SPE 71663

A Rheological Criterion for Fracturing Fluids to Transport Proppant during a Stimulation

Treatment
Naval Goel, SPE, and Subhash Shah, SPE, The University of Oklahoma

Copyright 2001, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

Introduction
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2001 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Hydraulic fracturing is widely used to stimulate oil and gas
Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana, 30 September–3 October 2001.
production from a reservoir. This technique improves well
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
productivity by removing near wellbore damage and by
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to increasing reservoir permeability in low as well as high
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at permeability formations. In addition to such formations, the
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
fracturing treatment has been used in many other unique
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is reservoirs; due to the recent developments in the fracturing
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300
words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous technology, it has also been used to produce gas from coalbed,
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. and from wells exceeding 300o F. These current developments
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
and the future advances in the hydraulic fracturing technique
will continue to open new avenues for this technique to
Abstract stimulate oil and gas production around the world.
One of the primary functions of a fracturing fluid is to The fracturing treatment is performed by a viscous fluid
transport proppant through a fracture and to keep the particles pumped at high enough pressure to initiate and propagate
suspended till reservoir closes on the fracture. The proppant fracture in the formation. It is estimated that almost one
when suspended and uniformly distributed in the fracture billion gallon of fracturing fluid is pumped per year in North
improves the productivity of the reservoir. Therefore, a America alone,1 and 90% of the fracturing fluids are water-
question is frequently asked regarding the minimum fluid based fluids.2 If one million gal of the fluid is used in each
viscosity required for satisfactory proppant transport through a fracturing treatment, then industry performs almost three
fracture. The knowledge of this viscosity value is useful for stimulation treatments per day with water-based fracturing
evaluating fluids prior to their use in the stimulation treatment, fluid. These figures suggest that a successful stimulation of a
and for demonstrating the effectiveness of new fluid formation requires a thorough understanding of the fracturing
formulations for fracturing applications. The present study fluid characteristics.
addresses this question. Guar is the most popular polymer for preparing water-
The study was performed by characterizing crosslinked based fracturing fluids. In addition to its use as a linear
guar gels for their viscoelastic properties. Then, the gels were solution, guar is crosslinked with boron or zirconate-based
evaluated for their proppant transport capabilities in two slot crosslinking agent. Of the two crosslinking agents, borate-
models using a field-scale test facility. The result shows that crosslinked guar gels are used in almost 75% of the fracturing
the proppant transport capability of crosslinked gels correlates treatments.3 The guar fracturing fluids are currently
with the fluid's elasticity, not with the fluid's viscosity. Based characterized for their viscosity, which is also used to evaluate
on these results, this investigation proposes a minimum elastic their proppant transport behavior through a fracture. For fluid
modulus criterion required for a satisfactory performance of characterization, one question which was not considered
the crosslinked fluids in a fracturing treatment. The criterion critical earlier but has become extremely important today is
was developed from characterizations of borate-crosslinked the minimum fracturing fluid viscosity required to
gels, and then validated with zirconate-crosslinked gel. satisfactorily transport proppant through a fracture.
The criterion proposed in this work was developed from The guar gel exhibits non-Newtonian fluid
the proppant transport behavior evaluated on a large-scale test characteristics, where its viscosity varies as a function of shear
facility. Thus, this criterion provides a useful and simple rate. This shear sensitivity implies that the guar properties
method to evaluate fracturing fluids in a laboratory, without observed under static fluid conditions are different from those
the need for extensive fluid testing. under fluid flow conditions. The guar viscosity should
therefore describe the fluid capability to transport proppant
while the fluid is flowing during a fracturing treatment, and to
2 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

suspend proppant particles while it is static after the fracturing help to understand and develop new generation of viscoelastic
treatment. Several studies have, however, shown that fracturing fluids.9
viscosity is insufficient to describe suspension capabilities of a In addition to the significance of this work for hydraulic
fluid. In spite of the anomalies, the use of fluid viscosity to fracturing treatments, the study will be useful in several other
correlate proppant suspension in a fracture is continued. The processes in the industry where the fluids are used to suspend
drawbacks of the fluid viscosity demonstrate a great need to and transport particles. Few areas in the petroleum industry
identify a characteristic property of guar gel that can more include particle suspension in drilling fluids and cement
accurately describe its proppant suspension and transport slurries, gravel packing in sand production control, wellbore
through a fracture. clean out operation, sand removal in deviated and horizontal
The proppant transport capability of a guar based wells etc.10-12
fracturing fluid is considered to be due to the entanglements
formed in a non-crosslinked polymer or to crosslink bonds Experimental Procedure
created in a crosslinked gel.4 These bonds provide a strong The experimental investigation was performed in laboratory as
network structure to the fluid and strengthen the guar polymer well as on a field-scale test facility.
to keep proppant in suspension. Thus, the network structure
formed in a fluid should be correlated with its particle Laboratory Evaluations. The purpose of the laboratory
suspension behavior. The discrepancy in describing particle evaluation was to identify a laboratory measurable fluid
suspension with fluid viscosity shows that the viscosity does property which can describe the proppant transport behavior
not correctly depict the network structure formed in the of viscoelastic fracturing fluids. These gels were analyzed at
fracturing fluids. The guar fluid exhibits, besides non- ambient and elevated temperatures using Bohlin rheometer
Newtonian behavior, viscoelastic characteristics having both and Nordman (Fann Model 50) viscometer.
elastic and viscous components.5 The fluid elastic properties The Nordman viscometer was used to measure viscosities
are considered to better describe the network structure formed of different crosslinked guar gels using the API recommended
in these fluids, and might provide an alternative technique to test procedure. These measurements were made using R1-
better understand the suspension capabilities of a fracturing B5X rotor-bob combination.
fluid.6,7 However, very few attempts have been made to The Bohlin rheometer was used to measure viscoelastic
correlate fluid elasticity with the proppant suspension.8 These properties of the crosslinked gels. These measurements were
attempts have, however, been confined to understand the made with a cone and plate fixture having a flat fixed lower
settling behavior of single particle or single slurry plate of 60 mm diameter and a conical rotating upper plate of
concentration under mostly static fluid condition. The 4o cone angle and 40 mm diameter. All viscoelastic
correlation between fluid elasticity and proppant transport has measurements were made at a strain of 0.05, which was within
never been evaluated under more realistic slurry flow the linear viscoelastic regime of the guar solution.
condition. This gap in the current state of research is
attempted to fill in the present investigation by understanding Field-Scale Evaluations. The field-scale evaluations were
and correlating the fracturing fluid elasticity with its capability performed to characterize fluids under condition that was
to satisfactorily transport proppant through a fracture. representative of an actual fracturing treatment.13 This
The study was performed by characterizing crosslinked evaluation was performed at the large-scale test facility of the
guar gels for their viscoelastic properties. Then, the gels were University of Oklahoma (OU). The facility contained mixing
evaluated for their proppant transport capabilities in two slot and blending equipment, coiled tubing, heat exchanger and
models using a field-scale test facility. These evaluations slot models of a fracture. A schematic of the test facility is
were performed on borate-crosslinked gels and then validated shown in Figure 1. A detailed description of the field-scale
with zirconate-crosslinked gels. These gels were selected and the laboratory evaluations are presented elsewhere.14
because they are the two most widely used fracturing fluid Two slot models were used in the present research: one
systems. Moreover, the crosslinking mechanisms in these two called high-pressure simulator (HPS) and other transparent
crosslinked gels are considered different.1 This difference slot. The HPS was a variable gap width parallel plate slot
implies that it is important to understand the relationship of model of a fracture. It was 7 ft high and 9-1/3 ft long, and had
both gels characteristics to their proppant transport behavior provisions to adjust gap widths from zero to 1-1/4 in. The
The study results show that the proppant transport transparent slot was also a parallel plate slot having a fixed
capability of crosslinked gels correlates with the fluid’s gap width. It was 12 ft long, 20 in. high, and 0.25 in. wide.
elasticity, not with the fluid’s viscosity. Based on these This model was made of Plexiglas and allowed direct visual
results, this investigation proposes a minimum elastic modulus observations on proppant distribution in it.
criterion required for a satisfactory performance of crosslinked The field-scale evaluations required selection of test
fluids in a fracturing treatment. This criterion provides a parameters such that the fluid flow through the slot models
useful and simple method to evaluate fracturing fluids in a simulated the flow during an actual fracturing treatment.
laboratory, without the need for extensive fluid testing.
This study will not only provide more accurate Selection of Test Parameters. American Petroleum
characterization of the existing fracturing fluids but also will Institute (API) recommends shear conditioning a fracturing
SPE 71663 RHEOLOGICAL CRITERION FOR FRACTURING FLUIDS TO TRANSPORT PROPPANT DURING A STIMULATION TREATMENT 3

