST effects are either regressive
or progressive, for example, by Davis and Kay (1992), Fourie and Owen (1993),
Kearney 2003) and Buettner and Erbe (2012). Through GST tax, income tax revenue
grows, but consumer welfare is also important to achieve economic prosperity. The
level of regressivity and progressivity can be measured through the ‘C-efficiency’
test.
Studies by Davis and Kay (1992) and Fourie and Owen (1993) found that the
impact of GST was modest regressive even for different periods in Nigeria. The
results showed that lower income groups pay more to GST tax than those with
high income, whereby the study took into account the income of households which
were classified into seven income categories.
Meanwhile, the study by Kearney (2003) in Nigeria showed progressive stages due
to the restructuring measures by the government and the introduction of exemptions
and zero-rated food items. However, there are also alternative methods such as tax
exemption imposed on goods and services to ease the burden of households. One
example is the exemption of taxes on essential food items such as rice, sugar, oil
and flour. However, GST still impacts the low- and middle-income groups, whether
good or bad, depending on the policies and measures undertaken by the government.
Some studies seem more focused on the question of whether the targeted scheme
of exclusion is consistent with the poor. The study by Munoz and Sang-Wook Cho
(2003) indicated that GST in Ethiopia, with the exemptions on goods and services
were imbalanced as most were used by the non-poor, while Alderman and Ninno
(1999) found exception factor to be a useful tool, but less effective to achieve equity
goals. For instance, all groups of households can enjoy the exception.
Meanwhile, Buettner and Erbe (2012) focused on the impact of VAT exemption
on the financial sector. Their study showed that revenue gained from exemption
VAT is still much lower than previously estimated. However, the welfare effect of
implementing VAT on financial services turned out to be negative.
A recent study on the analysis of GST incidents was conducted by Faridy and
Sarker (2011). Using the Suits index and their Kakwani index, it was revealed that
GST in Bangladesh is regressive. On the other hand, the study by Jenkins (2006)
found that GST in the Dominican Republic was progressive. Even when expanding
GST, with some exceptions of goods and services, it remains progressive. The reason
is his research viewed this exception scheme in a broader context, such as comparison
of previous sales tax with the GST system. According to that, it is more effective as
zero exception and zero-price items are targeted at the poor.
Similarly, Hossain (1994) simulated the implications of income distribution at
different GST rates in Bangladesh. The necessary implication of Hossain’s semi-
analysis found selected GST with some exceptions and with some additional excise
(neutral yields) to be better than uniform GST. Different rates can ensure welfare by
measuring the amount after the price change that the lower-income household pays
rather than the high-income group. He also believed that the economic gap can be
reduced. Government revenue may decline due to the exception of the elimination
and zero-rated eligibility of selected goods and services, but the importance of the
poor is not burdensome (Devarajan and Hossain 1998).
47.2.2 Studies Using CGE Modelling
The study of the general equilibrium model started in the early 1960s. Over a period
of time, many studies have used the CGE model that cause changes in the direction
of improvements to the model base, and there are several different techniques based
on different objectives studied.
Among the well-known tax impact studies using the CGE model was by Shoven
and Whalley. Their study was subsequently updated by Charles, Fullerton, Shoven
and Whalley in the early 1980s where they modified the tax system and also linked
the impact of GST on corporate taxes and income taxes. Their study was comprehen-
sive to developed countries and CGE applications on the tax system to developing
countries.
Hamilton and Whalley (1989) performed an analysis of GST impact on virtue
in Canada. They used the CGE analysis model of 44 industries and 42 household
groups by income category. By using the Hicksian theory to measure income, model
parameters were calibrated to get the balance. They also simulated if GST rates
expanded and if GST effects made small impacts on sectors and households.
Meanwhile, in the study by Devarajan et al. (1987), the impact of GST tax revenue
by 10% was analysed in Thailand using the CGE model. The objective of the study
was to determine whether the GST tax yields profit or loss from the impact of output,
price and income distribution. Through his research, it was found that the impact of
GST changed export aggregates positively while imports were not impacted.
In another study, Ajakaiye (1999) analysed the impact of GST implementation
on crucial sectors and macroeconomic aggregates where he conducted CGE anal-
ysis using data producers, distributors, importers and exporters as well as organi-
zations previously involved with the tax system. His findings showed that almost
all the effects of double taxation resulted in increased product prices. He ran three
simulations using this model to see if it was possible if the policy changed.
Wittwer and Anderson (2001) also analysed the impact of GST in Australia on
the wine industry using the CGE model to obtain a static comparison. Through GST,
these export-oriented products benefit from a reduction in input costs. Therefore, the
industry still gets profit, and tax revenue will continue to contribute to the government.
Their study focused more on the effects before and after the implementation through
simulation analysis.
The CGE model for India applies the function of the equation of expenditure
and the use of Leontief and Cobb-Douglas (Rege 2002). The objective of the study
was to focus on the impact on the agricultural sector, that is, involving low-income
households. He found that the implementation of GST which replaces existing sales
tax led to a reduction in welfare, especially in the agricultural sector. The reason is
that the agricultural sector is the most critical sector for the lower income group.
A study by Go et al. (2005) assessed the impact of GST on welfare levels through
income distribution in South Africa. Using a guided CGE model developed by
Lofgren (2001), they used the existing SAM schedule in the base year 2003 and
completed the simulation using ‘General Algebraic Modeling System’ (GAMS) and
‘solver path’ software. Household groups were divided into 10 categories according
to the study objectives, and the constant elasticity substitution (CES) equations used
for production functions. Production factors were divided into four, namely capital,
high-skill labour, medium-sized labour and unskilled labour. Their study also per-
formed four simulations to see if GST did not apply, whether there would be 50 per
cent increase in GST rate, zero-rated on food and substitution of tariffs to the same
GST rate. The findings showed that GST affects the welfare of the lower income
group and the moderate level of progressivity structure.
Okyere and Bhattarai (2005) presented a study on the impact of GST on household
welfare in various sectors and economic growth for Ghana through static and dynamic
CGE. They studied both effects to see whether there was any difference. Results
for the dynamic model were more favourable than statics because the time factor
was taken into account.
Besides that, Meagher and Parmenter (1995) analysed the impact of the short-
term consumer tax reform in Australia. Using the CGE model analysis, they found
that GST did not have much impact on imports and domestic commodities. Even the
export sector is only slightly impressed indirectly. The findings show that the impact
of GST is relatively small. However, their study was too brief and did not analyse
the effects of change in the composition of the Australian international trade itself.
47.3 Methodology
For impact analysis, the appropriate method is to use the CGE model analysis. The
selection of the model was based on the ability of the CGE model to see the impact
between household and government sectors. This is in line with Blake and Gillham’s
(2006) postulation that the CGE model is able to gauge the overall economic impact.
It is a static model based on the standard CGE model and calibrated with the 2014
Malaysian SAM.
The Malaysian GST-CGE model followed the ORANI-G model of the Australian
Economy and UPGEM, the CGE modelling from South Africa. A complete descrip-
tion, including the theoretical structure of the ORANI-G model, is provided by Dixon
et al. (2013). The Malaysian model, like ORANI and UPGEM, can be described as an
economy-wide, comparative static CGE model of the Johansen. The Malaysian CGE
model is based on Malaysian Macro SAM 2014 and Micro SAM 2014, published
by the Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). The Micro SAM 2014 consists
of 32 domestic industries, 32 commodities, six income types and six household
categories of rural and urban areas.
MYGST_CGE has a theoretical structure which consists of equations describing
a period:
(i) Demand from manufacturers for input/output and critical factors
(ii) Supply of commodity manufacturers
(iii) Demand for input into capital formation
(iv) Household demand