fluid at a shear rate of 650 or 1350 sec-1 for a period of 2.5 or temperature. These results were presented elsewhere.14 Since
5 min.15 Therefore, in the present research, a shear rate of the fracturing treatments are performed at sand concentrations
1000 sec-1 was used to condition the fracturing fluid prior to varying from 2 to 10 ppg, so the fracturing fluids must be
its flow through a fracture. This shear conditioning was designed to transport higher concentration sand slurries.
simulated for a period between 2.5 to 5 min., so that the Therefore, a sand concentration of 8 ppg was selected to
measurements were within the API recommended values. prepare slurries in borate-crosslinked gels at pH 9 and 10.
A coiled tubing of 1.5 in. nominal diameter, 1.188 in. ID, These slurries were then studied for their proppant transport
and 3000 ft length was available at the university. So to behavior in the transparent slot and HPS. Then, another
simulate 1000 sec-1 shear pre-conditioning, the fluid was borate-crosslinked gel formulation was prepared at pH 11.5 to
pumped through the coiled tubing at 40 gpm. This flowrate evaluate proppant transport behavior at elevated temperature.
allowed fluid residence time of less than 4 min. in the coiled The results of these evaluations are discussed below.
tubing and it represented the time to pump the fluid down the
wellbore during a fracturing treatment.16 Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 9. A 35 lb/Mgal
By using the flow rate of 40 gpm through the shear- guar solution was prepared at pH 9 and crosslinked with 6
conditioning loop, an upper limit was set on the fluid flow rate lb/Mgal concentration to evaluate its capability to transport 8
through the slot models. The flowrate through these slot ppg slurry through the slot models. This concentration was
models was adjusted such that fluid velocities were within the selected because the corresponding pH 9 gel transported 2 ppg
range of the velocities obtained in a fracturing treatment. slurry through the models.14
In a typical fracturing treatment, the fluid is pumped at The borate-crosslinked gel at pH 9 and 6 lb/Mgal
about 10 to 50 bbls per min (bpm). The fracture created in the crosslinker exhibited satisfactory performance in the
formation has gap widths from 0.25 to 1 in. and height from transparent slot, as the sand particles were uniformly
50 to 300 ft. Thus, the fluid velocity in the fracture would distributed across the slot cross-section. Because of this
vary from about 100 to 5000 cm/min, and the shear rate from satisfactory performance, the crosslinker concentration was
1 to 500 sec-1. Based on these flow velocities through a reduced to 4 lb/Mgal to identify the critical crosslinker
fracture, several flow rates below 40 gpm were tried; a concentration above which the gel would transport the
minimum rate of 10 gpm was observed to be the ideal for the proppant slurry. At 4 lb/Mgal crosslinker concentration, the
experimental investigation. This flow rate corresponded to a proppant particles began to separate from the fluid and layers
fluid flow velocity of 200 and 1200 cm/min, and slot shear of diverse sand concentration became visible in the slot.
rates of about 20 and 200 sec-1. These values lie within the When the crosslinker concentration was further reduced to 3.5
range observed under the field conditions. Therefore, a flow lb/Mgal, the sand began to separate from the gel and settle to
rate of 10 gpm was selected to evaluate the proppant transport the bottom of the transparent slot. The diminishing capability
behavior of the test fluids. of the gels prepared at 3.5 and 4 lb/Mgal concentrations
Thus, the linear gel was prepared in the mixing tank and depicted their unsatisfactory capability to carry 8 ppg slurry.
sand was added into the tank to prepare the desired The crosslinker concentration was then increased to 5
concentration slurry (see Fig. 1). The slurry was crosslinked lb/Mgal and slurry transport through the slot was again
by injecting a crosslinker solution with an ISCO setting, as the observed. The gel exhibited satisfactory proppant distribution
slurry was pumped through a centrifugal pump. The throughout the transparent slot, as shown in Figure 2. This
crosslinked slurry was then pumped through 3000 ft of the experiment indicated that the crosslinker concentration of 5
coiled tubing at 40 gpm to simulate a shear rate of 1000 sec-1 lb/Mgal provided the minimum concentration for this guar gel
for 4 min. The shear-conditioned slurry was either pumped to transport 8 ppg slurry through the fracture.
through the heat exchanger to heat the test fluid or pumped at Following the flow through the transparent slot, the 8 ppg
ambient temperature through slot models to evaluate the slurry prepared in this gel was pumped through the HPS and
proppant transport capabilities of the slurry. The shear- the sand distribution in the slot model was obtained. Figure 3
conditioned fluid was partly diverted at 10 gpm first through depicts the sand concentration in the HPS at 5 and 15 min of
the transparent slot and the balance was disposed off. As the slurry flow through the HPS. The figure again shows that the
test fluid was pumped through the transparent slot, the sand concentration was uniform in the fracture model and the
crosslinker concentration was varied to identify the critical sand concentration in the HPS varied from 8 to 12 ppg.
crosslinker concentration above which the test fluid exhibited
satisfactory proppant transport behavior. Then, the Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 10. In another
crosslinked slurry was pumped through the HPS at 10 gpm to test, 8 ppg slurry was prepared in borate-crosslinked 35
capture the sand concentration profile in the slot simulator. lb/Mgal guar gel at pH 10. A crosslinker concentration of 0.5
After pumping through the slot models, the test fluid was lb/Mgal was earlier observed to be sufficient to transport 2
disposed into a sump tank. ppg slurry with pH 10 gel,14 so this concentration might also
transport 8 ppg slurry through the slot.
Results and Discussion The crosslinked gel at 0.5 lb/Mgal was though able to
The borate-crosslinked gels were first evaluated for their transport 8 ppg slurry through the slot without forming any
capability to transport 2 ppg proppant slurry at ambient settled bed in the transparent slot; but the slurry flow was not
4 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

uniform across the slot height. The slurry flowed slowly in evaluations were performed in 40 lb/Mgal guar gels prepared
the bottom section of the slot, which indicated that this gel had at pH 11.5. These solutions were then crosslinked at different
difficulty keeping the sand in suspension. Therefore, the crosslinker concentrations to identify the critical concentration
crosslinker concentration was increased to 0.55 lb/Mgal and above which an acceptable proppant transport behavior would
slurry transport through the transparent slot was again be observed.
observed. At this crosslinker concentration, the slurry flow
was still non-uniform with slower moving slurry at the slot Borate-Crosslinked 40 lb/Mgal Guar pH 11.5 Figure 6
bottom occupying fewer regions than that seen in the gel describes the viscoelastic properties of the borate-crosslinked
prepared at 0.5 lb/Mgal. The proppant transport behavior of gels prepared at several crosslinker concentrations at 130o F.
the gel improved when the crosslinker concentration was Figure 6 displays an increase in the elastic and viscous
increased from 0.5 to 0.55 lb/Mgal, but the behavior could moduli with an increase in the crosslinker concentration. The
improve further. The crosslinker concentration was hence elastic moduli shown in Figure 6 for different gels at 130o F
increased to 0.6 lb/Mgal and slurry transport through the were compared with those of the gels prepared at ambient
transparent slot observed. Figure 4 shows the proppant temperature. This comparison showed that the elastic moduli
transport through the transparent slot at 0.6 lb/Mgal of the pH 11.5 gel prepared at 1 lb/Mgal were slightly lower
concentration. The figure shows that the slurry transport was and those of the gel at 1.25 lb/Mgal were slightly higher than
uniform throughout the slot indicating that this concentration those of the gels exhibiting acceptable proppant transport
was satisfactorily transporting proppant through the fracture. behavior. Therefore, the crosslinked gels prepared from 1.0 to
After flowing through the transparent slot, the gel was then 1.25 lb/Mgal were further evaluated in the field-scale facility
diverted through the HPS to obtain a digital image of the sand for identifying the critical crosslinker concentration above
distribution in the slot model. Figure 5 shows the proppant which the proppant transport behavior of the crosslinked gel
distribution in the HPS at 5 and 15 min of 8 ppg slurry flow would be satisfactory at 130o F.
with borate-crosslinked guar gel at pH 10. The figure shows Thus, the crosslinker concentration was varied from 1.25
the sand distribution to be similar to that seen in Figure 3 with to 1 lb/Mgal as a 2 ppg slurry prepared in the borate-
the pH 9 gel. crosslinked 40 lb/Mgal guar gel at pH 11.5 was pumped
The proppant transport behavior of the borate-crosslinked through the field-scale test facility. The gel prepared at 1.25
guar gel prepared at pH 10 showed that whereas a crosslinker lb/Mgal satisfactorily transported proppant slurry through the
concentration of 0.5 lb/Mgal was sufficient to transport a 2 transparent slot without exhibiting particle settling. The
ppg slurry, a higher crosslinker concentration of 0.6 lb/Mgal crosslinker rate was then reduced from 1.25 to 1.1 lb/Mgal,
was required to transport 8 ppg slurry. The higher crosslinker and the slurry flow through the slot was continued. At this
concentration indicated that a higher crosslink density was lower rate also, the proppant distribution was uniform
required to transport higher concentration slurry. throughout the slot, as shown in Figure 7. The crosslinker
rate was then further reduced to 1.0 lb/Mgal and the slurry
Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 11. Based on the flow continued. The proppant slurry in this gel flowed non-
borate-ions concentrations at pH 10 and 11, the critical uniformly across the slot height. The slurry was moving
crosslinker concentration for proppant transport of 8 ppg slowly near the top and bottom boundaries as compared to that
slurry in a borate-crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal guar gel prepared at flowing in the middle section of the slot. The slow moving
pH 11 can be estimated.17 Since 0.6 lb/Mgal crosslinker slurry in the slot implied that the gel capability to transport
concentration was sufficient to transport proppant in the gel proppant through the slot had begun to decrease at 1.0
prepared at pH 10, a gel prepared at pH 11 would exhibit lb/Mgal. Therefore, the crosslinker concentration of 1.1
satisfactory proppant transport at a crosslinker concentration lb/Mgal was the critical value, above which the crosslinked
of 0.5 lb/Mgal. gel would satisfactorily transport 2 ppg proppant slurry
The laboratory characteristics of these three formulations through a fracture.
at pH 9, 10 and 11 can be used to identify the minimum Then, the 2 ppg slurry in the borate-crosslinked 40 lb/Mgal
rheological property required for satisfactory proppant guar crosslinked at 1.1 lb/Mgal concentration was diverted
transport. This identification would require at least one through the HPS. The proppant distribution in the HPS is
additional formulation and its evaluation at elevated shown in Figure 8. The figure presents a uniform
temperature. This is described below. concentration throughout the HPS with few high sand
concentration regions seen in the 5 min image. These
Effect of Elevated Temperature concentrated sand regions being suspended in the slurry were
Since guar polymer degrades at high temperature, so a higher transported with the slurry flow as seen in the 15 min. image.
polymer concentration would be required to evaluate the Figures 7 and 8 thus depict that the gel prepared at 1.1
proppant transport behavior of guar based fracturing fluid. lb/Mgal crosslinker concentration would satisfactorily
Furthermore, the borate ions concentration decrease with transport proppant at 130o F.
temperature, a higher fluid pH would be required to achieve
similar borate ions concentration to that obtained at the Comparison of the Measured Rheology. The viscoelastic
ambient temperature. Hence, the elevated temperature and the API viscosity data of the crosslinked gels that
SPE 71663 RHEOLOGICAL CRITERION FOR FRACTURING FLUIDS TO TRANSPORT PROPPANT DURING A STIMULATION TREATMENT 5