(v) Export demand
(vi) Government requests
(vii) The relationship of fundamental values to production costs and buyer prices
(viii) Market conditions for commodities and critical factors
(ix) Various macroeconomic variables and price indices
In order to facilitate the use of SAM data, the MYGST_CGE model includes
similarities and identities of depict behaviour, for several periods:
(i) Household income and transfers;
(ii) Company earnings;
(iii) Government revenue and transfers;
(iv) Domestic receipts and the rest of the world (ROW).
47.3.1 Proposed Simulation Scenarios
In the simulation process of the CGE model, two scenarios were proposed in the
impact assessment of GST implementation by looking at the impact on welfare of
the B40 and M40 income groups (rural and urban area).
Scenario 1: The GST rate is maintained at 6% and the implementation of zero
rates and tax exemption on all food items only.
Scenario 2: Tax rate of GST is abolished and the standard rate of Sales and Services
Tax (SST) is imposed at 10% on goods and 6% on services. Zero rates on all food
items are also imposed.
As we can see the impact on each household of GST and SST payment (Table 47.1),
the simulation of 6% GST tax rate with zero-rates and tax exemption on all food
items show a drop in the B40 and M40 groups, but the degree of decline is not
significant. However, significant difference is seen in U-B40, R-B40 and R-M40
groups. The proposed simulation is that the tax rate returns of the original rate of
SST shows higher burden on each household as the tax rate is higher than the GST
rate. This calculation may refer to progressive or regressive impact. The SST is more
regressive than GST with greater difference in every income group.
To describe the welfare effect of each simulation, the measurements of EV (see
Table 47.2) are shown. A higher EV value is an indication of an increase in wel-
fare. High-income households experience total loss in welfare due to all proposed
simulations. It is likely from the effects of the income tax that this could make the
Table 47.1 Simulations impact on each household of GST and SST payment
Household 6% GST and zero rated on food 10% SST on goods and 6% on services
and zero rated on food
U-B40 3.05 9.12
U-M40 3.86 10.23
U-T20 5.31 11.44
R-B40 3.92 10.55
R-M40 5.33 11.78
R-T20 5.49 12.43
Source Author’s calculation on MYGST-SAM 2014 using Gempack
Table 47.2 Percent changes in Hicksian’s equivalent variation (EV)