satisfactorily transported 2 and 8 ppg slurry at ambient and crosslinked gels only, it would be useful to the industry if it
elevated temperatures were compared. The viscosity data is were applicable to other crosslinked gels. Hence, the
compared in Figure 9 and the viscoelastic data in Figure 10. proposed criterion was validated on zirconate-crosslinked gel,
Figure 10 shows that these gels had similar elastic moduli which is the second most widely used fracturing fluid
at lower frequency regions, but dissimilar viscous moduli in system. 18
the entire frequency range. Similarly, Fig. 9 displays
dissimilar API viscosity values in these gels. This figure Fluid Preparation. The fluid formulation for preparing
demonstrates that though these gels had similar proppant zirconate-crosslinked gel was taken from the mixing
transport characteristics, they did not have similar viscosities. instructions given in a SPE paper by Prud’homme.19
The comparison of the rheological properties highlights the A 40 lb/Mgal hydroxypropyl guar solution (HPG) was first
poor correlation of fluid viscosity to describe proppant prepared in Norman City tap water. To the HPG solution,
transport behavior. Figure 10, on the other hand, depicts that sodium carbonate powder was added at 5 lb/Mgal of the
the elastic moduli of these gels were similar; hence the elastic solution to buffer the HPG solution. The solution was then
modulus describes a better correlation between the fluid mixed for 30 minutes to dissolve the carbonate powder.
characteristics and their sand transport behavior. After buffering the HPG solution, triethanol amine (TEA)
The gels described in Figure 10 have the minimum was added as a delaying agent for zirconate-crosslinking of
crosslinker concentration at each pH to satisfactorily transport HPG. The solution was further mixed and its pH was
proppant through a fracture and beyond this crosslinker checked. Prud'homme 19 suggested the solution would be at
concentration, the borate-crosslinked gels would still exhibit pH 9.5. However, the solution prepared in the present study
better proppant transport behavior. Therefore, the elastic was observed to have pH less than 9.5. So, a sodium
moduli of these gels with the critical crosslinker describe the hydroxide solution was added to raise the HPG solution pH to
minimum moduli required to satisfactorily transport proppant 9.5. The HPG solution thus prepared was ready for
through a fracture. The elastic moduli of Figure 10 therefore crosslinking with zirconium crosslinker.
provide the minimum rheological property criteria that can be
used by the industry to evaluate the performance of fracturing Selection of TEA and Crosslinker Concentrations. The
fluids prior to their use in a stimulation treatment. TEA concentration in the HPG solution prepared above
depends on the crosslinker concentration used and the delay
Minimum Elastic Moduli Criterion. The elastic moduli period required in the crosslinking reaction.
values of the borate-crosslinked gels that satisfactorily Prud’homme19 recommended adding TEA at a
transported proppant through the fracture models are given in concentration of 0.1 gal/Mgal of the HPG solution. His
Table 1. The table depicts that these gels had similar elastic experimental setup was however different from that used in
moduli at low frequencies. Hence, these moduli were used to the present study, as he had formulated the solution for
calculate average elastic moduli, which were then fitted with evaluation only in the laboratory and not for field-scale
an empirical equation. The equation is given by testing, which would be performed in our study. The TEA
G' = 0.5 + 20ω - 8ω2 ......................... (1) concentration, therefore, had to be adapted to delay
where G´ is in Pa, and ω is in rad/sec varying from 0.1 to 1 crosslinking during the high shear-conditioning environment
used here. Based on the delay period for different TEA
rad/sec.
concentrations,19 a concentration of 0.15 lb/Mgal seemed to be
The elastic moduli given in Table 1 and Eq. 1 provide the
required for delaying crosslinking in this evaluation. Hence a
minimum moduli required to satisfactorily transport proppant
concentration of 0.15 lb/Mgal was selected for laboratory
through a fracture. Hence, these values can be used by the
characterization and was then evaluated for delay on the field-
industry to compare and evaluate the crosslinked fracturing
scale shear history simulation at the University.
fluids for their capability to transport proppant through a
In addition to the TEA concentration, the concentration of
fracture. The fluids having elastic moduli greater than those
zirconium crosslinker required adjustments. Prud'homme 19
given in Table 1 should satisfactorily transport proppant.
described use of 10% zirconium lactate solution as the
Similarly, Eq. 1 can be incorporated into fracturing simulators
crosslinker solution added at a concentration of 2.25 gal/Mgal
and the minimum elastic moduli can be compared to the
of the HPG solution. He did not evaluate the zirconate-
elastic moduli of several fluids prior to their use in a fracturing
crosslinked gel prepared for proppant transport behavior. For
treatment and thus, evaluate and select the correct fluid
the proppant transport evaluation, a lower or a higher
formulation for the treatment.
crosslinker concentration might be required. This
concentration had to be identified using the elastic moduli
Validation of the Proposed Criterion
criteria developed in the previous section. Furthermore, the
Since fluid elasticity correlates better than viscosity with the
crosslinker used in the present research was an aqueous
proppant transport behavior of a borate-crosslinked gel, the
sodium zirconium lactate (Trade Name Tyzor 217, DuPont);
same might be true for yet another crosslinked gel system.
this solution though similar to that used by Prud'homme might
Furthermore, the elastic moduli criterion proposed in the
have different zirconium activity. Hence again, the
previous section was developed from evaluations on borate-
crosslinker concentration would have to be adjusted to this
6 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

crosslinker solution. The zirconate-crosslinker concentration was very small and was not much different from the increase
would then determine the quantity of the delay agent required. in the pressure drop observed even when the crosslinker
The concentrations of TEA and crosslinker solutions were concentration was reduced to 0.3 gal/Mgal.
therefore inter-related and were hence identified for The pressure drop measurements confirmed that TEA
preliminary laboratory and large-scale testing. concentration of 0.15 lb/Mgal would delay the HPG gel
prepared at a zirconate-crosslinker concentration of 1.0
Viscoelastic Measurements. Figure 11 presents the elastic lb/Mgal during the shearing in the coiled tubing. Thus, this
and viscous moduli of the zirconate-crosslinked HPG gels zirconate-crosslinked was ready for evaluating its proppant
prepared at several crosslinker concentrations and at 150o F. transport capability using the field-scale facility.
The viscoelastic response of the zirconate-crosslinked gel
was similar to that of the borate-crosslinked gels. The elastic Proppant Transport Evaluation. Figure 14 presents the
and viscous moduli of these gels increased with an increase in proppant transport behavior of 4 ppg slurry at 150o F in
the crosslinker concentration. The increase in the moduli zirconate-crosslinked 40 lb/Mgal HPG gel with 1.0 gal/Mgal
could be attributed to an increase in the number of crosslinked crosslinker. The figure demonstrates that the sand was
sites formed on the HPG polymer when the crosslinker uniformly distributed in the transparent slot and that there was
concentration was increased. The figure also shows that the no settling in the model. Thus, the gel was able to
crosslinked gel prepared at 3 gal/Mgal had lower moduli at successfully transport slurry through the slot model.
higher frequencies as compared to those of the other gels. A similar response was observed in the HPS. Figure 15
This behavior indicated presence of wall slippage during the describes the proppant distribution after 5 and 20 min of 4 ppg
viscoelastic measurements of this gel, due to it being over- slurry flow through the HPS at 150o F. This figure also
crosslinked. demonstrates the satisfactory proppant transport behavior.
The viscoelastic data of the zirconate-crosslinked gels During the proppant transport evaluation using the field-
were examined against the data for the borate-crosslinked gels scale facility, a sample of the non-slurried zirconate-
that exhibited satisfactory proppant transport behavior. This crosslinked HPG gel was captured to analyze its viscoelastic
comparison pointed that the elastic moduli of the zirconate characteristics. It was taken from the test flow loop, just prior
gels prepared at 0.75 lb/Mgal and higher crosslinker to the gel flow through the slot models; and it thus represented
concentrations were of similar order as those in the borate- the zirconate-crosslinked gel entering a fracture. This sample
crosslinked gels. Therefore, the viscoelastic data of the was then characterized for its viscoelastic properties to
zirconate-crosslinked gels prepared at 0.75 and 1 lb/Mgal were compare the sample prepared in the field-scale test facility to
plotted against those of the borate-crosslinked gels. that prepared in the laboratory. This comparison is shown in
Figure 12 compares the elastic moduli of the zirconate- Figure 11. The comparison presents an identical response in
crosslinked HPG gels with the minimum elastic moduli the gels prepared on two different scales. The similarity of the
presented in Fig. 10 (a), Table 1 and Eq. 1. The figure viscoelastic response of these gels implied that the procedure
displays that the zirconate-crosslinked HPG gel prepared at used to prepare and heat zirconate-crosslinked gels in the
0.75 gal/Mgal had lower elastic moduli and the gel prepared at laboratory well represented those on the field-scale test
1.0 gal/Mgal had higher elastic moduli than the data of the facility.
borate-crosslinked guar gels that exhibited satisfactory The successful slurry transport with the zirconate-
proppant transport. This result pointed that the zirconate- crosslinked gel prepared at 1.0 gal/Mgal confirmed and
crosslinked HPG gel prepared at 1.0 gal/Mgal should be able validated the elastic moduli criteria developed in this
to satisfactorily transport proppant through a fracture. investigation. This criterion was thus developed with borate-
crosslinked gels and validated with zirconate-crosslinked gel.
Evaluation of the TEA concentration. Before evaluating the
performance of the zirconate-crosslinked gel for proppant Fluid Evaluation Procedure for the Industry
transport through slot models, an additional preliminary test The methodology presented in this paper can be used by the
was performed to confirm the delaying action of 0.15 lb/Mgal industry to evaluate fracturing fluids in laboratory for their
TEA concentration on the crosslinked gel prepared at a proppant transport behavior prior to use in field. This
zirconium concentration of 1.0 gal/Mgal. This test was an methodology is summarized below in a step-wise procedure.
evaluation of pressure drop across the coiled tubing, which 1. Prepare base fracturing fluid according to its mixing
was used for shear history simulation in the field-scale facility. procedure and add delay agents and buffers to the
The pressure drops were measured for several zirconate- prepared solution.
crosslinked gels prepared at different crosslinker 2. Transfer one liter of the solution to a Waring blender,
concentrations. All gels were delayed with a single TEA attached with a tachometer to monitor blender speed or
concentration of 0.15 lb/Mgal. Figure 13 illustrates the shear rate.
pressure drop per ft of the coiled tubing and percentage 3. Meanwhile, preheat rheometer and measuring fixture to
increase in the pressure drop over that of the non-crosslinked the test temperature; set test parameters for viscoelastic
HPG solution. The crosslinked gel prepared at 1.0 lb/Mgal measurement
exhibited a 14% increase in the pressure drop. This increase
SPE 71663 RHEOLOGICAL CRITERION FOR FRACTURING FLUIDS TO TRANSPORT PROPPANT DURING A STIMULATION TREATMENT 7