Household 6% GST and zero rated on food 10% SST on goods and 6% on services
and zero rated on food
U-B40 3.36 0.72
U-M40 3.04 0.68
U-T20 2.77 0.56
R-B40 3.15 0.7
R-M40 2.95 0.66
R-T20 2.83 0.57
Source Author’s calculation on MYGST-SAM 2014 using Gempack
high-income group more affected. While B40 and M40 (rural and urban) in 6% GST
are in high welfare rather than 10% of SST, this shows GST is better than SST in
measuring the welfare impact through Hicksian’s EV.
47.5 Conclusions and Recommendations
This paper has presented the first attempt at a CGE analysis of the welfare effects of
GST and SST on the household income of B40 and M40 in Malaysia. This framework
allows us to measure the regressive or progressivity and welfare estimation through
Hicksian equivalent variation.
The elements of exemption rate and zero-rates from GST introduce efficiency
losses. Most of the exceptions and zero-rated food items are aimed at reducing the
regression of GST and SST. As a result, GST is more progressive than SST. GST
also reduces the welfare of all low-income households.
Although the implementation of GST in the Malaysian tax system gives negative
perceptions compared to SST on the welfare of the B40 and M40 households, the
impact is totally different.
In general, the results of this study indicate that the characteristics of GST in
Malaysia meet the features where results demonstrate that targeted income groups
spend less on tax compared to the high-income groups. The GST implementation
should be continued instead of getting replaced with the old system which does
not bring much benefit to the target group. However, necessary modifications are
required, such as including more items in the zero GST list. Moreover, at the begin-
ning of its implementation, the government should impose a lower rate of GST and
be neutral on the outcome as is done by Singapore.
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Naginder Kaur

Mahyudin Ahmad Editors

Charting a Sustainable Future

ISBN 978-981-15-3858-2 ISBN 978-981-15-3859-9 (eBook)

1 Developing the Framework Model in Teaching and Learning

7 Performance of Local Hotels: A Case of the Malaysian

18 Students’ Perceptions of Education for Sustainable Development

27 Adaptability of SMEs Owners’/Managers’ Environmental

36 Systematic Literature Review on the Essential Items in a Grab

45 Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Food Safety Hazards

Keywords Development · Model · Sequence · Acquisition · Al-D

U. S. Ismail (B) · M. Chulan · A. B. Awang · A. T. Hamid

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

There is a difference between al-d.amı̄r or pronoun in Arabic and Malay language.

Mu’annath ‫ُﻣ َﺆﻧﱠﺚ‬

Fig. 1.1 Al-D

Fig. 1.2 Al-D

1.2 The Sequence of Acquisition of Al-D

The sequence of acquisition of Arabic al-d.amı̄r means the sequence of al-d.amı̄r

1.3 Population and Sample

1.4 Limitation of This Study

1.5 Research Design

To further strengthen the development of this framework model, researchers con-

Table 1.1 Score category

Learning Score × 100

Expectation score = frequency of al-d.amı̄r in obligatory context × 2 and learning

1.6 Findings and Discussion

Table 1.2 The D . amā’ir D

1.7 Framework Model

Teaching and The first The rare

Student Monitor Process

understanding and mastery in learning. Through the process of monitoring, students

A model of al-d.amı̄r teaching and learning framework based on the sequence of

Noorfaizalfarid Mohd Noor, Mohamad Fadhili Yahaya

Abstract Today, e-learning has been considered as a contemporary approach in

Keywords Application programming interface · e-learning · English language ·

N. Mohd Noor (B) · M. F. Yahaya · N. H. Abdullah

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 11

2.2.1 Prototype Development

E-learning prototype known as ENGENIOUS was developed for English e-learning

<div class="single-blog-area mb-100 wow fadeInUp" data-wow-delay="250ms

Fig. 2.1 Facebook API code

<div class="single-blog-area mb-100 wow fadeInUp" data-wow-delay="500ms">

Fig. 2.2 YouTube API code

<div class="single-blog-area mb-100 wow fadeInUp" data-wow-delay="250ms">

Fig. 2.3 Instagram API code

<div class="single-blog-area mb-100 wow fadeInUp" data-wow-delay="500ms">

Fig. 2.4 Twitter API code

Fig. 2.5 Main page for ENGENIOUS (Abdullah 2019)

Table 2.1 Number of SNS contents in the learning pages

2.2.3 Prototype Evaluation

Table 2.2 PU and PEOU questionnaires

Table 2.2 (continued)

2.3.1 Prototype Evaluation

2.4 Discussion and Conclusion

Table 2.3 PU result

Table 2.4 PEOU result