4. Add desired amount of crosslinker solution to the base 4. The criterion was, however, evaluated at fracture shear
solution in the blender while mixing the fluid. rate of 20 sec-1 in the HPS and 200 sec-1 in the transparent
5. Continue mixing, and shear condition the gel in the slot, and at Reynolds numbers, based on the viscosity of
blender at shear rate and shearing duration corresponding linear 35 lb/Mgal guar, of 4 in the HPS and 50 in the
to the conditions in wellbore. transparent slot models.
6. After shear conditioning, transfer 250 cc of the gel to a
beaker and heat it in a microwave oven to the test Nomenclature
temperature; the heating time would depend on the oven. G' = Elastic Modulus, N/m2 , M L-1 T2
7. Transfer the heated gel to the rheometer and measure its G'' = Viscous Modulus, N/m2 , M L-1 T2
viscoelastic properties. ω = Angular Velocity, rad/sec, T-1
8. Compare the measured elastic moduli with the values
given in Table 1 or calculated from Eq. 1 and establish the Acknowledgments
formulation for fracturing treatment. The authors wish to thank the Gas Research Institute (Contract
No. 5091-211-2114), the U.S. Department of Energy (Contract
Recommendations for Future Work No. FC21-92 MC29077), and the U. of Oklahoma (OU), for
The elastic moduli criterion presented in this study is based on their joint sponsorship of this work. A dissertation grant from
the evaluations made using a fracture model. This model is a the Graduate College at OU is also appreciated. We also
simplification of a real fracture. Further evaluation of the acknowledge help from the research team at WCTC for their
proposed criterion on actual fracturing treatments would help help with running the proppant transport test. Also, special
to validate its application to the industry. Secondly, since the thanks to David Lord, Phil Harris, Gary Turner, David Harris
elastic modulus is observed to be a better indicator of the and Reinaldo Navarette for sharing their time and resources
proppant transport capability of a fracturing fluid, the fluid during different stages of this study.
elasticity should be incorporated into the fracture simulator.
This will help to provide a more accurate prediction of the References
fracture geometry formed during a fracturing treatment. 1. Moorhouse, R., Harry, D.N., Matthews, L., and Merchant, U.:
Lastly, the present investigation was performed using "Inter-relationships between Polymer/Crosslinker Chemistry and
guar based polymeric systems because guar is the most Performance in Fracturing Fluids," paper SPE 39531 presented
at the 1998 SPE India Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition,
popular fracturing fluid formulation used today. Recently,
New Delhi, India, 17-19 February.
surfactant based fracturing fluids were introduced in the 2. Harris, P.C.: "Fracturing Fluid Additives," JPT (October 1988)
industry; 9 so it would be useful to evaluate the elastic modulus 1277-1279.
criteria proposed in this study on surfactant based fluids. 3. Jennings, A.R.: "Fracturing Fluids-Then and Now," JPT (July
1996) 604-610.
Conclusions 4. Harris, P.C. and Heath, S.J.: "Rheological Properties of Low-
1. The crosslinked gels exhibiting satisfactory proppant Gel-Loading Borate Fracture Gels," SPEPF (November 1998)
transport behavior had dissimilar viscosity and viscous 230-235.
moduli. These gels, however, had similar elastic moduli 5. Constien, V.G.: "Fracturing Fluid and Proppant
Characterization," in Reservoir Stimulation, by Economides,
at low frequencies. The elastic modulus is, therefore, a
M.J. and Nolte, K.S. (1989) Chapter 5.
better property than viscosity to correlate the rheological 6. Knoll, S.K. and Prud’homme, R.K.: "Interpretation of Dynamic
characteristics of a fluid to proppant transport through a Oscillatory Measurements for Characterization of Well
fracture. Completion Fluids," paper SPE 16283 presented at the 1987
2. This study proposes a minimum elastic moduli criterion SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, San
for satisfactory proppant transport through a fracture. Antonio, TX, 4-6 February.
This criterion was developed from rheological 7. Kramer, J., Prud’homme, R.K., Norman, L.R., and Sandy, J.M.:
characterization of borate-crosslinked guar gels at "Characteristics of Metal-Polymer Interactions in Fracturing
ambient and elevated temperatures. It was then validated Fluid Systems," paper SPE 16914 presented at the 1987 SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, TX, 27-30
with characterization of zirconate-crosslinked gels at
September.
conditions different from those used in its development. 8. Jin, L., and Penny, G.S.: "Dimensionless Methods for the Study
3. This criterion is based on the elastic moduli evaluated at of Particle Settling in Non-Newtonian Fluids," JPT (March
the reservoir conditions and provides the minimum value 1995) 223-228.
for satisfactory proppant transport. It is given in a tabular 9. Samuel, M., Card, R.J., Nelson, E.B., Brown, J.E., Vinod, P.S.,
form in Table 1 and an empirical equation in Eq. 1. It can Temple, H.L., Qu, Q., and Fu, D.K.: "Polymer-Free Fluid for
thus be used by the industry to develop and evaluate new Fracturing Applications," SPEDC (December 1999) 14, No.4,
and existing fluids at test conditions prior to their use in 240-246.
stimulation treatments, and to demonstrate the 10. Berry, J.E. and Darby, J.B.: "Rheologically Stable, Nontoxic,
High-Temperature Water-Base Drilling Fluid," paper SPE
effectiveness of these fluid formulations for fracturing
24589 presented at the 1992 SPE Annual Technical Conference
application. and Exhibition, Washington D.C., 4-7 October.
8 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

11. Saasen, A., Liu, D., and Marken, C.D.: "Prediction of Barite Sag
Potential of Drilling Fluids from Rheological Measurements,"
paper SPE 29410 presented at the 1995 SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, 28 February-2 March.
12. Walton, I.C.: "Computer Simulator of Coiled Tubing Wellbore
Cleanouts in Deviated Wells Recommends Optimum Pump Rate
and Fluid Viscosity," paper SPE 29491 presented at the 1995
SPE Production Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, OK, 2-
4 April.
13. Powell, R.J., McCabe, M.A., Slabaugh, B.F., Terracina, J.M.,
Yaritz, J.G., and Ferrer, D.: "Applications of a New, Efficient
Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid System," SPEPE (May 1999) 14,
No.2, 139-143.
14. Goel, N.: "Viscoelastic Measurements of Fracturing Fluids for
Proppant Transport Application," Ph.D. Dissertation, The
University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, 2001.
15. API RP 39: "API Recommended Practices for Standard
Procedures for Evaluation of Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids,"
American Petroleum Institute, 3rd ed., (May 1998).
16. Worlow, D.W. and Holditch, S.A.: "Rheologic Measurements of
a Crosslinked Fracture Fluid Under Conditions Expected During
a Fracture Treatment," paper SPE 18970 presented at the 1989
SPE Joint Rocky Mountain Regional/Low Permeability
Reservoirs Symposium and Exhibition, Denver, CO, 6-8 April.
17. Mesmer, R.E., Baes, C.F., and Sweeton, F.H.: "Acidity
Measurements at Elevated Temperatures. VI: Boric Acid
Equilibria," Inorg. Chem. (1972) 11, No.3, 537-543.
18. Dawson, J.C., Le, H.V., and Cramer, D.: "Successful
Application of a Novel Fracturing Fluid in the Wasatch
Formation in Eastern Utah," paper SPE 49042 presented at the
1998 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
Orleans, LA, 27-30 September.
19. Prud’homme, R.K.: "Laboratory Preparation and Rheological
Characterization of Crosslinked Fracturing Fluids," paper SPE
20637 presented at the 1990 SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, New Orleans, LA, 23-26 September.
SPE 71663 RHEOLOGICAL CRITERION FOR FRACTURING FLUIDS TO TRANSPORT PROPPANT DURING A STIMULATION TREATMENT 9

Table 1-Elastic Moduli of Borate-Crosslinked Guar Gels Exhibiting Satisfactory Proppant Transport

Elastic Modulus [Pa]

of Borate-Crosslinked Guar Gels Average
Angular
35 lb/Mgal 35 lb/Mgal 35 lb/Mgal Minimum
Velocity 40 lb/Mgal
Guar, pH 9 Guar, pH 10 Guar, pH 11 Elastic Moduli
[rad/s] Guar, pH 11.5
5.0 lb/Mgal 0.6 lb/Mgal 0.5 lb/Mgal [Pa]
1.1 lb/Mgal 130o F
75 o F 75 o F 75 o F
0.063 0.84 1.02 1.48 0.89 1.1
0.094 1.79 1.97 2.59 1.71 2.0
0.126 2.54 3.26 3.53 2.24 2.9
0.188 3.98 4.22 4.39 3.37 4.0
0.251 4.81 4.92 5.28 3.96 4.7
0.314 6.03 6.15 6.30 4.87 5.8
0.377 6.92 6.99 6.92 5.15 6.5
0.440 8.47 7.82 8.16 6.11 7.6
0.503 9.51 8.63 8.86 6.21 8.3
0.565 9.93 10.14 9.65 7.03 9.2
0.628 10.79 11.45 10.50 7.55 10.1
1.257 13.58 15.19 12.19 10.48 12.9

COILED-TUBING REELS
2000 ft
BULK SAND FLUID MIXING TANKS
DP

HANDLING UNIT
50 50
330 330 bbls. bbls.
sacks sacks
TRIPLEX PUMP

1000 ft
DP

ISCO PUMP
T
HEAT EXCHANGER

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

High Pressure Simulator

Transparent Slot HPS
T
DP = Differential Pressure
T = Temperature

MAGNETIC MASS
FLOWMETER FLOWMETER

SUMP
TANK

DISPOSAL
TANK

Figure 1—Schematic of the Field-Scale Test Facility at the Well Construction Technology Center (WCTC), The University of Oklahoma
10 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

Slurry
Outlet

Slurry
Inlet

Sand
Transported
Through the
Slot

Slow Moving
Slurry at the
Bottom

Figure 2—8 ppg Proppant Slurry Transport through Transparent Slot with Borate-Crosslinked Guar, 5 lb/Mgal Crosslinker, pH 9.0 (35 lb/Mgal
Guar, 75oF)

5 mins 15 mins

30 30
Frames Along the HPS Height

Frames Along the HPS Height

0
25 25

20 8 20

12
15 15
16

20
10 10

24

5 5

5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30

Frames Along the HPS Length Frames Along the HPS Length

Figure 3—Proppant Concentration (ppg) in the HPS after 5 and 15 min of 8 ppg Slurry Transport with Borate-Crosslinked Guar, 5 lb/Mgal
Crosslinker, pH 9.0 (35 lb/Mgal Guar, 75 oF)
SPE 71663 RHEOLOGICAL CRITERION FOR FRACTURING FLUIDS TO TRANSPORT PROPPANT DURING A STIMULATION TREATMENT 11

Slurry
Outlet

Slurry
Inlet

Sand
Transported
Through the
Slot

No
Settled Bed

Figure 4—8 ppg Proppant Slurry Transport through Transparent Slot with Borate-Crosslinked Guar, 0.6 lb/Mgal Crosslinker, pH 10.0 (35
lb/Mgal Guar, 75oF)

5 mins 15 mins

30 30
Frames Along the HPS Height

Frames Along the HPS Height

0
25 25

20 8 20

12
15 15

16

10
20 10

24
5 5

5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30

Frames Along the HPS Length Frames Along the HPS Length

Figure 5—Proppant Concentration (ppg) in the HPS after 5 and 15 min of 8 ppg Slurry Transport with Borate-Crosslinked Guar, 0.6 lb/Mgal
Crosslinker, pH 10.0 (35 lb/Mgal Guar, 75oF)
12 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

100

10

1
G' [Pa]

0.1

0.01 0.0 lb/Mgal 0.5 lb/Mgal 0.75 lb/Mgal

1.0 lb/Mgal 1.25 lb/Mgal 2.0 lb/Mgal
1.1 lb/Mgal
0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Angular Velocity [rad/sec]

Fig. 6(a) Elastic Moduli Curve

10

1
G" [Pa]

0.1

0.0 lb/Mgal 0.5 lb/Mgal 0.75 lb/Mgal

1.0 lb/Mgal 1.25 lb/Mgal 2.0 lb/Mgal
1.1 lb/Mgal
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Angular Velocity [rad/sec]

Fig. 6(b) Viscous Moduli Curve

Figure 6—Viscoelastic Measurements as a Function of Crosslinker Concentration in Borate-Crosslinked Guar, pH 11.5 (40 lb/Mgal Guar,
130oF)
SPE 71663 RHEOLOGICAL CRITERION FOR FRACTURING FLUIDS TO TRANSPORT PROPPANT DURING A STIMULATION TREATMENT 13

Slurry
Outlet

Slurry
Inlet

Sand
Transported
Through the
Slot

No Settled
Bed

Figure 7—2 ppg Proppant Slurry Transport through Transparent Slot with Borate-Crosslinked Guar, 1.1 lb/Mgal Crosslinker, pH 11.5 (40
lb/Mgal Guar 130oF)

5 mins 15 mins

30 30
Frames Along the HPS Height

Frames Along the HPS Height

0
25 25

2
20 20
4

6
15 15

10
10 10

12
5 5

5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30

Frames Along the HPS Length Frames Along the HPS Length

Figure 8—Proppant Concentration (ppg) in the HPS after 5 and 15 min of 2 ppg Slurry Transport with Borate-Crosslinked Guar, 1.1 lb/Mgal
Crosslinker, pH 11.5 (40 lb/Mgal Guar, 130oF)
14 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

1600
Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 9.0- 5.0 lb/Mgal 75F
Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 10.0- 0.6 lb/Mgal 75F
1400
Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 11.0- 0.5 lb/Mgal 75F
Borate-Crosslinked 40 lb/Mgal Guar pH 11.5- 1.1 lb/Mgal 130F
Apparent Viscosity [cp]

1200

1000
at 100 sec-1

800

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3

Time [hrs]

Figure 9—Comparison of API Viscosity of Borate-Crosslinked Guar Gels prepared at different pHs
SPE 71663 RHEOLOGICAL CRITERION FOR FRACTURING FLUIDS TO TRANSPORT PROPPANT DURING A STIMULATION TREATMENT 15

1000

100
G' [Pa]

10

1 Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 9.0- 5.0 lb/Mgal 75F

Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 10.0- 0.6 lb/Mgal 75F
Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 11.0- 0.5 lb/Mgal 75F
Borate-Crosslinked 40 lb/Mgal Guar pH 11.5- 1.1 lb/Mgal 130F
0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Angular Velocity [rad/sec]

Fig. 10(a) Elastic Moduli Curve

100

10
G" [Pa]

Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 9.0- 5.0 lb/Mgal 75F

Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 10.0- 0.6 lb/Mgal 75F
Borate-Crosslinked 35 lb/Mgal Guar pH 11.0- 0.5 lb/Mgal 75F
Borate-Crosslinked 40 lb/Mgal Guar pH 11.5- 1.1 lb/Mgal 130F
0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Angular Velocity [rad/sec]

Fig. 10(b) Viscous Moduli Curve

Figure 10—Comparison of Elastic and Viscous Moduli of Borate-Crosslinked Guar Gels prepared at different pHs
16 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

1000
0.0 lb/Mgal 0.5 lb/Mgal 0.6 lb/Mgal 0.75 lb/Mgal

1.0 lb/Mgal 2.0 lb/Mgal 3.0 lb/Mgal 1.0 lb/Mgal

100

10
G' [Pa]

0.1

0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Angular Velocity [rad/sec]

Fig. 11(a) Elastic Moduli Curve

100

10
G" [Pa]

0.1

0.0 lb/Mgal 0.5 lb/Mgal 0.6 lb/Mgal 0.75 lb/Mgal

1.0 lb/Mgal 2.0 lb/Mgal 3.0 lb/Mgal 1.0 lb/Mgal

0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Angular Velocity [rad/sec]

Fig. 11(b)—Viscous Moduli Curve

Figure 11—Viscoelastic Measurements as a Function of Crosslinker Concentration in Zirconate-Crosslinked HPG, pH 9.5 (40 lb/Mgal HPG,
150oF) (Underlined Legend represents the Sample Sheared in the Field-Scale Facility)
SPE 71663 RHEOLOGICAL CRITERION FOR FRACTURING FLUIDS TO TRANSPORT PROPPANT DURING A STIMULATION TREATMENT 17

100
Minimum Elastic Moduli from Table 1
0.75 lb/Mgal Zr Xl 40# HPG pH 9.5, 150F
1.0 lb/Mgal Zr Xl 40# HPG pH 9.5, 150F
Elastic Moduli G' [Pa]

10

1
0.01 0.1 1 10

Angular Velocity [rad/sec]

Figure 12—Comparison of Elastic Moduli of Zirconate-Crosslinked Gels with the Minimum Elastic Moduli Determined with Borate-Crosslinked
Gels

0.4
psi/ft 36%
% Increase in Pressure Drop
% Increase over Base Gel

31%
Pressure Drop [psi/ft]

0.3

20%
0.2
16%
14%
11% 12%
10%
0.1

0
0.3 0.6 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 3.5

Crosslinker Concentration [gal/Mgal]

Figure 13—Effect of Zirconium Crosslinker Concentration on the Pressure Drop of Zirconate-Crosslinked HPG Gels, 75 oF
18 NAVAL GOEL AND SUBHASH SHAH SPE 71663

Slurry
Outlet

Slurry
Inlet

Sand
Transported
Through the
Slot

No Settled
Bed

Figure 14—4 ppg Proppant Slurry Transport through Transparent Slot with Zirconate-Crosslinked HPG, 1 lb/Mgal Crosslinker, pH 9.5 (40
lb/Mgal HPG 150oF)

5 mins 20 mins

30 30

0
Frames along the HPS Height

Frames along the HPS Height

25 2 25

4
20 20

15
8 15

10
10 10
12

5 5

5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30

Frames along the HPS Length Frames along the HPS Length

Figure 15—Proppant Concentration (ppg) in the HPS after 5 and 20 min of 4 ppg Slurry Transport with Zirconate-Crosslinked HPG, 1 lb/Mgal
Crosslinker, pH 9.5 (40 lb/Mgal HPG 150oF)